FORESTLAN D GRAZING A GUIDE FOR SERVICE FORESTERS IN THE SOUTH U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Forest Service State and Private Forestry Southeastern Area Forestry Report SA-FR1O Rev. August 1980
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FORESTLAN D
GRAZING
A GUIDE
FOR SERVICE FORESTERS
IN THE SOUTH
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
Forest Service
State and Private Forestry
Southeastern Area
Forestry Report SA-FR1O
Rev. August 1980
CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION iii
RESOURCE INVENTORY I
Range Suitability 1
Forage Production 2
Forage Species 5
Range Condition 6
Improvements 17
MANAGEMENT OF THE RANGE 18
Objectives 18
Stocking Rates 18
Range Readiness 21
Livestock Distribution 23
Coordination With Other Uses 24
Nutrition and Supplemental Feeding 30
CATTLE MANAGEMENT 37
Breeds of Cattle 37
Breeding Cattle 39
Costs and Returns 40
Leasing of Grazing Privileges 42
SUGGESTED READING 44
Range Types of the South
11
- --
-
- - Up...d
I NTRODUCTION
This handbook is designed to provide general guidelines forthose who advise forest landowners on forest range grazingmanagement. The emphasis is on management and use offorest forage for cattle in combination with other uses. Foreach location, and set of conditions, information unique tothe area should be obtained to determine economic feasibili-ty, compatability with other resource management objectivesand specific range management practices needed.
DISCUSSION
Before giving any type of advice to privatelandowners, or attempting to work upforestland range management plans withthem, there is the obvious necessity of measur-ing or estimating the resource that is available.This measure must include information on:
Size and shape of the range area. Apicture of the land pattern - is it all onecontiguous block, or long and narrow, orbroken into intermingled patterns withlands of other ownerships? These con-siderations are all important to futurelivestock and management.
Suitability for grazing. How much of thearea can be used by cattle? Is part of it anunusable swamp, or with an erosion con-dition that precludes grazing, too steepfor cattle to use? You must arrive at a newfigure of what there is available to begrazed.
Overstory and midstory vegetation. Inmost of the South, the kind, quantity andquality of the understory vegetation(which we are primarily concerned with ingrazing cattle) will be determined by thetrees and shrubs that are growing inassociation with it.
Existing range improvements. What isthere available to use in the way of fences,water developments, corrals, pastures,etc.? This will have a great bearing on theeconomic feasibility.
Landowners' desires. What do thelandowners want to do? Frequently anarea of land can support a variety of ac-tivities; some can be better for the land
RESOURCE INVENTORY
than others, or the financial rewards maybe better with one use than another. Dothe owners want to emphasize livestockuse at the expense of other uses - do theywant to raise a lot of game for commercialhunting - do they want to concentrate ontimber production with livestock use be-ing incidental? These are all questionsthat only the owners can decide and theyfrequently will be decided upon personalpreference and desires, rather than dollarsand cents, or land use capability.
6. Landowner access to technical help. Isqualified help available when needed?
Usually the forester will find it convenient toprepare a map and delineate unsuitable areas,overstory vegetation types, and existing rangeimprovements. Other information pertinent tothe area such as forage production, openingsin the timber, fields or pastures that may begrazed in conjunction with the forested range,and points of access will also be needed.
RANGE SUITABILITY
The suitability of land for livestock grazinguse is a major factor in determining grazingcapacity and proper management of a unit. Itis one of the most difficult items to define inthe range inventory procedure, but one of themost important. It is frequently controversialand is dependent upon the knowledge and at-titude of the examiner. This is the focal pointof the examiner's knowledge of cattle and theirhabits, forests and forest forage relationships,soils and their characteristics.
Suitable range is defined as that area whichis accessible to livestock, produces forage andcan be grazed on a sustained yield basis underan intensive system of management without
causing damage to the range or other resourcevalues. Generally, an area that is classed as un-suitable range will exhibit a permanent orsemi-permanent condition that renders it un-suitable. For example, a swampy area not ac-cessible to livestock would be classed as un-suitable for grazing - similarly, a dense standof timber, so dense as to produce little or noforage, would also be classed as unsuitable.Some examples of items to be analyzed indetermining suitability and suggested stan-dards are:
I. Forage Production - An area should beproducing at least 200 pounds (air-dry) offorage per acre to be classed as suitablerange. With proper utilization, an animalwould have difficulty in getting aroundand grazing enough to sustain itself on anarea producing less than this.
Accessibility - An area must beaccessible to livestock. Physical barriersto livestock movement such as brush,downtimber, dense timber, water or steepslopes render an area unsuitable forgrazing.
Slope - Any slope over 20 percent can beconsidered as having reduced value as agrazing area; a slope over 30 percentshould be classified as suitable only ifother limiting factors are absent and aslope over 40 percent should be con-sidered as unsuitable for grazing. Cattlecan and do derive some grazing valuefrom slopes in the 20 to 40 percent range,but will make little use of the slopes untilthe flatter, more accessible country isdenuded of palatable vegetation and theyare forced into the steeper country. In-variably, damage to the soils will resultfrom attempting to secure proper utiliza-tion of 20 to 40 percent.
Occasionally, areas under a tree overstorywill be encountered that do not meet the tests
for suitability, either through lack of forageproduction or because of accessibility. Thesecan be changed to favor forage production ifthe landowner so desires - with no loss oftimber production. Any kind of timber cutthat removes part of the overstory will increasethe amount and nutritive value of the grasses.Prescribed burning for rough reduction, orother purposes, will immediately increase thequality and quantity of the forage. Here again,it is up to the landowner and what he or shewants to put into it.
FORAGE PRODUCTION
Basic to any determination of the grazingpotential of an area is an estimate of theamount of forage produced. This estimate offorage production is then converted intoanimal months of use to determine the numberof cattle and the time-span of use that shouldbe allowed on the area.
There are numerous methods of estimatingforage production, but for our purposes wewill be concerned with only the Ocular Weight-Estimate by Plot method. After some self-training, this method is rapid and givessatisfactory results. To develop proficiency,you must lay out, clip, and weigh several plotsalong a predetermined line. The number ofplots to be clipped and weighed will dependupon the individual. After you develop skill inestimating the forage weight before clipping,within 20 percent of the actual amount, pro-ceed over the range area, lay down the hoop inselected areas and estimate the forage pro-duced within the hoop area.
Convert green weight to air-dry weight toderive usable production data. The moisturecontent of plants varies widely during the year- from 70 percent or more in the spring, whengrowing and succulent, down to almost zeroduring some of the winter months. Ideally,forage production estimates should be madeduring the late summer or fall, when the
forage has stopped growing and full produc-tion has been reached. During those monthsthe moisture content can usually be assumed tobe 40 percent, with a fair amount of accuracy- later in the year, the content will be less;earlier in the year, it will be more. The totalforage weight, as clipped, is reduced by thepercent moisture content to arrive at the air-dry weight for future calculations.
Determine the actual amount of moisture inthe grasses by saving the grass clippings andstoring them for several days. After about 10days, weigh the clippings and weigh themagain each day until no weight change is noted;then compare this actual air-dry weight withthe green weight as recorded at the time ofclipping. The air-dry weight, divided by thegreen weight, equals the percentage moisturecontent when clipped.
To apply this method, the followingmaterials will be needed:
Hoop for defining circular plots of thedesired size. These are made up in suchsizes that the weight of the forage withinthe hoop, when measured in grams, willbe directly convertible to pounds per acre.To accomplish this, use a 9.6 square-foothoop. If used in transects of 10 plots, thetotal weight in grams for the 10 plotsequals the pounds per acre of forage.When used singly, the grams per plotmust be multiplied by 10 to arrive at thepounds per acre forage production. (Formore, or less, than 10 plots, the averageyield is multiplied by 10.)
These 9.6 square-foot, circular hoops are42 inches in diameter, 131.95 inches in cir-cumference. They may be made up ofheavy wire, speedometer cable, steel rod,or other heavy materials.
Reliable spring scales graduated in grams.
4. Grass clipping shears or pocket knife.
PRODUCTION TRANSECT LAYOUT
No attempt will be made to secure astatistically sound sample of the range area.The examiner must select the sites to be sam-pled. Confine each group of sample plots to asingle cover type where possible and strive formixture of sites: some of the best, some of theworst, and most in-between.
The transect line should run diagonallyacross a slope or type to give the best sample.Where it happens to cross an area previouslydesignated as unsuitable, it should be discon-tinued and then picked up again on the otherside.
The plot interval to be used will dependupon the size and uniformity of the type beingsampled. Decide the direction of travel andthen determine the approximate distanceacross the type from a map or aerial photo.Select a plot interval that will space the plotsevenly across the type. Twenty plots per typeare usually sufficient, except for very largetypes. As you gain proficiency you may be ableto reduce this to a smaller number.
Measure the interval between the plots bypacing. See figure 1 for a diagrammatic sketchof plot layout.
COLLECTION OF PLOT DATA
Forage production and utilization are deter-mined in one operation.
Utilization. - Estimate and record the per-cent of forage utilization that has taken placeon the plot. This should be done as a gross forall species.
Production. - During the training period,clip and weigh the forage on the plot, add to itthe amount previously deternuned to have
Figure 1. - Production-utilization plot layout
0
LONG LEAF - SLASH
Approximately 10 plots per type.
Bottomland hardwood area should not be grazedand was not included in capacity estimate.
Compute production separately for each type. Add
togetherforarea total.
been used, and reduce this figure by the R. B. Jones Ranch, Shortleaf-Loblollymoisture content to arrive at an air-dry weight. area southeast of Bayou Creek, 210 acres,For a single plot, multiply by 10 to arrive at the 10/17/80.pounds production per acre. In combiningmore than one plot, remember that the gram Plotweight for each plot is equal to tenths of Numberpounds per acre.
After a period of self training and adeveloped proficiency in estimating, the clip-ping and weighing may be discontinued. Pro-ceed with ocular estimate alone with two dailychecks by clipping to maintain your accuracy.
Here is an example of how the informationfrom one vegetative type area might be record-ed and the forage production for the type com-puted:
1
2345
678
910
Total 1,960 Average 26.0
Estimated EstimatedProduction (green) Utilization
(grams) (percent)
240 20160 15
210 10
250 10
210 15
170 25180 30200 45190 40150 50
Computations: Multiply 1,960 grams by 60percent (100-40 percent moisture content) =1,176 air-dry grams for the 10 plots. Divide1,176 by 10 (number of plots) = 118 averageair-dry grams per plot. Multiply 118 by 10 (toconvert to pounds per acre from grams perplot) = 1,180 average pounds per acre forageproduction observed. However, it is estimatedthe area has been grazed an average of 26 per-cent utilization (26 percent used, 74 percentunused), so the total forage production wouldbe 1,180 74 pounds = 1,595 pounds peracre, rounded to 1,600 pounds per acre.
For use of the production data in themanagement of the range, see page 19.
FORAGE SPECIES
The South has many native grasses andgrasslike species (about 885). However, as fewas 20 make up the bulk of the annual forageyields. Some grasses are grazed throughout theyear, others only when young and tender; stillothers are rarely grazed. Most livestockoperators know that cattle are more selectivein their choice of forage species than are sheep,while goats will eat almost any plant. Thistendency of cattle to discriminate in theirchoice of forage species contributes to a majorproblem the livestock operator must copewith, in managing the forage resource. Cattlewill seek out and use the most palatable plantsfirst and very often overgraze them beforestarting to use their next choice. On a freshburn in early spring, cattle will overgraze thelush and green first-growth when such areasare not large enough to meet the forage needsof the herd.
The livestock operator must be able to iden-tify the more important range grasses, toestimate their percent of total ground coverand observe their response to grazing pressurefor successful forage management. Becausegrasses are the most important of the forageplants in the South and grazing management
should principally be concerned with theirculture and use, this discussion will not con-sider the forbs and browse plants.
GRASSES
More than 90 percent of the usable forageplants are grasses. For a grass to be recognizedas a distinct species, it must have somecharacteristic feature or attribute which sets itapart from another species. Some grasses areso distinctly different in appearance, that youwill have no difficulty in recognizing them onsight. Others may show little difference fromclose relatives and may require a close lookwith a hand lens to determine small dif-ferences. To distinguish these similar grassesfrom one another consult a manual or hand-book applicable to your area.
A good guide to the characteristics of thegrasses is, Common Plants of Longleaf Pine- Bluestem Range by Grelen and Duvall. Itdiscusses minor variations of 55 of the grassesin this large area of the South. Excellent,detailed, drawings are included for many ofthe grasses. Copies are available on requestfrom the Director, Southern Forest Experi-ment Station, T-l0210 Federal Building, 701Loyola Avenue, New Orleans, Louisiana70113. Other publications that include rangegrass and forb information are USDAAgriculture Handbooks 356 and 389.
Seven genera of grasses in the South includeupwards of 95 percent of the native foragespecies. These seven genera are the bluestems(Andropogon spp.), the panicums (Panicumspp.), paspalums (Paspalum spp.), dropseeds(Sporobolu spp.), three-awns (Aristida spp.),lovegrasses (Eragrostis spp.), and the In-diangrasses (Sorghastrum spp.). Other grassesare often locally important, but are not includ-ed in the aforementioned genera.
Once you are able to identify the general ap-pearance of these seven genera when seed
heads have developed, you can be fairly surethat what you see is some kind of bluestem,panicum, three-awn, etc. See figures 2 to 8 forexamples of these seven grass genera, whichare fairly typical of the genus. Table 1 showswhere you may expect to find 40 of the mostimportant grasses of the South, their relativeabundance, and their response to grazing andfire, when known.
RANGE CONDITION
The service forester must learn to recognizecertain aspects of range condition and todiscuss knowledgeably the reasons why a rangemight be said to be in "poor" or "good" con-dition. The condition of a range is usuallyjudged upon gross visual impressions. The fac-tors that enter into the judgement, as will bediscussed, are mentally noted and a generalimpression formed; it is good, or it is bad.There are methods of measuring range condi-tion that are used by administrators, but thesewould have little application in advisingprivate landowners, and will not be discussed.
Range condition is the state of health ofboth soil and vegetation, and is based uponecological relationships. Factors considered inthe determination of range condition are thekinds and amounts of plant cover, plant vigorof desirable species and soil characteristics,particularly soil stability. Five conditionclasses are usually recognized in speaking ofrange condition: excellent, good, fair, poor,and very poor. An excellent conditiondesignates little or no departure from theecological potential. A very poor designationindicates extreme deterioration of the soil orvegetation.
INDICATORS OF RANGE CONDITION
On a range in good condition, you would ex-pect to see:
A predominance of desirable forageplants. They should be healthy and
vigorous with many seed stalks, ap-proaching maximum height and bulk andof good color. Weeds and undesirableforbs will be few or absent.
Residue from previous years' growthshould be plentiful and completely coverthe soil surface that is not occupied by thelive plants.
There should be no exposed soil surface,and the soil should be easily permeable. Acertain softness, from the mulch and un-compacted soil, will be felt when walkingacross it.
Erosion will be generally absent, althoughdeep gullies may persist from past abuse,with a good forage condition on the areasbetween.
Soil compaction will be absent.
On a range in poor condition you wouldobserve:
A predominance of weeds andundesirable forbs and annual grasses.There may be perennial grasses of lowpalatability. Any good forage plants thatmay exist would form but a small part ofthe vegetation, and those plants would bestunted and of low vigor, have few or noseed stalks, and probably be heavilygrazed. In some areas, an invasion of lowvalue or worthless shrubby plants or treeswill be occurring or have alreadyoccurred.
Little or no residue remains from previousyears' growth of plants.
Bare soil areas probably will beinterspersed between the plants The soilmay be compacted and slowly permeable.Runoff will be rapid. The area will feelhard and unyielding when you walkacross it.
The raceme includes the rachis or stalk on which the several spikelets are borne in pairs.
Perfect
spikelet.
The spikeIets - A pair of spikelets are found at each rachis
joint; the one is sessile (without stalk or pedicel) and perfect
(having both stamens and pistils) and the other on a short
pedicel, and is always staminate, neuter, or rudimentary.
The spathe - The presence of this leaflike structure on agrass plant in full seed will usually be all one needs to identify
it as one of the bluestems. On several of the southernbluestems. this structure is well developed and conspicuous.
Figure 2. - Little bluesteni (Andropogon scoparius). - The growth form and habit of littlebluestem is typical of several of the southern members of the bluestem genus. Many of the dif-ferences of the several bluestem species are minor. All have the stalk or stem of the seedheads or
raceme subtended by a modified leaf or spathe. The degree of pubescence and color with most ofthe bluestems is extremely variable. All bluestems are perennial grasses.
7
This is the other
spikelet of the pair;much reduced in
size and sterile, and
borne on a short
pedicel or stalk.
Winter rosette
All of the southern low
panicums have winter
rosettes and are much used
by livestock at this time of
year.
First seeds of season are borne on
this early grown panicle.
The floret and two views of thespikelets of woolly panicum. There
is much similarity of the spikelets
among the panicums in that allglumes are nerved and rarely equal
in length. The first glume is oftennot visible to the naked eye.
Fan-shaped branch of leafy growth
harbors numerous small paniclesof seeds developing in late sum-mer, early fall and into the winterseason.
Figure 3. - Woolly panicum (Panicum lanuginosum). - This species is fairly typical of theseveral southern panic grasses commonly grouped together as "low panicums." They share three,rather distinct growth phases. The spring and early summer growth produces a seedhead on a stemthat comes well out of the leafy growth below, and exhibits the typical panicle type of in-florescence shown in the illustration. By late summer and early fall, growth has developed fromjoints or nodes near the middle of the plant. Most of the seeds of the early growth have maturedand dropped to the ground. New seedheads are borne from the leafy, fan-shaped branches, butthese panicles rarely exceed the length of the numerous leaves. The winter rosette of leaves atground level or only slightly above are usually much wider and completely dissimilar from thespring- and fall-grown leaves. They're usually green throughout the winter. Panicum is an oldLatin name for Millet.
8
mm
.1,,fr
frla6ure iatt
Zr,,Cloresce,,ce éwo vcwso/ spele& d
2Cm
4mm
Collar a,'d
9
The number of racemes in
paspalum vary from a single, as
is often found on fringeleaf
paspalum, to a great many, as
occur on Vasey-grass.
Except for a few species, the
racemes of the paspalums are
outwardly remarkably similar in
appearance. The rachis of
many, when devoid of seeds ex-
hibits a zig-zag arrangement of
the short stubs of stalks or
pedicels which are retained on
the rachis. Closely examine the
naked rachis to see whetherspikelets are arranged in two-
rows or four-rows.
Figure 4. - Honda paspalum (Paspalum floridanum). - This grass is found throughout theSouth and East, and is typical of many of the paspalums. The South, being warm, is paspalumcountry, with over 30 distinct species and a number of varieties. Once you are familiar with itsdistinctive type of seedhead, paspulum is not likely to be confused with other grass genera. Thisgenus includes some important introduced species, among which are dallis-grass (Paspalumdilatatum), bahia grass (P. notatum) and Vasey-grass (P. urvillei). All except two paspalums in theUnited States are perennials.
Most dropseed inflorescences are
open panicles, but some appear
spike-like as in this contracted
panicle of smutgrass shown below.
3cn,
10
Inflat-escence o'etoi/
GRAIN
Habit
Dropseed spikelets are always one-
flowered, and usually small on an
open or contracted panicle.
Spikelets may show a great varia-
tion of size on the same plant.
Glumes of the dropseeds are
always 1-nerved and usually un-
equal in length with the first
glume being the shorter and thesecond glume commonly as long as
the spikelet. Lemmas are also
always 1-nerved and awnless.
Figure 5. - Pineywoods dropseed (Sporobolus junceus). - This is the most common of thedropseeds in the South having some forage value. When in full bloom it is a rather striking plantand easy to find among the other forage despite its usual small percentage of the total vegetation.
A spikelet of oldfield three-awn (Aristida oligantha)
showing glumes and floret.
Maéure P/8.,,/-
11
ci
I,,/oresce'ice
Ha b
Figure 6. - Arrowfeather three-awn (4 ristida purpurascens). - This is perhaps the most com-mon three-awn grass in the South and, from the standpoint of spikelet structure, can be used as abasis to describe modifications found in other southern species of Artstida. The three-awns pro-jecting from the lemma tip are generally characteristic of the genus.
The floret in cross section appears round.
Faint traces of nerves can be seen under
magnification. Awns are usually present
and the callus or lower end of floret isusually sharp and pointed. It is this partof the seed of some three-awns thatpenetrates clothing and oftentimes themouths of sheep and cattle.
The lemma is distinctive in the three-
awns. entirely enclosing the palea.This character is also true for thegenus Stipa, but only one, Stipa
avenacea is indigenous to the South
and is rarely encountered.
Spikelets of the three-awns are
always one-flowered and break
off above the glumes with the
floret falling free. The glumes
may be either equal or unequal
and are quite often persistent.
The lemmas are most always
sharp-pointed and 3-nerved with
the 2-side nerves becoming very
faint in some species.
Figure 7. - Stinkgrass (Eragrostis cilianensis). - This grass is of no value as a grazing plant; it is,in fact, a pernicious weed throughout most of the United States and was introduced here fromEurope. It has been known to poison horses when eaten in large quantities. It is shown herebecause it is so well known to livestock producers, and because it shows so clearly some of thefeatures of the lovegrasses, generally. It may serve to help identify others of the lovegrasses.
12
The inflorescence is always a panicle but
in some species is not open as is the one
in this illustration. The common southern
lovegrasses, which have some grazingvalue, all have open panicles.
This close overlapping of the lem-
mas in the ovegrass spikelet is
typical for a great many of thelovegrass species. Note the large
number of florets on the spikelet,
which is also a common lovegrass
feature.
The glumes are rarely of equal
length and usually 1-nerved
with the second glume
sometimes 3-nerved.
Slender indiangrass
(Sorghastrum elliottii)
13
Lopside indiangrass
(Sorghastrum secundum)
The awn of indiangrass is a pro-
jection of the lemma of the fer-
tile spikelet. In mature plants,
the awn is usually strongly
twisted and bent.
Spikelets of indiangrass occur in
pairs as do those of the bluestems
but the imperfect spikelet in in-
diangrasses is reduced to only a
hairy stalk or pedicel.
Figure 8. - Yellow indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans). - This is one of the taller of the nativegrasses in the South. It ranks with big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii) in height and is closelyrelated, botanically, to the bluestems. Three species of indiangrass find their range in the Southand all are generally similar. Lopside indiangrass (S. secundum) is more common on the wiregrassranges of Alabama, Georgia, and Florida than either of the other two species. All are excellentforage in season.
Spe
cies
Tab
le 1
. - S
ome
Com
mon
Ran
ge G
rass
es o
f the
Sou
th
Ran
ge a
nd p
reva
lenc
eS
easo
n of
Mos
t Use
Res
pons
e to
hea
vy g
razi
ngan
d pr
escr
ibed
bur
ning
Pal
atab
ility
pre
fere
nce
du in
g se
ason
of
mos
t use
Blu
este
ms
And
ropo
gon
Spp
.H
igh
Med
.Lo
w
Pin
ehilf
blu
este
mA
. div
erge
nsF
lorid
a to
eas
t Tex
as. V
ery
corn
-m
on fr
om w
est A
la. t
o ea
st T
exas
Ear
ly S
prin
g, s
umm
er a
nd fa
ll-
som
e al
l yea
r.W
ill m
aint
ain
itsel
f with
bur
nsev
ery
3 ye
ars
and
50-p
erce
nt u
se.
X
Elli
ott b
.A
. eli/
oil/i
Thr
ough
out C
oast
al P
lain
s. G
ets
up in
to s
outh
ern
md.
, Ill,
and
Mo.
Gro
ws
with
and
use
d ab
out
the
sam
e as
pin
ehill
.W
ill in
crea
se w
ith b
urns
mor
e of
ten
than
3-y
ear
inte
rval
.
X
Big
b.
A. g
erar
dil
Sca
ttere
d th
roug
hout
Sou
thea
st.
Nev
er v
ery
abun
dant
.E
arly
spr
ing
thro
ugh
July
-B
ecom
es c
oars
e in
fall.
Can
not t
ake
heav
y us
e. F
ire m
ore
Ire-
quen
t tha
n on
ce in
3 y
ears
will
cau
seth
is g
rass
to d
ecre
ase
in o
ccur
renc
e.
X
Bus
hy b
.A
. glo
mer
atus
Com
mon
. Sho
ws
a m
arke
dpr
efer
ence
for
the
site
s w
ith e
xtra
moi
stur
e.
Feb
ruar
y th
roug
h M
ay. I
s on
lyim
port
ant o
n la
rge
mar
shy
area
s.
Rar
ely
graz
ed o
ut o
n si
te to
whi
chbe
st a
dapt
ed.
X
Littl
e b.
A. s
copa
rlus
Com
mon
in th
e w
est p
ortio
n of
the
Pie
dmon
t and
OkI
a. a
nd A
rk,
Apr
. thr
u Ju
ly. S
ome
use
mad
eof
this
in w
inte
r.C
ures
wel
l on
the
ster
n in
Will
thriv
e w
ith u
se to
as
high
as
50 p
erce
nt. Y
early
bur
ns w
ill k
ill it
.X
OkI
a. a
nd A
rk.
Cre
epin
g b.
A. s
tQio
nife
rV
ery
com
mon
from
wes
t Ala
. to
the
east
. Im
port
ant i
n so
uth
Ga.
and
Fla
.
Sum
mer
and
ear
ly fa
ll.S
tand
s up
wel
l to
heav
y gr
azin
g an
dbu
rnin
g. O
utco
mpe
tes
othe
r bl
ue-
ster
ns u
nder
sam
e gr
azin
g pr
essu
re.
X
Sle
nder
b.
Pai
ntbr
ush
b.
Bro
omse
dge
b.
A. t
ener
A. t
erna
rius
A. v
irgin
icus
Like
s dr
ier
site
s. Is
foun
d th
roug
h-ou
t Coa
stal
Pla
ins,
but
is a
bun-
dant
onl
y w
here
ove
rsto
ry is
ligh
t.
Sca
ttere
d. R
arel
y fo
und
in p
ure
stan
ds, b
ut c
omm
on th
roug
hout
Sou
thea
st.
Com
mon
thro
ugho
ut s
outh
. Ver
yco
nspi
cuou
s in
old
fiel
ds a
nddi
stur
bed
area
s.
The
ear
liest
of t
he s
outh
ern
blue
stem
s to
hea
d ou
t,sp
ring
and
sum
mer
.
Late
spr
ing
and
sum
mer
into
fall.
Am
ong
the
late
st o
fth
e bl
uest
ems
to fl
ower
,
Mar
ch to
Jun
e w
ith o
pen
win
ters
. Con
side
rabl
e us
em
ade
of th
is in
Dec
. and
Jan
.
Incr
ease
s w
ith p
resc
ribed
bur
ning
.Is
gra
zed
heav
ily w
hen
youn
g an
dte
nder
,
Not
as
susc
eptib
le to
sm
othe
ring
asot
her
blue
stem
s. In
crea
ses
with
hea
vygr
azin
g.
Rar
ely
graz
ed c
lose
ly e
xcep
t in
mild
win
ters
on
heav
ily s
tock
ed r
ange
.G
ener
ally
und
er-r
ated
as
fora
ge in
the
X
X
X
Sou
th.
Pan
icum
sP
anic
um S
pp.
Cut
thro
at g
rass
P. a
bsci
ssum
Ext
ends
from
S.C
. sou
th to
the
Key
s. N
ot c
omm
on in
S.C
., bu
tim
port
ant s
outh
.
Spr
ing
and
sum
mer
.R
arel
y bu
rned
bec
ause
wet
site
will
gene
rally
not
sup
port
fire
. Sta
nds
up u
nder
hea
vy g
razi
ng w
ell.
X
Bea
ked
pani
cum
P. a
ncep
sF
ound
on
moi
st s
ites
thro
ugho
utth
e S
outh
east
,S
prin
g an
d su
mm
er.
Sho
ws
quic
k re
cove
ry w
hen
tend
er,
youn
g, s
hoot
s ar
e ta
ken
in e
arly
sprin
g.
X
Nar
row
leaf
p.
P. a
ngus
tifol
/um
Thr
ough
out t
he S
outh
east
. One
of th
e m
ore
impo
rtan
t of t
helo
w p
anic
ums.
Feb
. thr
u M
ay.
Ten
ds to
incr
ease
und
er h
eavy
use
.O
ne o
f the
bes
t of t
he lo
w p
anic
ums.
X
Mai
denc
ane
P. h
emifo
mon
Com
mon
on
wet
site
s of
the
coas
tal S
tate
s. Im
port
ant
fora
ge in
Fla
.
Win
ter
and
sprin
g. P
rovi
des
a re
al n
eed
for
lives
tock
whe
nm
ost o
ther
gra
sses
are
dorm
ant.
Will
dec
reas
e un
der
cont
inue
d he
avy
graz
ing
and
be r
epla
ced
with
cord
gras
s an
d ca
rpet
gras
s.
X
Woo
lly p
anic
umP
. Ian
ugin
osum
Com
mon
thro
ugho
ut th
e S
outh
.E
arly
win
ter
thru
Apr
il.W
ill in
crea
se u
nder
hea
vy g
razi
ng.
X
One
of t
he b
ette
r lo
w p
anic
ums.
Con
tinue
d he
avy
graz
ing
will
find
itre
plac
ed w
ith a
nnua
ls.
Spe
cies
Tab
le 1
. - S
ome
com
mon
ran
ge g
rass
es o
f the
Sou
th (
Con
tinue
d)
Ran
ge a
nd p
reva
lenc
eS
easo
n of
Mos
t Use
Res
pons
e to
hea
vy g
razi
ngan
d pr
escr
ibed
bur
ning
Pal
atab
ility
pre
fere
nce
durin
g se
ason
of
Hig
hM
ed.
Low
Spr
eadi
ng p
.P
. rhi
zom
atum
Con
fined
gen
eral
ly to
the
coas
tal S
tate
s. L
ikes
ext
ram
oist
ure.
Mar
ch th
roug
h S
epte
mbe
rV
ery
muc
h lik
e be
aked
pan
icum
inbo
th s
ites
occu
pied
and
gra
zing
resp
onse
. Hea
vy s
eede
r.
X
Rou
ndse
ed p
.P
. sph
aoro
carp
onC
omm
on in
the
Sou
thea
st.
One
of t
he fi
rst t
o he
ad in
the
sprin
g.
Use
d fr
om F
eb. t
hru
May
and
agai
n th
e la
tefa
ll.
Tak
es c
lose
gra
zing
wel
l. U
sed
heav
ily o
n fr
esh
burn
s in
ear
lysp
ring.
Tol
eran
t of f
ire.
X
Sw
itchg
rass
P. v
lrgat
umT
hrou
ghou
t. S
omet
imes
loca
llyab
unda
nt b
ut g
ener
ally
leas
tco
mm
on o
f the
impo
rtan
tpa
nicu
ms.
Bec
omes
coa
rse
with
mat
urity
. Mar
ch th
roug
hJu
ly.
A d
ecre
aser
und
er h
eavy
gra
zing
.D
iffic
ult t
o ke
ep in
sta
nd e
ven
with
mod
erat
e gr
azin
g.
X
Pas
palu
ms
Pas
palu
m S
pp.
Frin
gele
af p
.
Flo
rida
p.
Bro
wns
eed
p.
P. c
Ilia
thai
/urn
P. f
lorld
anum
P. p
llcat
ulum
Thr
ough
out t
he S
outh
. Ver
yco
mm
on. W
ill w
ithst
and
mod
.he
avy
graz
ing,
Larg
ely
conf
ined
to th
eS
outh
east
. Com
mon
thro
ugho
ut.
Fou
nd in
all
coas
tal p
lain
sS
tate
s. C
omm
on o
n m
ore
moi
stsi
tes.
Spr
ing
and
sum
mer
.
Ear
ly in
spr
ing
and
sum
mer
,
Late
sum
mer
into
win
ter.
Will
incr
ease
with
con
tinue
dhe
avy
graz
ing.
Mod
erat
ely
tole
rant
of fi
re.
Will
dec
reas
e un
der
heav
y gr
azin
gan
d in
crea
se s
low
ly w
ith li
ght g
razi
ng.
Ofte
n gr
azed
hea
vily
in s
prin
g al
ong
road
ditc
hes
and
othe
r w
et s
ites.
Blu
este
ms
easi
ly o
utco
mpe
te o
nup
land
s. In
crea
ser
on m
oist
site
s.
x
x x
Dro
psee
dsS
poro
bolu
s S
pp.
Cur
tiss
d.S
. cur
tiss
liLa
rgel
y co
nfin
ed to
the
wire
gras
s ra
nges
of S
.Ga.
, Ala
.an
d F
la.
Late
fall
and
win
ter.
Bur
ning
will
dec
reas
e th
e am
ount
of
Cur
tiss
drop
seed
in th
e to
tal c
over
.T
oler
ant o
f hea
vy g
razi
ng a
nd s
hade
.
X
Incr
ease
s on
unb
urne
d si
tes.
Pin
eyw
oods
d.
S. /
unce
usE
xten
ds a
ll al
ong
the
coas
tal
plai
n fr
om T
ex. t
o F
Ia. a
ndup
into
Va.
Com
mon
.
Spr
ing
and
early
sum
mer
and
durin
g th
e w
inte
r,T
oler
ant o
f fire
and
gra
zing
. Fre
quen
tfir
e w
ill d
ecre
ase
amou
nt o
f thi
s in
the
stan
d.
X
Th,
ee-A
wns
Añs
tida
$pp.
Arr
owfe
athe
r t.
A. p
urpu
rasc
ens
Thr
ough
out t
he S
outh
east
.R
ange
ext
ends
into
the
Mid
wes
tan
d N
ew E
ngla
nd.
Fre
sh b
urne
d ra
nge
insp
ring,
Incr
ease
r. C
omes
clo
se to
bei
ngan
inva
der.
Ver
y to
lera
nt o
f fire
.x
Pin
elan
d t.
Trin
ius
t.
A. s
tric
ta
A. v
irgaf
a
Coa
stal
Pla
ins
from
Mis
s. e
ast
to N
C. C
omm
on in
S.G
a., A
la.
and
Fla
.
Has
abo
ut th
e sa
me
rang
e as
pine
land
thre
e-aw
n. N
ot a
sco
mm
on h
owev
er.
Fre
sh b
urne
d ra
nge
insp
ring.
Som
e us
e du
ring
win
ter,
Fre
sh b
urne
d ra
nge
insp
ring
and
win
ter,
Can
be
mai
ntai
ned
in s
tand
if he
avily
gra
zed.
Tol
eran
tof
fire
.
Hea
vy g
razi
ng w
ill c
ause
itto
dec
reas
e. T
oler
ant o
f fire
.
x
x
Love
grau
esE
ragr
ostis
Spp
.
Elli
ott I
.E
. elli
ot f/
IN
C. t
o ea
st T
exas
. Sho
ws
pref
eren
ce fo
r w
ette
r si
tes.
Ear
ly s
prin
g. M
ost
abun
dant
in F
la.
Incr
ease
r. S
how
s a
good
tole
ranc
eof
fire
.X
Coa
stal
I.E
. ref
ract
aLi
mite
d to
the
Coa
stal
Pla
ins
Sta
tes.
Mor
e co
mm
on in
Fla
.an
d G
a.
Ear
ly s
prin
g.In
crea
ser.
The
mos
t pal
atab
leof
the
pere
nnia
l lov
egra
sses
.X
Pur
ple
I.5.
spe
clab
i/is
Com
mon
eve
ryw
here
eas
t of t
he10
0th
mer
idia
n. V
ery
show
y in
fall,
Ear
ly s
prin
g.In
crea
ses
with
hea
vy g
razi
ng a
ndfr
eque
nt b
urns
. A s
and
love
r.X
Spe
cies
Indi
an G
rass
es
Sle
nder
i.
Yel
low
i.
Lops
ide
i.
Goo
berg
rass
Gre
en s
ilkys
cale
Gia
nt c
ane
Sw
itchc
ane
Com
mon
carp
etgr
ass
Too
thac
hegr
ass
Ske
leto
n gr
ass
Cut
over
muh
ly
Pin
e ba
rren
str
iden
s
Pur
plet
op
Long
leaf
uni
ola
Sor
ghas
trum
Spp
.
S. c
/i/o
tti/
S. n
utan
s
secu
ndum
Am
phic
arpu
mm
uhie
nber
gian
umA
ntha
enan
1/a
vi/lo
saA
rund
lnar
jagi
gan
tea
A. t
ecta
Axo
nopu
sal
finis
Cte
nlum
arom
a fic
um
Gym
nopo
gon
ambi
guus
Muh
ienb
ergi
aex
pans
a
Trid
ens
ambi
guus
flavu
s
Uni
ola
sess
ilif I
ota
Tab
le 1
. - S
ome
com
mon
ran
ge g
rass
es o
f the
Sou
th (
Con
tinue
d)
Ran
ge a
nd p
reva
lenc
eS
easo
n of
Mos
t Use
Thr
ough
out t
he S
outh
on
sand
y so
il. M
ore
com
mon
in t
he e
ast.
Eas
tern
U.S
. wes
t to
the
Roc
ky M
tn. R
ange
,
Larg
ely
conf
ined
to w
iregr
ass
type
s in
Fla
., S
.Ga.
, Ala
.,an
d co
asta
l SC
ar.
O h
er Im
port
ant a
nd C
omm
on G
rass
es o
f the
Sou
th
Fla
., G
a., a
nd S
.C.,
very
com
mon
in S
.Flo
rida.
Thr
ough
out t
he S
outh
.
Thr
ough
out t
he S
outh
.
Mai
nly
east
of M
issi
ssip
piR
iver
.
Coa
stal
Pla
ins.
Coa
stal
Pla
ins
- M
ainl
yw
ette
r, s
andy
site
s.
Coa
stal
Pla
ins
nort
h to
Ohi
o R
iver
.
Coa
stal
Pla
ins,
eas
t Tex
as to
Fla
. and
Va.
Com
mon
on
infr
eque
ntly
bur
ned
site
s.
Coa
stal
Pla
ins,
Tex
as to
Fla
., an
d S
.C.;
mai
nly
on p
oorly
drai
ned
soils
Eas
t. M
ost p
reva
lent
on
mod
erat
ely
to h
eavi
ly w
oode
dsi
tes.
Coa
stal
Pla
ins,
Pie
dmon
t, an
din
to e
ast T
exas
and
OkI
a.
Late
Spr
ing
and
sum
mer
.
Late
spr
ing
and
sum
mer
,
Apr
il, M
ay a
nd J
une.
See
d.st
alks
rea
dily
eat
en in
late
sum
mer
and
fall.
Sum
mer
and
fall.
Som
eus
ed y
earlo
ng.
Sum
mer
.
May
to J
anua
ry
May
to J
anua
ry
Spr
ing
and
sum
mer
.
Ear
ly s
prin
g af
ter
fres
h bu
rn.
Fre
sh g
row
th a
fter
abu
rn. B
ecom
es v
ery
coar
se.
Late
fall
and
win
ter.
Iscl
osel
y cr
oppe
d in
spr
ing
on fr
esh
burn
s.
Spr
ing
and
early
sum
mer
.
Sum
mer
and
ear
ly fa
ll.
Spr
ing
and
early
sum
mer
.
Pal
atab
ility
pre
fere
nce
Res
pons
e to
hea
vy g
razi
ngdu
ring
seas
on o
fan
d pr
escr
ibed
bur
ning
mos
t use
Dec
reas
er. D
oes
not h
ave
rhiz
omes
but
is d
eep
root
ed.
Can
't ta
ke h
eavy
gra
zing
.
Hig
h
x x
Med
.Lo
w
Hot
bur
ns d
amag
e rh
izom
es.
Dec
reas
er.
Incr
ease
r. S
how
s go
od r
espo
nse
todi
scin
g or
rol
ler
cutte
r.
Incr
ease
r. M
oder
atel
y to
lera
ntto
fire
.
Dec
reas
er. B
urni
ng fo
llow
edby
hea
vy g
razi
ng w
ill k
ill it
.
Dec
reas
er. S
how
s sa
me
resp
onse
to g
razi
ng a
nd fi
re a
s ab
ove.
Mus
t be
graz
ed to
sta
y in
stan
d. W
ill to
lera
te h
eavy
graz
ing.
An
inva
der
spec
ies.
Bec
ause
of s
ite, r
arel
y ki
lled
by fi
re.
x x x x
x x xT
oler
ates
mod
erat
e sh
ade
and
litte
r.W
ill in
crea
se o
n un
burn
ed s
ites.
Fire
tole
rant
- w
ill in
crea
se w
ithhe
avy
use
follo
win
g di
stur
banc
e.
Dec
reas
es u
nder
hea
vy u
se a
ndfr
eque
nt b
urns
Incr
ease
with
bur
ning
. Can
'tto
lera
te h
eavy
rou
gh o
r de
nse
shad
e.
Dec
reas
er u
nder
hea
vy g
razi
ng.
x x
x x
Tol
eran
t of f
ire.
Dec
reas
er. O
ne o
f the
mos
t sha
deto
lera
nt g
rass
es in
the
Sou
th a
ndso
mew
hat t
oler
ant t
o lit
ter
build
up.
x
Erosion and soil movement will probablybe evident, depending upon several fac-tors: duration of the poor condition, rain-fall, soil type, etc. Gullies may be present,and a deposition of eroded soils will beobserved at sticks, stones, or plants.Plants may be stooling - growing on ahummock caused by erosion of the sur-rounding soil. Rocks and sticks may befound on pedestals.
RANGE IMPROVEMENTS
An inventory of the range resource on anarea must include a determination of the rangeimprovements present and their condition. In-spect the improvements with sufficientthoroughness to answer the followingquestions:
Fences. Are the exterior boundaries of thetract fenced? Any interior fencing? What kindof condition are they in: good enough to con-tain livestock? Are gates in the right places andare they adequate? Are cattle guards neededon some well traveled roads? Watergaps inplace and effective? What additional fencingor improvement of existing fence may be need-ed to adequately control the livestock andachieve management objectives?
Water. What kind of waters are present onthe area: springs, wells, stock ponds, live
streams? Are they permanent or temporary?Do they effectively provide water forlivestock? Are they well distributed over thearea? Fenced or equipped with other controlso that they can be made unavailable tolivestock, if needed? What additional waterdevelopment or improvement is needed?Should more water sources be developed toachieve better distribution or provide suffi-cient water? Should improvement work suchas bentoniting ponds or providing additionaltroughs at wells be done?
Livestock Handling Facilities. What isavailable in the way of corrals, squeeze chutes,holding pens, traps, etc.? What is their loca-tions? Are they adequate, and properlylocated, to take care of the animals?
Improved Pastures. In areas to beregenerated with more desirable species, areimproved pastures available, either for rent orself-owned? Could areas scheduled for regen-eration be planted to improve grasses andpines for management as a timbered pasture?Are right-of-ways available for improvedpasture establishment? Do livestock have ac-cess to corn fields or other gleanings in the latefall and early winter?
Answers to the above questions are neededto give proper advice on livestock stockingrates on forested ranges.
OBJECTIVES
Here is the objective of the entire rangemanagement profession: the grazing oflivestock on a range area in a manner that pro-vides a high level of continuous productionwithout damage to the range or otherassociated resources. Many factors must becarefully blended to achieve this objective. Forexample: proper numbers of animals, properseasons of use of the forage plants, properdistribution of the animals over the range,coordination with other resource uses and pro-per supplementation of the animals' diet withsalt, minerals, concentrates, or hay.
Historically, Southern forestlands have beengrazed with uncontrolled numbers and almostno management. The livestock were turnedloose in the woods and shifted for themselves;the owner made an occasional roundupwhenever some stock had to be sold. Underthis system, calf crops were low - in the 30 to50 percent category, with sale weights of 250 to300 pounds. Mortality was high. Forest Ser-vice research has consistently shown that youcan produce 80 percent calf crops andmarketing weights of 450 to 500 poundsthrough good management of cattle andresources.
This chapter provides some basic informa-tion to help foresters prepare a multiple-usemanagement plan and give advice to theprivate landowner. Much of the success of theplan will depend upon the skill of the foresterin recognizing conditions and devisingmanagement solutions to meet the need of theindividual area. The plans cannot bestereotyped - each must be tailored to meetthe needs of the individual area. Each area, aswell as each landowner, is different.
STOCKING RATES
One of the first questions the landowner willask, and often the question uppermost in
MANAGEMENT OF THE RANGE
mind, is "How many cows can I graze?". Un-fortunately there is no hard and fast answer.You can give an ultra-conservative answerwhich will limit the numbers and provide formost eventualities, but this probably wouldnot be the most economical use that could bemade. On the other hand, an answer thatmight provide for heavier stocking with theassumption of good landowner managementof the range and cattle could then result indamage to the range through failure to get pro-per distribution, or make prescribed burns, ornumerous other variances that affect actualsafe grazing capacity.
Grazing capacity depends on manyvariables. The forage production that ismeasured represents what is available forlivestock consumption at that particular time,and as a result of the specific weather andoverstory conditions that existed during theyear of measurement. Production couldchange drastically by the next year because ofchanges in weather or overstory or the use thathas been made of the range. Regardless of theforage that is present, the manner in which it isused has more effect on the numbers that canbe run than almost any other factor. Poordistribution of the animals, grazing at thewrong season, and failure to feed supplementsor hay has a direct, profound effect on theability of an area to support sustainedlivestock use.
In determining stocking rates, rememberthat light use will usually give the greatestweight gains per animal, and will preservegood range condition. However, light useprobably will not produce the optimum beefproduction per acre of range. Heavy use maytemporarily produce the most beef per acre,but at the expense of range condition andfuture production. The optimum combination
of weight gains per acre and preservation ofgood range condition is to be found withmoderate use.
USE OF FORAGE PRODUCTION DATA
The principal purpose of establishing theforage production plots described in thepreceding chapter was to secure an estimate ofthe production of the range area for conver-sion into an estimated grazing capacity. To dothis, for each type:
Add together the green weight productionfigures from all of the plots in the type.
Reduce the above sum by an appropriatepercentage to arrive at an air dry weight(40 percent recommended for late summerand fall use).
Divide the sum by the number of plots toarrive at a plot average.
Multiply the above average by 10 to givethe average pounds of production peracre.
Reduce the above figure to 40 percent(assumed proper use) of the average to ar-rive at forage availability under properuse.
Divide by 40 (pounds per acre foragedisappearance per day with a cow-calfoperation) to give the number of cow-calfdays available.
Multiply by the acres of suitable range inthe type.
Divide by 30 (days per month) to give thenumber of animal months forage that isavailable.
For example, using the information fromthe equation shown on page 5.
1,600 pounds air dry forage production1,600 x 40 percent (proper utilization)
= 640 pounds of forage per acreavailable
19
640
40 (pounds per cow-calf day)= 16 cow-calf days per acre
16x 210 (acres in theshortleaf-loblolly type) = 3,360cow-calf days for the type
336030 (days per month) = 112 cow-calf
months availableor 112 cows with calves for one monthor 56 cows with calves for two monthsor 37 cows with calves for three months,
etc.
The final figure may, as indicated, bemanipulated for the desired season by dividingthe animal months by the number of months inthe season to arrive at the stocking rate forthat period. Conversely, divide the calculatedanimal months by the number of animals to begrazed to arrive at a length of season. Do thisfor each type in the area; add all types togetherfor an area total. Listed below is the approx-imate grazing capacity for a cow-calf opera-tion in relation to the amount of forage peracre, at 40 percent use and 40 pounds per dayforage disappearance:
Forage per acre Acres per cow month
100150200300400500600700800900
1,0001,2001,4001,6001,8002,000
30.020.014.910.07.66.04.94.33.73.33.12.52.11.91.61.4
For 50 percent use, multiply acres/cm by 0.83;For 60 percent use, multiply acres/cm by 0.66.A quick, simple method to include proper use
is allow 100 pounds per day disappearance.This incorporates 40 percent use and animalrequirements.
Stocking rates calculated on the basis offorage production are the best means availableto tell a landowner the number of cattle thatshould be permitted to graze on a given area.However, any initial stocking rate that is usedmust be refined over a period of years by closeobservation of the effects of the use on theground.
FORAGE USE
Forage use is expressed in terms of a percen-tage of the plant used, of that which wasavailable for use. In the case of grasses andforbs, the entire volume above ground is con-sidered available for use. In the case of shrubsand trees, only that within reach of the animalsis available.
Forage use is estimated by using the pro-cedures described earlier, for estimating forageproduction. On grazed ranges, will you find ituseful to train yourself in estimating by clip-ping and weighing some previously establishedprotected plots, or by finding ungrazed areasto clip and weigh and compare them with thegrazed areas. Forage use estimates will helpyou arrive at a rough calculation of grazingcapacity on a grazed range, as follows:
Estimate the percent of forage use.
Divide this percentage by the number ofmonths of grazing that has transpired toarrive at the percent per month that is be-ing used.
At the use rate per month, calculate thenumber of months remaimng before pro-per use is reached.
Example:
An area has been grazed for 3 months and is 26percent used. Desired use is 40 percent (14 per-cent short of goal) -
- 3 months = 26 percent or approx-imately 8 percent per month use.
- 14 percent remains to reach the desireduse or 2 more months at 8 percent use permonth.
About 2 months grazing left at the present rateof stocking. Numbers and time may be juggledto meet the landowner's objectives. For exam-ple, twice as many cattle grazed for half thetime or half the cattle for twice the time.
This method has its greatest application onseasonal ranges where growth of the plants iswell along or complete before the grazingseason. The greatest application of forage useinformation is in:
Calculating when proper use has beenmade of the range and it is time to movelivestock to other range.
Seeking out areas of over-use and areas ofunder-use that indicate improper distribu-tion and point towards refinements orchanges that may be needed in themanagement plan.
Refining the initial grazing capacityestimates. If over-use has occurred beforethe end of the grazing season, then thestocking is too heavy.
Nearly every plant species has its owntolerable limits of use beyond which it cannotsustain itself and reproduce. Continued graz-ing beyond this limit results in a weakenedplant and, a reduced root system. Such plantsare susceptible to drought, decreased forageproduction, and eventual death. Forty percent
Sheep, Goats, and Deer:
Five weaned lambs, kids,and yearlings .6 animal unit
Five ewes, or does, with or withoutunweaned lambs or kids 1.0 animal unit
Five rams or bucks 1.3 animal unit5 deer 1.00 animal unit
Converting equivalents should not be usedto convert grazing capacity estimates fromsheep and goats to cattle and horses, where it ispossible to determine the grazing capacity onthe basis of the values of forage plants for eachkind of livestock.
RANGE READINESS
Range readiness is the time when livestockmay safely begin grazing fresh, spring foragegrowth without inflicting intolerable damageto the key grazing species. It is, of course, animportant economic consideration to therancher to "turn on" fresh grass as soon as itcan be safely done, to avoid prolonging thecostly winter season feeding of grain and hay.Turning cattle on to spring range too soon is acommon practice in the South. This is especial-ly damaging to fresh burned range. Grassesand forbs just beginning new growth in earlyspring need sufficient time to develop new rootgrowth and a healthy crown.' This is also acritical time for seedlings. Because of the usualsoft soil conditions at this time of year, newseedlings are easily pulled from the soil bygrazing livestock.
Range readiness will differ with grassspecies, kind of season, (early, late, wet, ordry) latitude, elevation and condition ofground and ground cover resulting from
An exception to this is Arista stricta. wiregrass that should be grazedwhen it is fresh and green.
is considered the average conservative use formost species on Southern ranges. Some plantssuch as carpetgrass can withstand muchheavier use, and must have it in order to stay inplace against competition from other plantsthat cannot tolerate the same degree of use.
Here are some plant appearance guides forestimating forage use:
Light Use (25 to 30 percent forage removal):Grazing patchy and leaf tips have been bittenoff less than three-fourths of the grass tufts.There has been no obvious removal of leavesfrom pineland three-awn.
Moderate Use (40 to 45 percent forageremoval): Leaf tips have been bitten off morethan three-fourths of the grass tufts, but occa-sional patches are ungrazed.
Heavy Use (60 to 70 percent forageremoval): Leaf tips have been bitten off allgrass tufts and the average stubble height is 4inches or less.
ANIMAL UNIT EQUIVALENTS
For the purpose of planning the use of graz-ing lands and estimating the degree of use, thestandard livestock unit will be the "animalunit" defined as One mature cow, with orwithout an unweaned calf at its side, or theequivalent. The following equivalent valuesare considered as standard, for use in convert-ing animal units to other classes of stock:
Cattle:
Weaned calves and yearlings .6 animal unitMature cows and steers
(cow with or withoutunweaned calf at side) 1.0 animal unit
Bulls, 2 years and over 1.3 animal unit
Horses:
Yearlings .75 animal unitTwo-year-olds 1.00 animal unitThree-year-olds 1.25 animal unit
management and climate the previous seasonor seasons. It disturbs many ranchers to see thefresh, green growth in the spring producemuch more forage than their livestock canpossibly use at that stage of development.'Many think it's grass just going to waste.Many of the grass clumps scattered through-out the stand must be allowed to mature andseed so that new seedlings of the better peren-nial grasses may become established.
There are marked differences in the time ofrange-readiness from the more southerlylatitudes to the northern extremes of thesouthern pine belt. New growth of grassesvaries by as much as a month from southFlorida to north Florida. These differences areaccented where major increases in elevationoccur. As one progresses from the near sea-level coastal plain to the mountainous terrainof north Arkansas, a considerable lag in rangereadiness is observed.
One method to establish a sound basis fordetermining range readiness or "turn on" dateis to identify the key perennial species ofgrasses that make up most of the forage, i.e.,the two or three species the rancher will mostdepend upon to furnish feed for livestock dur-ing the normal grazing season. This is especial-ly important when the operator intends tostock the range to its optimum safe grazingcapacity. These key species should exhibit suf-ficient new growth to "gain" over grazing usefor the first 6 weeks. Because there is so muchdifference in the appearance of new growth ona freshly burned range, compared to an areawith a 2- or 3-year-old rough, careful attentionneeds to be given this item. The general ap-pearances of new growth and the amount ofnew growth can be very deceptive on the roughareas
'An exception to this is Aristastrictc, wiregrass that should be grazedwhen it is fresh and green.
INDICATORS OF RANGE READINESS
A generally reliable indicator of rangereadiness involves an observation of the stageof development of plants other than grasses.In the Ouachita and Ozark mountain areaswhen birdsfoot violet (Viola pedata) is in fullbloom on the slopes, and wild hyacinth(Camassia scilloides) is blooming in the creekbottoms, grass has normally developed suffi-ciently to make it safe for grazing withoutharm. Serviceberry (Amelanchier arboreum)will be in full bloom and black locust (Robiniapseudoacacia) is just about to bloom.
In the coastal plain, longleaf pine-bluestemrange, the matter of range readiness is lesscritical because some native grasses stay greenthroughout the year. However, pinehillbluestem, which is the dominant foragespecies, is generally ready to begin grazingwhen false dandelion (Krigia dandelion), sheepsorrel Oxalis violacea), butterweed (Senecioglabellus) and the atamasco lily (Zephy ranthesatamasco,), sunbonnets (Oenothera speciosa),and yellow stargrass (Hypoxis hirsuta) areblooming conspicuously. Fringetree (Chionan-thus virginica) and yaupon (hex vornitoria) arein full bloom. Moving over to the wiregrass-pine ranges of south Alabama and Georgiaand north Florida, we find tarflower (Befariaracemosa), wicky (Kalmia hirsuta), and titi(Cyrilla racemiflora) at bloom peak about thetime the wiregrasses begin to becomenutritious again.
The date of range-readiness is largely deter-mined by a rancher's past experiences withconditions in the spring. Because it is notpossible to anticipate a wet, dry or normalgrazing season at "turn on" time, the wiserancher should take sufficient safeguardsagainst a possible forage shortage. Rememberthat a lightly-stocked range can be safelygrazed earlier than can a heavily-stockedrange.
LIVESTOCK DISTRIBUTION
A well-managed herd will graze forage asuniformly as possible throughout the range.Several techniques may be employed to reachthis goal; however, the first step is to analyzethe particular problem and determine why thecattle tend to overgraze or concentrate in onepart of the pasture.
FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION
Among some of the more important reasonsleading to poor distribution in the South aresteep topography, deep flowing streams, insuf-ficient or poorly planned prescribed burns ofinsufficient area, heavy rough, and insuffi-cient salting, supplemental feeding, and waterlocations. In the Coastal Plains, livestock useis closely tied to timber harvest and prescribedburning. After almost any type of cuttingoperation there is an immediate response in theamount and quality of ground cover. A freshburn will attract cattle to the new plantgrowth. They will walk great distances across a2- or 3-year old rough to get to such grazing.They will keep a burn nipped to the ground ifsuch areas are small and cattle numbers toohigh. The continued, intense use of such areasmay replace the more desirable bluestems andpanicums with a solid cover of carpet grass.
Some areas have sizeable tracts on hillsideswhere cattle will graze very little until the bot-toms and more gentle slopes have beenovergrazed. Provide salt at strategic points onsuch slopes to help attract the cattle to thesehilly areas.
In most instances, as soon as the cattle havesatisfied their salt needs, they will drift downtoward the flats, and water. A combination ofsalt and watering facilities is the best solution.Here again, the decision to install a permanentwater facility on a slope sufficiently steep todiscourage cattle from grazing must becarefully weighed. Such a slope is a prime ero-sion hazard; concentrations of cattle on suchplaces can only add to the hazard. Once ero-sion has begun, such area are difficult and ex-pensive to rehabilitate.
Physical barriers, such as deep streams, canoften cause poor distribution. While this mostoften only seasonally deters cattle from cross-ing over to the other side of a pasture, manystreams are permanently deep. Marshy areasthat extend considerable distances from thestream add a further barrier to crossing.Where possible, barriers of such magnitudeshould be made a boundary of a managementunit.
Where streams only intermittently obstructcattle from freely crossing from one grazablearea to the other, the most effective practice ingetting uniform use is to rotate one side withthe other - providing all facilities, such aswater and salt, on both sides. Forcible drivingof cattle may be necessary from time to time asdictated by the development of the forage oruse observed on one side or the other.
USE OF WATER TO IMPROVEDISTRIBUTION
Insufficient or poor distribution of perma-nent water facilities is frequently a major causeof poor livestock distribution. Give special at-tention to this problem during times ofdrought, when concentrations of cattle arounda single water facility serving a large grazingarea can irreparably harm nearby forage andsoil values.
Water for livestock is an absolute necessity.Therefore, it is one of the most effective meansof attracting cattle to use forage in areas theyhabitually stay away from, because of lack ofwater. As a general rule of thumb, cattleshould have water available within a mile ofthe farthest grazing. The ideal is to have a per-manent water facility no farther than one-halfmile from the farthest grazing.
BURNING FOR DISTRIBUTION
The practice of burning by livestockoperators has been a universal customthroughout the South since the times ofearliest settlement. The practice was adoptedfrom the Indians who habitually burned thewoods to provide for easier hunting of game
and for the simple expedient of making foottravel in the woods less difficult.
Controlled burning of the pine type insuitable burning areas offers the best op-portunity to distribute livestock where youwant them. When a prescribed burn is proper-ly done, taking into account season,temperature, and date since the last rain, it canbe controlled to effectively reduce the roughwithout damage to the grass plants. Such aburn will provide an immediate plant responsewith improved palatibility, quality, quantity,and availability of grasses and forbs.
Necessarily, prescribed burning must be tiedinto timber and other resource considerations.Such considerations may sufficiently restrict aburning program for optimum benefits tograzing distribution - when done on smallsize management units and on newlyregenerated areas.
There are several reasons why a goodprescribed burn area attracts cattle. All newgrowth is fresh and green and the cattle don'thave to laboriously sort out the dead materialthat accumulated from the growth of previousseasons. Protein, phosphorous, and calciumare higher in spring forage from burned areas.Total forage production over the years is alsohigher on areas where burns have been careful-ly controlled as to season and temperature.Seasonal gains of cattle are as much as one-third higher when grazing these areas. Theproblem of distribution is largely eliminatedwhen such areas can be uniformly scatteredover a large pasture or rotated with similarly-sized units on small pastures. On any area,stocking rate of cattle must conform to areasize to prevent overgrazing. While close graz-ing of new growth on a fresh burn will keepvegetation palatable and nutritious, and ex-tend the period of profitable grazing, caremust be taken to prevent livestock from con-centrating to such an extent that the nativegrasses are eliminated, and carpetgrass and an-nual weeds take over
SALTING FOR DISTRIBUTION
Salt will attract livestock and is a useful toolin achieving better distribution. Place the saltin areas where more use is desired, and awayfrom overused areas. This usually means thatthe salt will be placed well away from water,openings in the timber type, prescribed burns,roadsides, etc.
Do not establish permanent saltgrounds.Move the salt to a new location at least annual-ly to avoid concentrations of livestock andtrampling out an area. Keep the salt off theground, and in troughs, securely fastened totree stumps, or put on bare-rock areas.
The same principles of using salt to attractlivestock and achieve better distribution alsoapplies to locations for supplemental feeding.
COORDINATION WITH OTHER USES
Frequently a farm or ranch can supportmany different uses of the basic soil resourceand land area. Although the tendency istowards specialization in agriculture, there isstill room on most farms and ranches for morethan one crop. Ideally, these crops should beso selected and organized as to be complemen-tary and dovetailed into a land use andmanagement entity that recognizes the needsof all crops. This management concept doesnot necessarily produce the maximum of anyone crop that might be possible, but is directedtowards something less to achieve compatibili-ty with other crops and achieve the best returnfrom the land.
The careful organization and coordinationof multi-crop production is necessarily aproblem of the landowner and will largely de-pend on personal desires. Livestock grazing, ifproperly done, can be managed to blend inwith most of the major land uses and producea profitable return.
COORDINATION WITH TIMBER
Grass yields in southern pine forests arehighest when trees are small. As pines growand their crowns close, forage declines. Rarelyis grass completely eliminated. Over the bulkof the range, it persists in varying amounts.Yields of grass are least beneath dense, pole-sized stands, but increase as trees grow largerand taller and some are cut.
Natural longleaf stands generally are moreopen and have more forage than slash pinestands. When number, height, and size of thetrees are the same, probably about as muchgrass grows in slash pine stands as in longleaf.
The relation between trees and grass is muchthe same for planted pines as for naturalstands. The main difference is in tree spacingand forage composition. In natural or seededstands, the young trees, particularly slash pine,often form thickets under which grass declinesrapidly. In plantations, spacing between treescan be controlled at the beginning to en-courage grass growth for several years.
When managing for timber and forage pro-duction, use initial tree spacings of 8 x 10 (or12) feet, or more. Given more space, trees re-spond with more rapid diameter-growth andusually can be thinned commercially at anearlier age. Widely spaced plantations alsoprovide longer and more productive periods ofgrazing. The crowns close a year or more laterthan 6 x 8 (or 10) feet, and other dense spac-ings.
Furrowing, disking, or other soil distur-bance incident to planting or seeding en-courages carpet grass and common Bermudagrass at the expense of native bunch grasses.These invading species are less tolerant ofshade and litter and, as the timber standdevelops, may be expected to give way tobluestems, panicums, three-awn, andpaspalums.
As the pines grow, thinnings are necessaryfor optimum production of timber and grass.The first thinning usually comes when treesaverage about 6 inches in diameter - bigenough for pulpwood. After that, thinningsmay be at regular intervals, and leave only 60to 70 square feet of basal area per acre.
In the longleaf-slash pine belt, forage andtimber management are closely linked toprescribed burning. Pine litter rapidly ac-cumulates beneath well-stocked timber standsand, unless removed by occasional prescribedburns, will drastically reduce grass growth. Ifdone properly, burning improves thepalatability, quality, and availability ofgrasses. From the standpoint of the timbergrower, it is useful to control undesirablehardwood or pine stands, reduce the hazardfrom wildfire, prepare seedbeds, and controlbrown spot on young longleaf pines.
Except on some lands in south Florida,where timber growing is secondary to cattlegrazing, burning for forage improvementshould be done only after timber and otherforest uses have been fully considered. Wherenew pines are being started, fire must usuallybe excluded until the trees are 8- to 10-feet tall,except as burning is necessary to reduce brownspot needle infection of longleaf seedlings inthe grass stage. Thereafter, it may be used ad-vantageously at 2- to 5-year intervals. In somesections of south Florida, separate parts of therange are occasionally burned at differentseasons to maintain grazing the year round.Table 2 contains a recommended burningschedule for protecting trees under changingforage and timber conditions.
With cattle grazing the range, some damageto young trees is inevitable, especially onregeneration areas. The planted areas havebeen disturbed, creating forage and accessibili-ty conditions that the cattle find favorable,and they will concentrate on such areas if givenfree choice. Injury to pine reproduction on
Tab
le 2
. - R
ecom
men
ded
graz
ing
and
burn
ing
sche
dule
s to
pro
tect
tree
s un
der
chan
ging
fora
ge a
nd ti
mbe
r co
nditi
ons.
Tim
ber
stan
d
cond
ition
Gra
ss y
ield
s
(gre
en w
eigh
t)
Bur
ning
sche
dule
Gra
zing
Sch
edul
e
Blu
este
m,
year
long
Pin
elan
d th
ree-
awn
Blu
este
m
Pin
elan
d
thre
e-aw
n
Geo
rgia
, spr
ing
and
sum
mer
Sou
th F
lorid
a,
year
-long
No
tree
s
1-ye
ar-o
ld
seed
lings
See
dlin
gs a
nd
sapl
ings
less
than
8fee
ttall
Sap
lings
talle
r th
an
8 fe
et b
ut le
ss th
an
6 in
ches
in d
iam
eter
Pul
pwoo
d, 6
-12
inch
es in
dia
met
er
Saw
timbe
r, 1
2
inch
es a
nd la
rger
in d
iam
eter
- po
unds
3,00
0
3,00
0
2,60
0
1,40
0
650 -
per
acre
-
2,00
0
2,00
0
1,60
0
1000 70
0
2-3
year
s
Exc
lude
fire
Exc
lude
fire
3-4
year
s
2-4
year
s
15 20, e
xclu
de c
attle
or
graz
e lig
htly
23, g
raze
ligh
tly
30, g
raze
sle
nder
blue
stem
hea
vily
, oth
er
blue
stem
s m
oder
atel
y
60, g
raze
sle
nder
blue
stem
hea
vily
, oth
er
blue
stem
s m
oder
atel
y
3Q, g
raze
sle
nder
blue
stem
hea
vily
, oth
er
blue
stem
s m
oder
atel
y
- ac
res
per
cow
14 20, e
xclu
de c
attle
or
graz
e lig
htly
30, g
raze
ligh
tly
26, g
raze
mod
erat
ely
39, g
raze
mod
erat
ely
22, g
raze
mod
erat
ely
23 30, e
xclu
de c
attle
or
graz
e lig
htly
40, g
raze
ligh
tly
45, g
raze
mod
erat
ely
66, g
raze
mod
erat
ely
38, g
raze
mod
erat
ely
--
properly managed and stocked ranges is notusually serious, but although some trampling,and at certain seasons of the year, browsingmay occur, it will be well within acceptablelimits.
On some pine ranges, grazing modificationmay be necessary to prevent cattle from con-centrating where pines have been planted orseeded. The most critical period is late fall andwinter when green forage is scarce, nutrientlevels are low and the cattle may browse as wellas trample pines. Trees that have been fer-tilized in the nursery have a high nutritive con-tent and are particularly susceptible to brows-ing. Modifying the grazing to minimizedamage on plantations as follows.
Water, supplement and salt control. -Place the salt, supplements and water wellaway, 1 mile if possible, from plantationareas. Close off waters near the plantations.These controls will not be completely effective,but may reduce damage to an acceptable level.
Prescribed burning or fertilization. -Prescribed burns and fertilized areas will at-tract and hold cattle. When planning the plan-tation, also plan to develop burned or fer-tilized areas well away from the plantation toattract and hold the cattle.
Rotation grazing. - If the range is fencedinto management units, schedule the rotationof the grazing on the units to avoid the unitcontaining the plantation, or graze it only dur-ing the spring, summer or early fall. This willeliminate any need for additional fencing.
Removal of cattle. - Most cattle browsingand trampling of young pines occurs in the falland winter when green forage is scarce orunavailable and the nutritive content of thegrasses is low. Under light to moderate graz-ing, serious damage will be completely avoidedby removing the cattle in the fall and not re-turning them until spring when ample greenforage is available.
Fencing. - This is the total solution, but it'sexpensive and is usually unnecessary with con-trolled numbers and proper management. Theowner will be better off to put the fence moneyinto division fencing of the range area andadopt a rotation system of grazing that avoidsuse of the plantation area. Stands of slash pinemay need to be fenced for only 2 to 3 years,but longleaf pines will need protection untilthey are well out of the grass stage. A three-strand barbed wire fence will turn cattle. Elec-tric fences are seldom satisfactory in thewoods.
Chemically treat seedlings. - For unusualsituations, where control of livestock distribu-tion is very difficult, there may be a need tochemically treat tree seedlings that are to beplanted in the area. Some of the chemicalsused in the past are not registered for use now.Because registration is necessary before achemical may be recommended for use, andalso because the process often changes youshould consult with the State agencies respon-sible for disseminating such information. Allchemicals should be used cautiously. Strictlyfollow the instructions on the label.
Use chemicals only as a last resort. Onetreatment is not enough to assure protectionthroughout a grazing season. A better choice isto remove livestock from newly planted areasor control their numbers in areas where there isdoubt about seedling protection. Also, treat-ment may require special handling. For exam-ple, some chemicals will cause injury or deathif the seedlings are stored in bundles for a dayor more after treatment. Such special precau-tionary procedures should be understood andfollowed carefully.
Because registrations of pesticides are underconstant review by EPA, consult your localcounty agricultural agency or State extensionspecialist to see if a suitable material has beenregistered by EPA since this publication wasprinted.
COORDINATION WITH RECREATION
Open range grazing under controlled andmanaged conditions is usually completelycompatible with open, dispersed type recrea-tion use of the same area and is in many casescomplimentary. On some areas of public landwhere intensive recreation use is a major con-sideration, livestock grazing is being retainedto enhance the recreation values and provide ameans of control of shrubs and invading plantspecies.
Fence off areas of concentrated recreationuse, such as a campgound, to exclude cattle.Most people don't object to livestock in thevicinity of their camp or picnic site. Many en-joy the animals and numberless children havesquealed with joy at the experience of seeing acow, or horse or sheep. However, few peoplecare to share their campsite or picnic with aherd of domestic animals, and a bull polishinghis horns on a tent pole can be alarming. Keepthe cattle away from concentrations ofpeople - the recreation area itself can begrazed during the off season, if need be. Coor-dination of grazing with wildlife considera-tions is discussed later.
COORDINATION WITHSOIL AND WATER RESOURCES
The soil is perhaps the most importantresource on any given land area. Soil is thebasic nonrenewable resource upon which anyfarmer or rancher depends for a living. Protec-tion and development of this resource must bethe basic and overriding consideration of anyland use. In the past, under unmanaged condi-tions and uncontrolled and excessive numbers,much damage has been done to rangelands bydomestic animals. Controlled numbers of cat-tie and properly managed grazing permits pro-fitable use of the forage without damage to thesoil or other resources.
28
management. The same range and livestockmanagement activities that pay the greatestreturns to the cattleman, such as proper stock-ing, good distribution, and proper season ofuse will also pay the greatest returns in the pro-tection of development of the forage and soil.Avoid areas of overuse; manage the land topull the livestock away from those areas.
Livestock will tend to favor certain areasand, if given free choice, will develop "lying"grounds where they prefer to rest and chewtheir cud. They will also develop trails whenmoving from one area to another. Thesefavored areas will eventually become com-pacted, beat out, and subject to severe erosionif concentrated Use continues. Using themethods described earlier, under "LivestockDistribution," alter the management plan topull livestock from these favored areas.
If you wish to treat and rehabilitate erodedareas, use the same methods described earlierunder "Coordination with Timber," for pro-tection of tree plantations to reduce oreliminate livestock use from the treated area.
The production of quality water is anotherconsideration to coordinate with livestock useof forested ranges. Avoid pollution of runoffand streams by animal wastes, dead animalsand feeding operations. Some coordinationpractices to be considered are -
Locate corrals, feedgrounds, saltgroundsand other areas of concentration awayfrom streams or drainages. Contaminatedwater runoff from them can then passthrough a filtering process beforereaching the flowing stream. Location ofthese facilities on ridgetops or higherareas will also provide better drainage andpromote a drier and more usable improve-ment.
Coordination of grazing with the soilresource is nothing more than good range
Promptly dispose, preferably by burning,of dead animals. Many States have lawsrequiring this, both from the standpoint
of water pollution and to prevent thepossible spread of disease.
COORDINATION WITH WILDLIFE
The forestland range manager may wish toproduce wildlife concurrently with livestockand timber for personal enjoyment or foreconomic gain. Several species of nativeupland game can be managed in harmony withrange programs in the Coastal Plains. Theseinclude principally the white-tailed deer, wildturkey, gray and fox squirrels, bobwhite quail,and mourning doves. For optimum results,however, determined efforts in resource coor-dination are required.
Wildlife resources are convertible to cash in-come directly through the sale of hunting andfishing rights or indirectly by furnishing goodsand services to sportsmen. In areas of well-stocked deer and turkey range, profits fromthe sale of hunting rights on a daily or seasonalbasis may approach or exceed the yield fromother resources. The same is true on a lesserbasis for small game, as for example, pheasanthunting in South Dakota, or Georgia'srenowned quail hunting.
The landowner interested in managingwildlife resources for profit will need to ex-plore applicable State game laws, and thetrespass and liability laws. The need for sport-ing facilities, added costs of maintainingfences and range improvements are othertrade-offs. The added risk to livestock andproperty from possible wildfires, accidentalshooting, and other hazards also must be con-sidered. Suggestions for coordinatingforestland grazing with wildlife habitatmanagement are:
Deer. - Coordination of cattle and deermanagement requires control of grazing inten-sity, deer, and livestock numbers. Overstock-ing of either deer or cows will reduce the carry-jag capacity for the other. Generally, however,
deer and cows do not compete as strenuouslyfor preferred foods as do deer with goats andsheep. As grazing approaches full capacity ofthe range, competition between deer and cowsbecomes more direct. Range managers shouldallocate forage use accordingly. One rule ofthumb suggests that one cow unit of use equalsfive deer units.
Deer range quality varies directly with thekinds and quantities of browse available atcritical times of the year. As with cattle, not allplants provide usable browse for deer; thuscattle compete with deer to the extent that theyconsume preferred species needed for goodhealth, body weight gain, and reproduction.Measures recommended for coordination ofdeer and livestock management in forestlandgrazing programs are:
Exclude cattle from hardwoodbottomlands and, if feasible, from allforestlands during the winter months ex-cept in the lower Coastal Plains.
Rotate grazing, prevent overgrazing.
Make stock watering facilities available todeer.
Do prescribed burning for rangeimprovement.
Exclude fire and cows from thickets andevergreen cover.
Encourage maximum harvest of surplusdeer by hunting.
Wild Turkey. - The need for coordinationof forestland range management with wildturkey management increases from Floridawestward. While grazing is not considereddetrimental to turkeys in Florida, undesirableeffects become more apparent to the north andwest. Grazing by goats and sheep and directcompetition for mast by hogs is regarded as
more detrimental to turkey than is cattle graz-ing. However, heavy woodland grazing thateliminates or seriously reduces the variety andproduction of understory fruiting shrubs andfood plants will reduce turkey populations.Moderate grazing of pine types probablyfavors turkeys by encouraging the growth ofgrasses, legumes, crotons, and other foods andby maintaining open stands. Heavy grazingprevents seed production, eliminates legumes,and destroys nesting and escape cover. Recom-mended measures for coordination are:
Exclude cattle from hardwood stands,especially stream bottoms.
Prevent heavy grazing and the depletionof food supplies.
Rotate grazing, if feasible, particularly onthe more western ranges.
Make stock watering facilities available toturkeys.
Spare roost trees and nearby areas ofescape cover in range improvementprograms.
Practice prescribed burning in pine types.
Prescribed burning will favor wild turkey ifcare is taken to exclude fire from hardwoodstands, bottomlands, nesting and escapecover. In the longleaf pine type, burn on a 3-year rotation with cool, night fires inDecember, January, or February.
Turkey may be attracted to supplementaryfeed lots during winter months. Such areasprovide prime hunting as well as importantwinter food supplies for turkey.
Small Game. - There are opportunities forcoordinating grazing programs with smallgame as well as deer and turkey managementSpecies to cansider include bobwhite quail,mourning doves, gray and fox squirrel
30
Gray squirrels apparently need not onlyabundant hardwood mast supplies, but also adense shrub understory that furnishes coverand concealment. Exclude cattle from hard-wood sites to benefit gray squirrels. Foxsquirrels generally prefer more open, park-likestands, and eat a broader range of foods. Foxsquirrels are favored over grays by moderatecattle grazing. However, grazing whichprevents establishment of a hardwood com-ponent in new stands, and fruit-producingshrubs in older stands, will be detrimental evento fox squirrels. Prescribed burning whichencourages browse production at the expenseof fruit-yielding shrubs will also harm foxsquirrels.
Grazing in pine types and quail managementare compatible, particularly if you practiceprescribed burning to stimulate legumes.Preserve thickets and small areas of heavyrough. Employ annual burning with a fastmoving, late-winter or early-spring fire tostimulate legumes, especially the preferredpartridge pea. Usually, such a fire will notburn clean, thus sparing thickets on moist sitesand preserving needed cover.
Old house sites often contain fruitingshrubs, vines, forbs, grasses and cover impor-tant to many species of wildlife. Fencing suchareas as well as any food plot plantings may becritical to simultaneous production of wildlifeand grazing uses in southern pine woodlands.
NUTRITION ANDSUPPLEMENTAL FEEDING
Virtually all range forage in the South isseriously deficient in nutrients during the falland winter. Range forage must then be sup-plemented if cattle are to thrive. Without sup-plements, susceptibility to parasites anddisease is high, malnutrition results in heavydeath losses, average calving seldom exceeds50 percent, and weaned calves frequentlyweigh less than 300 pounds These conditions
are not conducive to a profitable cattle opera-tion. Table 3 shows some results of research onthe production of beef from herds receivinggood year-long feed, and on herds not ade-quately fed.
FORAGE QUALITY
Range forage is most nutritious in the springand summer, and cattle weight gains arehighest then. During this period, mature cowsfrom herds grazing on bluestem range will pro-duce 75- to 80-percent calf crops. The cowsgain an average of about 165 pounds each.Pineland three-awn forage is not as nutritiousas bluestem forage in the summer, and cowsgrazing the three-awn gain less weight thanthose on bluestem. In Georgia, dry cows onpineland three-awn range gain about 155pounds during the spring and summer. Wetcows do little more than maintain body weightand may lose 50 pounds or more, per head,during this time.
The nutritive value of the forage declines inthe fall and winter. Even when fed protein andmineral supplements, cows that calve duringthe winter will lose about 200 pounds onbluestem range. Dry cows generally lose lessthan 75 pounds. Pineland three-awn forage isso low in nutrients during the winter that cattleare ordinarily taken from the range and put infeedlots or on improved pasture.
The range manager can influence foragequality considerably by controlling thecloseness of grazing and making prescribedburns. The quality of range forage is judged byprotein and mineral content and by digestibili-ty. Some factors affecting forage quality are:
Crude protein. - Protein is essential forcattle growth, weight gains, appetite, milksecretion and regular oestrus in cows. Newgrass shoots are relatively high in crudeprotein.
On pineland three-awn ranges in Georgia,the grass contains about 6 percent crude pro-tein in the spring, but if the range is burned inwinter, the spring forage will ordinarily con-tain 10 to 12 percent. Three to four monthsafter grass growth begins, the crude proteinfalls below 6 or 7 percent - less than theminimum needed by a cow that is nursing orcarrying a calf.
New grass growth on unburned bluestemrange normally contains 8 to 9 percent crudeprotein in spring. On ranges burned in latewinter or early spring, the percent will be from10 to 12. In July and August, the protein con-tent is about 7 percent, or slightly higher ifsummer rains bring on a new surge of growth.In winter, it may fall to 3 or 4 percent.
Repeated grazing has much the same effectas burning in increasing the succulence andprotein content. Cattle continually seek outplants previously grazed. In Louisiana,bluestem forage that was frequently harvestedcontained 9 to 11 percent crude protein, whilethat on unharvested plots had 5 to 6 percent.
Protein holds up best through the summeron ranges containing carpetgrass, bluestem,and some of the taller bunchgrasses, such aslopside Indiangrass and switchgrass.
Forbs, especially legumes, are often higherin protein than grasses. Swamp sunflower maycontain up to 10 percent in late summer andearly fall. Seed heads of sunflower, certainlegumes, and other forbs often have morecrude protein, and also more minerals, thanthe leaves.
Spring growth of browse plants such as sum-mersweet clethra, American cyrilla, andblackgum often has 13 percent crude protein.The evergreens, dahoon and greenbriers, aresought in winter when green feed is scarce.Their protein content of 8 to 10 percent ex-ceeds that of leached herbaceous plants.
Tab
le 3
. - P
rodu
ctio
n of
bee
f fro
m h
erds
rec
eivi
ng g
ood
year
-long
feed
and
from
her
ds n
ot a
dequ
atel
y fe
d
'Bee
f pr
oduc
tion
incl
udes
tota
l wei
ght o
f ca
lves
pro
duce
d pe
r co
w, l
ess
wei
ght o
f co
ws
that
die
d.C
ows
in th
e w
ell-
fed
herd
s av
erag
ed 7
00 p
ound
s, th
ose
in th
e po
orly
fed
her
ds 6
00 p
ound
s in
fal
l.
oper
atio
n
Sea
sona
l fee
d su
pply
Cal
fC
alf
Dea
thB
eef
crop
wei
ghts
loss
espr
oduc
edS
prin
gS
umm
erF
all
Win
ter
Apr
-Jun
eJu
ly-S
ept.
Oct
.-D
ec .
Jan.
-Mar
ch
%lb
s.%
lbs.
Goo
d, y
earlo
ng fe
ed; f
arm
sF
ence
dF
ence
dIm
prov
edIm
prov
ed p
astu
re, 1
00 d
ays'
7835
52.
026
3an
d fe
nced
Nat
iona
lF
ores
t ran
ge
fore
stra
nge
fore
stra
nge
past
ure
supp
lem
ent o
f 2 lb
s.co
ttons
eed
mea
l and
4 lb
s hu
lls/h
ead/
day
Far
ms
and
leas
ed,
fenc
ed, f
ores
tF
ence
d
fore
stIm
prov
ed
farm
Fie
ld
glea
ning
s
Far
m p
astu
re a
nd w
inte
r
oats
gra
zing
, 90
days
with
7435
03.
023
8
rang
era
nge
past
ure
and
farm
past
ure
supp
lem
ent o
f 1 lb
. cot
tons
eed
mea
l and
8 lb
s ha
y/he
ad/d
ay
Poo
r ye
arlo
ng fe
ed;
Fre
eF
ree
Fre
eM
ain
herd
on
free
fore
st37
275
5.7
68
Far
ms,
and
free
fore
stfo
rest
fore
stra
nge
with
no
supp
lem
ent.
fore
st r
ange
rang
era
nge
rang
eW
eak
cow
s on
farm
pas
ture
and
1 lb
. cot
tons
eed
mea
l and
2 lb
s hu
lls/h
ead/
day
Vea
rlong
on
free
Fre
eF
ree
Fre
eF
ree
fore
st r
ange
, 60
days
'35
300
6.4
67
fore
st r
ange
fore
stra
nge
fore
st
rang
e
fore
st
rang
e
supp
lem
ent o
f 1/2
lb. c
otto
nsee
dm
eal a
nd 2
lbs.
hay
/hea
d
Although browse contributes protein to thecattle diet in winter, it fails to compensate fullyfor deficits of other forage.
Where browse plants form dense thicketsand grow beyond the reach of cattle, burningwill open up the clumps and induce newgrowth. Cattle find the young, vigoroussprouts more palatable and nutritious than thetwig growth of older stems.
Phosphorus. - This is the mineral mostoften deficient in native forage. Marked defi-ciencies of phosphorus are accompanied byloss of appetite and reduced rate of gain inanimals. They may eventually have "stiffs" orsimilar bone changes, and milk productionand reproductivity of cows may be impaired.Phosphorus content usually decreases asplants mature. On unburned ranges, grassesmay have less than 0.08 percent phosphorusfor most of the year. On ranges burned inwinter, phosphorus amounts to around 0.12 to0.14 percent for about 2 months in spring.This is barely adequate for dry cows and con-siderably below the 0.18 percent required bypregnant and lactating cows. Most foragespecies are deficient in this element. Swampsunflower and legumes are relatively high. Inwinter, evergreen browse ordinarily containsmore than other plants.
Calcium. - Calcium is one of the most im-portant minerals for bone-building, growth,and reproduction. In Louisiana, most foragehas more than the 0.20 percent thoughtnecessary for breeding herds. Swampsunflower is exceptionally high at all growthstages. Eastward into Georgia and Floridacalcium in forage rarely exceeds 0.18 percent.Most browse is high in calcium, but cattleusually do not eat enough of it to compensatefor the deficiency of the other forage.
Cobalt and copper. - These minor mineralsmay be deficient in vegetation in parts of theCoastal Plain. A lack of either cobalt or cop-per may cause loss of condition, stunted
33
growth, diarrhea, and anemia in cattle. Bothare likely to be deficient in vegetation in cen-tral and southern Florida. In Georgia, com-monly grazed herbaceous plants are wanting incobalt and borderline in copper. The deficitsare probably balanced by plentiful cobalt inbrowse plants, such as blackgum and sum-mersweet clethra, and by liberal amounts ofcopper in sawpalmetto and other shrubs.Cobalt and copper are adequate in bluestemforage of Louisiana during the spring andsummer, and cattle show no symptoms of defi-ciencies in winter.
Digestibility. - Information about thedigestibility of native forage is scanty. Onpineland three-awn range in south Georgia,digestible crude protein of the grasses is almostadequate for lactating cattle in spring andsummer, but is extremely low in winter. Totaldigestible nutrients are enough for lactatingcows from spring through fall.
In winter, cattle should be taken off therange because forage then is so low in totaldigestible nutrients that protein and mineralsupplements cannot economically make up thedeficiency. The 25- to 30-percent lignin insome browse plants during winter undoubtedlycontributes to low forage digestibility. InFlorida, weight losses of cows wintering onnative range indicate that forage digestibilitymay be about the same as in Georgia. Onbluestem range in central Louisiana, cattlewintered well when forage was adequately sup-plemented with cottonseed cake, plus loosesalt and steamed bonemeal fed free-choice.
USE OF SUPPLEMENTAL CONCENTRATES
Forage for range cattle must be sup-plemented with concentrates, or hay, duringperiods of low, range-forage, plant nutrients.Concentrates are feeds that are low in fiberand high in total digestible nutrients. Somecommercial or home-grown items available tothe livestock operator are the various grains,wheat bran, cottonseed meal or cake, linseed
meal, bonemeal, etc. All so-called concen-trates are not necessarily high in protein or inthe necessary minerals needed for livestock,and many concentrate mixtures containminerals that are not needed. Livestockoperators should have their particular situa-tions appraised, determine the specific nutrientdeficiencies that are common to their areasand purchase concentrates and minerals to filltheir needs. See table 4. Some commonly fedconcentrates and minerals and their applica-tion are:
Protein concentrates. - Cottonseed meal orpellets (41 percent crude protein) is the mostwidely fed and practical protein concentrate.Normally, feeding starts in October orNovember, but it should begin earlier if crudeprotein of forage drops below 7 percent, or ifcows show signs of losing weight rapidly. Dur-ing the fall, I to 2 pounds per animal per daywill be sufficient. When cows remain on therange, the rate should be stepped up to 3pounds per day for the 2 or 3 winter monthswhen forage quality is lowest. Feeding maystop after forage greens up in spring. About375 pounds per animal each year is enough onmost ranges. The best place for meal is introughs, but pellets may be scattered on theground without excessive loss. Troughs shouldbe moved occasionally to prevent the vegeta-tion from being trampled out. Feeding proteinconcentrates during spring and early summerhas not proved practical.
Phosphorus and calcium. - These mineralsshould be accessible in feedboxes all year.Steamed bonemeal (32 percent calcium, 15percent phosphorus) is most widely used andwith apparent good results. To induce con-sumption and prevent spoilage, two parts ofmeal are often mixed with one part of salt.Yearly consumption of this mineral mix variesfrom 18 to 75 pounds per head according toweather, quality of forage, and mineral con-tent of other feeds If a greater intake isdesired, molasses or cottonseed meal can beadded to increase palatability.
34
Minor mineral elements. - Minor elementsare often added to mineral mixtures as aprecaution, but the only area of demonstratedneed is south Florida. Mixtures suitable to thisarea contain red oxide of iron (3.12 percent),copper sulfate (0.63 percent), and cobaltchloride or cobalt sulfate (0.04 percent).
IMPROVED PASTURES
For best returns from the livestock opera-tion, develop and use improved pastures inconjunction with forest range - the twotogether make a dependable source of year-long forage. This combination is especiallysuitable for cattle owners who have neithersufficient range nor improved pasture to sup-port herds of practical size: 25 head or more.Because forage from improved pastures ishigher in crude protein and minerals than mostnative forage, such pastures improve the con-dition of cattle and thus better the calf drop.
Several species of grasses can be planted inimproved pastures. Each locality hasdeveloped favored combinations that workwell. For specific advice, consult the localcounty agricultural extension agent. Over-seeding of the planted grasses with a mixtureof legumes such as lespedeza and white cloverincreases yields, extends the grazing periodand contributes to soil nitrogen fixation.
Apply fertilizer liberally to improvedpastures. Recommendations on fertilizer ratesfor specific soils, sites, rainfall andtemperatures are best obtained from localsources such as the county agricultural exten-sion agent.
Whenever possible, fence off ranges fromimproved pastures to avoid concentration onthe pastures. To assure regeneration of pasturelegumes, grazing pressure must be light whilethese plants are flowering and seeding.
During the spring and early summer, native
Table 4. - Daily nutritive requirements of beef cattle
Weight Total
of Dry Digestible digestible Digestible
cattle matter protein nutrients Calcium Phosphorous Carotene energy
900 to1,100 22.0-27.0 1.2- 1.4 12 -15 .066 0.53 90 34
Wintering pregnant beef cows
pounds mg the rmus
900 13.1 - 18.4 .65- .70 6.9- 9.7 .044 .037 55 20
1,000 14.2 -20.0 .70- .80 7.5- 10.5 .044 .037 55 18
1,100 15.2-21.5 .75- .85 8.0- 11.3 .044 .037 55 18
1,200 16.3- 22.8 .80- .90 8.6.12.0 .044 .037 55 18
Beef cows nursing calves - first 3 to 4 months
Growing beef cattle: fed for rapid growth
300 7.2- 9.0 .67- .77 5.1 - 6.2 .040 .029 20 13
400 9.1 -11.4 .76- .87 6.2- 7.2 .044 .033 25 14
500 10.7- 13.0 .81- .92 7.2- 8.4 .042 .033 30 16
600 12.4-14.7 .84- .95 8.1 - 9.3 .040 .033 35 17
700 14.2-16.5 .87- .98 8.9-10.2 .037 .033 40 18
800 15.9- 18.3 .90-1.00 9.5-10.9 .035 .033 45 19
900 17.3- 19.7 .93-1.03 10.1 - 11.5 .035 .033 50 20
1,000 18.6-21.0 .95-1.05 10.6- 12.0 .033 .033 55 21
Wintering beef calves to gain 3/4 to 1 pound per head per day
300 7.0- 8.3 .52- .58 3.9. 4.6 .035 .026 17 10
400 8.7-10.3 .63- .70 4.8- 5.7 .035 .026 25 12
500 10.3.12.1 .71- .7 5.7- 6.7 .035 .026 30 14
600 11.7- 13.9 .79- .88 6.5- 7.7 .035 .026 35 16
Wintering yearling beef cattle to gain 1/2 to 3/4 pound per head per day
600 11.6- 13.3 .67- .75 6.3- 1.2 .035 .026 35 16
700 12.9- 14.8 .76- .83 7.0- 8.0 .035 .026 40 18
800 14.2- 16.3 .83- .90 7.7- 8.8 .035 .026 45 18
5
forage should be grazed while it is at its op-timum palatability and nutritive value. Cutsome of the improved pasturage for hay. Oneor two crops can be harvested each year. Thehay from 1 acre - 1.0 to 1.5 tons - is ampleto feed a cow in drylot for 3 to 4 months.
One-half to 1 acre of moderately fertilizedpasture in combination with 10 to 20 acres offorest range will usually produce enoughforage and hay to care for a cow all year. Theratio of pasture to range varies widely by areasand operations. The following schedule forgrazing and feeding cattle and harvesting hayapplies to many areas:
In many areas grazed firebreaks can beestablished to aid in fire control for the protec-tion of the forested area and also to serve asimproved pastures for the grazing operation.They not only produce good forage for muchof the year, but also improve the distributionof the cattle over the range.
TREE PLANTATIONS MANAGEDAS IMPROVED PASTURES
In the Soil Bank Program, many farmersplanted Pensacola bahia grass pastures to pinetrees. They found that this shade-tolerantgrass persists in dense stands of pine. After 30years, when these stands are prescribedburned, lush stands of bahia grass cover theforest floor. Bahia grass can also be grazedvery heavily without damage to the plants. Infact, studies at the University of Georgia haveshown that close and frequent grazing isdesirable for optimum cattle weight gains.
Using shade-tolerant grasses such as bahiagrass, land managers can grow trees for timberproduction on areas managed as improvedpastures. The time to incorporate suchpastures is when site preparation for treeplanting is done. On old fields, grass can beseeded with only light soil disturbance.However, recently cutover timbered areas willrequire more intensive site preparation forgrass establishment than for trees. Futurepasture management may require access formowing and fertilizing. Some factors to con-sider in location, establishment andmaintenance of such pastures are:
The type and amount of improved forageneeded.
Soil capability for pasture purposes.
Access to the area by roads.
Wildlife objective: The design and layoutof the area can help improve wildlifehabitat for some species by providingneeded habitat variety.
March-April Graze improved pastureor pasture-range com-bination.
May-July Graze range; harvestpasture for hay.
August-October Alternately graze forestrange and pasture.
November-February Feed hay in drylot;graze forest range andpasture lightly asavailable.
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
One of the simplest, but most overlooked,ways of making more money on a livestockoperation is in the field of cattle management.The traditional, uncontrolled, and unmanagedherd of cattle ranging the woods produced lit-tle income, but was justified by many becauseof the low expense involved. With some addedeffort by the owner to control the animals,regulate their breeding, improve their qualityand to breed at the proper time, a marginaloperation may be turned into a profitable one.This will entail some additional expense andtime, but produce a substantial return on theinvestment.
One of the basic objectives of the livestockoperator is to produce beef and derive a profit.It will cost the rancher about the same to sup-port a cow for a year, regardless of whethershe produces a calf or not. Carrying deadweight in the form of non-producing cows isfrequently the difference between profit andloss. Table 5 illustrates the increased incomefor each 5 percent increase in calf crop.
Desirable objectives in cow herd manage-ment are shown in figure 9. Observe closely therelationship that should exist between grass
CATTLE MANAGEMENT
Table 5. - Increased income for each 5 percent increase in calf crop'
production and nutrient values, the calvingperiod, the lactation and the growth and saleof the calves. The preceding chapters havestressed methods of handling the forageresource and the use of the forage by cattle;now let us look at the animals themselves andsee what might be done with them.
BREEDS OF CATTLE
Livestock producers, when they talk aboutkind of livestock, refer to the species of theanimal, i.e., cattle, sheep, horses, or goats.Class of livestock refers to particular agegroups (calves, yearlings, cows, colts, etc.),and breed indicates the special groups withinthe species having such characteristics or at-tributes that will distinctly set them apart fromothers within the species, (Hereford, Angus,Shorthorn, Brahma, etc.).
Throughout much of the South, forest rangehas been stocked with crossbred cattle ex-hibiting strains of the original introduction ofEnglish, French, and Spanish breeds. Over theyears, this mixture of breeds has involved anative type of cow remarkably well suited to
'This table was developed by multiplying the number of extra calves (five) by the average weaning weight, by the seffing price per pound, anddividing by 100.
550 $4.95 $5.50 $8.25 $11.00 $13.75 $16.50 $22.00 $27.50500 4.50 5.00 7.50 10.00 12.50 15.00 20.00 25.00450 4.05 4.50 6.75 9.00 11.25 13.50 18.00 22.50400 3.60 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 16.00 20.00350 3.15 3.50 5.25 7.00 8.75 10.50 14.00 17.50300 2.70 3.00 4.50 6.00 7.50 9.00 12.00 15.00
Average
weaning Average selling price of calf per pound, live weight
weight
(pounds) 18c 20c 30c 40c 50c 60c 80c $1.00
Figu
re 9
. - H
ow to
tie
lives
tock
man
agem
ent i
nto
a gr
azab
le w
oodl
and
or r
ange
cons
erva
tion
prog
ram
for
gre
ates
t net
ret
urns
per
ani
mal
uni
t
SELL
OR
WEAN
CALVING PERIOD
BREEDING PERIOD
CALVES
GREEN GRASS
IGROWTH CuRVE
lIIuu
IuuI
I
LAcTATION CURVE
FEED PROTEIN SUPPLEMENT
GRASS
GREEN UP
RAPID GROWTH OF CALVES
FEED SALT AND MINERAL FREE CHOICE YEAR LONG
COWS MEND
FOR WINTER
S MATURING
CULL
INFERIOR ANIMALS
the climate and sometimes adverse grazingconditions found in the southern piney woods.With very little or no attention given to sup-plemental feeding during the stress months offall and winter, this unique crossbred cowshows unusual ability to survive under themost rigorous conditions. In recent years,however, there has been a slow but noticeableeffort to improve the breed. Generally, veryfew purebred cattle are run on forestlandrange. These few are largely confined to theareas bordering the Coastal Plains where largeareas of cut-over timberland has been con-verted to improved pastures.
Introduction of hybrid vigor into the herd isone of the most effective ways to increase effi-ciency of production in beef breeding herds.The objective of hybrid vigor is to increase theperformance of the offspring resulting fromcrossing animals with different geneticbackgrounds and performance characteristics.Care must be taken to use the best cross possi-ble to provide the greatest percentage increasein calf numbers and weaned weight.
One of the most common and provenmethods of improving herd quality and per-formance is the introduction of Brahmanbloodlines into the breeding program.Brahman cattle have characteristics of size,resistance to heat and insects and disease, andan ability to utilize rough forage, that is notfound in most of the British breeds. On theother hand, the British breeds have abeefiness, conformation, and docility that isnot common to the Brahmans. A combinationof the two animals produces an individual wellsuited to forest grazing with productive capaci-ty that exceeds either breed alone. This distinc-tion is marked under forestland range condi-tions, but tends to diminish with an increase inthe amount of improved pasture that is madeavailable.
One of the most successful crosses is thebreeding of grade Hereford cows, or native
39
cows, to Brahma bulls to produce half-Brahma mother cows for the breeding herd.These half-Brahma cows are then bred topurebred or good quality English bulls (Short-horn, Angus, or Hereford) producing calvesthat are 1/2 Shorthorn (or other Britishbreed), 1/4 Brahman and 1/4 grade Herefordor native. Using this system of breeding insouth Georgia, range research scientistsobserved the following results:
Cows with Brahman blood sometimes areconsidered harder to handle than cattle ofpredominantly British breeds. However, thosewho work with Brahman cattle learn theirherding and driving habits and can handlethem very well. Brahmans are no more dif-ficult to keep under fence than other cattle,but corrals, chutes, and equipment for work-ing them should be I or 2 feet higher than formost other breeds.
BREEDING CATTLE
Here is a fertile field for improvement incattle management techniques. Many factorsmust be considered in controffing the breedingof the animals; all are important to the suc-cessful cattle operation and will be discussed inturn.
Bred to shorthorn bulls
Management practices,and unit of measure
Cows1/2 Brahman1/2 Hereford
CowsGrade Hereford
Weaned calf percent:1. Range only, no
supplement 83 60
2. Average under varyingsupplementation andimproved pasture 79 71
Weaned calf weights(pounds) 462 396
Average daily gain (pounds) 1.67 1.38
6-year cow death loss(number) 0 7
Bulls. - Some operators tend to skimp andsave money, but it is false economy to take achance that some of the cows will not get bred.Generally, it will pay to get the best bulls youcan afford. Whatever breed is chosen, fast-growing bulls that were raised largely onroughage are desirable. Performance-ratedpurebreds are best. Bulls should be tested forfertility before putting them with the herd.Good bulls should be retained until theirbreeding efficiency declines or until inbreedingwith their progeny becomes a problem. Nor-mally, rotate or replace them every 3 to 4years. Provide a separate pasture for the bullsoutside of the breeding season.
Usually, in relatively gentle topography andeasily accessible areas, one bull is sufficient forevery 20 cows to be serviced. In roughtopography, or areas of difficult travel, thenumber of cows per bull may be reduced; or, ifthe breeding season occurs while the herd isconcentrated on improved pasture, more cowsper bull may be permissible. Remember, don'tskimp on the bulls - without a sufficientnumber, the calf crop and salable product willbe reduced, with a consequent reduction inprofits. Then the entire purpose of the opera-tion - beef production - will be defeated.
Cows. - On forested range in many areasof the South, cows with 1/2 Brahman bloodwill outproduce and provide better results thanwill cows of one predominant breed. Con-tinual efforts are needed to better the herd.Cows on a fairly high maintenance levelshould calve 3 out of 4 years under range con-ditions, with calves weighing more than 400pounds at 6 to 8 months of age. Cows fallingto meet these standards should be replaced.
In selecting replacements, the best choice isheifers from high-producing dams or fromherds of known production. The heifersshould be larger than average, and if selectedfrom the operator's herd should be chosenfrom mothers of proven ability Heafers
should be 2-years-old when first bred. If bredas yearlings, they are more apt to die at calvingor, if they survive, are not very likely to have acalf the following year.
Keep cows as long as they consistently weanheavy calves. Well-nourished range cows donot seriously decline in productivity until theyare at least 10- to 12-years-old. A commonpractice among many livestock operators is tokeep a number of replacement heifers equal to10 percent of their breeding herd. This numberis usually sufficient to replace aged cows anddeath losses.
Breeding Season. - The breeding seasonfor cattle on forest range is best limited toabout 3 months so that all calves can beweaned and marketed at one time. Whencalves are dropped throughout the year, extratime and money are required to raise them,and the feeding and grazing schedule of cowsis more complicated.
The generally mild temperatures in theSouth permit calving during the winter, andcalving should be timed so the calves are oldenough to eat the new grass in the spring andtake advantage of the higher milk productionof the mother produced by the new grass andbetter feed of the spring. With a gestationperiod of approximately 283 days, it is feasibleto place the bulls with the herd from lateFebruary through June. Most calves are thendropped in December through March. Wean-ing in early August enable cows to retain orput on flesh before winter. Tests of this systemin Louisiana resulted in calf weight gainsaveraging 2 pounds per day.
COSTS AND RETURNS
For combined timber and beef productionoperations there are several factors to considerin determining economic feasibility. These canbe grouped into single and recurring paymentcategories.
Single Payment Expenses. - These usuallycome early in the stage of new business enter-prises and are critical, both from the stand-point of present and future production capa-bilities and profit margin. Some typical, in-itial, single payment livestock-related expensesover a timber rotation are:
Site preparation for tree planting ornatural regeneration can be modified toincorporate forage production objectives.Such modifications may cost extra, eitherin terms of actual dollar outlay orforegone timber or wildlife production.
Planning for coordination ofmanagement of timber and livestock ismore complex and may require additionaltime and money.
Assuming that land is available forgrowing timber and native forage, addi-tional land may be needed for improvedpasture. Another option may be invest-ment in improvement of land alreadyowned, for conversion to improvedpasture.
Fences, corrals, chutes, water tanks, andfeed bunks are all necessary items in atimber-beef cattle operation. If additionalfences are needed to protect or facilitatemanagement of wildlife, recreation, orother improvements, plan to providethese in the initial investment.
Access roads for feeding and care oflivestock and timber are necessary, if notalready available.
Initial purchase of livestock is neededunless the owner already has cattle.
7 Truck, tractor and other equipmentneeds
Some of the above-listed expenses may beunnecessary, depending on past use and the
condition of the land being considered formanagement. For example, old fences and cor-rals can frequently be rehabilitated, water maybe available from streams or lakes, and roadsneed only be improved. These initial in-vestments are a critical part of any operationand should be examined carefully as to needand expected future income.
Periodic activities and resulting expenses:
Salt, minerals, hay and other supplementsto forage.
Forage survey, coordination of timber-range activities and general managementduties.
Facilities maintenance.
Sales commissions and hauling.
Pasture fertilization and maintenance.
Some investor-related returns that can be ex-pected from a timber and beef cattle operationare:
Sale of calves and cull cows.
Sale of cull bulls.
Sale of surplus hay.
Forage and timber production on the sameland calls for additional managerial time tohandle the increased complexity of these goals.However, timber, forage, and often wildlife,benefits can be achieved from such practices asprescribed burning, fencing and waterdevelopments. For example, timely burningcan improve forage and wildlife habitat as wellas reduce fuel buildup. Cattle grazing can alsoreduce the amount of dead grass, weeds andother plants that collect on forestlands - thusholding down risks from wildfires that arefueled by such undergrowth.
Figure 10. - Shade tolerant grasses planted at time of tree seedlings have provided forage forall 8 years of this plantation. Grazing offeTs an opportunity for annual income duringprecommercial stages of pine plantations.
42
LEASING OF GRAZING PRIVILEGES
Owners of forest range land may not havethe desire or expertise to operate a livestockoperation. However, there may be someonewho would want to lease the resource for suchan operation. Many factors need to be con-sidered when negotiating such leases. Com-parisons of several leases now in successfuloperation on private forest ranges indicate thatthe most complete leases cover the followingpoints:
The exact tract of land to be grazed andthe term or duration of the lease; statewhether the leased grazing rights are to beexclusive with the lessee or shared jointlywith other stockmen on the same area.
State who is to build fences, provide wateror other developments that may be need-ed. Who is to maintain the existing orconstructed improvements and to whatstandard. State who will own the im-provements constructed under the termsof the lease and how the costs of these im-provements will be amortized.
What kind of livestock will be permitted:cattle, sheep, or horses. Specify the class:calves, cows with calves, yearlings, 2-yearolds, etc.
The number of livestock to be permitted.The lease should provide for periodicrange examinations (including arbitrationif needed) to see if animal numbers mustbe reduced, season of grazing changed, orstock handling and distribution altered toprotect the range or other resources.
The season of grazing: year-long orspring, summer or fall. If less than year-long, specify the exact months.
The grazing fee. How much will the lesseepay for the use of the range. This feeshould always be based upon an equitablecharge for each month for each animal tobe grazed - the animal month. Aminimum total for the specified numberand season may be established.
The exact use being leased. This should belimited to only the grazing rights with allother land and timber use reserved to thelandowner.
Responsibility for death or injury of thelivestock. The landowner should be freeof any obligation in this respect.
The responsibility of the cattle owner forhandling the livestock to avoid damage toland and timber, helping to exclude straystock and guarding against timber theftand fire.
Provision for cancellation of the lease forbreach of contract, with protection forthe landowner in case of cancellation.Forfeiture of prepaid grazing fees orbonding, cash or surety, of the lessee aretwo ways to protect the landowner in caseof default.
The landowner will probably find it usefulto seek the assistance of an attorney in prepar-ing the lease, although a valid contract may beprepared by the lessee. The agreement shouldalways be written, signed by both parties,witnessed and a copy provided to each party tothe agreement.
American Cyanamid Company1951. Cattle husbandry. Lederle Labora-
tories Div., American Cyanamid Co.,Pearl River, N.Y.
American Society of Range Management1964. A glossary of terms used in range
management. Amer. Society ofRange Mgt., Ankeny, Iowa.
Byrd, Nathan A., and Clifford F. Lewis.1976. Managing southern pine forests to
produce forage for beef cattle. Unnumb.for mgt. bull., 6 p. USDA For. Serv.Southeast. Area, Atlanta, Ga.
Campbell, Robert S., and John T. Cassaday.1951. Grazing values for cattle on pine
forest range in Louisiana. Bull. 452, 32 p.La. Agric. Exp. Stn., Baton Rouge, La.
Cassaday, John T., and L. B. Whitaker.1956. Supplemental feeding and manage-
ment of beef cattle on forest range inLouisiana. In Proceedings: Society ofAmerican Foresters, P. 52-54., Soc.American For., Bethesda, Md.
Child, R. Dennis, and Evert K. Byington, Eds.1980. Southern forest range and pasture
symposium. 272 p. Winrock InternationalLivestock Research and Training Center,Morrilton, Ark.
Clark, D. V., et al.1961. A reference unit on beef production.
396 p. State Board for Vocational Educa-tion, in cooperation with the Miss. StateUniv., Mississippi State, Miss.
Duvall, V. L., and L. B. Whitaker.1964. Rotation burning: A forage manage-
ment system for longleaf pine-bluestem
SUGGESTED READING
ranges. Journal of Range Management51 7(6):322-326.
Essig, H. W., C. B. Shawver and L. F.Bowlin.
1961. The value of low quality roughages forwintering beef cattle. Information Sheet732, 2 p. Miss. Agric. Exp. Stn., Miss.State Univ., Mississippi State, Miss.
Grelen, Harold E., and Vinson L. Duvall.1966. Commoti plants of longleaf pine-
bluestem range. Research pap. S0-23, 96p. USDA For. Serv., south. For. Exp.Stn., New Orleans, La.
Halls, L. K., B. L. Southwell and F. E. Knox.1952. Burning and grazing in Coastal Plain
forests: A study of vegetation and cattleresponses to burning frequency inlongleaf-slash pine forests of Georgia.Ga. Coastal Plain Exp. Stn. Bull. 51, 33p., Univ. of Ga., Athens, Ga.
Halls, Lowell K., and B. L. Southwell.1954. Consumption of minerals by cattle on
southeastern Coastal Plain forest range.Journal of Range Management.7(4):163-165.
Halls, Lowell K., et al.1964. Forage and cattle management in
longleaf-slash pine forest. Farmers bull.2199,25 p. U.S. Dep. Agric. Washington,D.C.
Halls, L. K., and B. L. Southwell.1956. Supplemental feeding of range cattle
in wiregrass-pine ranges in Georgia. InProceedings: Society of AmericanForesters, p. 58-61. Society AmericanFor., Bethesda, Md.
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