Grammar Performance 1

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Performance 1Grammar reference

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Performance 1 / Grammar reference Pearson Educacin, S. A., 2013 1

Grammar reference

Unit 1

Reviewing the present

Present simpleAffirmative Negative Interrogative Short answers

I / you / we / they live I / you / we / they dont (donot) live

DoI / you / we / they live?DontI / you / we / they live?

Yes, I / you / we / they do.No, I / you / we / they dont.

he / she / it / one* lives he / she / it / one doesnt(does not) live

Doeshe / she / it / one live?Doesnthe / she / it / one live?

Yes, he / she / it / one does.No, he / she / it / one doesnt.

Uses Examples Expressions often used with the present simple

To describe habits or routines He gets up at eight oclockevery morning.

always, in general, on the whole, usually, normally, often,frequently, sometimes, occasionally, seldom, rarely, neverat one oclock, every day / week / month / yearin the morning / afternoon / evening, at night

once a day / week / month / yearhow often ?

To describe facts or scientific laws Many people live in China.

To describe timetables The train leaves at fiveoclock.

*Onerara vez se usa en ingls; se usa everybody / anybody / nobody / people.Does anybody live here? No, nobody does.

Do people live in deserts? Yes, people do.

1 Afirmativa

I / you / we / they + forma base del verbo (p. ej. Ilive)

he / she / it + forma base del verbo + -s / -es(p. ej.she lives)

Ortografa: tercera persona del singular

Con verbos acabados en -o, -ss, -ch, -sh y-x, se aade-es:goes, does, misses, watches, washes, fixes.

Con verbos acabados en consonante +y, cambiar por -ies: trytries

Con verbos acabados en vocal +y, simplemente, aadir -s: playplays

2 Negativa

I / you / we / they+ dont+ forma base del verbo (p. ej. I dont live)

he / she / it+ doesnt+ forma base del verbo (p. ej. hedoesnt live)

Pero la negativa del verbo to be no usa dont / doesnt: Im not, he isnt,we arent.

Forma completa o forma contrada?Al hablar, rara vez se usa la forma completa

(do not / does not). Al escribir, se usa la forma completa en documentos formales y lacontrada en situaciones ms informales (p. ej. una nota para un amigo).

3 Interrogativa

do / dont+ I / you / we / they+ forma base del verbo + ?(p. ej. Doyou live?)

does / doesnt+ he / she / it + forma base del verbo + ?(p. ej. Doeshe live?)

Pero las preguntas con el verbo to be no usan do / does: Am I? Is he? Are we?

Watch out!

she doesnt see

she dont see / she not see

Watch out!

Does she play football?

Plays she football? /Do she play football?

Watch out!

Is she at home?

Does she be at home?

Watch out!

she sees, everybody sees, everyonesees, nobody sees, no one sees

she see, everybody see, everyone see,nobody see, no one see

people see, people dont see people sees, people dont sees


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4 Orden de las palabras

Los adverbios de frecuencia (always, often, etc.) van antes del verbo:Isometimesplay tennis on Friday.

Pero van despus del verbo to be:She is alwayslate for class.

Las expresiones temporales (every day, once a month, etc.) normalmente van al final de la frase:He usually goes for a long walk at the weekend.

Present continuous

Affirmative Negative Interrogative Short answers

Im (am) living Im (am) not living AmI living?AmI not living?

Yes, I am.No, Im not.

you / we / theyre (are) living you / we / they arent (arenot) living

Areyou / we / they living?Arentyou / we / they living?

Yes, you / we / they are.No, you / we / they arent.

he / she / its (is) living he / she / it isnt (is not)living

Ishe / she / it living?Isnthe / she / it living?

Yes, he / she / it is.No, he / she / it isnt.

Uses* Examples Expressions often used with the present continuous

To describe an action or aprocess that is happening now

She is crossing the road. now, right now, at the moment

To describe situations that arenot permanent

He is living with his sister thisweek.

currently, for the time being, at present, this week / month /year

With always, to expresscriticism / annoyance

Youre always arriving late. always

*Para ver cmo se usa el presente continuo para expresar futuro, consultar la pgina 14.

1 Afirmativa, negativa e interrogativaAfirmativa

sujeto + verbo to been presente + forma -ing(participio presente) del verbo principal (p. ej. Im playing, shes walking)

Negativa

sujeto + verbo to been presente + not+ forma -ingdel verbo principal (p. ej. he isntcoming, they arentwearing)

Interrogativa

verbo to been presente + sujeto + forma -ingdel verbo principal + ? (p. ej. Isshe wearing ?AmI telling ?)

2 Ortografa de la forma -ing Los verbos que acaban en -esilenciosa pierden la e: rideriding. (pero:seeseeing)

Los verbos que acaban en -ie toman la forma -ying: lielying.

Los verbos que acaban en una slaba tnica y una consonante final duplican laconsonante:swimswimming, forgetforgetting.

Watch out!

Travel tambin duplica la consonante final,a pesar de que su slaba tnica no es laltima sino la primera: traveltravelling.


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3 Verbos de estado

Algunos verbos se usan rara o ninguna vez en su forma continua. Dichos verbos describen unestado, ms que una accin o suceso. Algunos verbos comunes que no se usan habitualmente ensu forma continua son:

Los verbos que describen estados mentales / emociones:

agree, believe, dislike, feel (= have an opinion), forget, guess, hate, hear, hope, know, like, love,prefer, remember, suppose, think (= have an opinion*), understand, want

Los verbos que describen una percepcin, a menudo seguidos de un adjetivo:appear, feel, look, seem, smell, sound, taste

Los verbos relacionados con mediciones: cost, last, measure, weigh

Los verbos que expresan posesin / pertenencia: belong, have, own, possess

*Cuando think va seguido de of oaboutsignifica considerar y se tiene que usar la formacontinua:

Im thinking of a visit to the cinema.

I think of a visit to the cinema.

Im thinking about you.

I thinkabout you.

Open questions

1 Presente simple

El orden de las palabras es:

partcula interrogativa como sujeto + verbo (+ preposicin) (+ objeto) + ? (p. ej. Who lives here? How many students go to your school?)

Watch out!

Who works there?

Who does work there?

partcula interrogativa como objeto + verbo auxiliar + sujeto + verbo (+ preposicin) + ? (p. ej. Which band does she like best? Who do you live with?)

2 Presente continuo

El orden de las palabras es:

partcula interrogativa como sujeto + verbo auxiliar + forma -ingdel verbo principal(+ preposicin) (+ objeto) + ? (p. ej. What is happening? Who is writingto you?)

partcula interrogativa como objeto + verbo auxiliar + sujeto + forma -ingdel verbo principal(+ preposicin) + ? (p. ej. What areyou doing? Who areyou writingto?)

3 Partculas interrogativas comunes

Whatdo you think about this? Why dont you like me?

Where is he going? Howdo you spell this word?

Which colour do you prefer? How muchhomework do you do?

Who do you know at this party? How manyFacebook friends do you have?

Whosecoat is that? How oftendo you come here?


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Present perfect simple for unfinished actions


I / you / we / theyve (have)seen

I / you / we / they havent(have not) seen

HaveI / you / we / theyseen?

HaventI / you / we /they seen?

Yes, I / you / we / they have.No, I / you / we / they havent.

he / she / its (has) seen he / she / it hasnt (has not)seen

Hashe / she / it seen?Hasnthe / she / it seen?

Yes, he / she / it has.No, he / she / it hasnt.

Use* Examples Expressions often used with the present perfect simple

To describe a situation / anaction that started in the pastand continues into the present

This has been a big problem upto now.

He has read three books so far.

up to / up till / till / until now, so far

* Para ver otros usos del presente perfecto simple, consultar la pgina 10.

1 Afirmativa, negativa e interrogativa

Afirmativa sujeto + has / have+ participio pasado del verbo principal (p. ej. Iveplayed, sheswalked)

Negativa

sujeto + has / have+ not+ participio pasado del verbo principal (p. ej.you haventlistened, they havent come)

Interrogativa

has / have+ sujeto + participio pasado del verbo principal + ? (p. ej. Hassheseen? HaveI told?)

2 El participio pasado

Verbos regulares:En ellos, el participio pasado se forma aadiendo -ed: played, walked, listened. Algunos pueden acabar indistintamente en -ed o en -t: learned/ learnt,earned/ earnt, spelled/

spelt.

A los verbos que acaban en -esolo se les aade -d: telephoned, prepared, translated.

Los verbos que acaban en consonante +y,forman el participio pasado sustituyendo la -y por-ied: married, tried.

Los verbos monosilbicos que acaban en vocal sencilla + consonante* doblan la consonantefinal:stopped, snapped, batted.*Excepto si acaban enxo w: boxed, flowed

Todos los verbos bisilbicos que acaban en vocal + consonante doblan la consonante final sila slaba tnica es la segunda: referreferred, unwrapunwrapped.

Travel tambin dobla la consonante final, a pesar de que la slaba tnica es la primera:traveltravelled.

Verbos irregulares: Muchos verbos comunes forman el participio pasado de manera irregular. En lapgina 136 del libro del alumno hay una lista con dichos verbos.

3 Uso

Se usa el presente perfecto simple para hablar de acciones o situaciones que empezaron en elpasado y continan en el presente.She hasnt learnt much English so far.

Watch out!

He has been a teacher up to now.

He is a teacher up to now. He is being a teacher up to now.

Watch out! she has learnt

shes learnt

she is learnt


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Present perfect continuous for unfinished actions


I / you / we / theyve been(have been) living

I / you / we / theyhavent been (have notbeen) living

HaveI / you / we / they been living?HaventI / you / we / they been

living?

Yes, I / you / we / they have.No, I / you / we / they havent.

he / she / its been (hasbeen) living

he / she / it hasnt been(has not been) living

Hashe / she / it been living?Hasnthe / she / it been living?

Yes, he / she / it has.No, he / she / it hasnt.

Use* Examples Expressions often used with the present perfect continuous

To describe a situation or acontinuous / repeated actionthat started in the past andcontinues into the present.We use the continuous formwhen we want to emphasisethe duration of the action.

Theyve been living inFrance for two years.

Ive been coming hereevery summer since 2003.

fora long time / two years / three monthssinceyesterday / last year / his birthday

* Para ver otros usos del presente perfecto continuo, consultar la pgina 11.


Afirmativa

sujeto + have / has been+ forma-ing(participio presente) del verbo principal (p. ej. Ivebeen playing, shesbeen walking)

Negativa

sujeto + havent / hasnt been+ forma-ingdel verbo principal (p. ej.you haventbeen listening, they haventbeen living)

Interrogativa

have / has+ sujeto + been+ forma-ingdel verbo principal + ? (p. ej. Hasshe been reading? Haveyou been sleeping?)

Watch out!

she has been learning

shes been learning

she is been learning

2 Uso

El presente perfecto continuo se usa para hablar de las acciones o situaciones continuas quecomenzaron en el pasado y continan en el presente.He has been crying all day. (He is probably still crying.)Shes been learning English. (She may still be learning.)

Watch out!

He has been working abroad for three years.

He is working abroad for three years.

3 Presente perfecto simple frente a presente perfecto continuo

A veces se puede usar tanto el presente perfecto simple como el continuo para describiracciones que comenzaron en el pasado y continan en el presente.Hes lived in Tokyo for two years. / Hes been living in Tokyo for two years.

Si se quiere dar nfasis a la duracin de la accin, se usa la forma continua:Hes been reading all day.

Si se quiere resaltar el resultado de la accin, se usa la forma simple:Hes read three books today. (Los ha terminado.)Hes been reading three books today. (No necesariamente los ha terminado.)


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4 Forfrente asince

Se usaforpara referirse a la duracin de una accin o situacin:Hes been marriedforthree years / two weeks / a long time / ages / a while.

Se usasincepara referirse al tiempo en el que empez la accin o situacin:Hes been marriedsincelast August / he was 21 / the spring.

Verb + gerund / infinitive (1)

Algunos verbos van seguidos de gerundio y otros de infinitivo.

1 Verbo + gerundio

avoidcant standconsiderdenydiscussdislike

dont mind*enjoyfinishgive upimaginemiss

recommendriskstopsuggest

I cant stand waitingin a queue.He doesnt mind* doing the washing up.

*Mindse usa principalmente con las formas negativa e interrogativa.

2 Verbo + infinitivo

agreeappeararrangechoose

decidedemandexpect

failhopelearnmanage

meanplanprepare

pretendpromiserefusetend

wantwould like

Do they agree to followour plan?

He refuses to paythe money.

Verb + gerund / infinitive (2)

Algunos verbos pueden ir seguidos tanto de gerundio como de infinitivo. Hay trescategoras diferentes:

1 Verbos de inicio o continuacin: intend, begin / start, continue

Dichos verbos pueden ir seguidos o de gerundio o de infinitivo:Suddenly, he began toshout / shouting.

Cuando estn en su forma continua, por lo general, van seguidos de infinitivo:Im intending to see her tonight.

2 Verbos que expresan agrado o desagrado: love, like, hate, prefer

Cuando se habla en general, normalmente van seguidos de gerundio:I loveskiing.

She hates doing exams.

Cuando se refieren a una situacin especfica, solo se usa el infinitivo:

Id prefer to stayat home this weekend.Id love to seeyou tonight.


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3 Verbos con dos significados: remember, forget, need, regret, try

Algunos verbos tienen un significado diferente en funcin de si van seguidos de gerundio ode infinitivo:

remember+ infinitivo = no olvidar hacer algo He remembered to closethe door.

remember+ gerundio = traer a la memoria un recuerdo He remembered closingthe door.

forget+ infinitivo = olvidar hacer algo I forgot to tell him the news.

forget + gerundio = hacer algo y no recordar haberlo hecho I forget tellinghim the news but perhaps I did.

need+ infinitivo = tener que hacer algo I need to cleanthe house.

need + gerundio = alguien tiene que hacer algo (oracin impersonal) The house needs cleaning. (= The house needs to be cleaned.)

regret + infinitivo = lamentar tener que (generalmente seguido de una informacindesagradable que se va a dar)

I regret to informyou that you have to leave the country. regret+ gerundio = hablar de una equivocacin del pasado I regretsettlingin Britain. (= It was a bad idea to settle in Britain.)

try+ infinitivo = hacer un esfuerzo por I am trying to cometo terms with the country.

try+ gerundio = experimentar con/probar a hacer algo Ive tried travellingbut I still feel bored. (= Ive experimented with travelling.)


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Unit 2

Reviewing the past

Past simpleAffirmative Negative Interrogative Short answers

I / you / he / she / it / we /they lived

I / you / he / she / it / we /they didnt live

Did/ DidntI / you / he /she / it / we / they live?

Yes, I / you / he / she / it / we/ they did.No, I / you / he / she / it / we /they didnt.

I / you / he / she / it / we /they went

I / you / he / she / it / we /they didnt go

Did/ DidntI / you / he /she / it / we / they go?

Yes, I / you / he / she / it / we/ they did.No, I / you / he / she / it / we /they didnt.

Uses Examples Expressions often used with the past simple

To describe a finished singleaction in the past I saw a film yesterday.We met at the supermarket. yesterday, last (night / week / year), (two years) ago, in (2007),last, first

To describe a finishedcontinuous action in the past

They lived in Berlin for threeyears.

for a long time, for (three years)

To describe a series of actionsin the past

First he opened the door, thenhe came in and after that hetook off his coat.

first, next, then, after that, finally

1 Afirmativa: verbos regulares

El pasado simple de los verbos regulares se forma aadiendo -ed a la forma base del verbo: played, laughed, waited.

Algunos pueden acabar indistintamente en -ed o en -t: learned/ learnt,earned/ earnt, spelled/ spelt.

A los verbos que acaban en -esolo se les aade -d: telephoned, arrived, moved.

Los verbos que terminan en consonante +yforman el pasado simple sustituyendo la -y por -ied: worried,carried.

Los verbos monosilbicos que acaban en vocal sencilla + consonante* doblan la consonante final:stopped,ripped, batted.*Excepto si acaban enxo w:fixed, rowed

Todos los verbos bisilbicos que acaban en vocal + consonante doblan la consonante final si la slaba tnicaes la segunda: referreferred, unwrapunwrapped.

Travel tambin dobla la consonante final, a pesar de que la slaba tnica es la primera:traveltravelled.

2 Afirmativa: verbos irregulares

Muchos verbos comunes forman el pasado simple en afirmativa de manera irregular. En la pgina 136 del libro

del alumno hay una lista con dichos verbos.

3 Negativa

Todos los verbos, excepto el verbo to bey los modales (ver la pgina 20), forman el pasado simple en negativade la misma manera:

sujeto + didnt+ forma base del verbo (p. ej. he didnt see, they didnt go, I didnt know)

(Pero: I wasnt, they werent, he couldnt)

4 Interrogativa

Excepto el verbo to bey los modales, todos forman el pasado simple en interrogativa igual:

did+ sujeto + forma base del verbo + ? (p. ej. Didtheygo? Didyousee? Didshe work?)

(Pero: were you? were they? could she?)


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Past continuous

Affirmative Negative Interrogative

I / he / she / it was living I / he / she / it wasnt (was not)living Was/ WasntI / he / she / it living?

you / we / theywere living you / we / they werent (were not) living Were/ Werentyou / we / they living?

Uses Examples Expressions often usedwith the past continuous

To describe the context of past events /actions

As she was crossing the road (shelooked at her watch.)

as, while, when

To describe what was happening at aspecific time

I was watching TV at seven oclock lastnight.

at (nine) oclock, last night

To describe two events or actions whichwere happening simultaneously

While I was cooking, it was raining veryhard outside.

as, while, all the time that


Afirmativa sujeto +was / were+ forma -ingdel verbo principal (p. ej. I was living, they weresinging)

Negativa

sujeto + wasnt / werent+ forma -ingdel verbo principal (p. ej.you werentsmiling, she wasnt listening)

Interrogativa

was / were+ sujeto + forma -ingdel verbo principal+ ? (p. ej. Were they walking? Wasshe travelling?)

2 Pasado simple frente a pasado continuo

a) El pasado continuo proporciona el contexto; el pasado simple describe la accin.

While she was livingin Badajoz, she madea lot of friends.

CONTEXTO ACCIN

As he was readinga book, someone knockedat the door.

CONTEXTO ACCIN

b) El pasado simple describe una accin individual; el pasado continuo describe una accin continua.

Comparacin:What did you do at 7 oclock? I started to watch TV. (pasado simple: accin individual)What were you doing at 7 oclock? I was watching TV. (pasado continuo: accin continua)

Past perfect simpleAffirmative Negative Interrogative

I / you / he / she / it / we / they hadlived I / you / he / she / it / we / they hadnt(had not) lived

Had/ HadntI / you / he / she / it / we /they lived?

Use Examples Expressions often used with the pastperfect simple

We use the past perfect simple to indicatethat one action happened before anotheraction in the past

When I arrived, she had already gone tobed.

By the time she had finished herhomework, it was ten oclock.

already, just, not yet, after, as soon as,by the time, not until


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Afirmativa

sujeto +had+ participio pasado del verbo principal (p. ej. I hadseen, you hadarrived)

Negativa

sujeto + hadnt+ participio pasado del verbo principal (p. ej.you hadntheard, we hadntforgotten)

Interrogativa

had+ sujeto + participio pasado del verbo principal + ? (p. ej. Hadtheygone ? HadI been ?)

Participio pasadoPara la formacin del participio pasado, consultar la pgina 4.

2 Pasado simple frente a pasado perfecto

a) El pasado perfecto describe la primera accin; el pasado simple describe la segunda.

After he had closed all the windows, heputthe heating on.

PRIMERA ACCIN SEGUNDA ACCIN

b) A veces (cuando el significado est claro) se puede usar el pasado simple para describirla primera accin incluso aunque, en rigor, se deba usar el tiempo pasado perfecto.

After the train left, they had a coffee. / After the train had left, they had a coffee.

Present perfect simple: further uses*


I / you / we / they have livedshe / he / it has lived

I / you / we / they havent livedshe / he / it hasnt lived

Have/ Havent I / you / we / theylived?Has/ Hasntshe / he / itlived?

Uses Examples Expressions often usedwith the present perfect simple

To describe very recent actions / events Hes cut his finger!I havent seen her lately.

just, already, yet, not yet, still not,recently, lately, this is the first time that today, this morning / week / year

To introduce the news War has started in Ruritania.

To talk about an action / event in thepast that is still relevant to the present

I have seen him before.

She has been to Italy once.

I have never read Don Quixote.

before, once, never, its a long time since

*Para ver cmo se usa el presente perfecto simple para describir una accin que comenzen el pasado y contina en el presente, consultar la pgina 4.

1 Afirmativa, negativa e interrogativaAfirmativa

sujeto +have / has+ participio pasado del verbo principal (p. ej. I have been, she haswritten)

Negativa

sujeto + havent / hasnt + participio pasado del verbo principal (p. ej. we haventvisited, he hasntasked)

Interrogativa

have / has+ sujeto + participio pasado del verbo principal + ? (p. ej. Havewe booked? Hasshe phoned ?)


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2 Palabras que se usan habitualmente con el presente perfecto simple

already Weve alreadyseen that film.yet (in questions) Have you seen himyet?not yet She hasntarrivedyet.just Ivejustemailed him.

never Ive neverbeen to Africa.ever (in questions) Have you everseen a ghost?still not Shestillhasntanswered me.

3 Presente perfecto simple frente a pasado simple

Se usa el presente perfecto simple para referirse a una accin o suceso terminado pero quean es aplicable al presente. Se usa el pasado simple para referirse a una accin o sucesoque pertenece por completo al pasado.

Comparacin:I saw him at the cinema last week. (pasado simple: la semana pasada ha terminado y esten el pasado)I have seen him at the cinema this week. (presente perfecto: esta semana an no ha

terminado, y puedo volver a verlo)We didnt see the new Spielberg film. (pasado simple: la pelcula ya no se proyecta, as que yano vamos a verla)We havent seen the new Spielberg film. (presente perfecto: la pelcula an se proyecta, asque an podramos verla)

Fiona visited me in Scotland several times. (pasado simple: no volver a visitarme all; tal vezyo ya no est en Escocia)Fiona has visited me in Scotland several times. (presente perfecto: puede volver a visitarme;yo an sigo all)

Tom worked in Paris for five years. (pasado simple: ya no trabaja all)Tom has worked in Paris for five years. (presente perfecto: an trabaja all)

Present perfect continuous: further use*


I / you / we / they have been living I / you / we / they havent been living Have/ HaventI / you / we / they been living?

he / she / it has been living he / she / it hasnt been living Has/ Hasnthe / she / it been living?

Use Examples Expressions often used withthe present perfect continuous

To describe a continuous / repeatedaction in the recent past

Hes been reading a lot recently.

Ive been painting the studio this morning.

lately, recentlytoday, this morning / week / year

*Para ver cmo se usa el presente perfecto continuo para describir acciones continuas queempezaron en el pasado y continan en el presente, consultar la pgina 5.


Afirmativa

sujeto +have / has+ been+ forma -ingdel verbo principal (p. ej. hesbeenwriting, theyve beenwalking)

Negativa

sujeto + havent / hasnt + been+ forma -ingdel verbo principal (p. ej. I havent beenworking, it hasnt beenraining)

Interrogativa

have / has+ sujeto + been+ forma -ingdel verbo principal+ ?

(p. ej. Hasshe beenwaiting? Haveyou beenplaying?


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2 Presente perfecto continuo frente a presente perfecto simple

Se usa el presente perfecto continuo cuando lo que interesa es la accin o el suceso, y elpresente perfecto simple cuando lo que interesa es la consumacin o el final de la accin o elsuceso.

Shes been reading Don Quixoterecently. (presente perfecto continuo: no sabemos si ha

terminado de leerse Don Quixote)Shes read Don Quixoterecently. (presente perfecto simple: ha terminado de leer el libro)

3 Presente perfecto continuo frente a pasado continuo

Se usa el presente perfecto continuo para referirse a una accin continua o repetida quesucedi en el pasado pero sigue siendo aplicable en el presente. Se usa el pasado continuopara referirse a una accin continua o repetida que pertenece por completo al pasado.Comparacin:He was reading that book yesterday. (pasado continuo: ayer termin y est en el pasado)Hes been reading that book all this week. (presente perfecto continuo: esta semana anno ha acabado, y es probable que siga leyendo el libro)

She was waiting for you in the restaurant. (pasado continuo: no llegaste, as que dej de

esperar)She has been waiting for you in the restaurant. (presente perfecto continuo: si llegaspronto, quiz an est esperando)

used to


I / you / he / she / it / we / they usedtolive

I / you / he / she / it / we / they didntuse tolive

Did/ Didnt I / you / he / she / it / we /they use tolive?

Uses Examples Expressions often used with used to

To describe an action that someone did

frequently in the past but doesnt do now

I used to play football twice a week. in the past, years ago, before, when I was

youngTo describe a lasting condition orsituation that no longer exists

London used to be the biggest city in theworld.


Afirmativa

sujeto + used to+ forma base del verbo principal (p. ej.She used to livein Brazil.)

Negativa

sujeto + didnt use to+ forma base del verbo principal (p. ej. He didnt use to beso serious.)

Interrogativa did+ sujeto +use to + forma base del verbo principal + ? (p. ej. Didyou usetoplaytennis?)


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Unit 3

Expressing the future

En ingls existen tres formas de expresar el futuro: be going to/ will/ presente continuo.

be going to

Se usa be going to para expresar intenciones o predicciones seguras. El suceso futuro es elresultado de lo que alguien va a hacer o de lo que vemos que va a pasar ( is going to do / happen).


Im going totryyou / we / theyre going totryhe / she / its going totry

Im not going totryyou / we / they arent going totryhe / she / it isnt going totry

Am I going to try?AmI not going totry?Are/ Arentyou / we / they going totry?Is/ Isnthe / she / it going totry?

Uses Examples Expressions often used withgoing to

To describe fixed plans / arrangements Im going to play football this weekendwith Tim.

tomorrow, this weekend, next year, soon,in a few days

To describe resolutions or firm decisions Hes going to stop smoking.

To make predictions about somethingthat is certain / almost certain to happen

There are lots of dark clouds. Its going torain.


Afirmativa

sujeto + am / is / are+going to+ forma base del verbo principal (p. ej. Im going tostudyFrench. Were going tohavedinner.)

Negativa sujeto + am / is / are+ not+going to+ forma base del verbo principal (p. ej.She isnt going tocry. You arent going toplay.)

Interrogativa

am / is / are+ sujeto +going to+ forma base del verbo principal +? (p. ej.Arewegoing tobookseats?AmIgoing toplay?)

will(future simple)

Se usa will para predicciones generales y para decisiones, ofrecimientos, promesas y peticiones.


I / you / he / she / it / we / theyll (will)see

I / you / he / she / it / we / theywont(will not) see

Will/ Wont I / you / he / she / it / we /they see?

Uses Examples Expressions often used with will

To make predictions (without firmevidence)

Life will be better in the future.

He will win.

It will rain tomorrow.

in the future, tomorrow, this weekend,next (week / year), soon, in a few (days /months)

To express spontaneous decisions andoffers

I think Ill go for a walk.

Dont get up, Ill open the window.

Ill do it.

To express promises I wont tell anyone, I promise.Ill be there.

To express requests Will you help me with this?Please will you come?


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Afirmativa

sujeto + will + forma base del verbo principal (p. ej. Ill helpyou, theyll live)

Negativa

sujeto + wont + forma base del verbo principal (p. ej.she wont come, you wont drive)

Interrogativa

will + sujeto+ forma base del verbo principal + ? (p. ej. Willyou explain? Willtheypay?)

2 be going tofrente a will

Cuando se hace una prediccin basada en una opinin y no en hechos obvios, podemos usar tantobe going tocomo will:I imagine that hell be / hes going to bevery tired when he finishes the race.

Cuando la prediccin se basa en hechos obvios o se conoce la causa se usa be going to:The water is already very hot. Its going to boilin a minute.

Para hacer un ofrecimiento o una promesa se usa will:Ill help. I will make sureit happens.

Present continuous (for future action)

Se usa el presente continuo cuando hay planes o preparativos definitivos.Para ver cmo se forma el presente continuo, consultar la pgina 2.

1 Usos

a) Para describir planes:

Im seeing Jill tonight. Hes studying chemistry at university next year.

b) Para describir un acontecimiento programado: Theyre showing a good film on TV tonight.

2 Presente continuo frente a be going to

Para describir planes definitivos se puede usar tanto el presente continuo como be going to.What are you doing / are you going to dotonight?

Hes flying / s going to flyto Acapulco this summer.

Para describir resoluciones o decisiones firmes solo se puede usar begoing to.Im going to becomea better person this year.

Time clauses in the future

Cuando se habla de sucesos futuros se usa el tiempo presente despus de una conjuncin de tiempo.

Main clause Time clause

sujeto will+ base form of main verb when / while / until / as soon as / after / before sujeto present tense

Ill tell you when he arrives.

Well clean the house before your mother comes.

He wont know anything until you tell him.


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Expressing the future in English

Watch out!

Expresar el futuro en ingls puede ser difcil porque los tiempos verbales que se usan son, amenudo, diferentes de los que se usan en otros idiomas.

Dont worry, Ill helpyou. (willpara ofrecimientos) Dont worry, I help you.

Ill answer the phone. (will para ofrecimientos)

Im going to answer the phone.

Will you explainthis to me? (willpara peticiones)

Do you explain this to me?

What are you doingtonight? (presente continuo para planes)

What do you do tonight?

Hell be angry when we tellhim. (presente despus de conjunciones de tiempo)

Hell be angry when we will tellhim.

Future perfect


I / you / he / she / it / we / theyllhavetravelled

I / you / he / she / it / we / theywonthave travelled

Will / Wont I / you / he / she / it / we / they havetravelled?

Use Examples Expressions often used with the future perfect

To describe an action that will becomplete by a particular time in thefuture

Well have completed the Caminode Santiago by the end of thisweek.

by (tomorrow / next week), by the end of ,by then, in three weeks, in ten years time


Afirmativa

sujeto + will have + participio pasado del verbo principal (p. ej. Ill havevisited, theyll haveseen)Negativa

sujeto + wont have + participio pasado del verbo principal (p. ej.she wont have bought, you wont havearrived)

Future continuous


I / you / he / she / it / we / theyllbe travelling

I / you / he / she / it / we / theywont be travelling

Will / Wont I / you / he / she / it / we / they betravelling?

Use Examples Expressions often used with the future continuous

To describe a continuous actionin the future

This time next year hell beworking in New York.

this time next (week / month / year), next weekend, in ayear, in a weeks time, at (five) oclock


Afirmativa

sujeto + will be+ forma-ingdel verbo principal (p. ej. Ill beflying, theyll bewatching)

Negativa

sujeto + wont be+ forma-ingdel verbo principal (p. ej.she wont bestudying, you wont bedriving)

Interrogativa

will + sujeto+ have + participio pasado delverbo principal + ?

Willyou havephoned? Willthey haveeaten?

Interrogativa

will+ sujeto + be+ forma-ingdel verbo principal+ ?

(p. ej. Willyou bestaying? Willthey begoing?


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Unit 4

Relative clauses

Una oracin de relativo nos ampla la informacin de una persona o un tema. Generalmente

viene introducida por un pronombre relativo pero, en algunos casos, este puede omitirse.

Relative pronouns

Relative pronoun Examples

whorefers to a person.* His sister,whois an architect, is sitting over there.

whichrefers to an object, place or idea. London,whichis the capital of England, is on the River Thames.

thatrefers to an object, place or idea or person in definingrelative clauses only (see below).It is more impersonal than who,so we use it when talking aboutsomeones role or attribute.

This is a place thatI would like to visit.

She is the person thatyou need to see.

He is someone thatis interested in other people.

whererefers to a location. This is the place wherewe last saw him.whoseindicates possession, by both people and things. This is an idea whosetime has come.

I dont know whosecoat this is.

whenrefers to a time. 1994 was the year whenwe got married.

whyrefers to a reason or explanation. Can you tell me the reason whyyou are late?

* whotambin puede referirse al objeto de la oracin mediante whom, pero solo ensituaciones muy formales:He is the boy whomwe have hired. (muy poco frecuente)He is the boy whowe have hired. (mucho ms comn)

En algunas circunstancias what puede ser un pronombre relativo para una cosa o idea:I dont know whatit is.

Whatwe need is a microscope.

Defining relative clauses

Las oraciones de relativo especificativas aaden informacin esencial:She is the person who / that is going to be our new boss.

This is an idea which / that merits consideration.

A menudo, si se omite la oracin de relativo especificativa, la frase no tiene sentido:

London is the place where we met.

Los pronombres relativos who, thaty whichgeneralmente se pueden omitir cuando son elobjeto en una oracin de relativo especificativa:He is someone (who / that) Id like to meet.

This is something (which / that) Id like to know.

Los pronombres relativos who, thaty whichno se pueden omitir si son el sujeto en unaoracin especificativa:She is the person who / that is responsible for the situation.

Pero where, wheny whyno siempre se pueden omitir por lo que es aconsejable mantenerlos.

Non-defining relative clauses

Una oracin de relativo explicativa no aadeinformacin esencial:My mother, who lives with us, works as a teacher.

Se puede omitir la oracin de relativo explicativa sin que afecte al significado bsico de la frase.Einstein[, whose father was an engineer,] was born in 1879.

He moved to England[, where his girlfriend was living].


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Siempre se usan comas delante y, si es necesario, detrs de una oracin de este tipo. Si no seusan, el significado cambia y tenemos una oracin de relativo especificativa, no explicativa.

Comparacin:

The dog, which was sick yesterday, is fine this morning.

En este caso el interlocutor solo tiene un perro. La oracin de relativo (which was sick

yesterday) proporciona informacin adicional no esencial sobre dicho perro.The dog which was sick yesterday is fine this morning.

En este caso el interlocutor tiene ms de un perro. La oracin de relativo (which was sickyesterday) es vital porque nos dice de qu perro est hablando.

Watch out!

En las oraciones de relativo explicativas no se puede usar that.

Mr Rogers, whothat works with my father, lives over there.

Chess, whichthat is a game I hate, is getting more popular.

Word order: prepositions

Las preposiciones que afectan al pronombre relativo suelen ir al final de la oracin de relativo.He is the person (who / that) I was telling you about.This book, which everybody is talking about, is quite boring.

En contextos extremadamente formales se puede poner la preposicin antes del pronombrerelativo, pero ese caso es muy poco comn.This is a position withwhich the government cannot agree.

Adverbs of manner

Los adverbios de modo describen cmo pasa o se hace algo.He sings beautifully.

She is behaving veryselfishly.

The snow is falling heavily.

Los adverbios de modo se forman de la siguiente manera:

adjetivos que no acaban en-y:sadsadly

adjetivos que acaban en -y: happyhappily

Algunos adverbios de modo irregulares son: well,fasty hard.

La posicin de los adverbios de modo dentro de una oracin es un tanto flexible, sinembargo, la nica posicin que siempre es correcta es despus del verbo, y despus delobjeto si lo hay.

He plays the piano well.

VERBO OBJETO ADVERBIO DE MODO

He plays well the piano.

They were walkingslowly.

VERBO ADVERBIO DE MODO

En ingls es muy frecuente usar not + un adverbio de modo negativo en lugar de unadverbio de modo positivo.Shes not doing badly.(= Le va bien.)Hes not doing very well.(= Le va mal.)


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Unit 5

Conditionals

Type ofconditional Formation Uses ExamplesIfclause Main clause

Zeroconditional

If+ present simple, present simple To describe general truths If people liketheir work, theyareusually happy.

Firstconditional

If+ present simple, will+ base form ofmain verb

To describe an event in thefuture that depends on anotheraction in the near future

If Istudya lot, Illpassthe exam.

Secondconditional

If+ past simple, would+ base form ofmain verb

To describe a hypotheticalevent in the present or future

If we hadmore money, wedlivein a better house.

Thirdconditional

If+ had+ pastparticiple (past perfect),

would have+ pastparticiple

To describe a hypotheticalevent in the past

If shed arrivedearlier,she wouldnt have missedthe bus.

General

En las frases condicionales no es importante el orden. La oracin condicional if(oracinsubordinada) puede ir la primera o la segunda:Ill tell you if he comes. / If he comes, Ill tell you.

Cuando se pone primero la oracin condicional if, esta va seguida de una coma:If you know the answer,you need to tell me.

First conditional vs. second conditional

Se usa la primera condicional cuando hay posibilidades reales de que algo ocurra. Se usa

la segunda condicional cuando hay serias dudas de que algo vaya a suceder.Primera condicional:If you work hard, youll pass the exam. (Creo que hay unaposibilidad real de que estudies mucho y apruebes el examen.)

Segunda condicional:If you worked hard, youd pass the exam. (Creo que probablementeno estudies mucho, y por tanto no aprobars el examen.)

Contractions in the second and third conditionals

Watch out!

La contraccin dde la segunda condicional siempre se refiere a would:If you paid more attention, youd learn more. youd learn = you wouldlearn

La contraccin den la tercera condicional se refiere awoulden la oracin principal y a haden la oracin condicional if:Id have been very sad if youd not spoken to me. = Iwould have been very sad if you hadnot spoken to me.

wasin the second conditional

En general, no se considera correcto usar wasdespus de ifen la segunda condicional. Ensu lugar se usa were:If I wereyou, Id accept the job.

If she weremore patient, shed be happier.


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unless

Unless significa lo mismo queif not. Se usa con ms frecuencia con la primera condicional:Ifyou dontread more, your spelling will never improve. = Unlessyou read more, your spellingwill never improve.

as long as / provided (that) / providing (that)

Todas estas expresiones significan on condition that y se usan para demostrar nfasis. Sepueden usar en una oracin condicional de los tipos cero, primera y segunda.Condicional cero:People generally work hard as long as / provided (that) / providing (that)they like their jobs.

Primer condicional:Ill see you tonight as long as / provided (that) / providing (that)you cometo my house.

Segundo condicional:Hed go to New York as long as / provided (that) / providing (that)theygave him a free flight.

Uses of the gerund

As the subject of a sentence

Surfing the Internetcan become addictive.

Smokingis bad for you.

After prepositions

After leavingthe caf, he went for a walk.

She stayed at home instead of goingout.

He wasnt keen on sleepingin the dark.

Watch out!

after to leave the caf instead of to go out

Common expressions with the gerund

be used to+ gerundio (p. ej.She isused to workingin busy places.)

get used to+ gerundio (p. ej. Youget used to gettingup early.)

be good / bad at+ gerundio (p. ej. He isgood at doingcalculations but bad at learning languages.)


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Unit 6

Modal verbs

Meaning Modal verb Examples

AbilitySee note 1

can He canswim very well.

be able to Shes been able toski for years.

could They couldhelp us but they dont want to.

Possibility / Speculation could / may / might The skys dark. It could / may / mightrain soon.

Positive deduction must His face is red. He mustbe hot.

Negative deduction cant She is very honest. She cantbe the thief.

ObligationSee note 2

must / have to Its my first day at work tomorrow. I have to /mustget up early.

Necessity need to To stop global warming, we need toreducegreenhouse gases.

Positive recommendation /Mild obligation

should / ought to We ought to / shouldsee Uncle Joe this weekend.We havent seen him for a long time.

ProhibitionSee note 3

mustnt You mustntsmoke in here. Its illegal.

can't We can'tdrive into the city centre.

No obligation / No necessitySee notes 3 and 4

dont have to / dont need to / neednt I dont work at the weekend, so I dont have to /dont need to / needntget up early.

Negative recommendation shouldnt / oughtnt to You oughtnt to / shouldnteat so much youregetting fat.

Permission / Request can / could / may You mayleave now.Can / Couldyou open the door?

La mayora de los verbos modales

tienen la misma forma para todas las personas: I can, you can, he can,etc. no usan do / doesen su forma negativa o interrogativa: Must you come so late?

I shouldnt be so lazy, etc.

van seguidos de infinitivo sin to: we must go, they should see, etc.

Watch out!

Be able to, have to yneed to no presentan la misma forma para todas las personas:I am able to, he has to, she needs to, etc.

Have to yneed to susando / does en sus formas negativa e interrogativa:Do I have to practise? You dont need to wait, etc.

Be able to, have to, need to yought tono se pueden usar sin to:we have to go, they ought to understand,etc.

1 Capacidad: can, could

Watch out!

Can no tiene tiempo futuro o presente perfecto. Para expresar dichos tiempos se usa willbe able to / have been able to.

Well be able tospeak Italian after this course.

Well can speak Italian after this course.

Ive been able towalk since I was two.

Ive couldwalk since I was two.

Could puede expresar dos tipos de capacidad:

a) Capacidad real en el pasado: Mozart could play the piano when he was very young (= poda,era capaz de).

b) Capacidad hipottica en presente o futuro : They could help us, but they dont want to(= podran, seran capaces de).


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2 must:diferentes tiempos verbales

Watch out!

Must no presenta los tiempos pasado simple, futuro o presente perfecto. Para expresardichos tiempos se usa had to / will have to / have had to.

I had togo to the dentists yesterday.

I must go to the dentists yesterday.

Hell have to pay the rent tomorrow.

Hell must pay the rent tomorrow.

3 must / have toen negativa

Watch out!

Musty have totienen significados muy diferentes en negativa:You mustntsmoke.= prohibicinYou dont have tosmoke.= ausencia de necesidad / obligacin

4 need:negativaNeedpuede formar la negativa de dos formas:

a) Con dont / doesnt, seguido de infinitivo: Hedoesnt need towork.

b) Con not, seguido de infinitivo sin to: He needntwork.

Modal perfects

Meaning Modal perfect verb Examples

Positive deduction about apast event

must have+ past participle The door is open. Someonemust haveentered.She must haverecycled the rubbish; its all gone.

Negative deduction about

a past event

cant have+ past participle Hes in prison at the moment, so hecant havecommitted the

crime.She cant haverecycled the rubbish; its still there.

Speculation about a pasteventSee note 2

may have/might have+ pastparticiple

I havent seen her at work for a long time. She may have /might havegot a new job.

He may havetaken the rubbish outside. Why? He mighthavedecided to recycle it.

Hypothetical ability inthe past

could have+ past participle Im a very good mountaineer. Im sure that I could haveclimbed the mountain if it hadnt started snowing.

You could haverecycled the rubbish if you hadnt beenplaying games.

Criticism or regret should have/ought to have+past participle

Your room is very dirty. Youshould have / ought to havecleaned it yesterday.

Youshould have / ought to haverecycled the rubbish; nowtheres nowhere left to put it.

Los modales perfectos se forman de la siguiente manera:

modal + have+ participio pasado (p. ej. he might have seen, you might have gone)

Se refieren a una accin posible o hipottica del pasado.

1 must have; cant have; may have / might have

Se usa must havecuando se tiene la seguridad de que algo ha pasado:The road is wet, so it must haverained.

Se usa cant havecuando se tiene la seguridad de que algo no ha pasado:His bedroom light isnt on, so he cant havecome home yet.


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Se usa may have / might havecuando no se sabe seguro si algo ha pasado:Wheres Sal? I dont know. She may have / might havemissed the bus.

En la negativa, not se coloca entre el verbo modal y have:Fuad didnt answer my email. He may not have / might not havereceived it.

2 may have frente a might haveSe puede usar may haveo might havecuando an no se sabe qu ha pasado; se tiene queusar might have cuando existi la posibilidad pero ya se sabe que no pas.Wheres Ian? Hes never been late before. He may havehad an accident. (no lo sabemos)You took a risk coming by unicycle. You might havehad an accident. (pero no fue as)

Talking about possibility / the future

1 be about to+ forma base del verbo

Be about tose refiere a una accin que va a tener lugar ahora:

You look nervous. Im about tomeet my girlfriends parents.

2 be bound to+ forma base del verbo

Be bound tose refiere a algo que seguro va a pasar:Hes bound tobe happy when you tell him the good news.

3 be likely / unlikely to+ forma base del verbo

Be likely tose refiere a algo que muy probablemente pase. Beunlikely tose refiere a algoque muy probablemente no pase:Shes likely toget angry if you continue to ignore her.

Were unlikely toget there before nine oclock because there is so much traffic.


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Unit 7

Formation of the passive

Simple tensesTense Active Passive

Present simple Jamesdesignsthe ads. The ads are designedby James.

Past simple James designedthe ads. The ads were designedby James.

Future simple: will James will designthe ads. The ads will be designedby James.

Conditional James would designthe ads. The ads would be designedby James.

Perfect tenses

Tense Active Passive

Present perfect James hasdesignedthe ads. The ads have been designedby James.

Past perfect James haddesignedthe ads. The ads had been designedby James.

Future perfect James will have designedthe ads. The ads will have been designedby James.

Past conditional James would have designedthe ads. The ads would have been designedby James.

Continuous tenses


Present continuous James isdesigningthe ads. The ads are being designedby James.

Past continuous James wasdesigningthe ads. The ads were being designedby James.

Generalmente la pasiva no se usa en los dems tiempos verbales.

Modal verbs and be going to


Present modals James must designthe ads.James could designthe ads.

The ads must be designedby James.

The ads could be designedby James.

Modal perfects James must have designedthe ads.James could have designedthe ads.

The ads must have been designedby James.

The ads could have been designedby James.

have to / need to James has to designthe ads.

James needs to designthe ads.

The ads have to be designedby James.

The ads need to be designedby James.

be going to James is going to designthe ads. The ads are going to be designedby James.

Form of the passive

1 Tiempos simple, perfecto y continuo

Afirmativa:verbo to be+ participio pasado (p. ej. They werephotographed.)

Negativa:verbo to been negativa + participio pasado (p. ej.She wasntfired. I wont be chosen.)

Interrogativa:interrogativa del verboto be+

participio pasado (p. ej. Haveyou been told?)

2 Verbos modales

Afirmativa:verbo modal + be / have been+participio pasado

(p. ej.Adsshouldbe banned. The road must have beenclosed.)

Negativa:negativa del verbo modal + be / have been+participio pasado

(p. ej. This mustnt be done. It couldnt have beenstopped.)

Interrogativa:interrogativa del verbo modal + be / havebeen+ participio pasado

(p. ej.Shouldthey bechecked? Couldthis have beenprevented?)


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Uses

Se usa la pasiva cuando se tiene ms inters en la accin que en la persona o cosa que realiza la accin:The house was completely destroyedby the fire.

Tambin se usa la pasiva cuando se tiene ms inters en la persona que recibe la accin que en lapersona que la realiza:I cant believe it! The Presidenthas been arrested by the police.

Tambin se usa la pasiva cuando no se sabe (o no se quiere decir) quin realiza la accin:A man has been shot.

Se usa bypara introducir a la persona o la cosa que realiza la accin (el agente):He was hit bya car.

Watch out!

En ingls se usa con frecuencia la pasiva cuando en otros idiomas se usara otro tipo deconstruccin (como una activa, una impersonal o un verbo reflexivo):This house was built by my father.

I was told that

Verbs with two objects

En ingls algunos verbos pueden ir seguidos tanto de un objeto directo como de un objeto indirecto.

He gave me a great present.

En esta frase, a great presentes el objeto directo: es la cosa que se ha dado. Mees el objeto indirecto:se me ha dado a m.

They only told three people the bad news.

En esta frase, the bad newses el objeto directo: es la cosa que se dice. Three peoplees el objetoindirecto: solo se le ha dicho a tres personas.

Cuando transformamos estas frases en pasivas, la informacin que queremos destacar / enfatizar vadespus del verbo:

I was given a great present.The present was given to Joe on his birthday.

Watch out!

Presta atencin a la forma de los pronombres:los pronombres objeto se convierten en pronombres sujeto, p. ej. meI.

Causative passive

Se usa have / get + nombre + participio pasadopara indicar situaciones en las que planificamosque alguien haga algo por nosotros (nos preste un servicio):I had / got my house paintedlast week.

Shes going to have / get her eyes checkednext week.

Getes ms informal que have.

Watch out!

I had / got my house paintedlast week. (Contrat a alguien para que me pintara la casa)I painted my house last week. (Lo hice yo mismo)

Tambin se usa have / get + nombre + participio pasadopara indicar acciones desagradables quenos afectan:He had his flight cancelledlast month.

Ive had my car stolen!

Watch out!

I had my hair cut last week. They cut my hair last week.

I cut my hair last week.

It is reported that

English is spoken here.


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Unit 8

Reported speech

Tense changesEn general, los verbos del estilo indirecto retroceden un tiempo verbal ms hacia el pasado queel verbo correspondiente del estilo directo.

Tense changes Direct speech Reported speech

Simple tenses

present simplepast simple I workin a school. He said that he workedin a school.

past simplepast perfect simple I workedin a school. He said that he had workedin a school.

present perfect simplepast perfect simple I have workedin a school. He said that he had workedin a school.

future simpleconditional I will workin a school. He said that he would workin a school.

future perfect

past conditional I will have workedin aschool. He said that he would have workedina school.

Continuous tenses

present continuouspast continuous I am workingin a school. He said that he was workingin a school.

past continuouspast perfect continuous I was workingin a school. He said that he had been workingina school.

present perfect continuouspast perfect continuous I have been workingin aschool.

He said that he had been workingina school.

future continuousconditional continuous I will be workingin a school. He said that he would be working ina school.

1 Verbos modales: cambios

Direct speech Reported speech

can could

may might

must / have to had to

2 Verbos que NO cambian

past perfect, conditional, past conditional

could, might, should, ought to, used to

all modal perfects

En el estilo indirecto, a menudo, tenemos que cambiar los pronombres personales:I likeyou, he told Emily. Hetold Emily that heliked her.

Wesplit up because hecheated on me, said Deborah. Deborah said that theyhad split up because hehad cheated on her.

that

El uso de that despus de un verbo en estilo indirecto es opcional. Se usa thaten contextos msformales y cuando ayuda a aclarar el significado.He said (that) it was a joke. (informal)The President said thathe had declared war. (formal)


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Grammar reference

Changes to adverbs and reference


today (on) that (very) day

yesterday the day before

tomorrow the next day / the following day

tonight in the evening / that evening

last year / a year ago the year before

next (week / year) the following (week / year)

now at the moment / at that moment / then

here there

this / these that / those

that / those the

Reporting verbs

1say / tell

Se usasaycuando no hay objeto indirecto:He said that he would be late.

Se usasay too tellcuando hay objeto indirecto:He said to usthat he would be late. / He told usthat he would be late.

Watch out!

He said to methat he would be late.

He said me that he would be late.

He told methat he would be late.

He told to methat he would be late.

2 Otros verbos de comunicacin

Para comunicar lo que dice la gente, generalmente, se usan los siguientes verbos:

addadmitagreeannounceanswerargue

denyexplainmaintainpoint outpredictremark

replyreportsuggestwarn

He denied thathe had made a mistake.

She argued thatstreaming was unfair.

3 Verbos + gerundio

En la pgina 6 hay una lista con los verbos que van seguidos de gerundio. Para comunicarlo que dice la gente se pueden usar los siguientes:

denydiscussimagine

He denied makinga mistake.

She suggestedgoingto the theatre.

recommendsuggest


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Reported questions

En las preguntas indirectas siempre se usa la forma afirmativa del verbo y no se usa signo deinterrogacin:

He asked me where I lived.

He asked me where did I live?

1 Preguntas de respuestaS / No

Para introducir preguntas indirectas en las que la respuesta esyeso nose usa ifo whether. Elformato de las preguntas de respuestas / noen estilo indirecto es:

if / whether + sujeto + verbo en afirmativa


He asked me, Do you work in a school? He asked me if / whether I workedin a school.

Watch out!

He asked me did I work in a school?

2 Preguntas con partcula interrogativa Wh-

Las preguntas con partcula interrogativa Wh-empiezan con palabras como what, where, why,how. Estas preguntas no se pueden responder simplemente conyeso no. El formato de laspreguntas con partcula interrogativa when el estilo indirecto es:

partcula interrogativa + sujeto + verbo en afirmativa


She asked me, When are you leaving? She asked me when I was leaving.

Watch out!

She asked me when was I leaving?

Reported requests and commands

1 ask / tell

Peticiones: ask+ objeto indirecto (me, him, her, etc.) + infinitivordenes: tell+ objeto indirecto (me, him, her, etc.) + infinitivo

Type Direct speech Reported speech

Request She asked me, Can you open the window? She asked me to openthe window.

Command He said to her, Do your homework! He told her to doher homework.

Watch out!

He told her to waitfor him.

He told her that she waited for him.

They asked him to sendthe email.

They asked that he sent the email.

Con las peticiones y rdenes negativas se pone notdelante de infinitivo:He said to me: Dont touch the fire!

He told me not to touchthe fire.

He told me dont touch the fire.


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2 Otros verbos + objeto indirecto + infinitivo

Se pueden usar los siguientes verbos, tambin seguidos de objeto indirecto + infinitivo, paracomunicar peticiones y rdenes en estilo indirecto:

adviseallowbegencourage

forcehelpneedorder

persuaderemind

They begged us to come.

She encouraged him to tryharder.

Compound adjectives

Los adjetivos compuestos constan de dos palabras unidas mediante un guin (-): well-balanced,part-time.

Cuando los adjetivos compuestos formados por un adverbio acabado en-ly+ adjetivo(p. ej. badly run, strongly held) van antes del nombre que describen, generalmente no llevanguin. Cuando van detrs del nombre no lo llevan nunca.He hasstrongly held / strongly-heldviews.

He has views that arestrongly held.


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El objetivo principal de la puntuacin es dejar claroel significado.

Punto

El uso principal del punto es marcar el final de una fraseque no sea interrogativa ni exclamativa.Hes been living in London for three years.

Tambin se usa el punto para indicar los decimales:10.56 0.67%

Coma

El papel de la coma es agrupar las palabras que vanjuntas y separar las que no van juntas para aclarar el

significado de las frases. Generalmente, se usa la comadonde se hara una pausa al hablar.

Usos

1 Antes de las conjunciones (and, but, or, etc.) queseparan oraciones, no palabras individuales:He likes speaking English, but he doesnt speakit very well.There are no women or children here. (sin coma)

2 Para introducir el estilo directo:Sam said, Do you like living here?

3 Para indicar contraste o simetra:He was happy, but tired.

4 Para separar palabras / frases que no son parte de laoracin principal (se necesitan dos comas):Peter, however, is not his real name.

5 Para separar oraciones de relativo explicativas:Maria, whos Spanish, has relatives in England.

6 Despus de adverbios y oraciones adverbiales alcomienzo de una frase:Slowly, he walked up the hill.

7 Para separar los elementos de una lista:Ive visited Paris, Berlin, Barcelona and Madrid.Generalmente no se pone coma antes de la palabra andcuando esta introduce el ltimo elemento de la lista.

8 Para separar adjetivos referidos al mismo concepto:an ugly, unpleasant cityPero no se usan comas para separar los adjetivos quese refieren a conceptos diferentes:a big red car

9 Para separar los miles y los millones en los nmeros:1,345 30,395 5,234,402

Apstrofe

El apstrofe tiene dos usos principales:

1 Para indicar verbos contrados:Im watching it.Shes been crying.Id like some ice cream.

2 Para indicar posesin:

Darrenshouse, the Smithscar

Watch out!

a) Si el nombre est en plural y termina ens, se aade elapstrofe despus de la misma.the Smiths car

b) Itssolo es una forma verbal contrada. Nunca puede

indicar posesin:Its too late to cancel.I want to learn about London and its history.

Signo de interrogacin

El uso principal de un signo de interrogacin es indicaruna pregunta directa:Are you coming tonight?

Tambin se usa un signo de interrogacin en laspreguntas de confirmacin:Youre coming tonight, arent you?

No se usa signo de interrogacin en las preguntasindirectas:He wants to know if youre coming tonight.

Signo de exclamacin

Se usa un signo de exclamacin:

1 Para expresar una emocin intensa:What a pity!Im so happy!What a great film!

2 Para dar una orden o una advertencia:

Look out!Listen!

3 Para llamar a alguien:Hey, Bryan!Taxi!

Dos puntos

Se usan los dos puntos antes de una lista o unaexplicacin:Ive bought some food: six eggs, some butter and a pintof milk.

BASICRULESFORPUNCTUATIONANDCAPITALLETTERS


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Comillas en el estilo directo

1 Cuando las comillas de cierre estn al final de una

frase, el punto / signo de interrogacin / exclamacinque cierra la cita se coloca dentro de las comillas:Mark said, I like living here.Jason asked, What are you doing?

2 Cuando las comillas de cierre no estn al final de lafrase, no se permite poner un punto: este se sustituyepor una coma inmediatamente antes de las comillasde cierre. Los signos de exclamacin o interrogacin alfinal de la cita se conservan.I like living here, Kate said.What are you doing? Sally asked.

Letras maysculasSe usa mayscula:1 Al principio de una frase nueva:

They want to emigrate.

2 Al principio del estilo directo:He asked me, How are you?

3 Con los nombres propios, incluyendo los nombres depersonas:Madrid, Chicago, Holland,JamesRice, Helen Grey.

4 Con las nacionalidades y los idiomas:Im learning Italian.

I think Brazilians are very spontaneous.TheyreSwedish.

5 Con los das y meses:Monday,September

6 Con el pronombre (de primera persona) I:

You and Iare the best couple ever!

Grammar Performance 1

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