- 1. GRAMMARPrepared by :SYED SHAFQAT HUSSAINZAIDI
2. ANGUAGE is the shared knowledge of sounds, words, meanings and grammatical rules that people use to send and receive messages. Language is source of communication with the help ofwhich we can communicate. Along with our extreme reliance on the social learning ofculture, the ability to communicate complex and preciseinformation is the main mental capability that makeshumanity distinct from other animals 3. Definition of linguistics Linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematicstudy of language. It is a science in the sense that itscientifically studies the rules, systems and principles ofhuman languages. 4. Scope of linguistics Micro linguistics includesphonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. Macro linguistics includes sociolinguistics,Psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, stylistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitivelinguistics, applied linguistics. 5. Macro linguistics Sociolinguistics studies the relationsbetween language and society: how socialfactors influence the structure and use oflanguage. Psycholinguistics is the study of languageand mind: the mental structures andprocesses which are involved in theacquistion, comprehension and production oflanguage. Neurolingistics is the study of languageprocessing and language representation inthe brain. It typically studies the disturbancesof language comprehension and production 6. Microlinguisticsis the scientific study of speech Phonetics sounds. It studies how speech sounds are articulated, transmitted, and received. Phonology is the study of how speech sounds function in a language, it studies the ways speech sounds are organized. It can be seen as the functional phonetics of a particular language. Morphologyis the study of the formation of words. It is a branch of linguistics which breaks words into morphemes. It can be considered as the grammar of words as syntax is the grammar of sentences. 7. Microlinguistics Grammar deals with sentenceconstruction .Syntax and Morphology are twomajor components. Semantics is a branch of linguistics which isconcerned with the study of meaning in all itsformal aspects. Words have several types ofmeaning. Pragmatics can be defined as the study oflanguage in use. It deals with how speakersuse language in ways which cannot bepredicted from lingistic knowledge alone, andhow hearers arrive at the intended meaningofspeakers. PRAGMATICS =MEANING- 8. Definition of Grammar The systematic study and description oflanguage is called Grammar. A set of rules dealing with Syntax and wordstructure of language. In linguistics, grammar is the set of structuralrules that govern the composition ofclauses, phrases, and words in any given naturallanguage. the study of such rules, and this field includesmorphology, syntax, and phonology, oftencomplemented by phonetics, semantics, and 8pragmatics. 9. Noam Chomsky One of the most influential linguists ofthe 20th century Interested in grammaticality: howhumans use a finite set of structuresand rules to produce an infinitenumber of grammatically correctsentences It takes a big ego to withstand the factthat youre saying something differentfrom everyone else. Chomsky (qt inSmith, 2004). 10. Innatism Limitations of Behaviorist view of language acquisition led in 1960s to the alternative generative account of language. Main Argument: Children must be born with an innate capacity for language development. Main Figure: Noam Chomsky Children are born with an innate propensity for language acquisition, and that this ability makes the task of learning a first language easier than it would otherwise be. 11. Innatism: LAD & UG Chomsky theorized that children were born witha hard-wired language acquisition device (LAD) in their brains. LAD is a set of language learning tools, intuitive at birth in all children. He later expanded this idea into that of universal grammar, a set of innate principles and adjustable parameters that are common to all human languages. The child exploits its LAD to make sense of the utterancesheard around it, deriving from this primary linguistic data the grammar of the language 12. THE LAD (Chomsky, 1965) The language acquisition Device (LAD) is a postulated organ of the brain that is supposed to function as a congenital device for learning symbolic language (i.e., language acquisition). 13. LAD (Language acquisition Device) The L.A.D is a pre programmed box. L.A.D is a function of the brain that is specifically for learninglanguage. It is an innate biological function of human beings just likelearning to walk. LAD explain human acquisition of the syntactic structure of language. It encodes the major principles of a language and its grammaticalstructures into the childs brain. It enables the children to analyze language and extract the basic rules. 14. Mechanism of Innate Theory According to Noam Chomsky, the mechanism of language acquisition formulates from innate processes. 15. Innatism: Universal grammar or generative grammar. we are born with set of rules about language in our brains. Children are equipped with an innate template or blueprint for language and this blueprint aids the child in the task of constructing a grammar for their language. This is known as Innateness Hypothesis. 16. All children share the same innateness Chomsky thus proposes that "all children share the same internal constraints which characterize narrowly the grammar they are going to construct." (Chomsky, 1977, p.98) 17. Universal grammarChomsky says: The UG does not have the actual rules of eachlanguage but it has PRINCIPLES &PARAMETERS. The rules of language are derived from the Principles & parameters. 18. Principles & Parameters: Principles: universal basic features of Grammar e.g..Nouns, Verbs & Structure Dependency etc. Parameters: the variation across language thatdetermines one or more aspects of Grammar e.g.Pro, Drop and Head Direction. The Parameters are set during Language Acquisition. 19. Competence and Performance competence is knowledge of language. That partof our knowledge which is exclusively linguistic. Itincludes knowledge of the vocabulary, ofphonology, of syntax, and of semantics. The part ofsuch knowledge which is different from language tolanguage is learnt; the part which is universal isinnate. Performance is the use of language in speakingandunderstanding utterances islinguisticperformance. Performance is dependent on oneslinguistic knowledge (competence) and in part onnon-linguistic knowledge of an encyclopedia orcultural kind, as well as on extraneous factors asmood, tiredness and so on 20. Thedistinction between performance and competence (grammaticality and acceptability) is distinction between sentence and utterance. a. Sentences are abstract objects which not tied to a particular context, speaker or time of utterance. They are tied to a particular grammar.b. Utterances are datable events, tied to a particular speaker, occasions, and context. 21. Competence and Performance There are some utterances which could never be agrammatical sentence, but still they are acceptable. e.g. Johns being a real idiot-I suppose cela va sansdire. On the other hand, there some grammaticalsentences which can never be realized as fullyacceptable utterances because theirsemantic, syntactic or phonological content. e.g.: 1.we finally sent Edinburgh man, for for four Forfarmen to go would have seemed like favoritism. 2. If because when Mary came in John left Harrycried, Id be surprised. 22. II. Types of Grammar A.Mental Grammar: Internal linguistic knowledge B.Developmental Grammar: a learners grammar C.Prescriptive Grammar: a set of prescribed rules which tells people how to speak/write D.Descriptive Grammar: how people do speak in actual utterances. E.Pedagogical Grammar: teaching grammar widely used in schoolsYun-Pi Yuan 22 23. A. Mental Grammar: Internal linguistic knowledgeGrammar Phonology(Morphology)SyntaxSemantics Linguistic knowledge in the mind Here, well just consider grammatical knowledgeas structural knowledge; but NOTE you alsomust know how to USE the structuralknowledge.Yun-Pi Yuan 23 24. B. Developmental Grammar: a learners grammar The mental grammar in the developmental stage Type of lang. produced by learners who are in the process of learning a language. In the language use of a L1 or L2 learner; which is the result of a normal pattern of development, and is common among language learners. e.g. comed, goed, breaked Because of overgeneralizations; a natural orYun-Pi Yuan 24 developmental stage in lang. learning. 25. C. Descriptive Grammar: how people do speak in actual utterances Linguistic description of the structures of a language as they are observed to be used, with no evaluation (non- judgmental) of social correctness. Descriptive rules are more general and more basic than prescriptive rules in the sense that all sentences of a language are formed in accordance with them, not just the subset of sentences that count as correct or socially acceptable.Yun-Pi Yuan 25 26. Descriptive Grammar What native speakers know (tacitly) about theirlanguage. We have to distinguish between differentvariants of one language, versus things that areimpossible in all varieties Example: Grammatical according to style/register, dialect I didnt see anybody. I didnt see nobody. Ungrammatical *I did anybodynt see. *See did nobody I not. 27. D: Prescriptive Grammar: a set of prescribed rules which tells people how to speak/write Traditional Grammar and the prescriptive approach: Grammar as linguistic etiquette, i.e. the identification of the best/proper structures to be used; A set of rules about how you SHOULD speak or write; gives judgments on which structures are CORRECT and which are INCORRECT Their influence lives on in the handbook of usage widely found today. e.g. double negative(=affirmative), *aint*its me, ending sentences withpreposition (*Who are you talking to?)Yun-Pi Yuan 27 28. Prescriptive grammar is taught inprimary school (elementary school). Theterm "grammar school" historically refersto a school teaching Latin grammar tofuture Romancitizens, orators, and, later, Catholicpriests. In its earliest form, "grammar school"referred to a school that taught studentsto read, scan, interpret, and declaimGreek and Latin poets 29. Prescriptive Grammar Rules of good or proper usage, which dictate what is goodgrammar and what is bad grammarExample: (1) She doesnt know him. (2) She dont know him.Example (1) is supposed to be good, while (2) is supposed to be bad Is there a logic to this judgment? Technically, what the example showsis the absence of 3rd person singular agreement -s Agreement morphemes on a verb mark who the subject of the verb is(in some languages) Is the absence of agreement somehow bad or illogical? 30. Dubious appeals to Logic Is the standard always more logical? Consider reflexive pronouns likemyself:Reflexive Possessive St.myselfmy caryourselfyour carhimself his carherself her car Non-St.myselfmy caryourselfyour carhisself his carherself her car --> In the non-standard variety, the reflexive form is always the same as the possessive; this is more systematic than the standard, where this is true in only three of the four cases above. 31. Prescriptive vs. Descriptive Rules of etiquette or laws ofsociety Rules of scientific Rules about correct orobservationssocially accepted sentences Rules about all sentences of Rules explicitly taught a language Based on the more favored Rules followed effortlessly and consistentlyvariants Document all variants without discrimination Theres some boxes left on the porch There are some boxes left on the porch BTexact Technologies 2001 32. E. Pedagogical Grammar: teaching grammars widely used in schools A teaching grammardesigned for developing students awareness of their mother tongue, or for teaching a language as a foreign language. Often a combination of descriptive & prescriptive grammars; more contemporary pedagogical grammars moving away from prescriptive.e.g. M. Swam. Practical English Usage or aYun-Pi Yuan 32textbook ; a grammar book. 33. Elements of Grammar GrammarSyntax Morphology33 34. Definition of Syntax (1) syntaxis (Greek) = arrangement The rules of sentence formation; the study of the structure of sentences. Syntax: the study of the structure of sentences and the grammatical rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences. Language StructurePhonology GrammarSemantics morphologysyntax(the specific sense; more traditional)Yun-Pi Yuan 34 35. Morph (form) + ology (science of) -- > Morphology (the science of word forms) The study of the internal structure of words, and the rules bywhich words are formed. 36. The study of the internal structure andform of words in language. Morphology is the study of systematicformation of meaningful words. Morphology is the study of thecombination of morphemes to yieldwords. The study of words and the rules forword formation in (a) language. 37. To know a word means to know aspects of a word:sound, meaning, spelling, grammaticalproperties, collocations, connotations, context, etymology, etc. But what is crucial is to segment from a string ofsounds a basic unit of meaning, likeIsleptfortenhoursyesterday. To know a word thus means the ability to map a string of sounds with a particular meaning and specific grammatical properties. 38. Phonological word (Deer is dear but dear) Lexical item Lexeme (take,took,taken) Grammatical word form Morphosyntactic word(ball, balls) Semantic words (table, table) 39. Lexicography 40. Content words denote concepts suchas subjects, actions, and ideas noun, verb, adjective, adverb Content words are open class words new words can be added Example of new words :Steganography the art of hidinginformation in electronic text 41. Function words express GrammaticalFunctions e.g., preposition, article, conjunctions, pronouns Function words connect the contentwords to the larger grammatical context. Functions words are also called closedclass words no new words assed to thisclass.
