Governance and cyberinfrastructure in the Earth system sciences Paul N. Edwards School of Information and Dept. of History, University of Michigan
May 10, 2015
Governance and cyberinfrastructure in the Earth system sciences
Paul N. Edwards School of Information and Dept. of History, University of Michigan
EarthCube goal } “…to design, build, and maintain an easy-to-use system
based on existing resources that embraces open-source culture and methods to align technology development with scientific needs.”
Richard et al. “Community‐developed Geoscience Cyberinfrastructure.” Eos 95, no. 20 (2014): 165-166
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
Governance: formal vs. informal
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
The Tower of Babel… } Heritage of multiple
disciplines, sensors, data analysis methods
} Cacophony of formats, metadata, software
} Earthcube survey of ~175 scientists (2011): need… } Common data formats } Better metadata and metadata
standards } Better ways to find data } Coupled web-based services,
such as visualization tools
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
Cyberinfrastructure and climate change informatics (Rood & Edwards 2014)
R. B. Rood & P. N. Edwards, “Climate Informatics: Human Experts and the End-to-End System,” Earthzine, May 2014
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
The loading dock model of cyberinfrastructure
Data Models Services
Loading Dock Model EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
Access is not the main problem } Beyond the loading dock model } Need for translational information for (many) particular
users and uses } Human communication — often informal — remains the
most basic process for effective data sharing } Metadata as product vs. metadata as process
} Always provide for communication with data creators
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
This morning } A little history of infrastructure } … and of governance in meteorology } What is governance? } Governance and software in Earth system science
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
This morning } A little history of infrastructure } … and of governance in meteorology } What is governance? } Governance and software in Earth system science
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
Infrastructure: a historical model } System building: designed, coherent,
centrally organized } Proliferation of systems; variation } Networks: dedicated gateways link
heterogeneous systems } Internetworks: generic gateways
link heterogeneous networks } Decentralization, fragmentation } Abandonment, substitution
time
Edwards et al. 2007
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
Dedicated or improvised gateways (Egyedi 2001)
} Whose responsibility? } Who sets standards? } Who pays?
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
Computer networks link computers
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
Generic gateways the ISO standard container
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
Internetworks link networks
} Routers are gateways } connect computers to each
other (network) } … and connect the local
network to other networks
} “The” Internet connects millions of networks
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
This morning } A little history of infrastructure } … and of governance in meteorology } What is governance? } Governance and software in Earth system science
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
1872 War Dept. synoptic map EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
The Victorian Internet (Standage 1998): British telegraph network, 1890
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
1870 1900
1930 1960
Surface station coverage: evolution
Source: J. Hansen and S. Lebedeff, “Global Trends of Measured Surface Air Temperature,” Journal of Geophysical Research 92, no. D11 (1987), 13,346-13,347
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
Stages in the history of weather forecasting } Systems: national weather
services } Set own standards
} Networks: national and international } The Réseau Mondial
} Internetworks } Integrating heterogeneous
data sources } Surface stations } Air bases and airports } Marine data } Satellites
} Governance } International Meteorological
Organization (1873-1949) } World Meteorological
Organization (WMO, founded 1950)
} Set standards, assisted coordination — but lightweight relative to national services
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
an internetwork
World Weather Watch • Planned early 1960s
• Operational 1968
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
This morning } A little history of infrastructure } … and of governance in meteorology } What is governance? } Governance and software in Earth system science
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
What is governance? } Aligning an organization’s practices and procedures with
its goals, purposes, and values } Oversight, steering, and articulating organizational norms
and processes } vs. management: detailed planning, supervision of work,
allocation of effort
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
Modes of governance Hierarchy Network (of
firms) Market or firm
Bazaar
Contractual framework
Employment contract
Neoclassical contract
Property contract
Open source license
Incentives intensity
Low Medium High Low
Control intensity
High Medium Low Low
Social relations
Strong ties Strong ties Anonymous Mostly anonymous or weak ties
Membership Employees selected
Members select each other
Buyer selected by seller
Open; many free riders
Timeframe Long-term commitment
Long-term commitment
Transaction or contract
Variable; no commitment
Source: adapted from B. Demil and X. Lecocq, “Neither Market Nor Hierarchy Nor Network: The Emergence of Bazaar Governance,” Organization studies 27, no. 10 (2006): 1447-66
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
Open source culture: bazaar governance } E. Raymond, “The Cathedral and the Bazaar”
} Linux is ‘a great babbling bazaar of differing agendas and approaches’
} Characteristic: chaotic market, huge variations in quality
} “Low levels of control and weak incentives intensity are distinctive features of bazaar [governance], lending a high uncertainty to governed transactions.”
} Source: B. Demil and X. Lecocq, “Neither Market Nor Hierarchy Nor Network: The Emergence of Bazaar Governance,” Organization Studies 27, no. 10 (2006): 1447-1466.
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
…but how does governance really work?
Highly competent groups can get a lot done without much management from above — but there are limits to leaderless teams, especially when work is time-sensitive and requires coordinating complex, interdependent activity.
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
This morning } A little history of infrastructure } … and of governance in meteorology } What is governance? } Governance and software in Earth system science
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
Organizations in science… } Organizations provide space, equipment, money, and support
} Stable, long-lasting (decades) } Well-defined roles and routines
} Have boundaries, hierarchies, and entrenched cultures } Research (NCAR, GFDL, universities) vs. operational (NOAA, NASA,
DOE) } National laboratories and military research } Funding agencies (NSF, NIH) and foundations
} They strongly structure work incentives and disincentives
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
… vs. projects } ...but most scientific work takes place in projects, teams,
and working groups } Varying sizes } Lifespans vary, but mostly short (1-5 years)
} Depend heavily on funding cycles
} Often cross organizational boundaries } Many scientists are involved in several projects at once
} Overlapping membership
} Funding is an ongoing concern
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
Governance: norms & rules (Elinor Ostrom)
} Constitutional rules } Collective choice rules } Operational norms and rules
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
Operational norms and rules } Expectations that govern everyday interaction among
project members } Largely informal and tacit (unarticulated)
} May be embedded in organizational routines or tools
} Usually surface only during crisis or conflict } Difficult to change without a forcing factor
} Tools can embody operational norms — but usually can’t force changes
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
Cyberinfrastructure pitfalls } Software makes it seem easy to build gateways between
systems and networks… } “You just…”
} … but social, institutional, and security gateways are even more important } Multiple institutional cultures } Complex projects with many working groups } Multiple security and legal standards can block interchange
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
Conclusions: some lessons from history } Centralized design and control is not the primary path to
working infrastructure } Instead, build gateways (couplers)
} Standards technologies, institutions } Must be lightweight, readily understood, easily transferred
across regions and cultures (including disciplinary cultures)
} International governance of data standardization and exchange in meteorology was achieved by the 1960s } in the face of enormous technical obstacles (communication
channels) and social obstacles (Cold War, decolonization)
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
EarthCube goal } “…to design, build, and maintain an easy-to-use system
based on existing resources that embraces open-source culture and methods to align technology development with scientific needs.”
Richard et al. “Community‐developed Geoscience Cyberinfrastructure.” Eos 95, no. 20 (2014): 165-166
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
Conclusions: some lessons from history
} The tensions between hierarchy, network, and bazaar modes of governance will be difficult to resolve
} Cyberinfrastructure can help, but it can also hinder } Social and organizational issues must be addressed along with
technology
} The EarthCube experiment is enormously important, and worth doing!
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards
Edwards et al., Knowledge Infrastructures: Intellectual Frameworks and Research Challenges (2013) knowledgeinfrastructures.org
EarthCube All-hands Meeting, June 2014 Paul N. Edwards