Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSL HA 1 ASSESSING READING-RELATED BEHAVIORS IN STUDENTS WITH MODERATE TO SEVERE SPECIAL NEEDS Presented at the Ohio Speech-Language-Hearing Association Annual Convention Columbus, OH March 10, 2006 Monica Gordon Pershey, Ed.D., CCC-SLP Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH [email protected], [email protected]
106
Embed
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA1 ASSESSING READING-RELATED BEHAVIORS IN STUDENTS WITH MODERATE TO SEVERE SPECIAL NEEDS Presented at the Ohio Speech-Language-Hearing.
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 1
ASSESSING READING-RELATED BEHAVIORS IN STUDENTS WITH MODERATE TO SEVERE SPECIAL NEEDS
Presented at the Ohio Speech-Language-Hearing Association Annual ConventionColumbus, OHMarch 10, 2006
1. Learners will identify the cognitive and linguistic foundations for the emergence of literacy.
2. Learners will identify how the cognitive and linguistic foundations of literacy are assessed in learners with moderate to severe special needs.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 3
Introduction
Learners with moderate to severe special needs Are emergent literacy learners
Basic principles of emergent literacy
Where special needs learners may differ from typicallearners due to significant cognitive limitations
Developmental assessment strategies
Match each developmental assessment with grade levelindicators from the Ohio Reading/Language ArtsContent Standards
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 4
Introduction
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) mandates thatreading/language arts curriculum be based onScientifically Based Reading Research (SBRR)
SBRR prescribes that reading/language arts curriculuminclude the five essential areas of phonemic awareness,phonics, vocabulary, reading comprehension, andreading fluency
IEPs for students with moderate to severe specialneeds must address how students will access thegeneral curriculum in these five areas
Alternatives to mandated assessments
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 5
NRP Meta-analysis
Gains are Seen for Learners who are Taught 5 Essential Areas:
Phonemic Awareness
Phonics
Fluency (rapid, automatic, effortless decoding of text for both oral and silent reading)
Text Comprehension
Vocabulary
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 6
Implementation of policy must coincide with theoretical knowledge of language and literacy development in children
SBRR can assist policymakers in improvingaccountability and educational benefit for students
SBRR is compatible with pedagogical theory
But SBRR itself is not pedagogical theory, it is publicpolicy
Implementation of policy must coincide with theoretical knowledge of language and literacy development
Emphasis on testing outcomes must not shortchangelearner’s needs
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 7
NCLB
IEP goals and objectives connect to standards-basedcurricula
IEP services help students become capable ofperforming on achievement tests
SLPs prepare students for mandated testing
NCLB doesn’t insure HOW every learner will becomeproficient
Therapy progress is subsumed under schoolprogress
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 8
NCLB and IDEA
IEPs aligned with state academic standards andachievement tests
IEPs provide for progress in the general curriculum
IEP provides supports and strategies that promoteaccess to the instructional environment where thegeneral curriculum is being presented
Access the general curriculum through supports,accommodations, and modifications
IEP provides for how elements of the generalcurriculum will be brought to the student by specialists
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 9
NCLB- Mandated Testing for Special Needs Learners
Accommodations - Do not change what is to belearned; Do change how content or skills will belearned
Modifications - Alter specific content or performanceexpectations
Examples:Change level of complexity of content or
skillsChange entire curriculum
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 10
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 11
NCLB- Mandated Testing for Special Needs Learners
4 Options for Participation in Testing
1 State assessment based on state standards
2 State assessment based on state standards withaccommodations and/or modifications
3 Alternate assessment based on state standards –Observations or work samples demonstrate mastery of grade level or content or skills
4 Alternate assessment based on alternateachievement standards –
Observations or work samples demonstrate mastery of out of grade level content or skills
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 12
NCLB- Mandated Testing for Special Needs Learners
Title I mandates progress toward academic standards
9%-12% of students with disabilities will participate inalternative assessments of reading/language arts andmathematics
IEPs also address behavioral and developmental goals
IDEA, not NCLB, governs progress in development oflife skills
Alternate assessments will not include measuringfunctional life skills
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 13
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 14
Strategies for Assessing the Emergence of Literacy in Students with Moderate to Severe Special Needs
SLP must document deficits in language and literacyand determine how these deficits prevent a studentfrom successfully attaining curriculum objectives
SLPs can assess the allied cognitive areas of attention,memory, and executive function – in some casesbasic problem-solving using concrete objects –to document emergence of the cognitive and linguisticfoundations for literacy
Compare each alternative assessment to the OhioContent Standards for reading/language arts in gradesK and 1
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 15
The Alphabetic Principle
Concepts about phonology and written language
Linguistic abstractions pertinent to phonology,semantics, syntax, and pragmatics
How speech sounds are represented in print, or Englishorthography
The written code is entirely arbitrary and abstract
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 16
The Alphabetic Principle: Phonology and Orthography
WHAT IS A SOUND?
WHAT IS A SPEECH SOUND?
WHAT IS A LETTER?
HOW DOES A LETTER "MAKE A SOUND?“
WHY DOES THIS LETTER MAKE ONE SOUND SOMETIMES AND ANOTHER SOUND AT OTHER TIMES?
WHAT LETTERS MAKE THE SOUNDS THAT I AMINTERESTED IN?
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 17
The Alphabetic Principle: Phonology and Orthography
HOW CAN I TALK ABOUT WHAT I KNOW ABOUT LETTERS AND SOUNDS?
WHAT IS RHYMING?
WHAT IS MEANT BY BEGINNING SOUND? A MIDDLE SOUND? AN ENDING SOUND?
HOW DO I BLEND SOUNDS TOGETHER TO SAY WORDS?
HOW DO I TAKE WORDS APART TO HEAR THEIR SOUNDS?
WHAT IS A SYLLABLE? HOW DO I FIND THEM IN WORDS?
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 18
The Alphabetic Principle: Semantics
WHAT IS A WORD?
WHAT DOES A WORD LOOK LIKE?
WHAT DOES IT MEAN FOR A WORD TO HAVE MEANING?
WHAT OTHER WORDS DO WE USE TO DISCUSS
WHAT A WORD MEANS?
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 19
The Alphabetic Principle: Syntax
WHAT IS A SENTENCE?
WHAT ARE THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE?
HOW DO WORDS LOOK WHEN THEY ARE TOGETHER IN SENTENCES?
HOW DO WORDS CHANGE THEIR MEANINGS IN SENTENCES?
HOW DO WORDS CHANGE? (MORPHOLOGY, MORPHOSYNTAX)
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 20
The Alphabetic Principle: Pragmatics
WHAT DOES PRINT STAND FOR IN OUR WORLD?
WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF THE PRINT I AM SEEING NOW?
WHEN I READ, WHO IS TALKING TO ME?
WHAT IS THE CONTEXT OF WHAT IS BEING SAID TO ME?
WHAT SIGNALS ARE IN THIS PRINT (SUCH AS PUNCTUATION MARKS)?
Begin with no assistance and move incrementallythrough minimal to maximal assistance; Note allassistance given
Assessments tell us where to begin interventions
Assessments show skills that are in place
Large print in a type face that does not use Greekletters (example: g or a, use g and a) or block printed by hand
Choose the number of items and trials
Audio or video tape assessment interactions
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 24
Assessing the Literacy Pragmatic – The Logographic Stage ofPrint Awareness
See “whole print configurations” found inenvironmental print
Recognize stop sign, McDonald’s sign, Coke, Pepsi
Not reading words
Assess by showing logos, labels, signs, book covers
Reproduce logos, etc., in plain type and compare forrecognition
Ohio Content Standards – Kdg:Recognize and understand words, signs and symbolsseen in everyday life.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 25
Assessing the Literacy Pragmatic – The Logoraphic Stage of Print Awareness
Explore two of the five essential areas identifiedby the National Reading Panel: Vocabulary andtext comprehension
Participating by listening to text read aloud
Auditory comprehension of the language of text
Learner’s construction of meaning of story or othermessages conveyed by text
Modeling reading fluency
Ohio Content Standards – Kdg:Demonstrate an understanding that print has meaningby explaining that text provides information or tells astory.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 26
Assessing the Literacy Pragmatic – The Logoraphic Stage ofPrint Awareness
Consider the logographic learner’s current level ofawareness of the nature of literate behavior
Is the learner aware that print conveys meaning?
Is the learner interested in print – points to text duringread aloud; asks “What does this say?”; experimentswith writing
Routinely exposed to authentic, connected texts
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 27
The Alphabetic Stage ofPrint Awareness
Awareness that printed text is composed of letters – Interest in single letters and the first letter of words
The language system of phonology becomes operative
Letters are linguistic abstractions and arbitrarysymbols
Recognition of some sight words – Not sounding wordsout – See words as letter groups
Cannot be sure whether the learner is recognizing theletters, the words, or the configuration
The learner sees letters, either singly or grouped, andhas a label for them
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 28
The Alphabetic Stage ofPrint Awareness
Assessments:Learners point to letters and say letter names, both inand out of alphabetical order
SLP reads letters, asks learner to point to the lettersthe SLP names
Spontaneously write all known letters – upper case,lower case
Learner might create letter forms but not know theletter name
Write single letters to dictation, both in and out ofalphabetical order
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 29
The Alphabetic Stage of Print Awareness
Memorization of small units of decontextualized print:Survival words such as "Men," "Walk," "Exit“
Is the learner is recognizing the letters, the words, orThe configuration?
Say the letters in sight words
Find letters in the words as SLP says the letters
Scanning: Find known words embedded in textpassage
Sound-letter correspondences: Learner may saySounds represented by initial letters in words withbetter skill
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 30
The Alphabetic Stage of Print Awareness
Ohio Content Standards that are met during theAlphabetic stage – Kdg:
Read own first and last name.Distinguish and name all upper and lower case letters.Recognize, say, and write the common sounds ofletters.Distinguish letters from words by recognizing thatwords are separated by spaces.Hear and say the separate phonemes in words,such as identifying the initial consonant sound in aword, and blend phonemes to say words.Read one-syllable and often-heard words by sight.Identify and distinguish between letters, words andsentences.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 31
Cognitive Foundation for the Logographic and Alphabetic Stages
Pattern Detection
Attention to print is purposeful on two levels: (1) Seeking the meaning of the printed message (2) Seeking visual regularities in written stimuli
Logos and letters are stored in visual memory; there isperceptual salience and these items can be recognizedagain and again
Pattern detection allows the alphabetic stage toemerge – letters have regularity
The learner is developing a heuristic for reading
Learning is inductive
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 32
Cognitive Foundation for the Logographic and Alphabetic Stages
Assessing Pattern Detection:Degraded stimulus – Show logo/letter in its correctform and in an incorrect form – Ask learner to findwhere logo/letter looks right/wrong
Complex categorical thinking – Foods that are soft andsweet
Parts of wholes – The door of the car
Cognitive Interactionist: Predictive and concurrentvalidity for literacy acquisition in preoperational tasksof pattern detection
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 33
Cognitive Foundation for the Logographic and Alphabetic Stages
Aspects of cognitive development are revealed byperformance on Piagetian tasks of conservation ofnumber and length, seriation (ordering by size),centration (multiplicative classification), andreversibility
Piagetian view – Literacy is predicated uponapplication of cognitive skills that are concurrentsupports for literacy
Learners in the preoperational stage will not achievethese tasks but may be learning to read and write
Learners who master these tasks have attainedconcrete operations
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 34
Cognitive Foundation for the Logographic and Alphabetic Stages
Task 1 – Conservation of number
Given a set of red plastic chips and a set of blue plasticchips, the learner will determine if the sets are equal innumber or not equal when chips from one set arerearranged spatially.Six blue chips are lined up close together and the sixred chips are lined up spread apart. The sets are equalin number. Ask the learner, “Is there the same numberof chips in each group?” The learner may count or not.
The learner with lesser skills in pattern detection willbe deceived by the spatial arrangement and say thered set has more. The learner who has better patterndetection will say both sets are equal in number.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 35
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 36
Cognitive Foundation for the Logographic and Alphabetic Stages
Task 2 – Conservation of number, centration, andreversibility
Given a set of red plastic chips and a larger set of blueplastic chips, the learner will determine if there aremore blue chips or more plastic chips. Ten blue chips are placed in a line. Next to them, sixred chips are lined up. Ask the learner, “Are there moreblue chips or more plastic chips?”
The learner with lesser skills in pattern detection will bedeceived by spatial arrangement – there are more bluechips. Better pattern detection – there are more plasticchips; can think of multiple classifications (color andmaterial) simultaneously; reversibility of properties.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 37
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 38
Cognitive Foundation for the Logographic and Alphabetic Stages
Task 3 – Conservation of length and reversibility
Given 2 pencils exactly alike in size, shape, and color,learner will compare their lengths when they are heldso that their ends are exactly evenly placed and thenwhen they are held with the end of one extending pastthe end of the other. Only the position of the pencils ischanged, not their sizes. When the pencils are heldevenly, ask, “Are these pencils the same size?” Moveone pencil so that is held parallel but not exactly evenwith the other. Ask, “Are these pencils the same size?”
Lesser skills in pattern detection – deceived by spatialarrangement – one pencil is bigger. Better patterndetection – pencils are the same size. Conserves sizealthough position has changed.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 39
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 40
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 41
Cognitive Foundation for the Logographic and Alphabetic Stages
Task 4 – Reversibility
Given a necklace made of a shoelace strung with fivelarge wooden beads tied into a circle and the materialsfor reproduc ing the necklace, the learner willreconstruct the pattern of the beads on the lace asthey would appear if they were in a straight line. Thelearner constructs a linear string of beads, not acircular necklace, but preserves the same pattern.
The learner with lesser skills in pattern detection willbe deceived by the spatial arrangement and havedifficulty reproducing the pattern or will say that it isnot possible to make the same necklace in a line as isin a circle. The learner who has better patterndetection perceives this reversibility.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 42
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 43
Cognitive Foundation for the Logographic and Alphabetic Stages
Task 5 – Reversibility
Given a cardboard tube into which three small cars areinserted and which is then rotated 180 degrees in ahorizontal plane, the child will be asked to predictWhich of the cars will emerge from the tube first. Thecars should remain lined up inside the tube. The carthat was put in last should come out first, followed bythe middle car, then the car that was put in first.
The learner with lesser skills in pattern detection willhave difficulty reversing the order of cars. The learnerwho has better pattern detection perceives thisreversibility.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 44
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 45
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 46
Linguistic Foundation for the Logographic and Alphabetic Stages
Pattern detection is a requisite skill for phonologicalawareness instruction
Phonological awareness is a form of metalinguisticawareness
Learners in alphabetic stage show metalinguistic skill,because talking about letters is talking about language
Conscious insight into their own pattern detection: Describe what they are detecting – rhyme, initial sound
CATEGORY SPECIFIC SKILL EXAMPLE AGESyllable Awareness Playing with words - Taps once for each word in a sentence 3-5 years
Segmenting Syllables Claps once for each part in the word camera
(segmentation of compound words proceeds segmentation of noncompound words). 4 years
Segmenting Syllables Tells the number of syllables in the word apple. 4-5 years
Blending Syllables Tells the word formed when ra-di-o are blended together 4-5 years
Deleting Syllables Tells what remains when bow is removed from rainbow. 5 years
Manipulating Syllables Tells the new word formed if light from lighthouse is put after
back from backpack. 7+ years
Rhyme Awareness Spontaneous Production - Recites nursery rhymes; produces
rhymes (unintentionally). 3-4 years
Identification of Rhyme Responds correctly when asked, “Do cat and bat rhyme?” 4-5 years
Rhyme Generation Produces one or more rhymes) when given a word. 5+ years
Judgment/Categorization
of Rhyme Compares bed, head, leg, read, and peg and identifies which rhymes. 6-7 years
Phoneme Awareness Blending Phonemes - Tells the word that is formed
by blending m-e. 6 years
Segmenting Phonemes Claps out the sounds in the word bug. 6 years
Deleting Phonemes Tells what remains if /t/ is removed from beet. 7 years
Manipulating Phonemes Tells the new word formed if the /n/ in pen is changed to /t/. 7+ years
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 48
The Orthographic Stage ofPrint Awareness
Learning to break words into component parts
Learning to assemble parts of words into whole words
Look beyond the first letter of a word and deliberatelyor automatically scan letters, syllables, and word parts
Find letter-sound relationships, syllables, word parts,or small words within large words
Orthographic readers do not rely on known wholeconfigurations
Make use of information about the sound structure oflanguage and the orthographic code
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 49
The Orthographic Stage ofPrint Awareness
Learners have gone through a heuristic period ofexploration that prepares them for the logorhythms ofliteracy
Exploration, intuition, and inductive learning have ledthe way for deductive learning about reading, writing,spelling
A spelling conscience develops
Ohio Content Standards that are met by during theOrthographic stage – Kdg:Show characteristics of early letter name-alphabeticspelling.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 50
The Orthographic Stage ofPrint Awareness
Ohio Content Standards that are met during theOrthographic stage – Grade 1:
Read regularly spelled multi-syllable words by sight.Blend phonemes (sounds) of letters and syllables toread unknown words with one or more syllables.Use knowledge of common word families (e.g., -ite or -ate) to sound out unfamiliar words.Segment letter, letter blends and syllable sounds in words.Distinguish and identify the beginning, middle and ending sounds in words. Demonstrate a growing stock of sight words.Read text using fluid and automatic decoding skills.Read accurately high-frequency sight words.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 51
Reading Automaticity
Reading is a parallel examination of stimulus andmemory – search memory for knowledge about thisstimulus
For readers with the least experience, storedknowledge is about logos
For alphabetic readers, stored knowledge is aboutinitial letters in words and other salient letters presentin familiar examples of print
Sight word readers make use of both logographic andalphabetic skills
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 52
The Later Orthographic Stage ofPrint Awareness
Ohio Content Standards that are met during the laterOrthographic stage – Grade 2: Use letter-sound knowledge and structuralanalysis to decode words. Read text using fluid and automatic decoding skills.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 53
Pattern Detection Prepares Readers for Phonics
For orthographic readers, print is a code that is storedin memory as categories of meaning – letter forms,letter names, letter-sound correspondences,syllables, spelling rules
The learner can manipulate aspects of the code at willand with automaticity
Rule application – making sense of and using thepatterns proposed by other readers
The study of the rules of English orthography is knownas phonics
Learners in the orthographic stage are ready for phonics
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 54
SLPs Work on the Language Skills that Make Spelling and Decoding Possible
Phonics is integrated into word study and meaningfulword use
Phonics learners are metalinguistically aware, haveinsight into their own pattern detection
Capitalize on learners’ pattern detection abilities andteach phonics rules that make sense and can beapplied to spelling on a daily basis
Consistencies in our language can be learned – workwith “chunks,” such as word families
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 55
Marie Clay’s Concepts About Print Test
A test of awareness of the conventions of print
Choose an engaging picture book with more than oneline of print per page
Print and pictures on the same page
Read from top to bottom on each page
Punctuation and upper and lower case letters
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 56
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 57
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 58
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 59
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 60
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 61
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 62
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 63
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 64
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 65
Marie Clay’s Concepts About Print Test
Ask learner to show the book cover or front – Say, "Show me the front of the book“ or "Show me the title"
Identify text as distinct from illustrations – Say,"Where do I start reading?" Learners understandreading is interaction with print
Directionality – Left to right, top to bottomSay, "Which way will I read from here?"
Return Sweep – Say, "Show me where I read next?”Learner should point to the next line of print
Word Awareness – Say, "Now you point to thewords while I read" Learner should be pointing word byword, line by line, while read to aloud
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 66
Marie Clay’s Concepts About Print Test
Beginning of a Word – Say, “Where is the beginning ofthe word “____” referring to the last word readSay, “show me the first letter in that word”
Upper and Lower Case Letters – Say, "Show me acapital letter" "Show me a small letter"
Punctuation – Say, “What is this for?”
Word Order – While finger pointing, read a linebackwards, Say, "What did I do wrong?”
End of a Word – After reading a page, select a word,show its beginning letter, Say "Where does this wordend?"
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 67
Marie Clay’s Concepts About Print Test
Sentence – After you read a given sentence, ask“Where did that sentence begin?” "Where did thatsentence end?“
Back of the Book – Say, "Where is the back of thebook?“
Beginning of story – Say, "Do you remember how thestory began?"
End of the story, Say, "Do you remember how thestory ended?"
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 68
Marie Clay’s Concepts About Print Test
Ohio Content Standards that are assessed using theConcepts About Print Test – Kdg: Hold books right side up, know that people read pagesfrom front to back and read words from left to right.Know the differences between illustrations and print.Identify and distinguish between letters, words andsentences.Grade 1:Follow simple oral directions.Speak clearly and understandably.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 69
Rationale for Clinician Constructed Literacy Assessments
For most learners with moderate to severe special needs, it has already been ascertained that their skills vary from normative expectations – we do not need touse standardized measures to confirm this
Scattered, spotty, or inconsistent skills are revealedbecause clinician constructed testing progresses “at leisure” and no ceiling or criterion must be enforced
Clinician constructed tests show accomplishment offunctional behaviors
Establish functional tasks to be continued in therapy
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 70
Rationale for Clinician Constructed Literacy Assessments
Tasks coincide with Ohio Content Standards andestablish the need for modification of mandatedachievement tests or use of alternative testing
Use pre-primer or primer passages, unless learner surpasses this level
Record both correct and incorrect responses
Note how many items were attempted, how many responses were accurate, and how many wereinaccurate
For most tasks that require lists, 10 items are usually sufficient
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 71
Assessment of Word Reading
Word Assessment 1: Reading Isolated Words Learner reads from graded word listsLog miscues, analyze error patterns
Word Assessment 2: Matching Words Learner looks at a stimulus word then locates in againin an array of three or four visually similar wordsExample: snow
swan snow now sow
Word Assessment 3: Matching Words to Pictures
Word Assessment 4: Using Single Words to Fill in theBlank in a Sentence Example: We drank water and _____.
milk sit dog
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 72
Assessment of Word Reading
Ohio Content Standards that are assessed byAssessment of Word Reading – Grade 1:
Read regularly spelled multi-syllable words by sight.Blend phonemes (sounds) of letters and syllables to read unknown words with one or more syllables.Use knowledge of common word families (e.g., -ite or -ate) to sound out unfamiliar words.Segment letter, letter blends and syllable sounds in words.Distinguish and identify the beginning, middle and ending sounds in words. Demonstrate a growing stock of sight words.Read text using fluid and automatic decoding skills.Read accurately high-frequency sight words.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 73
Assessment of Graphemes and Phonemes
Grapheme Assessment 1: Letter Naming – 26 Items Upper Case, 26 Items Lower Case
Ohio Content Standards that are assessed byAssessment of Graphemes and Phonemes – Kdg
Identify and complete rhyming words and patterns.Distinguish the number of syllables in words byusing rhythmic clapping, snapping or counting.Distinguish and name all upper- and lower-caseletters.Recognize, say and write the common sounds ofletters.Hear and say the separate phonemes in words,such as identifying the initial consonant sound in aword, and blend phonemes to say words.Reread own writing.Write from left to right and from top to bottom.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 78
Assessment of Graphemes and Phonemes
Write from left to right and from top to bottom.Print capital and lowercase letters, correctly spacingthe letters.Leave spaces between words when writing. Show characteristics of early letter name-alphabeticspelling.Use some end consonant sounds when writing.
Grade 1:Reread own writing for clarity.Print legibly and space letters, words and sentencesappropriately.Spell high-frequency words correctly.Create phonetically-spelled written work that can usually be read by the writer and others. Distinguish and identify the beginning, middle andending sounds in words.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 79
Assessment of Reading Fluency
Fluency involves rapid, automatic reading
Fluency Assessment 1: Matching SentencesThere Are No Blue Cats.
There Are No Blue Cars.There Are No Blue Cats.There Are No Big Cats.
Ohio Content Standards that are assessed byAssessment of Reading Fluency – Grade 1 and Grade 2
Read regularly spelled multi-syllable words by sight.Read text using fluid and automatic decoding skills.Read accurately high-frequency sight words.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 81
Assessment of Reading Comprehension
Comprehension Assessment 1: Oral Narration Comprehension Assessment 2: Following Directions Comprehension Assessment 3: Reading for the Meaning of Synonyms and Opposites Synonyms
Dog Puppy FishPop Coke MilkChair Seat WindowHat Coat Cap
Opposites Happy Little Sad
Hot Cold ShortBig Old LittleIn Sit OutLike Hate Sleep
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 82
Assessment of Reading Comprehension
Comprehension Assessment 4: Sentence ComprehensionLearner read a sentence and answers comprehensionquestions about sentence
Comprehension Assessment 5: Passage ComprehensionLearner read a passage or paragraph and answers comprehension questions
Comprehension Assessment 6: Retelling a Passage orStory Heard Read Aloud
Comprehension Assessment 7: Learner Reads and Retells a Passage or Story
Ohio Content Standards that are assessed byAssessment of Reading Comprehension – Kdg
Predict what will happen next, using pictures and content as a guide.Answer literal questions to demonstrate comprehension of orally read grade-appropriate texts.Monitor comprehension of orally read texts by asking and answering questions.Use pictures and illustrations to aid comprehension.Follow simple directions. Retell or re-enact a story that has been heard.Listen attentively to speakers, stories, poems and songs.Connect what is heard with prior knowledge and experience.Speak clearly and understandably.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 84
Assessment of Reading Comprehension
Ohio Content Standards that are assessed byAssessment of Reading Comprehension – Grade 1
Make predictions while reading and support predictions with information from the text or prior experience.Recall the important ideas in fictional and non-fictional texts.Answer literal, simple inferential and evaluative questions to demonstrate comprehension of grade-appropriate print texts and electronic and visual media.Monitor comprehension of independently- or group-read texts by asking and answering questions. Identify the sequence of events in informational text.
and Grade 2
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 85
Assessment of Reading Comprehension
Ohio Content Standards that are assessed byAssessment of Reading Comprehension – Grade 2
Identify characters, setting and events in a story.Retell the beginning, middle and ending of a story, including its important events.Report information to others.Use active listening skills, such as making eye contact or asking questions. Predict content, events and outcomes from illustrations and prior experience and support those predictions with examples from the text or background knowledge.Summarize text by recalling main ideas and somesupporting details.Retell the plot of a story.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 86
Assessment of Reading Comprehension
Ohio Content Standards that are assessed byAssessment of Reading Comprehension – Grade 3
Predict content, events and outcomes by using chapter titles, section headers, illustrations and story topics, and support those predictions with examples from the text.Summarize texts, sequencing information accurately and include main ideas and details as appropriate.Make inferences regarding events and possible outcomes from information in text.Answer literal, inferential and evaluative questions to demonstrate comprehension of grade-appropriate print texts and electronic and visual media.Retell the plot sequence.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 87
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 88
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 89
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 90
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 91
I Hope That’s All. . . . .
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 92
Adams, M. J. (1994). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Adams, M. J., Foorman, B. R., Lundberg, I., & Beeler, T. (1998). Phonemic awareness in young children. Ladders to literacy. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2004, January 20). ED issues final rulemaking for testing disabled students. Retrieved January 20, 2004, from http://www.asha.org/about/legislation‑advocacy/cognitive‑disabilities.htm
Arter, J. (2001). Scoring rubrics in the classroom: Using performance criteria for assessing and improving student performance. New York: Corwin Press.
Ashby-Davis, C. (1981). A review of three techniques for use with remedial readers. The Reading Teacher, 34(5), 534-538.
Barudin, S. I., & Hourcade, J. J. (1990, September). Relative effectiveness of three methods of reading instruction in developing specific recall and transfer skills in learners with moderate and severe mental retardation. Education and Training in Mental Retardation, 286-291.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 93
Bear, D. R., Invernizzi, M., Templeton, S., & Johnston, F. (2000). Words their way. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice-Hall.
Bennett, J., Jaccoma, R., & Weinstein, L. (Eds.). (1997). So far: Words from learners. Markham, Ontario: Fitzhenry Whiteside.
Calkins, L. M. (1983). Lessons from a child. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.Carpenter, C. D., Bloom, L. A., & Boat, M. B. (1999). Guidelines for special
educators: Achieving socially valid outcomes. Intervention in School and Clinic, 34(30), 143-149.
Celek, J. A., Pershey, M. G., & Fox, D. M. (2002). Phonological awareness acquisition in children with coexisting mental retardation and behavioral disorders. Contemporary Issues in Communication Sciences and Disorders, 29, 194-207.
Chapman, M. L. (1996, January). The development of phonemic awareness in young children: Some insights from a case study of a first-grade writer. Young Children, 31-37.
Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. (2003, Spring). Taking delight in words. American Educator. Retrieved January 20, 2004, from http://www.aft.org/american_educator/spring2003/words/html.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 94
Clay, M. (1982). Observing young readers: Selected papers. Exeter, NJ: Heinemann.
Clay, M. (1985). The early detection of reading difficulties: A diagnostic survey with recovery procedures. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Clay, M. (1993). An observation survey of early literacy. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Clay, M. (2001). Change over time in children’s literacy development. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Clay, M. (2002). An observation survey of early literacy achievement (2nd ed.). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Cramer, E. H., & Castle, M. (1994). Fostering the love of reading: The affective domain in reading education. Newark, DE: IRA.
Cullinan, B. E. (Ed.). (1993). Children's literature in the reading program. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Cullinan, B. E. (1993). Children's voices: Talk in the classroom. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Cunningham, P. M. (2000). Phonics they use: Words for reading and writing (3rd ed.). New York: Longman.
Dailey, K. A. (1991, Spring). Writing in kindergarten: Helping parents understand the process. Childhood Education, 170-175.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 95
Dyson, A. H. (1983). The role of oral language in early writing processes. Research in the Teaching of English, 17(1), 1-30.
Dyson, A. H. (1984). “N spells my grandmama”: Fostering early thinking about print. The Reading Teacher, 38, 262-271.
Ehren, B. J. (2004, January). Curriculum relevant therapy: SLP focus in addressing standards. Paper presented at the Cuyahoga County Special Education Regional Resource Center, Cleveland, OH.
Erickson, K. A., Koppenhaver, D. A., & Yoder, D. E. (1994). Literacy and adults with developmental disabilities. Philadelphia, PA: National Center on Adult Literacy.
Farrell, M., & Elkins, J. (1991). Literacy and the adolescent with Down syndrome. In C. Denholm (Ed.)., Adolescents with Down syndrome: International perspectives on research and programme development. Victoria, BC: University of Victoria.
Feuerstein, R., Rand, Y., & Hoffman, M. B. (1979). The dynamic assessment of retarded performance: The learning potential assessment device, theory, instruments, and techniques. Baltimore: University Park Press.
Fountas, I. C., & Pinnell, G. S. (2001). Guiding readers and writers grades 3-6. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 96
Fowler, A. E., Doherty, B. J., & Boynton, L. (1995). The basis of reading skill in young adults with Down syndrome. In L. Nadel & D. Rosenthal (Eds.)., Down syndrome: Living and learning in the community (pp. 182-196). New York: Wiley-Liss.
Fry, E. B., Fountonkidis, D. L., & Polk, J. K. (1985). The new reading teacher’s book of lists. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Ganske, K. (2000). Word journeys: Assessment-guided phonics, spelling, and vocabulary instruction. New York: Guildford Press.
Giordano, G. (1996). Literacy programs for adults with developmental disabilities. San Diego: Singular Publishing.
Gipe, J. P., Duffy, C. A., & Richards, J. C. (1993). Helping a nonspeaking adult male with cerebral palsy achieve literacy. Journal of
Reading, 36(5), 380-389.Goodman, Y. (1990). How children construct literacy: Piagetian
perspectives. Newark, DE: IRA.Hook, P. E., & Jones, S. D. (2002, Winter). The importance of automaticity
and fluency for efficient comprehension. International Dyslexia Association: Perspectives. Retrieved January 20, 2004, from
Hughes, D., McGillivray, L., & Schmidek, M. (1997). Guide to narrative language: Procedures for assessment. Eau Claire, WI: Thinking Publications.
Johnson, M. S., Kress, R. A., & Pikulski, J. J. (1987). Informal reading inventories. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Katims, D. S. (2000). Literacy instruction for people with mental retardation: Historical highlights and contemporary analysis. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 35(1), 3-15.
Kliewer, C., & Landis, D. (1999). Individualizing literacy instruction for young children with moderate to severe disabilities. Exceptional Children, 66(1), 85-100.
Kuhs, T. (2001). Put to the test: Tools and techniques for classroom assessment. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Publishers.
Lalli, J. S., & Browder, D. M. (1993). Comparison of sight word training procedures with validation of the most practical procedure in teaching reading for daily living. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 14, 107-127.
Laminack, L. L. (1990). "Possibilities, Daddy, I think it says possibilities": A father's journal of the emergence of literacy. The Reading Teacher, 43(8), 536-540.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 98
Lartz, M. N., & Mason, J. M. (1988). Jamie: One child's journey from oral to written language. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 3, 193-208.
Laubach, F. C., Kirk, E. M., & Laubach, R. S. (1991). Laubach way to reading. Syracuse, NY: New Readers Press, Publication Division of Laubach Literacy International.
Marcaccio, M. (1991). A will to learn. In G. L. Porter & D. Richler (Eds.)., Changing Canadian schools: Perspectives on disability and inclusion. North York, Ontario: The Roeher Institute.
Massey, D. D. (2003). A comprehension checklist: What if it doesn’t make sense? The Reading Teacher, 57(1), 81-84.
McGehee, K., & Nehring, P. (2003). Collaborative IEP writing: Beyond related services. Advance for Speech-Language Pathologists, 13(7) 8-9, 21.
Moll, L. C. (1990). Introduction. In L. C. Moll (Ed.)., Vygotsky and education: Instructional implications and applications of sociohistorical psychology (pp. 1-27). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Moni, K. B., & Jobling, A. (2000a). Ignoring the frontiers: Teaching poetry to adolescents with Down syndrome. Social Alternatives, 19(3), 36-39.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 99
Moni, K. B., & Jobling, A. (2000b). LATCH-ON: A literacy course for young adults with Down Syndrome. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 44, 40-49.
Moni, K., & Jobling, A. (2001). Reading related literacy learning of young adults with Down syndrome: Findings from a three year teaching and research program. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 48(4), 377-394.
Morrow, L. M. (1993). Literacy development in the early years. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Mulvaney, D. E., Fitzhugh, L. C., & Wagner, B. R. (1980). Teaching elementary spelling to a retarded resident by another retarded resident. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 51, 523-526.
National Center for Education Statistics. (2003). National Assessment of Educational Progress: The nation’s report card. Retrieved
January 20, 2004, from http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard National Reading Panel (2000). Teaching children to read: An
evidence‑based assessment of scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 100
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. Pub. L. No. 107-110. Retrieved January 20, 2004, from http://www.ed.gov
O’Connor, R., Notari-Syverson, A., & Vadasy, P. F. (1998). Ladders to literacy. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
Ohio Department of Education. (2005). Ohio’s alternate assessment for students with disabilities. Columbus, OH: Author. Retrieved January 26, 2006, from http://www.ode.state.oh.us/proficiency/AlternateAssessment/default.asp
Ohio Department of Education Office of Assessment. (2005). Ohiostatewide testing program rules book. Columbus, OH: Author. Retrieved January 26, 2006, from
Pershey, M. G. (2001). A rationale for classroom listening and speaking instruction. The Language Arts Journal of Michigan, 17(2), 18-25.
Pershey, M. G. (2003). High-stakes testing: The background behind testing-based educational reforms and implications for speech-language pathologists. Contemporary Issues in Communication Sciences and Disorders, 30, 47-58.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 101
Pershey, M. G. (2003). Testing-based education reforms and implications for SLPs. ASHA Division 16 Newsletter: School Based Issues, 4(1), 46-52.
Pershey, M. G., & Gilbert, T. W. (2002). Christine: A case study of literacy acquisition by an adult with developmental disabilities. Mental Retardation, 40(3), 219-234.
Piaget, J. (1926). The language and thought of the child. New York: Harcourt, Brace.
Raines, S. C., & Canady, R. J. (1990). The whole language kindergarten. New York: Teachers College Press.
Raphael, D., Brown, I., Renwick, R., & Rootman, I. (1996). Assessing the quality of life of persons with developmental disabilities: Description of a new model, measuring instruments, and initial findings. International Journal of Disability, Development, and Education, 43(1), 25-42.
Retherford, K. S. (2003). Normal development: A database of communication and related behaviors birth to 12+ years (2nd ed.). Eau Claire, WI: Thinking Publications.
Reutzel, D. R., & Cooter, R. B. (2003). Strategies for reading assessment and instruction: Helping every child succeed (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 102
Rosa, A., & Montero, I. (1990). The historical context of Vygotsky’s work: A sociohistorical approach. In L. C. Moll (Ed.)., Vygotsky and education: Instructional implications and applications of sociohistorical psychology (pp. 59-88). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Roskos, K., & Walker, B. J. (1994). Interactive handbook for understanding reading diagnosis. New York: Merrill.
Ruiter, I. D. (2000). Allow me! A guide to promoting communication skills in adults with developmental delays. Toronto: The Hanen Centre.
Schuele, C. M., & Dayton, N. D. (2000). Intensive phonological awareness program. Obtain from [email protected] or (615) 837-2860.
Scott, J., & McCleary, S. (1989). Diagnostic reading inventory for primary and intermediate grades. Akron, OH: Scott & McCleary Publishing Company.
Silvaroli, N. J. (1997). Classroom reading inventory. Dubuque, IA: Brown & Benchmark Publishers.
Slosson, R. L. (1963). Slosson oral reading test. East Aurora, NY: Slosson Educational Publications.
Smith, P. (1999). Drawing new maps: A radical cartography of developmental disabilities. Review of Educational Research, 69(2), 117-144.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 103
Speaking of equality: A guide to choosing an inclusive literacy program for people with an intellectual disability. (1995). North York, Ontario: The Roeher Institute.
Speaking of equality: Making literacy programs accessible to people with an intellectual disability. (1995). North York, Ontario: The Roeher Institute.
Stahl, S. A. (1992). Saying the “p” word: Nine guidelines for exemplary phonics instruction. The Reading Teacher, 45(8), 618-625.
Stahl, S. A., Osborn, J., & Lehr, F. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print by M.J. Adams. A summary. Urbana- Champaign: U. of IL.
Stahl, S. A. (2003, Spring). Words are learned incrementally over multiple exposures. American Educator. Retrieved January 20, 2004, from http://www.aft.org/american_educator/spring2003/index.html
Stauffer, R. (1970). The language experience approach to the teaching of reading. New York: Harper & Row.
Stieglitz, E. L. (1997). The Stieglitz Informal Reading Inventory. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Storey, K., & Horner, R. H. (1991). An evaluative review of social validation research involving persons with handicaps. The Journal of Special Education, 25(3), 352-401.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 104
Sturm, J., & Koppenhaver, D. A. (2000). Supporting writing development in adolescents with developmental disabilities. Topics in
Language Disorders, 20(2), 73-92.Sylwester, R. (1995). A celebration of neurons: An educator's guide to the
human brain. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Tompkins, G. E. (1998). 50 literacy strategies: Step by step. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. Trent, S. C., Artiles, A. J., & Englert, C. S. (1998). From deficit thinking to
social constructivism: A review of theory, research, and practice in special education. In D. P. Pearson & A. Iran-Nejad, (Eds.)., Review of research in education, Vol. 23 (pp.277-307). Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.
U.S. Department of Education. (2000). Twenty-second annual report to Congress on the implementation of Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Washington, DC: Author.
U.S. Department of Education. (2003). No Child Left Behind: Supplemental educational services non-regulatory guidance. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved January 20, 2004, from
van Dongen, R. (1986). "I like the long name": Young children using literate language. Insights into Open Education, 18(8), 3-17.
van Kraayenoord, C. E. (1994). Literacy for adults with an intellectual disability in Australia. Journal of Reading, 37(7), 608-10.
van Kraayenoord, C. E., Moni, K. B., Jobling. A., & Ziebarth, K. (2002). Broadening approaches to literacy education for young adults with Down syndrome. In M. Cuskelly, S. Buckley, & A. Jobling (Eds.)., Down syndrome across the lifespan (pp. 93-106). London: Whurr.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind and society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Wallach, G. P., & Miller, L. (1988). Language intervention and academic success. Boston: College Hill Press.
Weaver, C. (1994). Reading process and practice from socio-psycholinguistics to whole language (2nd ed.). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Wehmeyer, M. L., & Metzler, C. A. (1995). How self-determined are people with mental retardation? The National Consumer Survey. Mental Retardation, 33(2), 111-119.
Gordon Pershey, M. (2006) OSLHA 106
Wertsch, J. V. (1990). The voice of rationality in a sociocultural approach to mind. In L. C. Moll (Ed.)., Vygotsky and education:
Instructional implications and applications of sociohistorical psychology (pp. 1-27). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Westby, C. E., & Costlow, L. (1991). Implementing a whole language program in a special education class. Topics in Language Disorders, 11(3), 69-84.
Wong, B. Y. L. (1986). Metacognition and special education: A review of a view. Journal of Special Education, 20(1), 9-29.
Young, L., Moni, K. B., Jobling, A., & vanKraayenoord, C. E. (2004). Literacy skills of adults with intellectual disabilities in two community-based day programs. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 51(1), 83-97.