INTRODUCTION: The research team has selected the topic of “Glass ceiling” for the research project. It has been observed that during the last few years a lot of women are going in management field but not a lot of them are getting an opportunity to get into the top management positions. This has got nothing to do with their abilities and dedication to their work, it is clear that glass ceiling is affecting and stopping the women from reaching the top management positions. The problem of glass ceiling persists in the other countries of the world as is clear from the previous researches but this problem is more evident in Pakistan. This is because despite the boom in education sector, the society still remains conservative and negative feelings and stereotypes do exist against women employees. As a result of the glass ceiling, the performance of women employees is also being affected. This is a cause of concern and it is happening because women managers feel that they are not being treated equally. They develop the feelings that their efforts are not being properly rewarded. Due to the presence of pre-defined rules and regulation for promotions women working in public sector are not being affected a great deal by glass ceiling. Thus it is the private sector where the women are facing glass ceiling the most. The significance of this study is that the research team looked into the main problems which are prohibiting the women from going into the top management positions. By identifying the factors causing the problems, the team will be able to judge the reasons and help 1
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INTRODUCTION:
The research team has selected the topic of “Glass ceiling” for the research project. It has been
observed that during the last few years a lot of women are going in management field but not a
lot of them are getting an opportunity to get into the top management positions. This has got
nothing to do with their abilities and dedication to their work, it is clear that glass ceiling is
affecting and stopping the women from reaching the top management positions. The problem of
glass ceiling persists in the other countries of the world as is clear from the previous researches
but this problem is more evident in Pakistan. This is because despite the boom in education
sector, the society still remains conservative and negative feelings and stereotypes do exist
against women employees. As a result of the glass ceiling, the performance of women employees
is also being affected. This is a cause of concern and it is happening because women managers
feel that they are not being treated equally. They develop the feelings that their efforts are not
being properly rewarded. Due to the presence of pre-defined rules and regulation for promotions
women working in public sector are not being affected a great deal by glass ceiling. Thus it is the
private sector where the women are facing glass ceiling the most. The significance of this study
is that the research team looked into the main problems which are prohibiting the women from
going into the top management positions. By identifying the factors causing the problems, the
team will be able to judge the reasons and help eradicate them. It is important to look in the
organizational factors that would help the women to reach to top management positions as early
as they deserve. This study is an effort to not only identify the factors responsible for affecting
the performance of women managers through glass ceiling but also to give solutions to over
come from this problems.
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LITERATURE REVIEW
The term ‘glass ceiling’ refers to the transparent but real and strong barrier which prevents
women from moving up in the management hierarchy in an organization (Morrison & Glinow,
1990). The minority of women in senior management has led many researchers to investigate
whether glass ceiling barriers such as sexual discrimination, gender wage gap, gender stereotype,
harassment and lack of family-friendly workplace policies in the organizations are at play and
how these barriers affect the performance of female employees in the organizations (Jeavons &
Sevastos, 2002).
The existence of glass ceiling in different organizations, cultures and time span has been
confirmed by many researchers. In 1997, Tokunaga & Graham looked at employees in the
technical division at one large Fortune 500 corporation and found that female engineers could
not advance as far up the corporate hierarchy as did the male engineers, thereby providing
evidence for the existence of a “glass ceiling” against women. A research conducted by Veale &
Gold (1998) in Metropolitan District Council situated in Yorkshire, UK also confirmed that a
glass ceiling did exist within the council and this inhibited women’s progression into senior
management.
This existence of a strong glass ceiling effect prevents women to progress in the organizations. A
study controlled for previous job experience, education, age, tenure, initial job level and gender
showed that even levels of promotions existed for men and women. However, qualitative data
showed that women were employed by the organization at a level that was lower than their
qualifications, or lower than men doing the same job. Therefore, even with equal rates of
promotion, women will not progress as far as men (Jeavons & Sevastos, 2002).
There a number of factors that keeps the glass ceiling in effect. One of them is the gender
stereotype. Over the last three decades, Schein (2007) found that gender stereotyping of the
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managerial position has continued to be the major barrier to women’s progress in management,
worldwide. He also shown that on international level, the view of women as less likely than men
to possess requisite management characteristics is a commonly held belief among male
management students in the USA, the UK, Germany, China and Japan.
Apart from gender stereotyping, gender wage gap also plays its role in the organizations. Across
a sample of eleven European Union countries in 1995–2001 Booth & Bryan (2007) found that
women were paid less than men and this wage gap typically widened toward the top of the wage
distribution (the “glass ceiling” effect), and in a few cases it also widened at the bottom (the
“sticky floor” effect). In recent studies of promotion to partner process, Kumra & Vinnicombe
(2008) concluded that the disadvantages women face in organizations in relation to the
promotion to partner process arise from a combination of firm-based and societal based factors.
Discussing the relationship between discrimination, harassment and glass ceiling (Bell,
McLaughlin & Sequeira, 2002), glass ceiling was referred as one of the form of sex
discrimination. In the study it was concluded that because all three have some common
antecedents, steps to reduce one of them will likely affect the others. Apart from that they
suggested that measures designed to increase numbers of women in higher level positions will
reduce sexual harassment.
As a result of this glass ceiling there is an inclination of women to entrepreneurship as a result of
barriers to women’s advancements in corporation (Mattis, 2004). Mattis showed that lack of
flexibility continued to be a feature of the corporate culture that lead to the attrition of high
potential women and contributed to the dramatic increase in entrepreneurship among women in
the US
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Glass ceiling affects the performance of women at managerial posts. Some of the “masculine”
organizational barriers that severely hinder women’s ability to be effective in their role as
strategic decision makers include reluctance of male subordinates towards female managers;
isolation by male colleagues; exclusion from male-dominated informal networks and the lack of
mentorship (Okanlawon, 1994). Exploration of a model of decision making (Large & Saunders,
1995) explains how a combination of both individual choices (employees’ own perceptions,
requirements and priorities like family, social life) and organizational blockages (organizational
structure, policies and culture) maintains the glass ceiling.
Gender related attributes also play their role. An appropriate theoretical foundation for
explaining differences between male and female service providers originates in the sociology
literature and is referred to as feminist theory. This theory proffers two perspectives regarding
gender-related differences in performance. One argues that there are a wide variety of issues that
are impacted by society’s attitudes towards women (Hooks, 2000). These attitudes are based in
the history and institutional structure of society. As a result, women are treated differently than
men, so that the performance of businesses owned by women suffers. Another stream of
literature argues that there are innate differences between male and female approaches to issues.
These differences lead women to take different actions than males in similar situations (Buttner,
2001; Fletcher, 1998).
There is an alternative theoretical perspective that would not accept the arguments advanced by
feminist theory. The foundation for most of this research is the rational economic model (Ferber
& Nelson, 1993). This theory argues that individuals make rational economic choices and seek to
maximize economic benefit to themselves or the firm. Most of these models assume that
customers are economically rational and will make their choices based on the benefits gained
from the transaction, and not the gender of the service provider. Prior research on whether
gender as an impact on the financial performance of professional service providers has not
provided clear insights on whether feminist theory or the rational economic model is more valid.
Some researchers find that women achieve lower financial performance than men (Hisrich &