GIJ: LEVEL 300 (SEMESTER 1) – COMS 112 THEORIES OF ...zydo.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/COMS-112-THEORIES-OF-COM… · Communication theories are classified into different categories

GIJ: LEVEL 300 (SEMESTER 1) – COMS 112 THEORIES OF COMMUNICATION

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What is theory A theory is any organized set of concepts, explanations and principles of some aspect of human experience – Littlejohn and Foss (2008). A theory is a related set of concepts and principles about a phenomenon, the purpose of which is to explain or predict the phenomenon.

Components of theory: Theories basically consists of concepts, assumptions and generalization.

Mass communication: When a source, typically an organization, employs technology as a medium to communicate with a large audience. Media theory refers to the complex of social-political-philosophical principles which organize ideas about the relationship between media and society.

Components of Theory * A concept is a symbolic representation of an actual thing ie; stone, table, spoon, distance * A construct is the word for concepts with no physical reference ie; democracy, learning, freedom etc. Language enables conceptualization. * A principle expresses the relationship between two or more concepts or constructs.

Theories and Models Models refer to a more descriptive process and may describe how a process occurs but not necessarily why it occurs in that way. Models are similar to theories but the two are different. Models and models both include concepts and constructs. (shannon’s 1948) Model of

Communication process.

How communication theories are developed -from thought and research that explains how messages are produced, conveyed and received between communication parties. - from observation - from description - from categorization - from analysis

Mutuality of theory and research: explains that theory and research are interwoven and the existence of one depends on the other.

Functions of theory -help in describing, predicting and explaining a phenomenon/ to provide general explanation for a phenomenon ie; it can explain the effect of certain messages on the receiver/audience - help to link facts together (without which facts and concepts will stand isolated and fragmented) - it serves as a ‘crap detector’ which enables us to separate scientific statements from unscientific ones. - to guide empirical research ie; provide conceptual underpinnings for the dev’t of hypothesis. - to provide for cumulative research ie for the dev’t of knowledge to build upon earlier research works.


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- to guide action in the sense of providing the basis for making decisions about practical everyday questions.

Functions of theories

Familiarity with communication theories expands our knowledge of the communication process.

Theories enable us organise and understand communication experiences. Through theories we can systematically observe and to explain relationships between concepts.

They help us to make predictions (hypothesize) and to control communication outcomes.

Theories offer guidance on what to focus on in communication situations. Theories help us make sense of situations by focusing on the most important issues.

They also aid us in challenging social and cultural ideas/realities. Our understanding of theories help us to think in new ways and to ask critical questions.

Why study communication theories? - expands our knowledge and understanding of the human communication process - enables us to organize and understand our communication experiences - helps us to make predictions and control communication outcome - helps us to make sense of situations by focusing on the most important issues - aid us in challenging current social and cultural realities/ideas by helping us think in new ways and ask critical questions. - helps us to choose which communicative behaviours to study.

Challenges to the Explanatory Power of Communication theories 1. Presence of many media 2. Their many facets and characteristics 3. Their constant changes 4. An always-developing audience 5. The ever-evolving nature of human societies

Classification of theories Communication theories are classified into different categories based on their nature and focus.

1.Normative theories Explain how media systems ought to function (operate) in order to conform to society’s values and ideals. Normative theories describes an ideal way for a media system to be controlled and operated by the government, authority, leader and public. First proposed by Fred Siebert, Theodore Peterson and Wilbur Schramm in their book called “Four Theories of the Press”. Normative theories do not provide any scientific explanations but describe what the norm should be. Normative theories are more focused in the relationship between Press and the Government than press and the audience. These theories are more concern about the ownership of the media and who controls the press or media in the country.

a) Authoritarian media theory: Under this theory, the press, as an institution, is controlled in its functions and operations by organised society through another institution, government. For example some countries blocked wikileaks websites from being views in their countries because wikileaks is not complying with government censorship by realizing classified documents to the world. Another example is provision of licenses to media houses to operate which can be revoked when the violate gov’t policies.


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Postulates/assumptions

The nature of man -Man could attain his fullest potential only as a member of society. The group is hence more important than the individual.

The nature of society and of the state - The state is the highest expression of group organisation, and it supersedes the individual in terms of values. The state has power to determine ends and methods for achieving those ends.

The relationship of man to the state - It is man that needs the state. 'In and around the state, man achieves his ends; without the state, man remains a primitive being.'

The nature of knowledge and of truth- Knowledge is discovered through mental effort, and since individuals differ in their mental capacity to discover knowledge, the knowledgeable must be leaders or at least the advisers of leaders. Authoritarians also considered truth as absolute.

Authoritarian press

Under authoritarian regimes, the state actively participates in the mass communication process and it uses the dissemination of ideas, information and opinions to influence the accomplishment of predetermined objectives.

Authoritarians believed that the media (whether public or private) should support and advance the policies of the government in power.

Mechanisms of authoritarian press control

State monopoly- Government sponsored monopolies

Licensing and censorship

Prosecution- libel and sedition

b) Libertarian or free press media theory: Proponents of libertarian theory believed that citizens should be enlightened on issues in order to make informed decisions. To facilitate this process, the press as a vital source of information and guidance should be free from state control.

Postulates/ASSUMPTIONS

Nature of man - Man is a rational animal. He is the prime unit of civilisation as well as its mover.

The nature of Society and of the state - the main function of society is to advance the interest of its individual members. Society must be protected from being an end in itself. The state is necessary but only as a system that should help man realise his own potential.

The relationship of man to the state - The fulfilment of the individual is the ultimate goal- the goal of man of society and of the state.

Truth and knowledge -The power of reason in God-given. That is, man can achieve an awareness of his world through his own effort. Truth is definitive and can be found through mechanistic experimentation and observation.


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Libertarian press

The function of the libertarian press was to educate the citizenry and to guard against government control.

Under this system, the press was charged with a new responsibility of keeping government from overstepping its bounds.

Mass media under libertarian systems are to help in the discovery of the truth, to assist in the process of solving political problems by presenting various evidence and opinion as the basis for decisions.

Press control under libertarian theory

Protection from injuring the reputation of individuals by defamation.

Prohibition against circulation of obscene and indecent materials.

c) Social responsibility media theory: is a modified version of free press theory placing greater emphasis upon the accountability of the media to society by serving the public good.

Postulates/Basic Assumptions

• Freedom comes with obligations/responsibilities; and the press which enjoys freedom under the government is expected to be responsible to society in serving the public good.

• When the press does not comply with its responsibility, another agency must ensure compliance, usually through professional self-regulation or public intervention.

• The media should meet certain professional standards in line with democratic principles.

Hutchins Commission Recommendations

The 1947 Commission on the Freedom of the Press (Hutchins Commission) recommended that a commitment of social responsibility be 'imposed' on mass media in modern democracies.

The commission called on the media to;

1. Provide a truthful, comprehensive and intelligent account of the day's events in a context which gives the meaning.

2. Serve as a forum for exchange of comment and criticism.

3. Project a responsible picture of the constituent groups in society

4. Be responsible for the presentation and clarification of the goals and values of the society.

5. Provide full access to the day's intelligence.

- Media practitioners also began to link responsibility with freedom. Codes of ethics were developed to guide the behaviour of the press in the performance of their functions.

Media control under Social Responsibility Theory


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• The social responsibility theory demanded that media practitioners performed their functions ethically (responsibly) in the utmost interest of society, if not the public would demand that government regulate the media.

d) Soviet Communist media theory: The operations and function of the media is under the control of the leader of the nation. Theory says the state have absolute power to control any media for the benefits of people. They put end to the private ownership of the press and other media. The government media provide information, education, entertainment, motivation and mobilization.

Criticisms of the 4 Normative Press theories

• It is Eurocentric in approach (classic liberalism).

• The four theories produced superficial analysis that is not based on detailed research. They prescribe what the press should be and do rather than offer scientific explanations.

e) Development media theory: Proponent - Denis McQuail (1987) essentially proposes that media freedom should be subordinated to the economic, social and political development of the state. It says that the media functions should support the government in economic development rather than criticize the government and its policies. This theory relates more to developing nations or nations with limited resources.

Postulates/Assumptions

• Media liberties should be made subordinate/secondary to the achievement of socioeconomic development.

• Common objectives as stated by the government should be given priority over individual liberties.

• Government mobilizes media to serve national goals in economic and social development.

• Whenever necessary, the media must be controlled and the information can be manipulated to achieve national development objectives (ie literacy, economic self-sufficiency etc).

Role and functions of media

The media and government are partners in development and hence;

• Media should rally behind the national development agenda and not be critical

• The media should give preference to information about national, cultural and language issues

• In the name of protecting development objectives, the state has the right to intervene by restricting and censoring the media.

This theory is the basis for *Development journalism/ new journalism for Third World countries

f) Democratic Participation Theory

An idealistic theory advocating media support for participatory democracy and cultural pluralism at grassroots level. This theory is primarily a reaction against commercialization and monopolies in


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privately controlled mass media, and against centralization and bureaucratization in public broadcasting.

Postulates/Assumptions

• Social needs are neglected by established media, hence, mass communication must not be left entirely to media professionals.

• Media audience have rights to relevant information, to be heard as well as to hear and be shown (representation).

• Media messages and content shouldn’t be affected by the bureaucratic and political control.

• Media existence should be proved in respect of the interests and needs of the recipient and shouldn’t be justified in respect of interests and needs of the media entity.

• Relatively small scale multiple, local, non-institutional media must be promoted because they link media (senders) with audience (receivers)

Role and functions of mass media

• Media audience are treated as citizens not as consumers. Individuals and minorities should be able to enforce their claim to; the right of access to the media and the right to have their needs served.

• The organisation of the media and the content of messages are devoid of political or bureaucratic control.

• Community-owned media and participatory forms of media are encouraged because they are more beneficial than large scale media which are used only by professional media workers.

• The existence of the media is justified in terms of the needs and interests of citizens, and not exclusively in terms of those of the media organisations, professional media workers or advertisers.

2.Theories of the Message Explains how mass media content is constructed and the influence this has on audience. It is about the influences of mass media on content, where sometimes reality presented matches the world, and sometimes it does not.

The message is the content of communication. Mass media content—both news and entertainment—is shaped, pounded, constrained, and encouraged by a multitude of forces.

a) Agenda setting: Postulated by Max McCombs and Donald Shaw in a study on presidential election in America in 1968. The theory describes the ability of the media to transfer the salience/importance /emphasis of issues onto audience, by setting (deciding) what issues the public thinks about. Agenda setting is also considered a function/role of the media.

Basic Assumptions


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This theory has two main assumptions

(1) The media do not reflect reality; they filter and shape it.

(2) Media concentration on a few issues and subjects leads the public to perceive those issues as more important than other issues.

■ Agenda setting is facilitated by accessibility (from memory). This is a cognitive process which implies that the more frequently and prominently the news media covers an issue, the more that issue becomes accessible (easily recalled) in the audience’s memory.

Types of Agenda Setting

Everet Rogers and J. W. Dearing (1988) identified three types of agenda setting.

■ Public agenda: focuses on the audience’s agenda

■ Media agenda: focuses on the influence of the mass media on the audience.

■ Policy agenda: deals with how media and public agenda may be influenced by elite policy makers.

Criticism of Agenda Setting Theory

■ The theory is casual, the cause of and direction of the agenda setting theory can be difficult to measure.

■ The theory seemed to imply that the audience are generally passive.

Does the Media Still set the Agenda?

■ Agenda setting theory was developed at a time (1960s) when media was a one-way communication model with radio, television, film, and print sources pushing content onto the audience.

■ Does the media still set the agenda in today’s digital era of interactive media (internet/new media)?

b) Framing theory: By Erving Goffman (1974), posits that the media focuses attention on certain issues and then places them within a field of meaning. Framing theory suggests that how issues are presented to the audience (called “the frame”) influences the choices people make about how to process that information. Framing theory explains how media control audience interpretation of messages by emphasizing some issues and ignoring others. It is known as second-level agenda setting theory because - they not only tell the audience what to think about (agenda-setting theory), but also how to think about that issue (second level agenda setting, framing theory).

Frames and framing

Frames are cultural in origin. They are referred to as scripts or schemata in psychology. Goffman (1974) considers framing as a “schemata of interpretation” that enables individuals to “locate, perceive, identify and label” occurrences or life experiences. Frames of meaning in the mass communication process are built through selection, emphasis, and exclusion. A frame may cause audience to focus their attention on some issues and to ignore others.


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Basic Assumptions

■ It is based on the assumption that how an issue is characterised in news reports can have an influence on how it is understood by audiences. Journalists select issues to present and they decide to present particular issues in a manner that influences audience understanding of the issues presented.

■ Mass media audiences interpret information through their own frames. Audiences’ frames may overlap or contradict the media’s frames.

■ Frame building is systematic, it occurs over time and frames are reinforced every time they are evoked.

Limitations of Framing Theory

■ Perceived source credibility. Framing is effective only when audience consider the information source as credible.

■ Individuals’ interpretations of frames may also differ. As a result, pieces of information that are open to multiple interpretations hardly yield the desired framing effect.

c) Priming Theory: Postulated by Shanto Iyengar, Mark Peters, and Donald Kinder in 1982. Priming theory explains how messages from the media are stored in human minds and its influence on human decision making process. Priming changes the standards that people use to evaluate related issues. Priming effect is more effective through repetition.

Basic Assumptions

■ The media provide audience with standards and frames for reference. These enhance media effects by offering a context for interpretation.

■ Mass media affect audience behaviour/judgement by stimulating and associating thoughts which are caused due to the mental relations existing in the memory

Limitations of priming theory

■ The main limitation of priming theory is that people who already care about particular issues may be immune to priming effect on such issues

Implications of priming theory

The priming theory implies that the news media can influence the standards people use when evaluating political actors. In addition to this, media coverage can influence the attitudes and considerations people apply when evaluating concepts and ideas.

d) Gate keeping theory: By Kurt Zadek Lewin (1947). Gatekeeping theory is the process by which information (events or issues) is selected and filtered (shaped) by the media before it is offered to the general public. The decision points are referred to as gates, the decision makers are the gatekeepers (reporters, editors). Gatekeepers consciously or unconsciously change the information.

Basic Assumptions


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■ Gatekeepers decide which information will go forward, and which will not.

■ Gatekeeping decisions are complex. They are the product of various influences, preferences, motives and common values. – Many media organisations perform their gatekeeping function according to set standards.

■ Gatekeepers do not have independent power but instead they are interdependent.

Implications of Gatekeeping

■ The choices of gatekeepers hold the potential to shape and colour the message. This subsequently affects people’s understanding of what is happening in the world around them.

■ Gatekeeping is useful but it can also be dangerous, as it can lead to abuse of (journalistic) power by deciding what information to discard and what to let pass.

Weaknesses/Limitations

■ Gatekeeping theory is fundamentally a descriptive theory, with it offers little if any predictive power.

■ Gatekeeping is not consistent. The process of gatekeeping is altered significantly across different media; print, electronic and digital.

f) Diffusion of Innovation theory: Posited by E. M. Rogers in 1962. DoI is a theory that explain how, why, and at what rate new ideas (innovation) and technology spread through a population. DoI centers on the conditions that increase/decrease the likelihood that an innovation will be adopted by members of a given society.

Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system.

Four main elements influence the spread of a new idea/innovation

■ INNOVATION: An idea, practice or object that is perceived as new by an individual or group.

■ COMMUNICATION CHANNELS: Medium by which information get from one individual to the other. The process by which participants create and share information to one another in order to reach a mutual understanding

■ TIME: Time involved the innovation-decision, adoption process and adoption rate across the social system.

■ SOCIAL SYSTEM: The individuals and groups involved in the innovation adoption process. Social systems are acted upon by internal and external influences

Main Assumptions

■ Diffusion of innovation is a time bound process: DoI is not instantaneous, it occurs through a stage by stage step process.

■ There are different adopter categories: Some people are more likely to adopt innovation than others.


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■ The adoption of innovation is influenced by the characteristics of innovation.

■ Different (communication) strategies must be used to appeal to the different adopter categories.

Adopter Categories

1. Innovators - These are venturesome people who want to be the first to try the innovation. These people are very willing to take risks, hence very little, if anything, needs to be done to appeal to this population.

2. Early Adopters - These people are like opinion leaders. They enjoy leadership roles, and embrace change opportunities. They are already aware of the need to change and so are very comfortable adopting new ideas.

3. Early Majority - These people are rarely leaders, but they do adopt new ideas before the average person.

4. Late Majority - Late Majority - These people are skeptical of change, and will only adopt an innovation after it has been tried by the majority.

5. Laggards - These people are bound by tradition and very conservative. They are very skeptical of change and are the hardest group to bring on board.

Factors influencing adoption of Innovation

■ Relative Advantage - The degree to which an innovation is seen as better than the idea it replaces.

■ Compatibility - How consistent the innovation is with the values, experiences, and needs of the potential adopters.

■ Complexity - How difficult the innovation is to understand and/or use.


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■ Triability - The extent to which the innovation can be tested or experimented with before a commitment to adopt is made.

■ Observability - The extent to which the innovation provides tangible results

Limitations of DoI

■ The theory assumes that all innovation is positive and that all innovations should be adopted, but this is not always the case.

■ The one-way information flow, from sender to receiver, makes diffusion of innovation persuasive and non-participatory.

3.Audience theories Explain how the media audience receive, interpret and respond to media texts. Media audience may be passive or active. Passive audience are inactive in the communication process, they accept imposed meanings. Active audience are involved (actively) in the communication process, and they partake emotionally and cognitively in making sense of texts.

Media audience are now considered ACTIVE and this has implications for comprehension, interpretation, evaluation and response to media messages.

a) Hypodermic needle theory/Magic bullet theory: Harold Laswell is one of the proponents of this theory developed in 1930s and 40s. This theory posits that media messages are directly received and wholly accepted by audience. The Hypodermic needle theory is a linear communication theory that suggests that media messages are injected directly into the brains of passive audiences.

Basic Assumptions

1. Media audiences are passive and helpless.

2. The media has a strong and direct effect on the behaviour, thinking and attitudes of media users.

3. Media audience react uniformly to stimuli.

Implication of Hypodermic needle theory

■ The theory demonstrates that the media has immense power to drastically influence opinion, behaviour and attitude. Thus, there is no escape from media effects.

■ For showing negative messages to audience, media organisations are largely responsible for negative acts (violence, obscenity) in society.

■ Hypodermic needle thinking is usually the basis for advocacy for more control (regulation) of the media.

Criticisms of Hypodermic needle theory

■ The assumptions at the basis of the Hypodermic Needle theory are somehow obsolete. ■ The theory is overly simplistic. It does not consider the intelligence and opinion of media

audience as relevant to reception. ■ The theory is too deterministic and the idea of effects is too general.


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b) Uses and gratification theory: Herta Herzog (1944) is the main proponent of this theory which was further enhanced by Blumler, J. & McQuail D. in 1969. UGT explains how audience/individuals deliberately choose media that satisfy their particular needs such as knowledge, entertainment, relaxation, or socializing. UGT is an audience-centered to understanding mass communication.

Basic Assumption of Uses and gratification theory

■ Audience members are active and they have power over media usage (selective). ■ Audience’s selection and use of mass media is purposive, goal directed and motivated to

satisfy certain social and psychological needs or desires.

Uses and Gratification theory at work

UGT attempts an explanation of how media audience use mass communication to gratify their needs by answering the following three questions;

1. What do people do with the media?

2. What are the underlying motives for individuals’ media use?

3. What are the consequences (positive/negative) of individual media use?

Implications of Uses and Gratification theory

■ Media usage is a fundamental human need. ■ Media users are conscious of their media consumption decisions and they select different

media to satisfy particular needs or desires. ■ It is possible to know what people use particular media (Newspapers, Radio, television,

Social media) for, and this tells us about our human desires.

Criticisms of Uses and Gratification theory

■ This theory usually presents inconsistent research outcomes because audiences of different ages differ in their motivation for using the same media.

■ UGT is difficult to measure, as a result, much of the data collected in UGT studies are self-reported.

■ Critics argue that media use is passive and habitual, and the theory exaggerates the extent of active use.

c) Media dependency theory or Media system dependency theory: The theory was postulated by communications researchers Sandra Ball-Rokeach and Melvin DeFleur in 1976. This theory argues that you depend on media information to meet certain needs and achieve certain goals, but you do not depend on all media equally. MDT is a build on of the Uses and Gratification Theory.

Basic Assumptions

■ The greater the number of social functions performed for an audience by a medium (information, entertainment), the greater the audience’s dependency on that medium.


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■ The greater the instability of a society (conflict and rapid social change) the greater the audience’s dependency on the media and, therefore, the greater the potential effects of the media on the audience.

Factors influencing the Degree of Media Dependence

■ The ability of media to meet a number of needs. People become more dependent on media that meet a number of needs than on media that provide just a few.

■ Social stability. High rates of social changes/conflict challenge established beliefs, and practices, compelling individuals to re-examine their media use and make new choices. Reliance on the media for information increases in conflict of or high social change, it decreases in stable times.

Types of Media Effects under Media Dependency theory

Media system dependency (MSD) relations in society brings about cognitive, affective, and behavioural effects

■ Cognitive effects: This refers to changes in an audience’s values, beliefs and attitude. This also includes changes brought about by the media in its its ‘agenda setting’ role

■ Affective effects: This refers to how the media influences emotions. EG: some audience may be anxious or fearful about leaving in certain neighbourhoods because of overexposure to news reports about violent events in such areas.

■ Behavioural effect: Depending on mass media may change how people behave. An example of this is “deactivation,” this occurs when individual members of an audience refrain from taking certain actions that they would have taken had they not been exposed to certain messages from the media.

Implications of Media Dependency theory

■ The need to use the media is not strictly personal but may be influenced by various social conditions and culture. As such, our needs, motives, and uses of media are contingent on external factors that may not be in under our control.

■ Also, the more media alternatives (functional alternatives) available for gratifying one’s needs, the less dependent she or he will be on any single medium.

Criticisms of Media Dependency theory

■ MDT research tends to be more descriptive than explanatory or predictive. As such, MDT lacks power in explaining long-term effects.

■ It’s difficult to prove experimentally.

d) Two-step flow theory: The theory was postulated by Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson and Hazel Gaudet in 1944. The Two Step Flow Theory suggests that opinion leaders pay close attention to the mass media and pass on their interpretation of media messages to other individuals. Unlike the Hypodermic Needle Theory, The Two Step Flow Theory maintains that audiences are active participants in the communication process.

Basic Assumptions of two-step flow theory


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■ The flow of information and influence from the mass media to their audiences involves two steps: from the media to certain individuals (i.e., the opinion leaders) and from them to the public.

■ Opinion leaders absorb the messages from the mass media, recast and reinterpret the messages, and through personal connections, pass them along to the usually less active, distracted and unaware audience.

■ Audiences are composed of individuals who are part of a society. They interpret media messages and are influenced by people around them.

Limitations of Two-step flow theory

■ The theory does not account for horizontal and cross flow of information (opinion leader to opinion leader).

■ There are probably more than two steps in the flow of communication today. ■ The Internet and social media make it easy to bypass the established news media entirely

and send targeted information to individuals and groups.

g) Knowledge gap theory: The Knowledge Gap Hypothesis was first proposed in 1970 by Tichenor,Donohue and OLien. This theory is concerned mainly with “information” and “knowledge” and emphasizes that knowledge is not distributed equally throughout society. This theory states that as the infusion of mass media information into a social system increases, segments of the population with higher socio-economic status tend to acquire this information at a faster rate than the lower status segments, so that the gap in knowledge between these two segments tend to increase rather than decrease”.

5 Reasons Knowledge gap exists

■ Communication skills: People with a higher socioeconomic status generally have more education, which improves their reading, comprehension, and memory skills.

■ Stored information: People with higher socioeconomic status are more likely to already be aware of topics in the news through previous media exposure or through formal education.

■ Relevant social contact: People with higher socioeconomic status generally have a broader interpersonal contacts with whom they are more likely to discuss news topics.

■ Selective exposure: People with lower socioeconomic status may be less interested, and therefore less likely, to expose themselves to certain news topics.

■ Media target markets: Media outlets cater to the tastes and interests of their audience.

SELECTED THEORIES IN PR AND ADVERTISING Organizations may use a variety of marketing communication tools and media in order to convey particular messages to audiences.

The major elements of the marketing communications mix are:

1. Advertising 2. Sales promotion 3. Public relations 4. Personal selling 5. Direct marketing


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Elaboration likelihood model (ELM)

■ The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) proposes that consumer attitudes are changed by two distinctly different 'routes to persuasion': a central route and a peripheral route.

■ The central route argues that persuasion is likely to occur when a person carefully and thoughtfully consider the true merits of information presented on an issue. This is useful when the message recipient has the motivation and ability to think about the message. Advantages are that attitude change last longer and behaviour is predictive.

■ The periphery route argues that persuasion is likely to occur when a person associates negative or positive cues or make simple inferences to information presented on an issue. It is used when the person has little or no interest in the subject or issue. Cues include factors like credibility or attractiveness. Persuasion results in less-lasting change and behaviour is not predictive.

■ These two routes may not instantaneously lead to purchase action but instead lead to a change in attitude or perception towards the advertised brand.

Pros and Cons of the various Routes of ELM

■ The central route is advantageous for forming long lasting beliefs on topics because the arguments are scrutinized intensely before they are accepted.

■ The use of the peripheral route excels at saving energy, time, and mental effort. This is particularly advantageous in situations in which decisions must be made within a limited time.

PR Roles Theory

The theory postulates that there are four roles of PR in the organisational setting:

1. Expert prescriber: identifies communication problems between an organization and its publics and proposes solutions to those problems. In this role, the practitioner is expected to be the most knowledgeable person in the organization both about public relations and communication problems

2. Communication facilitator: facilitate communication between an organization and its publics. Acts as the go-between or information mediator of boundary. spanner

3. Problem-solving process facilitator: identifies and solves problems. Works with organization management and collaborates to find where communication problems are and what the best solution is.

4. Communication technician: Focuses on the actual production and dissemination of public relations materials. Technician tasks include writing press releases, creating fliers, and updating media lists.


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Dozier’s contribution to PR roles theory

Two Major Roles of PR

Two role dichotomy (Managerial role and Technician Role): The first three roles are interrelated as they are all managerial roles (Dozier, 1983). The fourth role is a technician role.

The dominant role of the PR professional in an organisation is a major predictor of PR success/excellence in the organization.

PR Excellence theory

Excellence theory is a general theory of public relations that resulted from a 15-year study of best practices in communication management funded by the International Association of Business Communicators (IABC) Research Foundation.

The excellence theory opines that for an organization to be effective, it must behave in ways that solve the problems and satisfy the goals of stakeholders as well as of management (→ Stakeholder Theory).

Based on this theoretical premise about the value of public relations, the excellence theory derived 5 principles of how PR should be organized to maximize its value.

Principles of excellence theory

The excellence theory posits that the following principles must be observed to maximize the value of PR to an organisation.

1. Access to dominant coalition: involvement in strategic management was the critical characteristic of excellent public relations.

2. Integration of PR functions: public relations loses its unique role in strategic management if it is sublimated to marketing or other management functions

3. Symmetric communication: a symmetrical system of internal communication (participative culture in less stratified organisations) increased employees’ satisfaction with their jobs and with the organization.

4. Gender equality: organizations with excellent public relations value women as much as men for the strategic role and develop programs to empower women throughout the organization.

5. Diversity and inclusion: PR must promote diversity of race and ethnicity

4.Cyber communication theories Explain communication facilitated by the internet

Global Village

Marshall McLuhan, coined the term “global village” in the 1960s to describe the phenomenon of the world becoming increasingly interconnected as the result of the proliferation of media technologies.


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One major implication of the Global Village is that the world’s cultures are shrinking and expanding at the same time due to pervasive technological advances (like the internet and social media) that allow for instantaneous sharing of culture.

Digital Divide

The increasing adoption and use of ICTs is commendable, but technological resources such as computers, smart phones and the Internet are unevenly distributed, creating a divide or gap between those with access to ICTs and those who do not.

Digital divide refers to the gap or gulf between the underprivileged (technological have-nots) who do not have access to ICTs (computer, Internet) and the wealthy, middle- class (technological haves) who do.

Van Dyke developed the Resources and Appropriation Theory based on the digital divide. He argues that categorical inequalities in society are leading to the deepening of the digital divide.

Internet Addiction

Internet addiction is a mental disorder associated with excessive and compulsive computer use. It is characterized by many hours spent in non-work technology-related computer/Internet/video game activities.

In China and South Korea have Internet addiction has been identified as a significant public health threat.

Symptoms of Internet Addiction

Internet addiction is accompanied by changes in mood, preoccupation with digital media, the inability to control the amount of time spent interfacing with digital technology, the need for more time or a new game to achieve a desired mood, withdrawal symptoms when not engaged, and a continuation of the behaviour despite family conflict, a diminishing social life and adverse work or academic consequences

Internet Dependency – (Internet Use and Depression)

Some researchers and mental health practitioners see excessive Internet use (internet addiction) as a symptom of another disorder such as anxiety or depression rather than a separate entity.

Over dependence on the internet may lead to depression. People who spend a lot of time using the internet for non-work activities may exhibit symptoms of depression such as mood swings and feelings of sadness, loss, or anger.

Eras of Mass Communication theory Origin of Mass Communication Theory

• Mass Communication Theories are;

- a set of theories about communication processes. - Social science theories that that explain the relationships between the media

and the people and the societies that use them.


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• Denis McQuail attempted to classify mass communication theories, distinguishing 4 main phases/eras.

1. Era of mass society theory (1850-1940)

This era marked the beginning of attempts to theorize into how mass communication works in society.

This era was characterized as a time in which people were worried about the power that media had to influence average people. Media was seen as influential but negative.

People feared that media would ruin the value of society because the media was powerful, and had direct effects on passive audience.

Theories that marked this era include: Propaganda and Hypodermic Needle Theory.

2. Era of scientific perspective on mass media (1940-1950)

The era was characterized by the use of scientific research and experiments that are carefully conducted in order to prove that media was not as powerful as thought in the ‘mass society era’.

This era emphasized that people can resist (limit) media influence/effects based on individual psychological traits, social context and role of Opinion Leaders.

Theories that marked this era include; Persuasion Theory & Two Steps Flow Model

3. Era of limited effects (1950-60s)

The scientific perspective of mass communication led to the emergence of the limited effects perspective.

Limited effects means mass media is capable of shaping individual competences, knowledge, values and beliefs, not immediately but in the long-term.

Limited effects theory was widely supported over mass society theory

Theories that marked this era include; Uses and Gratifications Theory & Agenda Setting Theory.

4. Era of cultural criticism (1960s-1980s)

This era involved a collection of perspectives concerned with the conflict of interest in society and the ways communication perpetuates domination of one group over another.

This era was characterized by the creation of a school of social theory or cultural studies in Britain which focused on the mass media and their role in promoting hegemonic world view.

Theories propounded in this era intended to provide explanation on how the media changes culture and the consequences that result.

Political economy theory is an example of a theory that marked this era.

Paradigm shifts in Mass Com

• In mass communication paradigm shift implies a change in the world view or beliefs that researchers adopt to look at issues concerning mass communication.

• It is a transformation from one organizing theoretical perspective to another


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• Shift therefore occur when it becomes increasingly difficult for one paradigm to answer all the questions posed by changes in society due to new technologies and increase in knowledge and understanding.

The All Powerful Media Paradigm

• This perspective was the dominant paradigm in the Mass Society Era, when print was the dominant medium.

• Audience members were considered as weak, passive and could be manipulated.

• The media was considered to have the power to profoundly shape people’s perceptions of the social world and to manipulate their actions in highly effective ways.

The Limited Effects Paradigm

• Under this paradigm, media effects was seen to be he limited/less powerful due to individual differences (intelligence & educational levels), social categories (religion & political affiliations) and personal relationships (friends & family).

• That media was no longer feared as instruments of political oppression and manipulation because the public itself was viewed as very resistant to persuasion and extremist manipulation.

Moderate Effects Paradigm

• The limited effect perspective could not explain changes in society and mass communication hence the 'no effect verdict' was revisited

• The main idea under this paradigm was that media effects happen, they happen some of the time, they don't necessarily happen directly or immediately after exposure to content, and they happen because we seek them out sometime.

Powerful effects Revisited

• It has become increasingly difficult to ignore the media and their increasing influence especially in the areas of socialization, perception of social reality and knowledge of public and political issues among others.

• New communication technologies and their applications appear to have set the stage for a Paradigm change as the role of intermediaries such as church, family and school.

Lecturer Mr Stephen Tindi https://www.linkedin.com/in/stephen-tindi-85968659/


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GIJ Past Questions on Communication Theories

1. The Media Systems Dependency Theory has it that media audiences do not depend on all media equally. Examine the basic postulates of this theory and explain the factors that may increase or decrease audience dependence on mass media.

2. According to Stuart Hall’s Encoding/Decoding model, mass media audiences receive and decode texts in diverse ways. Illustrate with examples how televisual discourse may be decoded from the Dominant-Hegemonic, Negotiated and Oppositional codes.

3. Journalists play an important role as gatekeepers, but this can also lead to abuse of journalistic power. Discuss.

4. How relevant is the Agenda-Setting theory in an era of interactive digital media and active audiences?

5. Using practical examples, explain the following communication concepts: a) Limited/weak media effects b) Strong media effects c) Active audience d) Passive audience December 2019 Exam Questions

6. a. Explain the Source Credibility Theory b. Critics argue that the credibility of the Ghanaian media is in decline. Discuss any four (4) reasons for their concerns.

7. Briefly explain the following theories of communication a) Digital divide b) Internet use and depression c) Framing d) Hypodermic Needle e) Agenda-setting

8. a. Explain the Gatekeeping Theory. b. Discuss four (4) personal factors that the main gatekeeper would take into consideration in deciding on stories to publish or broadcast.

9. Explain the main assumptions of the Media Systems Dependency Theory (MSDT), and indicate the factors that may affect audience’s degree of media dependence under the theory.


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10. Describe the conditions that may influence the adoption of innovation in a social system under Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovation Theory.

GIJ: LEVEL 300 (SEMESTER 1) – COMS 112 THEORIES OF ...zydo.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/COMS-112-THEORIES-OF-COM… · Communication theories are classified into different categories

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