Page 1
7/26/2019 Gifford Rrobet. Light, Decor, Arousal, Comfort, And Communication. Journal of EnvironmentalPsychology No. 8 (1…
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/gifford-rrobet-light-decor-arousal-comfort-and-communication-journal 1/13
Journal of Environmental Psychology (1988) 8, 177-189
L I G H T , D E C O R , A R O U S A L , C O M F O R T
A N D C O M M U N I C A T I O N
R O B E R T G I F F O R D
U n i v e r s i t y o f V i ct o r ia V i c t or i a B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a C a n a d a V 8 W 2 Y 2
b s t r a c t
The e f f ec t o f l i gh t i ng l eve l and room deco r on i n t e rpe r sona l communica t i on was
invest iga ted . Aro usa l and c om for t models were invoke d to genera te hypothe ses tha t
(a) br ighter l igh t ing would s t imula te m ore genera l comm unica t ion , (b) lower l igh t ing
leve ls would encourage more in t imate communica t ion , (c ) over t ime, lower l igh t
l eve l s wou ld dampen bo th gene ra l and i n t ima t e communica t i on , and (d ) home- l i ke
decor would encour / tge more genera l and more in t imate communica t ion . In a 2 x 2
be tween-subjec ts design , pa i r s o f female f r iends wrote two le t te rs to one ano ther in
bright vs. soft l ight ing and off ice-l ike vs. home-l ike decor. All the hypotheses were
conf i rmed, except tha t br ighter l igh t encouraged more ra ther than less in t imate
communica t i on .
In troduc t ion
E a r l y re s e a r c h o n c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d s e l f -d i s cl o s ur e c o n c e n t r a t e d o n p e r s o n a l i t y
f a c t o r s (C o z b y , 1 97 3 ). L a t e r , r e s e a r c h e m p h a s i z e d s u c h s o c i a l f a c t o r s a s d e g r e e o f
a c q u a i n t a n c e a n d i n f o r m a t i o n a l r e c i p r o c i ty (e .g ., W o n - D o o r n i n k , 1 97 8). W i t h t h is
c o n c e n t r a t i o n o n p e r s o n a l a n d i n t e r p e r s o n a l f a c t o r s, l it tl e r e s e a r c h c o n c e r n e d w i t h
t h e e ff e ct s o f th e p r o x i m a t e p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t o n d i s c lo s u r e h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d .
H o w e v e r , in f lu e n c ed b y t h e w o r k o f S o m m e r ( e. g., 1 9 74 ) a n d o t h e r s w h o h a v e
d i s c u s se d t h e p o s s i b l e s o c i al e f fe c t s o f ' h a r d ' a r c h i t e c t u r e , a f e w i n v e s t i g a t o r s h a v e
e x a m i n e d t h e e f fe c t s o f t h e p h y s i c a l s e tt i n g o n d i sc l o s u r e a n d i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o m -
m u n i c a t i o n . S o m m e r ' s (1 9 69 ) o w n c l a ss ic e f f o r ts to f a c il it a te c o m m u n i c a t i o n a m o n g
f e m a l e g e r i a tr i c p a t i e n t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t c h a n g e s i n th e p h y s i c a l s e t ti n g c o u l d i n c r e a s e
c o n v e r s a t i o n l e v e l s . C h a i k i n et al . ( 1 9 7 6 ) f o u n d t h a t m o r e s e l f - d i s c l o s u r e o c c u r r e d i n
a ' s o f t ' r o o m t h a n i n a ' h a r d ' o n e . C h a i k i n et al . d e f in e d ' s o f t n e s s ' a s a c o m b i n a t i o n
o f i n d i r e c t in c a n d e s c e n t l i g h ti n g , c u s h i o n e d c h a i r s , r u g s , w a l l d e c o r a t i o n s a n d a fe w
a r t o b j e c ts ; ' h a r d n e s s ' c o n s i s t e d o f f l u o r e s c e n t li g h ti n g , h a r d c h a i r s, b a r e w a l ls a n d
f l o o r s a n d n o a r t o b j e c t s .
I n th e s tu d ie s o f b o t h S o m m e r a n d C h a i k i n e t a l . s e v e ra l e l e m e n t s o f t h e i m m e -
d i a t e p h y s i c a l s e t t in g w e r e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y v a r i e d . W h i c h o f t h e s e e l e m e n t s w a s
i n s t r u m e n t a l i n f a c i l i t a t i n g o r i n h i b i t i n g i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e m a i n s
u n c l e a r . C h a i k i n et al . a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t t h e i r d e s i g n d i d n o t p e r m i t c o n c l u s i o n s
a b o u t t h e i n d e p e n d e n t e f fe c ts o f th e s e v er a l d es i gn e l e m e n t s c o m p r i s i n g ' s o f t n e s s '
a n d ' h a r d n e s s ' .
O n e m a j o r g o a l o f t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y , t h e r e f o r e , w a s t o b e g i n a f in e r - g r a i n e d
a n a l y si s o f th e p h y s i c a l s e t t in g ' s e ff e c ts o n i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h i s s t u d y
c o n c e n t r a t e s o n t w o e l e m e n t s o f th e p h y s i c a l s e tt in g , l i g h t in g a n d d e c o r .
P r e v i o u s r e s e a rc h h a s n o t b e e n p a r t i c u l a rl y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e o r e ti c a l m o d e l s t h a t
m i g h t e x p l a i n h o w l ig h t a n d d e c o r m i g h t a f f ec t c o m m u n i c a t io n . E n v i r o n m e n t a l
02724944/88/030177 + 13 03.00/0 © 1988 Aca dem ic Press Limited
Page 2
7/26/2019 Gifford Rrobet. Light, Decor, Arousal, Comfort, And Communication. Journal of EnvironmentalPsychology No. 8 (1…
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/gifford-rrobet-light-decor-arousal-comfort-and-communication-journal 2/13
178 R Gif ford
p s y c h o l o g i s t s h a v e l o n g s i n c e a b a n d o n e d n a i v e d e t e r m i n i s t v i e w s t h a t f a i l t o p o s i t
p l a u s i b l e m e d i a t i n g f a c t o r s b e t w e e n p h y s i c a l - s e t t i n g v a r i a b l e s a n d h u m a n b e h a v i o r .
T h u s , a s e c o n d m a j o r g o a l o f th i s s tu d y w a s t o i n i t ia t e re s e a r c h o n l ig h t a n d d e c o r
t h a t a d v a n c e s a t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , i n c l u d i n g s u g g e s t i o n s a s t o m e d i a t o r s
b e t w e e n e n v i r o n m e n t a l v a r i a b l e s ( l i g h t a n d d e c o r ) a n d b e h a v i o r a l v a r i a b l e s
( c o m m u n i c a t i o n ) .
L i g h t an d I n t e r p e rs o n a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n
A l m o s t n o r e s e a r c h e x c e p t f o r th e s t u d ie s b y C h a i k i n e t a l . ( 1 9 7 6 ) a n d S o m m e r
( 19 6 9 , 1 9 7 4) h a s e x a m i n e d t h e e f fe c t s o f li g h ti n g o n i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n .
F o r t h e o r e t i c a l id e a s , w e w e r e f o r c e d t o s t a r t w i t h a n i m a l r e s e a r c h . T h e e v i d e n c e o n
l i g h t a n d a c t i v i t y a t f i r s t a p p e a r e d c o n t r a d i c t o r y . I n c r e a s e d l i g h t s e e m s t o a c t a s a n
a r o u s a l a g e n t i n m o n k e y s ( A l e x a n d e r a n d I s a a c , 1 9 6 5 ) , b u t n o t i n c a t s ( I s a a c a n d
R e e d , 1 9 61 ) o r r a t s ( I sa a c a n d K e n d a l l , 1 9 67 ). H o w e v e r , t h i s d i s c re p a n c y h a s a n
o b v i o u s e x p l a n a t i o n : m o n k e y s a r e t y p i c a ll y d i u r n a l , r a t s a n d c a t s t y p i c a ll y n o c t u r n a l .
A r e a s o n a b l e t h e s is is t h a t f o r h u m a n s , a s f o r m o n k e y s , l i g h t u s u a l ly s e r v es a s a
g e n e r a l a r o u s a l a g e n t . T h u s , h u m a n a c t iv i t y l ev e ls s h o u l d g e n e r a l l y i n c r e a se i n d a y -
t i m e o r i n b r i g h t l i g h t; a s l i g h t d i m s , a c t i v i t y s h o u l d s l o w . T h e i n v e n t i o n o f a r ti f ic i a l
l ig h t h a s e n a b l e d h u m a n s t o b e q u i te a c t iv e a f t e r n ig h t f al l, b u t w e r e m a i n d i u r n a l
i n t h a t w e s t i l l u s u a l l y c h o o s e r e d u c e d l i g h t i n g f o r r e l a x a t i o n a n d d a r k n e s s f o r
s le e p in g . R e c e n t w o r k b y M u n s o n a n d F e r g u s o n ( i n G i f f o r d , 1 9 87 ) s u g g e st s t h a t , a t
l e as t f o r c h i l d re n , s o m e f o r m s o f li g h t a p p e a r t o b e m o r e p h y s i o l o g i c a l ly a r o u s i n g
t h a n o t h e r s . P e r h a p s , t h e n , b r i g h t l i g h t a c t s a s a n a r o u s a l a g e n t , s t i m u l a t i n g a v a r i e t y
o f b e h a v i o rs , i n c lu d i n g a m o u n t o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n .
C a r r a n d D a b b s ( 1 97 4 ) f o u n d t h a t d i m l i g h ti n g le s se n s e y e c o n t a c t a n d i n c re a s e s
v e r b al l at e n c y in c o n v e r s a ti o n s . A m o u n t o r q u a l it y o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n w a s n o t
s t u d ie d . H o w e v e r , l o w e r e d e y e c o n t a c t a n d i n c r e a s e d v e r b a l l a t e n c y s u gg e s t th a t
s u b j ec t s s p o k e m o r e i n t im a t e l y , w h i c h is c o n s i s te n t w i t h t h e r e s u lt s o f C h a i k i n
e t
a l . s f in d i n g s f o r t h e i r s o f t r o o m . T h e s o f t r o o m , w i t h it s i n d i r e c t l ig h ti n g ,
p r e s u m a b l y w a s i l l u m i n a t e d a t l o w e r l ev e ls t h a n t h e h a r d r o o m , a l th o u g h C h a i k i n
e t a l . d o n o t r e p o r t i l l u m i n a t i o n m e a s u r e m e n t s .
B e f o r e s pe c if ic h y p o t h e s e s a r e a d v a n c e d , t h e c o n c e p t o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i -
c a t i o n r e q u i r e s s o m e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . O n e p e r s o n m a y c o m m u n i c a t e m u c h i n f o r m a -
t io n t o a n o t h e r , b u t i t s c o n t e n t m a y b e im p e r s o n a l o r o n l y s u p e r f ic i a ll y p e r s o n a l .
T h i s l o w - in t im a c y f o r m o f i n te r a c t io n m a y b e t e rm e d g e n e r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n .
A n o t h e r p e r s o n m a y c o m m u n i c a t e q u a n t i t a t i v e l y l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n , b u t i t s c o n t e n t
m a y b e v e r y p e r s o n a l a n d i n t i m a t e . I n th e p r e s e n t s t u d y , th e t e r m i n t i m a t e c o m -
m u n i c a t i o n is r e s e r v e d f o r t hi s h i g h - i n t i m a c y f o r m o f i n t e r a c t i o n . A n a r o u s a l m o d e l
w o u l d p r e d i c t t h a t g e n e r a l a c t i v i t y ( i n t h i s c a s e , g e n e r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n ) i n c r e a s e s
w h e n a p e r s o n is m o r e a r o u s e d , b u t n o t n e c e s sa r il y t h a t t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e o u t p u t
( i n ti m a c y o f t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n ) w o u l d i n c re a s e . L o w e r l ig h t l ev e ls a r e a s s o c ia t e d ,
i n s o m e c o n t e x t s , w i t h a n i n c re a s e in i n ti m a c y . M o r e e x p e n s i v e re s t a u r a n t s a n d t h e
b e d r o o m a r e t w o e x a m p l e s .
B a s e d o n t h e re s u l ts o f t h e s tu d i e s d e s c ri b e d a b o v e a n d o n t h e a r o u s a l m o d e l ,
t h r e e h y p o t h e s e s c o n c e r n i n g i l l u m i n a t i o n a r e a d v a n c e d . F i r s t, b r i g h t e r li g h ti n g p r o -
d u c e s m o r e g e n e r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . S e c o n d , l o w l i g h t p r o d u c e s m o r e i n t i m a t e
Page 3
7/26/2019 Gifford Rrobet. Light, Decor, Arousal, Comfort, And Communication. Journal of EnvironmentalPsychology No. 8 (1…
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/gifford-rrobet-light-decor-arousal-comfort-and-communication-journal 3/13
L i g h t D e c o r a n d C o m m u n i c a t i o n 1 7 9
c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h i r d , b o t h i n t i m a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d g e n e r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n
d e c r e a s e o v e r t i m e i n s o f t e r l i g h t .
D e c o r a n d I n te r p e rs o n a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n
D e c o r h a s a l s o b e e n t h e s u b j e c t o f v e r y fe w b e h a v i o r a l s t u d i e s s in c e t h e c l as s ic w o r k
o f M a s l o w a n d M i n t z ( 19 5 6) , w h i c h e x a m i n e d i n t e r p e r s o n a l p e r c e p t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n
c o m m u n i c a t i o n . M e h r a b i a n a n d D i a m o n d ( 19 7 1) d id i n v e st ig a t e th e e f fi ca c y o f
c o n v e r s a t i o n p i e c e s . A l t h o u g h s u c h o b j e c t s a p p a r e n t l y d i d e n h a n c e a f f i l i a t i v e
b e h a v i o r , e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e r e g r e ss i o n e q u a t i o n s i n t h a t s t u d y s h o w s t h a t t h e
o b t a i n e d e ff e ct w a s b o t h c o m p l e x a n d w e a k . O n e t h e m e o f t hi s s tu d y a n d t h o se o f
C h a i k i n
et al
( 1 9 7 6 ) a n d S o m m e r ( 1 9 6 9 , 1 9 7 4 ) i s t h a t c o m f o r t a b l e , p l e a s a n t s e t t i n g s
e n c o u r a g e m o r e s o c i al i n t e r a c ti o n . B a s e d o n t h is c o m f o r t m o d e l , it s e e m s r e a s o n a b l e
t o t e n t a t iv e l y h y p o t h e s i z e t h a t a s o f t ( m o r e h o m e - l i k e ) s e t ti n g w il l e v o k e b o t h
m o r e i n ti m a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d m o r e g e n e ra l c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h a n w i ll a h a r d
( m or e o f f i c e - li ke ) s e t t ing .
M e t h o d
Sub jec t s
F e m a l e u n d e r g r a d u a t e s i n a n i n t r o d u c t o r y s o c i a l s c i e n c e c l a s s w e r e r e c r u i t e d b y
t e l e p h o n e o n a v o l u n t a r y b a si s ( n o p a y m e n t i n m o n e y o r c o u r s e c r e d i t) fo r a s t u d y
o f c o n v e rs a t io n s . I t w a s d e c i d e d t o s t u d y c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n m a t u r e r e la t io n s h i p s
r a t h e r t h a n b e t w e e n s tr a n g e r s m e e t i n g f o r t h e fi rs t t im e , a n d w o m e n w h o v o l u n t e e r e d
w e r e a sk e d t o b r i n g a f ri e n d to t h e s t u d y . T h u s , t h e p a r t i c ip a n t s w e r e t h o s e w h o ,
s i n c e t h e y a l r e a d y k n e w a n d l i k e d o n e a n o t h e r , m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d t o e x c h a n g e
i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h o n e a n o t h e r , i n t h e i r d a i l y li ve s. T h i s p r o c e d u r e r e s u l t e d i n t h e
p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f 7 2 w o m e n i n t h e 1 8 t o 2 5 a g e r a n g e .
W h e n p a i rs a r r i v e d , th e y w e r e a s s ig n e d t o o n e o f f o u r e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s
a c c o r d i n g t o a r o t a t i n g , p r e d e t e r m i n e d o r d e r ( i .e . , c o n d i t i o n 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , l , 2 , e t c .) .
T h e f o u r c o n d i t io n s w e r e t h o s e re s u l ti n g f r o m t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t w o l ev e ls o f
l ig h t in g a n d t w o le v els o f d ec o r . T h e s e a s s i g n m e n t s w e r e e s s e n ti a ll y r a n d o m b e c a u s e
t h e s u b je c ts s u g g e s te d t h e i r o w n a p p o i n t m e n t t im e s d u r i n g t h e t e l e p h o n e c a ll ; n e i t h e r
t h ey n o r t h e ex p e r i m e n t e r c o u l d h a v e k n o w n w h i c h a p p o i n t m e n t t i m e w o u l d , o n c e
t h e s c h e d u l e w a s c o m p l e t e , r e s u lt in a s s i g n m e n t t o w h i c h c o n d i t i o n .
The se t t ings
A n a t t e m p t w a s m a d e t o c r e a t e l i g h t i n g a n d d e c o r c o n d i t i o n s t h a t m i g h t a c t u a l l y b e
f o u n d i n n a t u r a l s e tt in g s. T h e b r i g h t l i g h t c o n d i t i o n c o n s i s t e d o f t h e n o r m a l
f lu o r e s c e n t l ig h ts i n st a ll e d in t h e l a b o r a t o r y r o o m w h e n i t w a s b u i l t a f e w m o n t h s
b e f o r e th e s t u d y b e g a n . S i x c e i l i n g - m o u n t e d 3 5 - w a t t b u l b s i l l u m i n a t e d t h e 2 . 2 5 m ×
3 . 55 m r o o m . I n t h e s o f t c o n d i t i o n , o n e 1 0 0 - w a t t b u l b i n a t a b l e la m p w a s l it . I n t h e
l a t t e r c a s e , t h e l i g h t i n g , a l t h o u g h s o f t , w a s q u i t e s u f f i c i e n t f o r w r i t i n g w i t h o u t
e y e s t r a i n . I n p h y s i c a l t e r m s , t h e b r i g h t c o n d i t i o n a v e r a g e d 9 0 f o o t c a n d l e s a t t h e t w o
p o s i t i o n s a n d t h e s o f t c o n d i t i o n a v e r a g e d 6 f o o t c a n d l e s a t t h e t w o p o s i t i o n s , b a s e d
o n m e a su r e s f r o m a C a n a d i a n R e s e a r c h I n s ti tu t e p h o t o m e t e r ( m o d e l D P M T - I C C )
t h a t w e r e c o lo r - a n d c o s i n e - c o rr e c t e d f o r h u m a n p e r c e p t i o n .
I n t h e o f f ic e d e c o r c o n d i t i o n , t y p i c a l m o d e r n o f f ic e f u r n i t u r e , u n e m b e l l i s h e d b y
Page 4
7/26/2019 Gifford Rrobet. Light, Decor, Arousal, Comfort, And Communication. Journal of EnvironmentalPsychology No. 8 (1…
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/gifford-rrobet-light-decor-arousal-comfort-and-communication-journal 4/13
180 R Gi f for d
a n y p e r s o n a l t o u c h e s , w a s u s ed . P a r t i c i p a n t s s a t o n a r m l e s s m o l d e d - p l a s t i c c h a ir s
a n d t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r s a t a t a s ta n d a r d d e s k. T h e e x p e r i m e n t e r s d e s k w a s n e a r ly
c o v e r e d w i t h n e a t p i le s o f p a p e r w o r k . T e x t b o o k s w e r e d i s p l a y e d o n t o p o f a p l ai n
m e t a l fi le c a b i n e t . A t y p e w r i t e r a n d t h e t a b l e l a m p s a t o n a s m a l l t a b l e . T h e f l o o r
w a s c o v e r e d w i t h t h e o f fi c e c a r p e t i n g s u p p l i e d w h e n t h e r o o m w a s b u i l t. A u n i v e r s i t y
c a l e n d a r w a s t h e o n l y w al.1 a d o r n m e n t . I n s u m , t h e o f fi c e w a s f u r n i s h e d i n a s t a n d a r d
w a y , t i d y b u t s o m e w h a t b a r e a n d i m p e r s o n a l .
F o r t h e h o m e - l i k e d e c o r c o n d i t io n , w e a t t e m p t e d t o c r e a te a n o ff ic e t h a t m i g h t b e
f o u n d i n th e p o s s e s s i o n o f a p e r s o n w h o h a d m a d e a n e f f o r t to s o f t e n th e i n s ti t u ti o n a l
q u a l it y o f th e s p a ce . T h e s a m e r o o m w a s u s e d a n d t h e d e s k a n d file c a b i n e t w e r e
r e ta i n e d . T h e c h a n g e s i n c lu d e d a d d i n g a p o t t e d p l a n t , h a n g i n g t w o a r t p o s t e r s o n
t h e w a l l , p l a c i n g a s m a l l d e c o r a t i v e r u g o n t h e s t a n d a r d c a r p e t , r e m o v i n g t h e
t y p e w r i t e r , p l a c i n g a t a b l e c l o t h u n d e r t h e t a b l e l a m p o n t h e s m a l l t a b l e , a n d a d d i n g
a n a n t i q u e w o o d e n r a d i o t o th e e x p e r i m e n t e r s de s k , w h i c h w a s n o w c l e ar o f p a p e r s .
T h e p a r t i c ip a n t s s a t in p a d d e d a r m c h a i r s i n s t e a d o f m o l d e d p l a s ti c c h a ir s .
I n a l l c o n d i t i o n s t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s s a t a b o u t 3 0 d e g r e e s f r o m a f a c e t o f a c e p o s i t i o n
a t a d i s ta n c e o f 1 -5 m ( c h a i r c e n t e r t o c h a i r c e n te r ) . P l a c e d b e f o r e e a c h p a r t i c i p a n t
w a s a m u s i c s t a n d t h a t w a s a d j u s t e d t o a n a n g l e a n d h e i g h t s u i t a b l e f o r w r i ti n g .
P r o c e d u r e s
U p o n a r r iv a l , th e p a r t i c i p a n t s t o o k t h e i r p l a ce s a n d t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r e x p l a in e d t h a t
w e w e r e i n t e r e s t e d in t h e in t e r a c t i o n s b e t w e e n t w o p e o p l e i n a n o n g o i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p ;
t h a t w e w i sh e d t o l e a r n a b o u t h o w p e o p l e c h o o s e t o l et f r ie n d s a n d a c q u a i n t a n c e s
k n o w a b o u t t h e m s e l v e s .
A w r i t te n - c o m m u n i c a t i o n p r o c e d u r e ( cf . W o r t h y
e t a l .
1 96 9; R u b i n , 1 97 5; A r c h e r
a n d B e r g , 1 97 8) w a s c h o s e n i n f a v o r o f o r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . W e w i s h e d t o a v o i d
f o r c i n g t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s t o t a i l o r t h e i r s t a t e m e n t s t o s u i t t h e p r e s e n c e o f a t h i rd -
p a r t y s t r a n g e r , t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r . T h e s u b j e c t s w e r e a ll f r i e n d s , b u t n o n e o f t h e m w a s
a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r . T h u s , a w r i t t e n c o m m u n i c a t i o n a p p r o a c h c o m -
b i n e d w i t h a s s u r a n c e s o f c o n f id e n t ia l it y p r e s u m a b l y a l l o w e d f u ll er , f re e r a n d m o r e
i n t i m a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n f r i e n d s t h a n w o u l d o r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h t h e
e x p e r i m e n t e r p r e s e n t, o r w r i t te n c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i th t h e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t t h e
e x p e r i m e n t e r w o u l d b e r e a d i n g t h e m a t e r i a l l a t e r .
P a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e t o l d t h e y w o u l d w r i t e t w o l e t t e r s t o t h e i r p a r t n e r s , b u t t h e
l e t t e r s w o u l d b e d e l i v e r e d i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r t h e s e s s i o n r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g m a i l e d .
T h e p a r t i c i p a n t s u n d e r s t o o d a n d r e a d il y a c c e p t e d t h a t th e p u r p o s e o f a s k i n g th e m
t o w ri te t o o n e a n o t h e r i n s te a d o f h o l d i n g a c o n v e r s a t i o n w a s t o e n s u r e t h e p r i v a c y
o f t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e m . T h e p a r t ic i p a n t s w e r e a s s u r e d t h a t t h e ex p e r i-
m e n t e r w o u l d n e v e r k n o w t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e ir d i sc l o su r e s t o o n e a n o t h e r .
N e x t , t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e s h o w n a l is t o f 1 1 s u g g e s t e d t o p i c s f o r t h e i r l e t te r s ( se e
T a b l e 1 ). M o s t o f t h e t o p i c s w e r e s e l e c te d f r o m a l o n g e r l i st fi rs t u s ed i n d i s c l o s u r e
r e s e a rc h b y R u b i n a n d S h e n k e r ( 19 78 ). S o m e w e r e a d a p t e d s li g ht ly a n d a fe w n e w
o n e s w e r e a d d e d , t o e n s u r e a b r o a d r a n g e a n d d e p t h o f to p i c s.
P a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e a s k e d t o s e l e c t t h e i r f i r s t t o p i c b y b l i n d l y p i c k i n g f r o m a n
e n v e l o p e s li ps o f p a p e r t h a t h a d t o p i c n u m b e r s w r i tt e n o n t h e m . T o e n a b l e a
c o m p a r i s o n o f p a r t i c i p a n t r e p o n s e s o n a c o m m o n t o p ic , a ll th e s l ip s r e q u e s te d t h e
p a r t i c i p a n t t o w r i te o n t o p i c 11, T h e t h in g s t h a t I w o r r y a b o u t t h e m o s t . T h e y t h e n
w r o t e a l e tt e r o n t h i s t o p i c t o t h e i r p a r t n e r s . T o a l l o w a c h o i c e o f t o p i c s i n th e s e c o n d
Page 5
7/26/2019 Gifford Rrobet. Light, Decor, Arousal, Comfort, And Communication. Journal of EnvironmentalPsychology No. 8 (1…
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/gifford-rrobet-light-decor-arousal-comfort-and-communication-journal 5/13
Light Dec or and Comm unicat ion 1 8 1
l e tt e r, a ll th e s l ip s sa id , C h o o s e a n y t o p i c e x c e p t th e o n e y o u h a v e a l r e a d y w r i t te n
a b o u t .
N o t im e l i m i t w a s s et f o r w r i t in g o n e i t h e r t o p i c. P a r t i c ip a n t s p l a c e d t h e i r c o m -
p l e t e d l e t t e r s i n e n v e l o p e s a n d w e r e g i v e n t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o e x c h a n g e l e t t e r s w i t h
t h e i r p a r t n e r s a t t h e e n d o f t h e s es s io n . T h e e x p e r i m e n t e r n e v e r sa w t h e c o n t e n t s o f
the l e t t e r s .
M e a s u r e s
V a r i a b le s i n t h e s t u d y i n c l u d e d , i n o r d e r o f a d m i n i s t ra t i o n : ( a) q u e s t i o n n a i r e i t e m s
a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e p a r tn e r s ; ( b) p a r t i c i p a n t r a t i n g s o f t h e in t i m a c y
o f th e 1 l t o p i c s; ( c) tw o m e a s u r e s o f g e n e r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d t w o m e a s u r e s o f
i n t i m a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n ; a n d ( d ) q u e s t i o n n a i r e i t e m s u s e d t o c h e c k t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n
o f th e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l es . E a c h o f t h e s e w i ll , i n t u r n , b e d e s c r i b e d m o r e f u ll y .
D u r i n g t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n p h a s e o f t h e s t u d y p a r t ic i p a n t s r e s p o n d e d t o a b r i e f
q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o n t a i n i n g t h r e e q u e s t i o n s : H o w l o n g h a s it b e e n s i nc e y o u fi rs t k n e w
o r h e a r d o f y o u r p a r t n e r ? I f t h e r e w a s a n y s i g n if ic a n t g a p b e t w e e n t h e ti m e y o u
f ir s t k n e w o f y o u r p a r t n e r a n d t h e t i m e y o u f i r st s ig n i f i c a n tl y i n t e r a c t e d ( i .e . , s p o k e
m o r e t h a n a b r i e f g r e e t in g t o e a c h o t h e r ) , h o w l o n g w a s th i s g a p ? H o w w o u l d y o u
c h a r a c t e r i z e y o u r p r e s e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p ? F o r t h e l a t t e r i t e m , s e v e n l a b e l l e d a lt e r -
n a t iv e s f r o m S o m e o n e I t r y t o a v o i d t o M y c lo s e s t f r i e n d w e r e o f f e r e d .
N e x t , p a r t i c i p a n t s r a t e d t h e i n t i m a c y o f a ll e l e v e n to p i c s o n 1 t o 8 b i p o l a r s c a l es
( n o t i n t i m a t e t o e x t r e m e l y i n t i m a t e ) a t t h e t i m e t h e y w e r e f a m i l ia r i z e d w i t h t h e m .
T h e s e r a t in g s w e r e o b t a i n e d t o a l l o w l a t e r a n a ly s e s o f t h e i n t i m a c y o f t o p i c s s e l ec t ed
by t he s ub j ec t s .
G e n e r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n w a s a s se ss e d b y t w o m e a s u r e s, t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f w o r d s
w r i t t e n i n e a c h l e t t e r t o t a l w o r d s ) a n d t h e le n g t h o f ti m e e a c h p a r t i c i p a n t s p e n t
w r i t i n g e a c h l e t t e r w r i t i n g t i m e ) . O n e m e a s u r e o f in t im a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n , d e s ig n e d
t o r e s p e c t th e p r i v a c y o f th e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n f r ie n d s y e t e n c o u r a g e f u ll a n d
f r a n k c o m m u n i c a t i o n , w a s t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f s e l J : r e f e r e n t w o r d s us ed ( e . g . , I , m e ,
m i n e , m y s e l f ) .
T o m a i n t a i n t h e c o n f i d e n t ia l i ty o f th e d i sc l o s u re s , t h e t w o w o r d c o u n t s ( t o t a l
w o r d s f o r g e n e ra l c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d s e lf -r e fe r e n t w o r d s f o r in t i m a t e c o m m u n i c a -
t i o n ) w e r e m a d e b y t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s t h e m s e l v e s a f t e r t h e y h a d w r i t t e n b o t h l e t t e r s .
T h e o t h e r g e n e ra l c o m m u n i c a t i o n m e a s u r e, w r it in g t im e , w a s c o v e r t ly m e a s u r e d b y
t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r .
T h e s e c o n d m e a s u r e o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n t im a c y c o m b i n e d t he i n t im a c y o f t he
t o p i c a n d t h e i n t i m a c y o f o n e s r e v e l a t i o n s o n t h a t t o p ic . T h i s m e a s u r e , i n t i m a c y ,
w a s c o m p u t e d a s th e p r o d u c t o f th e t o p i c s i n t im a c y a s r a te d b y t h e p a r t ic i p a n t a n d
h e r r e s p o n s e t o t h e f o l lo w i n g q u e s t i o n n a i r e it e m : H o w i n t i m a t e o r r e v e a l in g w e r e
y o u r s t a te m e n t s o n t h is t o p i c? O n b o t h i te m s , r e s p o n s e c a te g o r i e s v a r i e d f r o m 1,
N o t a t a l l t o 8 , E x t r e m e l y . T h u s , t h e i n t i m a c y s c o re w o u l d b e 3 0 f o r a t o p i c
j u d g e d b y a p a r t i c i p a n t t o h a v e a n i n t i m a c y l e v el o f 5 w i t h t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s o w n
d i s c l o s u r e i n t i m a c y
o n
t h a t t o p i c j u d g e d b y h e r t o b e 6 . * T h e p a r t i c i p a n t s a ls o
r e p o r t e d w h i c h t o p i c s t h e y h a d w r i t t e n o n . T h i s r e s p o n s e w a s , o f c o u r s e , r e l e v a n t
* T h e r e s u l ts o f a M A N O V A u s in g o n l y t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s r a t in g s o f t h e i n t im a c y o f t h e i r d i s cl o s ur e s,
w i t h o u t t h e t o p i c in t i m a c y c o m p o n e n t , w e r e v er y s im i l a r to t h o s e o b t a i n e d i n t h e M A N O V A r e p o r t e d in
t h e r e s u l t s s e c t i o n .
Page 6
7/26/2019 Gifford Rrobet. Light, Decor, Arousal, Comfort, And Communication. Journal of EnvironmentalPsychology No. 8 (1…
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/gifford-rrobet-light-decor-arousal-comfort-and-communication-journal 6/13
182 R Gi f ford
o n l y f o r t h e s e c o n d l e t t e r , b u t i t w a s r e q u e s t e d f o r b o t h l e t t e r s b e c a u s e p a r t i c i p a n t s
b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e i r f i r s t t o p i c s e l e c t i o n w a s r a n d o m .
F i n a l l y , to c h e c k t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n o f th e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b le s , p a r t ic i p a n t s
r e p o r t e d t h e i r a s s e s sm e n t s o f th e r o o m a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e s si o n . T h e t w o a s s e s s m e n t s
o f i n t er e s t, o f l ig h t i n g a n d d e c o r , w e r e e m b e d d e d a m o n g t w o o t h e r s , o f r o o m s iz e
a n d a e s t h e t i c s . T h e r e s p o n s e c a t e g o r i e s f o r t h e d e c o r i t e m s r a n g e d f r o m 1 , l a b e l l e d
' v e r y i n f o r m a l , h o m e y d e c o r ' t o 8 , 'v e r y fo r m a l , o f f ic e - li k e d e c o r ' . R e s p o n s e c a t e -
g o r i e s f o r t h e l i g h t i n g i t e m r a n g e d f r o m 1 , ' V e r y s o f t l i g h t i n g ' t o 8 , ' V e r y b r i g h t
l i gh t i ng ' .
R e s u l t s
MaviipuIation checks and other method checks
T h e f o u r e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t io n s w e r e p e r c e iv e d a s in t e n d e d . T h e m e a n r e s p o n se
o n t h e d e c o r i t e m f o r t h e o f f i ce c o n d i t i o n s w a s 6 .1 1 ( i .e . , m o r e o f f ic e - li k e ); t h a t f o r
t h e h o m e - l i k e c o n d i t i o n w a s 4 . 00 . O n t h e li g h t in g i te m , t h e b r i g h t c o n d i t i o n m e a n
r e s p o n s e w a s 5 . 78 ( q u i t e b r i g h t ) ; t h a t f o r t h e s o f t c o n d i t i o n w a s 2 . 6 9 . t v a l u e s f o r
t h e d if f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e m e a n s o f t h e s e r e s p o n s e s b o t h e x c e e d e d 5 . 25 ( P < 0 .0 0 1) .
T h e p o s s i b l e e f f e c t s o f s u b j e c t o r d e r ( i . e . , e a r l y v s . m i d d l e v s . l a t e p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n
t h e s e q u e n c e o f 72 s u b j e c ts ) a n d s e a t i n g p o s i t i o n ( i. e ., c h a i r o n e v s. c h a i r t w o w i t h i n
e a c h c o n d i t i o n ) w e r e e x a m i n e d . N o n e o f t h e d e p e n d e n t m e a s u r e s w e r e s ig n i fi c an t ly
r e l a t e d t o e i t h e r o f th e s e v a r i a b l e s (a l l P > 0 . 1 0 ), s u g g e s t in g t h a t p r o c e d u r e s d i d n o t
v a r y o v e r th e c o u r s e o f d a t a c o l l e c ti o n a n d t h a t t h e t w o s e a ti n g p o s i ti o n s w e r e
f u n c t i o n a l l y e q u i v a l e n t .
F i n a l l y , th e c o m p a r a b i l i t y a c ro s s e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s o f p a r t i c i p a n t r e s p o n s e s
t o t h e c o m m o n t o p i c w a s c h e c k e d . A n a n a l y si s o f v a r i a n c e e x a m i n e d d i ff e r e n c e s
a m o n g t h e f o u r l ig h t a n d d e c o r c o n d i t i o n s in p a r t i c i p a n t s ' t o p i c i n t im a c y r a t i n g s f o r
t h e ' th i n g s I w o r r y a b o u t ' i t e m . N o s i g n if ic a n t d i f fe r e n c e s w e r e f o u n d ( b o t h m a i n
e f f e c ts a n d t h e i n t e r a c t i o n P > 0 -2 0 ).
Relationships and topics
I n r e s p o n s e t o t h e t h r e e r e la t i o n s h i p q u e s t io n s , p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e f o u n d t o b e p a r t o f
m a t u r e f r ie n d s h i p s . P a r t n e r s k n e w o n e a n o t h e r f o r a n a v e r a g e o f 4 37 y e a r s , w i t h a n
a v e r a g e g a p b e t w e e n k n o w i n g o f t h e o t h e r a n d e s t a b is h i n g a f u n c t i o n i n g r e l a t io n s h i p
with
t h e o t h e r o f 0 .7 7 y e a r s . O n t h e p r e s e n t q u a l i t y o f t h e r e l a ti o n s h i p , t h e m e a n
a n s w e r w a s 5 .5 , e x a c t ly b e t w e e n ' D e f i n i te l y a f r i e n d ' a n d ' O n e o f m y c l o s e s t fr ie n d s ' .
I n su m , t h e a v e r a g e p a r t i c i p a n t k n e w h e r p a r t n e r f o r m o r e t h a n t h r e e y e a r s a n d f e l t
t h a t s h e w a s o n e o f h e r c l o s e r fr i en d s .
T h e t o p i c s a n d t h e i r m e a n i n t i m a c y r a t i n g s m a y b e s e e n i n T a b l e 1 .
eneral and intimate communication
T h e m e a n s a n d s t a n d a r d d e v i a ti o n s o f th e f o u r d e p e n d e n t m e a s u r e s f o r ea c h l e tt er
a n d c o n d i t i o n a r e d i s p l a y e d i n T a b l e 2 .
A s m a y b e s ee n , p a r t i c i p a n t s a s a w h o l e w r o t e j u s t o v e r 2 3 0 w o r d s o n e a c h t o p i c ,
a b o u t a t e n t h o f w h i c h ( 2 3 .8 ) w e r e s e l f - re f e r e n t w o r d s . T h e y s p e n t 1 2 .4 m i n u t e s
w r i t in g o n e a c h t o p i c a n d , . a ft e rw a r d , j u d g e d t h e i n t i m a c y o f t h e i r c o m m u n i c a t i o n s ,
a v e r a g e d a c r o s s t h e t w o l e t te r s , to b e 5 . 9 o n t h e s c a l e o f 1 t o 8 ; t h e y f e l t t h e i r
d i s c lo s u r e s w e r e ' q u i t e i n t i m a t e ' . T h e i n t i m a c y o f t h e t o p i c s t h e m s e l v e s w a s j u d g e d
Page 7
7/26/2019 Gifford Rrobet. Light, Decor, Arousal, Comfort, And Communication. Journal of EnvironmentalPsychology No. 8 (1…
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/gifford-rrobet-light-decor-arousal-comfort-and-communication-journal 7/13
L i g h t D e c o r a n d C o m m u n i c a ti o n
TABLE 1
Mean ratings of topic intimacy
183
1 My likes and dislikes in music 3.12
2 Why some people like me 5.39
3 The type of work I would like to do in the future 3.75
4 The kinds of sexual activity tha t I would prefer to engage in 6.77
5 My political views on the federal gove rnment 2.99
6 Why some people dislike me 5.32
7 My feelings about my sexual adequacy 6.53
8 My preference in food 3 07
9 The things tha t make me especially pro ud of myself 5.25
10 My religious views 4.36
11 The things I worry about the most 5.82
Note: Ratings are based on an 8-point bipolar scale on which 1 = not intimate and
8 = extremely intimate.
TABLE
2
Communication means by condition and letter
Bright light Soft light
Home-l ike Office-like Home-like Office-like
Letter
Total words 249.50 244.60 241.70 212.20
Self-referent words 23.50 28.22 27.27 24.72
Writ ing time (min) 13.14 11.59 13.95 11.75
Intimacy 44.17 32.89 32.50 34.11
Letter 2
Total words 252.20 252.20 209.50 209.30
Self-referent words 21.72 24.56 18.89 21.67
Writ ing time (min) 13.61 12.35 10.26 9.45
Intimacy 44.33 28.44 24.00 23.83
Note: Intimacy scores are the product of two intimacy ratings, one for the topic itself and one for the
participant's communication on the topic. Both are 1 8 scales with 8 = extremely intimate. Thus, higher
scores indicate greater intimacy.
by partici pants to be 5.6, averaged across letters. Thus, the average Int ima cy score
was 33 0.
Mult ivar iate analysis of var iance (MANOVA) was used to invest igate var iat ions
in com mun ica tio n as a func tion of l ight and decor . The analysis included the four
co mm un ic at io n measures as depe nden t measures, the two letters as a repeated
measure, with light and decor as ind epe nde nt variables. The mul tivar iate tests of
significance showe d tha t decor, letters, and the light x letters effects were signific ant
(P < 0.05), the Light effect was ma rgi nal ly significant (P = 0.06), and the ot her
interactions were not significant (all P > 0.20). The significant effects will be
described in turn.
Ex am in at io n of the Deco r effect [multi vari ate F(4, 65) = 3.03, P < 0.025] shows
that at the univa riat e level, a general com mu ni ca ti on variable (writing time) and an
intimate c omm uni cat ion variable ( int imacy) were marginally signif icant . Part icipants
Page 8
7/26/2019 Gifford Rrobet. Light, Decor, Arousal, Comfort, And Communication. Journal of EnvironmentalPsychology No. 8 (1…
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/gifford-rrobet-light-decor-arousal-comfort-and-communication-journal 8/13
184 R Gi f for d
s p e n t 1 2.7 m i n u t e s w r i t in g i n th e h o m e - l i k e d e c o r a n d 1 1.3 m i n u t e s w r i t i n g i n th e
o f fi c e d e c o r ( P = 0 .0 6 ). I n t i m a c y s c o r e s w e r e g r e a t e r i n th e h o m e - l i k e d e c o r ( 3 6 .2 )
t h a n i n th e o f f ic e d e c o r ( 2 9. 9; P = 0 .0 8 ). T h u s , t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t m o r e i n t i m a t e
c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d m o r e g e n e r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n o c c u r s i n h o m e - l i k e s e t t i n g s i s
m o d e s t l y c o n f i r m e d f o r tw o d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b le s .
T h e s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t f o r l i g h t [ m u l t i v a r i a t e F ( 4 , 6 5 ) = 2 . 3 6 , P = 0 .0 6 ] is m a n i -
f e s t e d o n t h e s a m e t w o u n i v a r i a t e m e a s u r e s . I n b o t h c a s e s , m o r e c o m m u n i c a t i o n
o c c u r r e d i n b r i g h t e r l ig h t (1 2 . 7 v s . 1 1. 4 m i n u t e s , P = 0 . 0 9 , I n t i m a c y s c o r e s o f 37 . 5
v s . 2 8 .6 , P < 0 .0 2 ). T h e s e r e s u l ts c o n f i r m t h e h y p o t h e s i s c o n c e r n i n g g e n e r a l c o m -
m u n i c a t i o n , b u t a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y o p p o s i t e t o t h e p r e d i c t i o n s m a d e a b o u t i n t i m a t e
c o m m u n i c a t i o n .
I n s u m , t h e r e su l ts r e p o r t e d s o f a r i n d i ca t e t h a t m o r e i n t i m a t e a n d m o r e g e n e ra l
c o m r f i u n i c a t i o n o c c u r s i n h o m e - l i k e a n d b r i g h t c o n d i t i o n s . T a b l e 3 i l lu s t r a te s t h e s e
t r e n d s .
TABLE 3
Mean wr i t ing t ime and in t imacy by l igh t and decor
D e c o r
Lig ht Ho m e-l ike Office-l ike
So r
Writing t ime (rain)
I n t i m a c y
Brigh t
Writing t ime (rain)
I n t i m a c y
12"1 10-6
28"2 29-6
13'4 12"0
44"2 30'6
Note See Table 2 for an explanation of Intimacy scores.
T h e t h i r d s i g n if i c an t m u l t i v a r i a t e e ff e c t i n d i c a t e s t h a t c o m m u n i c a t i o n d e c l in e d
f r o m t h e f i r s t to t h e s e c o n d l e t t e r [ m u l t i v a r i a t e F ( 4 , 6 5 ) = 6 . 3 9 , P < 0 " 0 0 ] . T h e
e f fe c t w a s m a r g i n a l l y s ig n i fi c an t ( P < 0 .0 6 ) f o r th e g e n e r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n m e a s u r e
w r i t i n g t i m e : p a r t i c i p a n t s w r o t e f o r 1 2.6 m i n u t e s o n t h e f i rs t l e t te r a n d 1 1.4 m i n u t e s
o n t h e s e c o n d l e t t e r . I t w a s m o r e c l e a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t f o r t h e i n t i m a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n
m e a s u r e s . W r i t e r s u s e d 2 6" 0 s e l f - re f e r e n t w o r d s i n l e tt e r o n c o m p a r e d t o 2 1 . 7 se lf -
r e f e r e n t w o r d s i n l e tt e r t w o ( P < 0 .0 0 1 ). I n t i m a c y s c o r e s w e r e g r e a t e r in l e t te r o n e
(35 .9 ) t h an i n l e t t e r tw o (30 .2 ; P < 0 .02 ) .
T h e l e t t e r × l i g h t i n t e r a c t i o n w a s a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t [ m u l t i v a r i a t e F ( 4 , 6 5 ) = 2 - 9 0 ,
P < 0 -0 3 ]. T h e n a t u r e o f th i s i n t e r a c t i o n ( se e F i g u r e 1) i s t h a t c o m m u n i c a t i o n r o s e
o r r e m a i n e d a b o u t t h e s a m e f r o m l e t t e r o n e t o l e t te r tw o i n b r ig h t l i g h t b u t , a s
p r e d i c t e d , i t d e c l in e d f r o m l e tt e r o n e t o l e tt e r t w o i n s o f t l ig h t . P a r t i c i p a n t s w r o t e f o r
1 2 .4 a n d 1 3 .0 m i n u t e s i n b r i g h t l i g h t , b u t 1 2-9 a n d 1 0-0 m i n u t e s i n s o f t l ig h t
( P < 0 -0 1) . O n a n i n t i m a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n m e a s u r e , I n t i m a c y s c o r es w e r e 38 -3 a n d
3 6 . 4 i n b r i g h t l i g h t , b u t d e c l i n e d f r o m 3 3 . 3 t o 2 3 - 9 i n l e s s b r i g h t l i g h t ( P = 0 " 0 9 ) .
D i s c u s s i o n
T h e r e s u lt s c le a r ly s h o w t h a t l i g h ti n g a n d d e c o r a f f ec t g e n e r a l a n d i n t i m a t e c o m -
m u n i c a t i o n . T h e y a r e g e n e r a l l y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e p r o p o s a l s t h a t a r o u s a l m e d i a t e s
Page 9
7/26/2019 Gifford Rrobet. Light, Decor, Arousal, Comfort, And Communication. Journal of EnvironmentalPsychology No. 8 (1…
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/gifford-rrobet-light-decor-arousal-comfort-and-communication-journal 9/13
WRITING
TIME
min . )
14
13
12
10
L i g h t D e c o r a n d C o m m u n i c a t io n
o B r igh t l i gh t
• Sof t l igh t
1 2
LETTER
1 8 5
INT IMACY
40
35
30
2 5
20
o B r igh t l i gh t
• So f t l i gh t
1 2
LETTER
FIGURE 1. The decline of w riting time and intimacy from letter one to letter two in soft lighting com pared
to bright lighting.
t h e e f fe c t s o f li g h t a n d t h a t c o m f o r t m e d i a t e s t h e e f f e c ts o f d e c o r . T h e f ir s t h y -
p o t h e si s t h a t m o r e g e n e r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n w o u l d o c c u r i n b r i g h t e r s e tt in g s w a s
c o n f i rm e d . S e c o n d m o r e i n t im a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n w a s p r e d ic t e d f o r l o w e r l ig h t
l e v e l s . T h i s w a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i s c o n f i r m e d ; m o r e i n t i m a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n o c c u r r e d
i n t h e b r i g h t e r li g h t t h a n i n t h e s o f t e r l ig h t . T h i r d c o m m u n i c a t i o n d e c l i n e d i n s o f te r
l ig h t f r o m l et t e r o n e to le t te r t w o a s p r e d i c t e d . F o u r t h g e n e r a l a n d i n t i m a t e c o m -
m u n i c a t i o n w e r e h y p o t h e s i z e d t o b e g r e a t e r i n h o m e - l i k e c o n d i t io n s ; t h e se h y p o t h -
e s e s w e r e c o n f i r m e d .
I n m o s t o f t h es e ca s es s u p p o r t f o r t h e h y p o t h e s e s c a m e f r o m o n e o f t h e tw o
m e a s u r e s o f ge n e r a l a n d i n t i m a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n . I n th e c as e o f g e n e r a l c o m m u n i -
Page 10
7/26/2019 Gifford Rrobet. Light, Decor, Arousal, Comfort, And Communication. Journal of EnvironmentalPsychology No. 8 (1…
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/gifford-rrobet-light-decor-arousal-comfort-and-communication-journal 10/13
1 8 6 R G i f f o rd
c a t i o n , w r i t in g t i m e w a s a l w a y s t h e s i g n i f ic a n t v a r ia b l e ; t o t a l w o r d s n e v e r w a s . I n t h e
c a s e o f in t i m a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n , i n t i m a c y w a s a l w a y s t h e s i g n if i c a n t v a r i a b l e ; se lf -
r e f e r e n t w o r d s w a s s i g n i f ic a n t in o n l y o n e c a s e . I f n o t h i n g e ls e , t h i s i n d i c a t e s t h e
v a l u e o f d i ff e r e n ti a ti n g th e c o n c e p t o f i n t e rp e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d o f th e v a l u e
o f u s i n g m u l t ip l e m e a s u r e s . W h y l ig h t a n d d e c o r a r e r e la t e d t o w r i ti n g t im e b u t n o t
t o t a l w o r d s is n o t c l e a r. I n t i m a c y , b a s e d o n t h e p a r t i c i p a n t ' s c o g n i t iv e a ss e s s m e n t o f
t h e t o p i c a n d h e r o w n l e t t e r, is f r e q u e n t l y r e l a t e d t o l ig h t a n d d e c o r w h i l e s e l f- r e f e r e n t
w o r d s , a m e r e w o r d c o u n t , is n o t . P e r h a p s t h e w o r d c o u n t m e a s u r e s , n e i t h e r o f
w h i c h w e r e v e r y u s e f u l, a r e t o o s u b j e ct t o e x t r a n e o u s i n f lu e n c e s s u c h a s w r i ti n g
s ty le . A t l e as t in t h e c a s e o f i n t im a c y , a m o r e p s y c h o l o g i c a l m e a s u r e s e em s t o
b e m o r e s e n si ti v e to d i f f e r e n c e s i n li g h t a n d d e c o r t h a n a r e t h e m o r e m e c h a n i c a l
m e a s u r e s .
T h e s i m i l a r it y o f e ff e c t s o n i n t i m a c y a n d w r i t i n g t i m e r a i se s t h e i ss u e o f t h e i r
r e l a t e d n e s s . T h e y a r e c o n c e p t u a l l y d i f f e r e n t , b u t b e c a u s e t h e y a r e s i m i l a r l y a f f e c t e d
b y t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b le s , a r e t h e y h i g h l y c o r r e l a t e d ? N o ; t h e y c o r r e l a t e 0 .3 1 ,
w h i c h is s t a t is t i c a ll y s i g n if i c an t , b u t t h e y s h a r e l es s t h a n 1 0 o f t h e i r v a r i a n c e .
L i g h t i n g
O n e i n t e re s t i n g o u t c o m e is t h e d i s c o n f i r m a t i o n o f t h e h y p o t h e s i s p r e d i c ti n g t h a t s o f t
l i g h t i n g w o u l d b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m o r e i n t i m a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n . B e c a u s e t h i s
h y p o t h e s i s w a s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e C h a i k i n e t a l . s t u d y , a c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e s tu d i es
m a y h e l p e l u c i d a t e t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e d i s c r e p a n c y . O n e d i f f e re n c e is t h a t i n th i s
s t u d y p a r t i c i p a n t s j u d g e d t h e i n t im a c y o f th e i r o w n d i s c lo s u r e s , b u t i n C h a i k i n
e t
a l . s s t u d y a n o t h e r p e r s o n ( a n i n te r v i e w e r ) d i d s o . S e c o n d , t h is s t u d y e x a m i n e d w r i tt e n
c o m m u n i c a t i o n b u t C h a i k i n e t a l . e x a m i n e d o r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h i r d , t h i s s t u d y
f o c u s e d o n e s t a b l i s h e d f r i e n d s h i p s b u t C h a i k i n
e t a l .
f o c u s e d o n i n t e r a c t i o n s o f
s t r a n g e r s . F o u r t h , t h i s s t u d y ' s p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e p e e r s b u t i n C h a i k i n e t a l . s s t u d y a
s u b t le b u t i m p o r t a n t s t a t u s o r r o l e d i f f e re n c e w a s p r e s e n t i n t h a t t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r ,
w h o w a s in h e r t h ir ti e s, i n t e r v ie w e d i n t r o d u c t o r y p s y c h o l o g y st u d e n t s w h o w e r e
p r e s u m a b l y a b o u t a d e c a d e y o u n g e r ; a ls o , th e e x p e r i m e n t e r p la y e d a c o u n s e l o r ro l e
w h i le t h e s u b j e c t s p l a y e d a c o u n s e l e e r o le . A n y o f t h e s e d i f f er e n c e s m i g h t h a v e
a c c o u n t e d f o r t h e o p p o s i t e f i n d i n g s . O n e t a s k f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h e r s i s t o d i s c o v e r
t h e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h b r i g h t e r l ig h t el ic it s m o r e o r l es s i n t i m a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n .
T h e r e s u lt s f o r l ig h t a r e in a c c o r d w i t h a n a r o u s a l m o d e l . I n t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h is
s tu d y , m o r e l i gh t p r o d u c e d n o t o n l y m o r e g e n e r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n b u t a l so m o r e
i n t i m a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n .
T h e l i g h t × l e t t e r i n t e r a c t i o n
A s p r e d i c t e d , b o t h i n t i m a t e a n d g e n e r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n d e c l i n e d o v e r t i m e i n s o ft e r
l ig h t . T h e s t r o n g e r e f f e c t w a s f o r w r i ti n g t i m e . T h e r e s u l t s a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h a n
a r o u s a l m o d e l t h a t p l a c i n g i n d i v i d u a l s i n s o f t l i g h t i n g w i l l l o w e r t h e i r a r o u s a l l e v e l s
w h i c h , i n t u r n , w i l l l o w e r t h e i r a c t i v i t y l e v e l s .
M o s t u n i v e r s i ty l ig h t in g i s a t l e ve ls c l o s e r t o o u r b r i g h t c o n d i t i o n t h a n t o o u r s o f t
c o n d i t i o n . T h u s , t h e a r o u s a l a n d w r i t in g t i m e o f p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e s o f t l ig h t in g
c o n d i t i o n a p p e a r s t o h a v e d e c r e a s e d w i t h l e n g t h e n i n g e x p o s u r e t o s o f t l i g h t , r a t h e r
t h a n t h a t t h e a r o u s a l a n d w r i t in g t i m e o f b ri g h t - li g h t p a r t i c i p a n t s i n c r e a s e d w i t h
l e n g t h e n i n g e x p o s u r e t o b r i g h t l i g h t .
Page 11
7/26/2019 Gifford Rrobet. Light, Decor, Arousal, Comfort, And Communication. Journal of EnvironmentalPsychology No. 8 (1…
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/gifford-rrobet-light-decor-arousal-comfort-and-communication-journal 11/13
Light Dec or and Comm unicat ion 187
ecor
M o r e h o m e - li k e d e c o r w a s a s s o c i at e d w i th m o r e c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f b o t h k i n d s.
H o m e y d e c o r p r o b a b l y is n o t o n l y m o r e p h y s i ca l ly c o m f o r t a b l e , b u t i t m a y a ls o b e
m o r e p s y c h o l o g i c a ll y c o m f o r t a b l e , e v o k i n g a s en se o f re f u g e a n d u n g u a r d e d n e s s
t h a t i s a s s o c i a te d w i t h h o m e . B o t h t h e s e fe e li n g s w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d t o e n c o u r a g e
i n d i v id u a l s t o c o m m u n i c a t e m o r e , b o t h g e n e r a l l y a n d i n t im a t e l y .
The let ter main ef fect
O n e u n e x p e c t e d f i n d i n g w a s t h a t c o m m u n i c a t i o n d e c l i n e d f r o m l e t t e r o n e t o l e t t e r
t w o , n o t o n l y in s o f t li g h t a s p r e d i c t e d , b u t r e g a r d l es s o f l ig h t a n d d e c o r . T h i s m a y
h a v e h a p p e n e d f o r t h r e e p o s s i b l e r e a s o n s . F i r s t , p a r t i c i p a n t s m a y s i m p l y h a v e t i r e d
o f w r it in g . H o w e v e r , t o t a l w o r d s d i d n o t c h a n g e s ig n i fi c an t ly f r o m t h e f i rs t le t te r t o
t h e s e c o n d , a n d t h e s i g n i fi c a n c e o f t h e d e c l i n e i n w r i t i n g t i m e , t h e o t h e r g e n e r a l
c o m m u n i c a t i o n m e a s u r e , w a s m a r g i n a l. S e c o n d , t h e in t i m a c y o f w h a t p a r t i c i p a n ts
w r o t e o n t h e s e c o n d t o p i c m a y h a v e b e e n l o w e r . A t - te s t d i d n o t s u p p o r t t h i s n o t i o n ,
e i t h e r ( P > 0 -1 0 ). T h i r d , t h e i n t i m a c y o f t h e t o p i c i ts e lf m i g h t h a v e b e e n l o w e r f o r
t h e s e c o n d l e t te r . T h i s w a s t ru e : t h e i n t i m a c y o f to p i c o n e w a s 5 . 8 2 c o m p a r e d t o
4 . 7 6 f o r t o p i c t w o [ t ( 71 ) = 3 . 75 , P < 0 . 00 1 ]. T h i s d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n l e t t e r o n e a n d
l e tt e r t w o c a r r i e d o v e r i n t o t h e i n t i m a c y s c o re s , w h i c h w e r e c o m p u t e d a s t h e p r o d u c t
o f t h e se t w o r a ti n g s . L e t t e r o n e s m e a n i n t i m a c y s c o r e w a s 3 5 . 9; l e t te r t w o s w a s
30-6 [ t (71) = 2-70, P < 0.01] .
T h u s , i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e d e c l i n e i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n o v e r t im e i s p r i m a r i l y a d e c l in e
i n t h e i n t im a c y o f w h a t w a s w r i t t e n . T h i s m a y h a v e r e s u l te d f r o m t h e c h o i c e o f
t o p ic s . T h e f i rs t ( p r e s c r ib e d ) t o p i c , T h e t h i n g s I w o r r y a b o u t t h e m o s t , w a s t h e
t h i r d - m o s t i n t i m a t e o f th e 11 to p i c s . A t t h e o u t s e t o f t h e s t u d y , t o p i c i n ti m a c i e s
w e r e n o t y e t k n o w n , s o t h e s e l e ct io n o f a n o p e n i n g t o p i c c o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n
g u i d e d b y k n o w l e d g e o f t h e i n t i m a c y o f t h is t o p ic . T h e o d d s w e r e , t h e n , t h a t a
s e c o n d t o p i c w o u l d b e c l o s e r t o t h e m e a n i n t i m a c y o f th e r e m a i n i n g 1 0 t o p i cs . I n
f a c t, th i s m e a n w a s 4 . 6 6 a n d t h e m e a n i n t i m a c y o f th e r e m a i n i n g t o p i c s w a s 4 .7 6 .
T h e r e f o r e , t h e i n t i m a c y d e c l i n e o v e r t i m e w a s p r o b a b l y d u e t o t h i s t o p i c s e l e c t i o n
f a c t o r .
esign applications
I n c o m b i n a t i o n , t h e f i n d in g s o f th i s s t u d y s u g g e s t t h a t i f o n e w i sh e s t o i n c r e a s e b o t h
g e n e r a l a n d i n t i m a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n , t h e s e t t i n g s h o u l d b e n o r m a l - b r i g h t ( i . e . , a b o u t
9 0 f o o t c a n d l e s ) a n d h o m e - l i k e in d e c o r . N a t u r a l l y , t h e s e r e s u lt s s o f a r m a y o n l y b e
a p p l i e d t o f e m a l e f r ie n d s w r i t in g l e t te r s; b r o a d e r g e n e r a l iz a t i o n d e p e n d s o n r e s e a r c h
w i t h o t h e r f o r m s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n , m a le s , a n d s ta g es o f r e la t io n s h i p . H o w e v e r ,
t h e se r e su l ts a r e s u ff ic i en t t o c r e a t e c a u t i o n a b o u t a c c e p t i n g t h e c o m m o n n o t i o n
t h a t m o r e i n t i m a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i ll o c c u r i n d im l y li t s e tt in g s . A t t h e s a m e t im e ,
t h e y r e in f o r c e t h e n o t i o n t h a t h o m e - l i k e s e tt in g s e n c o u r a g e c o m m u n i c a t i o n .
C o n c l u s i o n
T h i s s t u d y b e g a n a s a n a t t e m p t t o c l a r if y p a s t s t u d ie s w h i c h s h o w e d t h a t c h a n g e s i n
c o m m u n i c a t i o n w e r e r e l a te d t o t h e p h y s i c a l s et ti n g , b u t w e r e u n a b l e t o s p e c if y w h i c h
Page 12
7/26/2019 Gifford Rrobet. Light, Decor, Arousal, Comfort, And Communication. Journal of EnvironmentalPsychology No. 8 (1…
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/gifford-rrobet-light-decor-arousal-comfort-and-communication-journal 12/13
188 R Gifford
f e a t u r e s o f t h e se t ti n g w e r e re s p o n s i b le . W e p o s i t e d t h a t a r o u s a l a n d c o m f o r t m e d i a t e
w r i t te n c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d t h e r es u lt s a re g e n e r a ll y c o n s i s te n t w i th t h e s e p r o p o s a l s .
T h e f i n d i n g s s u g g e s t s o m e o b v i o u s f u t u r e d i r e c t i o n s f o r r e s e a r c h e r s . S o m e o f
t h es e w e r e m a d e s a li e n t i n c o m p a r i n g t h is s t u d y s p r o c e d u r e w i t h t h a t o f th e C h a i k i n
et al .
s t ud y : o r a l v e r s u s w r i t te n c o m m u n i c a t i o n , w h o j u d g e s c o m m u n i c a t i o n
i n t i m a c y , i n t e r a c t i o n s b e t w e e n f r i e n d s v e rs u s s t r a n g e r s , a n d r o l e o r s ta t u s d i f fe r e n c e s.
R e s e a r c h a l s o m i g h t b e d i r e c t e d t o w a r d a s s e s s i n g b o d i l y s t a t e s d u r i n g c o m m u n i c a -
t i o n u n d e r d i f f e r e n t l i g h t i n g c o n d i t i o n s t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r p h y s i o l o g i c a l a r o u s a l
c h a n g e s o c c u r a s th e r e s u l ts o f t h i s s t u d y s u g g e s t . W h e t h e r o r n o t t h e r e s u l t s a r e
bes t
e x p l a i n e d b y a r o u s a l a n d c o m f o r t m o d e l s , t h e s t u d y ( a) c o n f i r m s t h e h y p o t h e s e s
t h a t l i g h t a n d d e c o r a f f e c t c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d ( b ) p l a c e s t h e re s e a r c h w i t h i n a
t h e o r et i ca l c o n t e x t. A n o t h e r q u e s t i o n f o r th e f u t u r e is w h e t h e r b r i g h t e r - t h a n - n o r m a l
l i g h t i n g a c t u a l l y i n c r e a s e s c o m m u n i c a t i o n , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e p r e s e n t f i n d i n g t h a t
n o r m a l l y b r i g h t li g h ti n g m a i n t a i n s c o m m u n i c a t i o n l e v el s w h i l e s u b n o r m a l l i g h ti n g
l eve l s d imin i sh i t .
A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s
I a m g r a t e f u l t o S h i r le y R o l l a n d f o r s e rv i n g as th e e x p e r i m e n t e r , t o T i m o t h y
G a l l a g h e r a n d P a u l M u n s o n f o r a d v i c e a n d t o t he U n i v e r s i t y o f V i c t o r ia a n d t h e
S o c ia l Sc ie n ce s a n d H u m a n i t i e s R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l o f C a n a d a f o r s u p p o r t .
R e f e r e n c e s
Alexander , M . and I saa c , W. (1965). Ef fec t of i llumina t ion and d -am phe tam ine on the ac t iv i ty
o f t he
Rhesus macaque. Psychological Reports,
16, 311-313.
Arc her , R . L. an d B erg, J . H. (1978). Disclosu re recipro ci ty and i ts limits : a reac tance analysis .
Journal o f Experim ental Social Psychology,
14, 527-540.
Ca rr , S. J . and D ab bs, J . M . (1974). The effects of lighting, d is tance, an d int im acy of topic on
verba l and v isua l behavior .
Sociometry,
37, 592-600.
Ch aikin, A . L. , Darlega , V. J. and Mil ler , S. J . (1976). Effects of roo m e nv ironm ent on self-
disclosure in a counsel ing analog.
Journal of Counseling PsTchology,
23 , 479481 .
Co zby , P. M . (197 3). Self-disclosure: a l i terature review.
Psychological Bulletin,
79, 73-91.
Gif ford , R. (1987) .
Environmental Psychology: Principles and Practice.
Boston: Al lyn and
Bacon.
Isaac , W. and Kendal l , N. P . (1967) . Sensory s t imula t ion and t iming behavior .
Psychonomic
Science,
8, 41~42.
Isaac , W . and Reed, W . G . (1961). The e f fec t of sensory s t imula t ion on the ac t iv i ty of ca t s .
Journal off Com parative an d Physiological Psychology,
51, 172-174.
M aslow, A . H . and M intz , N . L . (1956) . Ef fec ts of es the t ic sur roundings : 1. In i t ia l e ffec ts o f
three es the t ic condi t ions upon perce iv ing ener gy and wel l -be ing in faces.
Journal of
Psychology,
41, 247-254.
Meh rab i an , A . an d D iam ond , S . G . ( 1971 ). E f f ec t s o f f u rn it u r e a r r angemen t , p rops , and
person a l i ty on soc ia l in te rac t ion .
Journal of Personality & Social Psychology,
20, 18-30.
Ru bin, Z . (19 75). Disclo sing one self to a s trang er: recipro ci ty and i ts l imits. Journal of
Experimental Soc ial Psychology,
11,233-260.
Ru bin, Z . and Shen ker, S. (1978). Friend ship, p rox im ity, and self-disclosure.
Journal of Per-
sonality,
46, 1 22.
Sommer, R. (1969).
Personal Space. The Behavioral Basis qf Design.
Englewood Cliffs , NJ:
Prent ice-Hal l .
Sommer , R . ( 1974 ) . Tight Spaces. H ard Architecture and How to Humanize I t . Eng lewood
Cliffs , NJ: Prent ice-Hall .
Page 13
7/26/2019 Gifford Rrobet. Light, Decor, Arousal, Comfort, And Communication. Journal of EnvironmentalPsychology No. 8 (1…
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/gifford-rrobet-light-decor-arousal-comfort-and-communication-journal 13/13
Light Dec or and Comm unicat ion 189
W o n - D o o r n i n k , M . J . 1 97 9). O n g e t t in g to k n o w y o u : t he a s s o c i a t io n b e tw e e n t h e s t a g e o f a
r e l a t i o n s h i p a n d r e c i p r o c i t y o f s e l f -d i s c l o s u r e . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
15, 229 241.
W o r t h y , M . , G a r y , A . L . a n d K a h n , G . M . 1 9 69 ). S e l f - d is c l o s u re a s a n e x c h a n g e p r o c e s s .
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 13, 59-63.
Manuscript received 3 August
1987
Revised manuscript received 24 M a y 1988