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HANDBOOK OF SOLVENTS George Wypych, Editor ChemTec Publishing Toronto - New York 2001
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HANDBOOK OFSOLVENTSGeorge Wypych, EditorChemTec PublishingToronto New York 2001Published by ChemTec Publishing 38 Earswick Drive, Toronto, Ontario M1E 1C6, Canada Co-published by William Andrew Inc. 13 Eaton Avenue, Norwich, NY 13815, USA Chem Tec Publishing, 2001 ISBN 1-895198-24-0 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form or by any means without written permission of copyright owner. No responsibility is assumed by the Author and the Publisher for any injury or/and damage to persons or properties as a matter of products liability, negligence, use, or operation of any methods, product ideas, or instructions published or suggested in this book. Canadian Cataloguing in Publication Data Handbook of Solvents Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 1-895198-24-0 (ChemTec Publishing) ISBN 0-8155-1458-1 (William Andrew Inc.) Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 00-106798 1. Solvents--Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Wypych, George TP247.5.H35 2000 661.807 C00-900997-3 Printed in Canada by Transcontinental Printing Inc., 505 Consumers Rd. Toronto, Ontario M2J 4V8 Table of ContentsPreface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxviiGEORGE WYPYCH1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1CHRISTIAN REICHARDT2 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES GOVERNING SOLVENTS USE . . . . 72.1 Solvent effects on chemical systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7ESTANISLAO SILLA, ARTURO ARNAU, IAKI TUN2.1.1 Historical outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72.1.2 Classification of solute-solvent interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102.1.2.1 Electrostatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112.1.2.2 Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122.1.2.3 Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132.1.2.4 Repulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142.1.2.5 Specific interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152.1.2.6 Hydrophobic interactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162.1.3 Modelling of solvent effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172.1.3.1 Computer simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182.1.3.2 Continuum models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202.1.3.3 Cavity surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212.1.3.4 Supermolecule models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222.1.3.5 Application example: glycine in solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232.1.4 Thermodynamic and kinetic characteristics of chemical reactions in solution . 272.1.4.1 Solvent effects on chemical equilibria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272.1.4.2 Solvent effects on the rate of chemical reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282.1.4.3 Example of application: addition of azide anion to tetrafuranosides. . . . . . . 302.1.5 Solvent catalytic effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322.2 Molecular design of solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36KOICHIRO NAKANISHI2.2.1 Molecular design and molecular ensemble design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362.2.2 From prediction to design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372.2.3 Improvement in prediction method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382.2.4 Role of molecular simulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392.2.5 Model system and paradigm for design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40Appendix. Predictive equation for the diffusion coefficient in dilute solution . 412.3 Basic physical and chemical properties of solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42GEORGE WYPYCH2.3.1 Molecular weight and molar volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432.3.2 Boiling and freezing points. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442.3.3 Specific gravity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462.3.4 Refractive index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472.3.5 Vapor density and pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482.3.6 Solvent volatility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492.3.7 Flash point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502.3.8 Flammability limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512.3.9 Sources of ignition and autoignition temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522.3.10 Heat of combustion (calorific value) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542.3.11 Heat of fusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542.3.12 Electric conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542.3.13 Dielectric constant (relative permittivity) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542.3.14 Occupational exposure indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562.3.15 Odor threshold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562.3.16 Toxicity indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572.3.17 Ozone-depletion and creation potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582.3.18 Oxygen demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582.3.19 Solubility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582.3.20 Other typical solvent properties and indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603 PRODUCTION METHODS, PROPERTIES,AND MAIN APPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653.1 Definitions and solvent classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65GEORGE WYPYCH3.2 Overview of methods of solvent manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69GEORGE WYPYCH3.3 Solvent properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74GEORGE WYPYCH3.3.1 Hydrocarbons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753.3.1.1 Aliphatic hydrocarbons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753.3.1.2 Aromatic hydrocarbons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763.3.2 Halogenated hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783.3.3 Nitrogen-containing compounds (nitrates, nitriles) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793.3.4 Organic sulfur compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803.3.5 Monohydric alcohols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813.3.6 Polyhydric alcohols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833.3.7 Phenols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843.3.8 Aldehydes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853.3.9 Ethers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863.3.10 Glycol ethers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873.3.11 Ketones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883.3.11 Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903.3.12 Amines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913.3.13 Esters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923.3.14 Comparative analysis of all solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943.4 Terpenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96TILMAN HAHN, KONRAD BOTZENHART, FRITZ SCHWEINSBERG3.4.1 Definitions and nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963.4.2 Occurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963.4.3 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963.4.4 Toxicology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 973.4.5 Threshold limit values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974 GENERAL PRINCIPLES GOVERNING DISSOLUTIONOF MATERIALS IN SOLVENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014.1 Simple solvent characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101VALERY YU. SENICHEV, VASILIY V. TERESHATOV4.1.1 Solvent power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014.1.2 One-dimensional solubility parameter approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1034.1.3 Multi-dimensional approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1104.1.4 Hansens solubility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1124.1.5 Three-dimensional dualistic model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1164.1.6 Solubility criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1194.1.7 Solvent system design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1204.2 Effect of system variables on solubility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124VALERY YU. SENICHEV, VASILIY V. TERESHATOV4.2.1 General considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1244.2.2 Chemical structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1264.2.3 Flexibility of a polymer chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1274.2.4 Crosslinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1284.2.5 Temperature and pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1284.2.6 Methods of calculation of solubility based on thermodynamic principles . . . . 130ii Handbook of Solvents4.3 Polar solvation dynamics: Theory and simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132ABRAHAM NITZAN4.3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1324.3.2 Continuum dielectric theory of solvation dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1334.3.3 Linear response theory of solvation dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1364.3.4 Numerical simulations of solvation in simple polar solvents:The simulation model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1384.3.5 Numerical simulations of solvation in simple polar solvents:Results and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1404.3.6 Solvation in complex solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1444.3.7 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1454.4 Methods for the measurement of solvent activity of polymer solutions . . . . . 146CHRISTIAN WOHLFARTH4.4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1464.4.2 Necessary thermodynamic equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1494.4.3 Experimental methods, equipment and data reduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1544.4.3.1 Vapor-liquid equilibrium (VLE) measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1544.4.3.1.1 Experimental equipment and procedures for VLE-measurements . . . . . . . . 1554.4.3.1.2 Primary data reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1704.4.3.1.3 Comparison of experimental VLE-methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1754.4.3.2 Other measurement methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1784.4.3.2.1 Membrane osmometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1784.4.3.2.2 Light scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1814.4.3.2.3 X-ray scattering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1844.4.3.2.4 Neutron scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1854.4.3.2.5 Ultracentrifuge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1864.4.3.2.6 Cryoscopy (freezing point depression of the solvent) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1884.4.3.2.7 Liquid-liquid equilibrium (LLE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1894.4.3.2.8 Swelling equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1934.4.4 Thermodynamic models for the calculation of solvent activities ofpolymer solutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1954.4.4.1 Models for residual chemical potential and activity coefficient inthe liquid phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1964.4.4.2 Fugacity coefficients from equations of state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2074.4.4.3 Comparison and conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214Appendix 4.4A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2235 SOLUBILITY OF SELECTED SYSTEMS AND INFLUENCEOF SOLUTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2435.1 Experimental methods of evaluation and calculation of solubilityparameters of polymers and solvents. Solubility parameters data . . . . . . . . 243VALERY YU. SENICHEV, VASILIY V. TERESHATOV5.1.1 Experimental evaluation of solubility parameters of liquids . . . . . . . . . . . 2435.1.1.1 Direct methods of evaluation of the evaporation enthalpy . . . . . . . . . . . 2435.1.1.2 Indirect methods of evaluation of evaporation enthalpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2445.1.1.3 Static and quasi-static methods of evaluation of pair pressure. . . . . . . . . . 2455.1.1.4 Kinetic methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2455.1.2 Methods of experimental evaluation and calculation of solubilityparameters of polymers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2465.2 Prediction of solubility parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253NOBUYUKI TANAKA5.2.1 Solubility parameter of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2535.2.2 Glass transition in polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2545.2.2.1 Glass transition enthalpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2545.2.2.2 Cp jump at the glass transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2565.2.3 Prediction from thermal transition enthalpies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2585.3 Methods of calculation of solubility parameters of solvents and polymers . . . 261VALERY YU. SENICHEV, VASILIY V. TERESHATOVTable of contents iii5.4 Mixed solvents, a way to change the polymer solubility. . . . . . . . . . . . . 267LIGIA GARGALLO AND DEODATO RADIC5.4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2675.4.2 Solubility-cosolvency phenomenon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2685.4.3 New cosolvents effects. Solubility behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2735.4.4 Thermodynamical description of ternary systems. Association equilibriatheory of preferential adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2745.4.5 Polymer structure of the polymer dependence of preferential adsorption.Polymer molecular weight and tacticity dependence of preferential adsorption. 2775.5 The phenomenological theory of solvent effects in mixed solvent systems . . . 281KENNETH A. CONNORS5.5.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2815.5.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2815.5.2.1 Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2815.5.2.2 The intersolute effect: solute-solute interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2825.5.2.3 The solvation effect: solute-solvent interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2835.5.2.4 The general medium effect: solvent-solvent interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . 2845.5.2.5 The total solvent effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2855.5.3 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2855.5.3.1 Solubility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2855.5.3.2 Surface tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2885.5.3.3 Electronic absorption spectra. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2905.5.3.4 Complex formation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2915.5.3.5 Chemical kinetics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2955.5.3.6 Liquid chromatography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2985.5.4 Interpretations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2985.5.4.1 Ambiguities and anomalies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2985.5.4.2 A modified derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2995.5.4.3 Interpretation of parameter estimates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3005.5.4.4 Confounding effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301Solute-solute interactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301Coupling of general medium and solvation effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301The cavity surface area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301The role of interfacial tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3026 SWELLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3056.1 Modern views on kinetics of swelling of crosslinked elastomers in solvents . . 305E. YA. DENISYUK, V. V. TERESHATOV6.1.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3056.1.2 Formulation of swelling for a plane elastomer layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3066.1.3 Diffusion kinetics of plane layer swelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3106.1.4 Experimental study of elastomer swelling kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3146.1.5 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3176.2 Equilibrium swelling in binary solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318VASILIY V. TERESHATOV, VALERY YU. SENICHEV6.3 Swelling data on crosslinked polymers in solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327VASILIY V. TERESHATOV, VALERY YU. SENICHEV6.4 Influence of structure on equilibrium swelling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331VASILIY V. TERESHATOV, VALERY YU. SENICHEV7 SOLVENT TRANSPORT PHENOMENA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3397.1 Introduction to diffusion, swelling, and drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339GEORGE WYPYCH7.1.1 Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3397.1.2 Swelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3447.1.3 Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3487.2 Bubbles dynamics and boiling of polymeric solutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356SEMYON LEVITSKY, ZINOVIY SHULMAN7.2.1 Rheology of polymeric solutions and bubble dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356iv Handbook of Solvents7.2.1.1 Rheological characterization of solutions of polymers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3567.2.1.2 Dynamic interaction of bubbles with polymeric liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3637.2.2 Thermal growth of bubbles in superheated solutions of polymers . . . . . . . 3727.2.3 Boiling of macromolecular liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3777.3 Drying of coated film. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386SEUNG SU KIM AND JAE CHUN HYUN7.3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3867.3.2 Theory for the drying. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3887.3.2.1 Simultaneous heat and mass transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3887.3.2.2 Liquid-vapor equilibrium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3897.3.2.3 Heat and mass transfer coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3907.3.2.4 Prediction of drying rate of coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3927.3.2.5 Drying regimes: constant drying rate period (CDRP) and fallingdrying rate period (FDRP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3947.3.3 Measurement of the drying rate of coated film. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3967.3.3.1 Thermo-gravimetric analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3967.3.3.2 Rapid scanning FT-IR spectrometer analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3997.3.3.3 High-airflow drying experiment using flame ionization detector (FID)total hydrocarbon analyzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4017.3.3.4 Measurement of drying rate in the production scale dryer . . . . . . . . . . . . 4047.3.4 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4077.3.4.1 Drying of coated film with phase separation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4077.3.4.2 Drying defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4097.3.4.2.1 Internal stress induced defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4097.3.4.2.2 Surface tension driven defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4127.3.4.2.3 Defects caused by air motion and others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4147.3.4.3 Control of lower explosive level (LEL) in a multiple zone dryer . . . . . . . . 4148 INTERACTIONS IN SOLVENTS AND SOLUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . 419JACOPO TOMASI, BENEDETTA MENNUCCI, CHIARA CAPPELLI8.1 Solvents and solutions as assemblies of interacting molecules . . . . . . . . . 4198.2 Basic simplifications of the quantum model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4208.3 Cluster expansion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4248.4 Two-body interaction energy: the dimer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4248.4.1 Decomposition of the interaction energy of a dimer: variational approach . . . 426The electrostatic term. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426The induction term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428The exchange term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428The charge transfer term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429The dispersion term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430The decomposition of the interaction energy through a variationalapproach: a summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4328.4.2 Basis set superposition error and counterpoise corrections . . . . . . . . . . . 4338.4.3 Perturbation theory approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4368.4.4 Modeling of the separate components of E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441The electrostatic term. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441The induction term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445The dispersion term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446The exchange (or repulsion) term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447The other terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448A conclusive view . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4488.4.5 The relaxation of the rigid monomer constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4498.5 Three- and many-body interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451Screening many-body effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453Effective interaction potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4548.6 The variety of interaction potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4568.7 Theoretical and computing modeling of pure liquids and solutions . . . . . . . 4618.7.1 Physical models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461Table of contents v8.7.1.1 Integral equation methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4658.7.1.2 Perturbation theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4678.7.2 Computer simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4688.7.2.1 Car-Parrinello direct QM simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4708.7.2.2 Semi-classical simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472Molecular dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472Monte Carlo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473QM/MM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4788.7.3 Continuum models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4798.7.3.1 QM-BE methods: the effective Hamiltonian. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4828.8 Practical applications of modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487Dielectric constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487Thermodynamical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490Compressibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490Relaxation times and diffusion coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491Shear viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4928.9 Liquid surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4928.9.1 The basic types of liquid surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4938.9.2 Systems with a large surface/bulk ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4958.9.3 Studies on interfaces using interaction potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4979 MIXED SOLVENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505Y. Y. FIALKOV, V. L. CHUMAK9.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5059.2 Chemical interaction between components in mixed solvents . . . . . . . . . . 5059.2.1 Processes of homomolecular association. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5059.2.2 Conformic and tautomeric equilibrium. Reactions of isomerization. . . . . . . 5069.2.3 Heteromolecular association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5079.2.4 Heteromolecular associate ionization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5079.2.5 Electrolytic dissociation (ionic association) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5089.2.6 Reactions of composition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5089.2.7 Exchange interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5099.2.8 Amphoterism of mixed solvent components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5099.2.8.1 Amphoterism of hydrogen acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5099.2.8.2 Amphoterism of L-acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5099.2.8.3 Amphoterism in systems H-acid-L-acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5109.2.8.4 Amphoterism in binary solutions amine-amine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5109.3 Physical properties of mixed solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5119.3.1 The methods of expression of mixed solvent compositions . . . . . . . . . . . 5119.3.1.1 Permittivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5139.3.1.2 Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5159.3.1.3 Density, molar volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5169.3.1.4 Electrical conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5169.3.2 Physical characteristics of the mixed solvents with chemical interactionbetween components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5179.3.2.1 Permittivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5189.3.2.2 Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5199.3.2.3 Density, molar volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5219.3.2.4 Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5229.3.3 Chemical properties of mixed solvents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5249.3.3.1 Autoprotolysis constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5249.3.3.2 Solvating ability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5269.3.3.3 Donor-acceptor properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5279.4 Mixed solvent influence on the chemical equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5279.4.1 General considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5279.4.2 Mixed solvent effect on the position of equilibrium of homomolecularassociation process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5299.4.3 Mixed solvent influence on the conformer equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530vi Handbook of Solvents9.4.4 Solvent effect on the process of heteromolecular association . . . . . . . . . . 5329.4.4.1 Selective solvation. Resolvation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5389.4.5 Mixed solvent effect on the ion association process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5469.4.6 Solvent effect on exchange interaction processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552Systems with non-associated reagents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552Systems with one associated participant of equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553Systems with two associated participants of equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . 5539.4.7 Mixed solvent effect on processes of complex formation . . . . . . . . . . . . 5569.5 The mixed solvent effect on the chemical equilibrium thermodynamics . . . . 55710 ACID-BASE INTERACTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56510.1 General concept of acid-base interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565GEORGE WYPYCH10.2 Effect of polymer/solvent acid-base interactions: relevance tothe aggregation of PMMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570S. BISTAC, M. BROGLY10.2.1 Recent concepts in acid-base interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57010.2.1.1 The nature of acid-base molecular interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57110.2.1.1.1 The original Lewis definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57110.2.1.1.2 Molecular Orbital (MO) approach to acid-base reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . 57110.2.1.1.3 The case of hydrogen bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57310.2.1.2 Quantitative determination of acid-base interaction strength . . . . . . . . . . 57410.2.1.2.1 Perturbation theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57410.2.1.2.2 Hard-Soft Acid-Base (HSAB) principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57410.2.1.2.3 Density functional theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57510.2.1.2.4 Effect of ionocity and covalency: Dragos concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57610.2.1.2.5 Effect of amphotericity of acid-base interaction: Gutmanns numbers . . . . . 57710.2.1.2.6 Spectroscopic measurements: Fowkes approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57810.2.2 Effect of polymer/solvent interactions on aggregation of stereoregular PMMA 57810.2.2.1 Aggregation of stereoregular PMMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57810.2.2.2 Relation between the complexing power of solvents and theiracid-base properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57910.2.3 Influence of the nature of the solvent on the and -relaxations ofconventional PMMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58110.2.3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58110.2.3.2 Dielectric spectroscopy results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58110.2.4 Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58210.3 Solvent effects based on pure solvent scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583JAVIER CATALNIntroduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58310.3.1 The solvent effect and its dissection into general and specific contributions . . 58410.3.2 Characterization of a molecular environment with the aid of theprobe/homomorph model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58510.3.3 Single-parameter solvent scales: the Y, G, ET(30), Py, Z, R, , and S' scales. . 58710.3.3.1 The solvent ionizing power scale or Y scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58710.3.3.2 The G values of Allerhand and Schleyer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58810.3.3.3 The ET(30) scale of Dimroth and Reichardt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58810.3.3.4 The Py scale of Dong and Winnick. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58910.3.3.5 The Z scale of Kosower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58910.3.3.6 The R scale of Brooker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59010.3.3.7 The scale of Dubois and Bienvene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59010.3.3.8 The S' scale of Drago. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59110.3.4 Solvent polarity: the SPP scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59110.3.5 Solvent basicity: the SB scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60010.3.6 Solvent acidity: the SA scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60110.3.7 Applications of the pure SPP, SA and SB scales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60510.3.7.1 Other reported solvents scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60510.3.7.2 Treatment of the solvent effect in: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608Table of contents vii10.3.7.2.1 Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60810.3.7.2.2 Kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61110.3.7.2.3 Electrochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61210.3.7.2.4 Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61210.3.7.3 Mixtures of solvents. Understanding the preferential solvation model . . . . . 61210.4 Acid-base equilibria in ionic solvents (ionic melts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616VICTOR CHERGINETS10.4.1 Acid-base definitions used for the description of donor-acceptorinteractions in ionic media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61710.4.1.1 The Lewis definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61710.4.1.2 The Lux-Flood definition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61810.4.2 The features of ionic melts as media for acid-base interactions . . . . . . . . . 61810.4.2.1 Oxygen-less media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61910.4.2.2 Oxygen-containing melts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61910.4.2.3 The effect of the ionic solvent composition on acid-base equilibria . . . . . . . 62010.4.3 Methods for estimations of acidities of solutions based on ionic melts . . . . . 62310.4.4 On studies of the homogeneous acid-base reactions in ionic melts . . . . . . . 62510.4.4.1 Nitrate melts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62510.4.4.2 Sulphate melts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62710.4.4.3 Silicate melts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62810.4.4.4 The equimolar mixture KCl-NaCl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62910.4.4.5 Other alkaline halide melts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63110.4.5 Reactions of melts with gaseous acids and bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63210.4.5.1 High-temperature hydrolysis of molten halides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63210.4.5.2 The processes of removal of oxide admixtures from melts . . . . . . . . . . . 63311 ELECTRONIC AND ELECTRICAL EFFECTS OF SOLVENTS . . . . . 63911.1 Theoretical treatment of solvent effects on electronic and vibrationalspectra of compounds in condensed media. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639MATI KARELSON11.1.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63911.1.2 Theoretical treatment of solvent cavity effects on electronic-vibrationalspectra of molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64711.1.3 Theoretical treatment of solvent electrostatic polarization onelectronic-vibrational spectra of molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64911.1.4 Theoretical treatment of solvent dispersion effects onelectronic-vibrational spectra of molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67111.1.5 Supermolecule approach to the intermolecular interactions in condensed media 67411.2 Dielectric solvent effects on the intensity of light absorption andthe radiative rate constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680TAI-ICHI SHIBUYA11.2.1 The Chako formula or the Lorentz-Lorenz correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68011.2.2 The generalized local-field factor for the ellipsoidal cavity . . . . . . . . . . . 68011.2.3 Dielectric solvent effect on the radiative rate constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68212 OTHER PROPERTIES OF SOLVENTS, SOLUTIONS,AND PRODUCTS OBTAINED FROMSOLUTIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . 68312.1 Rheological properties, aggregation, permeability, molecular structure,crystallinity, and other properties affected by solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683GEORGE WYPYCH12.1.1 Rheological properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68312.1.2 Aggregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68912.1.3 Permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69312.1.4 Molecular structure and crystallinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69712.1.5 Other properties affected by solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70012.2 Chain conformations of polysaccharides in different solvents. . . . . . . . . . 706RANIERI URBANI AND ATTILIO CESRO12.2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70612.2.2 Structure and conformation of polysaccharides in solution . . . . . . . . . . . 707viii Handbook of Solvents12.2.2.1 Chemical structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70712.2.2.2 Solution chain conformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70712.2.3 Experimental evidence of solvent effect on oligosaccharide conformationalequilibria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71112.2.4 Theoretical evaluation of solvent effect on conformational equilibria of sugars 71512.2.4.1 Classical molecular mechanics methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71512.2.4.2 Molecular dynamic methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72012.2.5 Solvent effect on chain dimensions and conformations of polysaccharides . . . 72212.2.6 Solvent effect on charged polysaccharides and the polyelectrolyte model . . . 72612.2.6.1 Experimental behavior of polysaccharides polyelectrolytes . . . . . . . . . . . 72612.2.6.2 The Haug and Smidsrd parameter: description of the salt effect on the chaindimension. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72712.2.6.3 The statistical thermodynamic counterion-condensation theory of Manning . . 72912.2.6.4 Conformational calculations of charged polysaccharides . . . . . . . . . . . . 73112.2.7 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73313 EFFECT OF SOLVENT ON CHEMICAL REACTIONS ANDREACTIVITY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73713.1 Solvent effects on chemical reactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737ROLAND SCHMID13.1.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73713.1.2 The dielectric approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73713.1.3 The chemical approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73813.1.4 Dielectric vs. chemical approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74213.1.5 Conceptual problems with empirical solvent parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . 74413.1.6 The physical approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74613.1.7 Some highlights of recent investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753The like dissolves like rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753Waters anomalies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755The hydrophobic effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758The structure of liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762Solvent reorganization energy in ET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765The solution ionic radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76813.1.8 The future of the phenomenological approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77213.2 Solvent effects on free radical polymerization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777MICHELLE L. COOTE AND THOMAS P. DAVIS13.2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77713.2.2 Homopolymerization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77713.2.2.1 Initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77713.2.2.2 Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77813.2.2.3 Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77913.2.2.4 Termination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77913.2.3 Copolymerization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77913.2.3.1 Polarity effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78013.2.3.1.1 Basic mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78013.2.3.1.2 Copolymerization model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78113.2.3.1.3 Evidence for polarity effects in propagation reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78113.2.3.2 Radical-solvent complexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78213.2.3.2.1 Basic mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78213.2.3.2.2 Copolymerization model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78213.2.3.2.3 Experimental evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78313.2.3.3 Monomer-solvent complexes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78513.2.3.3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78513.2.3.3.2 Monomer-monomer complex participation model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78513.2.3.3.3 Monomer-monomer complex dissociation model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79013.2.3.3.4 Specific solvent effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79113.2.3.4 Bootstrap model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79113.2.3.4.1 Basic mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791Table of contents ix13.2.3.4.2 Copolymerization model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79113.2.3.4.3 Experimental evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79313.2.4 Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79513.3 Effects of organic solvents on phase-transfer catalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798MAW-LING WANG13.3.1 Two-phase phase-transfer catalytic reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80113.3.1.1 Theoretical analysis of the polarity of the organic solvents and the reactions . . 80113.3.1.2 Effect of organic solvent on the reaction in various reaction systems . . . . . . 80513.3.1.3 Effects of the organic solvents on the reactions in other catalysts . . . . . . . . 81113.3.1.4 Effect of the volume of organic solvent and water on the reactions invarious reaction systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82213.3.1.5 Effects of organic solvents on other phase-transfer catalytic reactions . . . . . 82513.3.1.6 Other effects on the phase-transfer catalytic reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82813.3.2 Three-phase reactions (triphase catalysis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83013.3.2.1 The interaction between solid polymer (hydrophilicity) and the organicsolvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83013.3.2.2 Effect of solvents on the reaction in triphase catalysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83313.3.2.3 Effect of volume of organic solvent and water on the reactions intriphase catalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83613.4 Effect of polymerization solvent on the chemical structure and curing ofaromatic poly(amideimide). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841NORIO TSUBOKAWA13.4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84113.4.2 Effect of solvent on the chemical structure of PAI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84213.4.2.1 Imide and amide bond content of PAI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84213.4.2.2 Intrinsic viscosity and carboxyl group content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84413.4.3 Effect of solvent on the curing of PAI by heat treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . 84413.4.3.1 Chemical structure of PAI after heat treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84413.4.3.2 Curing PAI by post-heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84513.4.4 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84614 SOLVENT USE IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84714.1 Adhesives and sealants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847GEORGE WYPYCH14.2 Aerospace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852GEORGE WYPYCH14.3 Asphalt compounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855GEORGE WYPYCH14.4 Biotechnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85614.4.1 Organic solvents in microbial production processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 856MICHIAKI MATSUMOTO, SONJA ISKEN, JAN A. M. DE BONT14.4.1.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85614.4.1.2 Toxicity of organic solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85914.4.1.3 Solvent-tolerant bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86214.4.1.4 Biotransformation using solvent-tolerant microorganisms. . . . . . . . . . . . 86314.4.2 Solvent-resistant microorganisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865TILMAN HAHN, KONRAD BOTZENHART14.4.2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86514.4.2.2 Toxicity of solvents for microorganisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86514.4.2.2.1 Spectrum of microorganisms and solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86514.4.2.2.2 Mechanisms of solvent toxicity for microorganisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86614.4.2.3 Adaption of microorganisms to solvents - solvent-resistant microorganisms . . 86714.4.2.3.1 Spectrum of solvent-resistant microorganisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86714.4.2.3.2 Adaption mechanisms of microorganisms to solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86814.4.2.4 Solvents and microorganisms in the environment and industry - examples . . . 86914.4.2.4.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86914.4.3 Choice of solvent for enzymatic reaction in organic solvent. . . . . . . . . . . 872TSUNEO YAMANEx Handbook of Solvents14.4.3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87214.4.3.2 Classification of organic solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87214.4.3.3 Influence of solvent parameters on nature of enzymatic reactions inorganic media. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87314.4.3.4 Properties of enzymes affected by organic solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87514.4.3.5 Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87914.5 Coil coating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880GEORGE WYPYCH14.6 Cosmetics and personal care products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881GEORGE WYPYCH14.7 Dry cleaning - treatment of textiles in solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883KASPAR D. HASENCLEVER14.7.1 Dry cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88314.7.1.1 History of dry cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88314.7.1.2 Basis of dry cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88414.7.1.3 Behavior of textiles in solvents and water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88514.7.1.4 Removal of soiling in dry cleaning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88614.7.1.5 Activity of detergents in dry cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88714.7.1.6 Dry cleaning processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88814.7.1.7 Recycling of solvents in dry cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89014.7.2 Spotting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89114.7.2.1 Spotting in dry cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89114.7.2.2 Spotting agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89114.7.2.3 Spotting procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89214.7.3 Textile finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89314.7.3.1 Waterproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89314.7.3.2 Milling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89314.7.3.3 Antistatic finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89314.8 Electronic industry - CFC-free alternatives for cleaning in electronic industry. 894MARTIN HANEK, NORBERT LW, ANDREAS MHLBAUER14.8.1 Cleaning requirements in the electronic industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89414.8.2 Available alternatives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89614.8.2.1 Water based systems; advantages and disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89714.8.2.1.1 Cleaning with DI - water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89714.8.2.1.2 Cleaning with alkaline water-based media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89814.8.2.1.3 Aqueous-based cleaning agents containing water soluble organic components . 89814.8.2.1.4 Water-based cleaning agents based on MPC Technology(MPC = Micro Phase Cleaning) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89914.8.2.1.5 Advantages and disadvantages of aqueous cleaning media . . . . . . . . . . . 89914.8.2.2 Semi-aqueous cleaners based on halogen-free solvents, advantages anddisadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90014.8.2.2.1 Water insoluble cleaning fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90114.8.2.2.2 Water-soluble, water-based cleaning agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90114.8.2.2.3 Comparison of the advantages (+) and disadvantages (-) of semi-aqueouscleaning fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90114.8.2.3 Other solvent based cleaning systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90214.8.3 Cleaning of tools and auxiliaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90414.8.3.1 Cleaning substrates and contamination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90414.8.3.2 Compatibility of stencil and cleaning agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90514.8.3.3 Different cleaning media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90614.8.3.4 Comparison of manual cleaning vs. automated cleaning. . . . . . . . . . . . . 90814.8.3.5 Cleaning equipment for stencil cleaning applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90914.8.3.6 Stencil cleaning in screen printing machines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91114.8.3.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91114.8.4 Cleaning agents and process technology available for cleaning PCB . . . . . . 91114.8.4.1 Flux remove and aqueous process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91114.8.4.1.1 The limits of a no-clean process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911Table of contents xi14.8.4.1.2 Different cleaning media and cleaning processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91214.8.4.1.3 Semi-aqueous cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91314.8.4.1.4 Aqueous cleaning in spray in air cleaning equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91314.8.4.2 Flux removal from printed circuit boards - water-free cleaning processes . . . 91414.8.4.2.1 Water-free cleaning processes using HFE (hydrofluoroethers) in combinationwith a cosolvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91514.8.4.2.2 Water-free cleaning processes in closed, one-chamber vapor defluxing systems 91614.8.5 Criteria for assessment and evaluation of cleaning results . . . . . . . . . . . . 91714.8.6 Cost comparison of different cleaning processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91914.9 Fabricated metal products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920GEORGE WYPYCH14.10 Food industry - solvents for extracting vegetable oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923PHILLIP J. WAKELYN, PETER J. WAN14.10.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92314.10.2 Regulatory concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92414.10.2.1 Workplace regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92514.10.2.1.1 Air Contaminants Standard (29 CFR 1910.1000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92514.10.2.1.2 Hazard Communication Standard (HCS) (29 CFR 1910.1200) . . . . . . . . . 92614.10.2.1.3 Process Safety Management (PSM) Standard (29 CFR 1910.119) . . . . . . . 92714.10.2.2 Environmental regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92714.10.2.2.1 Clean Air Act (CAA; 42 U.S. Code 7401 et seq.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92914.10.2.2.2 Clean Water Act (CWA; 33 U.S. Code 1251 et seq.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93214.10.2.2.3 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA; 42 U.S.Code 6901 et seq.) . 93214.10.2.2.4 Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA;42 U.S. Code 11001 et seq.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93314.10.2.2.5 Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA; 15 U.S. Code 2601 et seq.) . . . . . . . 93314.10.2.3 Food safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93414.10.3 The solvent extraction process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93514.10.3.1 Preparation for extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93614.10.3.2 Oil extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93814.10.3.3 Processing crude oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93814.10.4 Review of solvents studied for extraction efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94014.10.4.1 Hydrocarbon solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94114.10.4.1.1 Nomenclature, structure, composition and properties of hydrocarbons . . . . . 94214.10.4.1.2 Performance of selected hydrocarbon solvents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94214.10.5 Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94614.11 Ground transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950GEORGE WYPYCH14.12 Inorganic chemical industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950GEORGE WYPYCH14.13 Iron and steel industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 951GEORGE WYPYCH14.14 Lumber and wood products - Wood preservation treatment:significance of solvents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 953TILMAN HAHN, KONRAD BOTZENHART, FRITZ SCHWEINSBERG, GERHARD VOLLAND14.14.1 General aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95314.14.2 Role of solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95414.14.2.1 Occurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95414.14.2.2 Technical and environmental aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95514.15 Medical applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 955GEORGE WYPYCH14.16 Metal casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957GEORGE WYPYCH14.17 Motor vehicle assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 958GEORGE WYPYCH14.18 Organic chemical industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962GEORGE WYPYCHxii Handbook of Solvents14.19 Paints and coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96314.19.1 Architectural surface coatings and solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963TILMAN HAHN, KONRAD BOTZENHART, FRITZ SCHWEINSBERG, GERHARD VOLLAND14.19.1.1 General aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96314.19.1.2 Technical aspects and properties of coating materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96314.19.2 Recent advances in coalescing solvents for waterborne coatings . . . . . . . . 969DAVID RANDALL14.19.2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96914.19.2.2 Water based coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97014.19.2.3 Emulsion polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97014.19.2.4 Role of a coalescing solvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97114.19.2.5 Properties of coalescing agents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97214.19.2.5.1 Hydrolytic stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97214.19.2.5.2 Water solubility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97214.19.2.5.3 Freezing point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .