-
Geology of Michigan and the Great LakesRobb Gillespie, William
B. Harrison III, and G. Michael GrammerMichigan Geological
Repository for Research and EducationWestern Michigan
University
Potato Patch Falls,Lake Superior,Munising, Michigan.Cross-bedded
sand-stone, Chapel RockMember, CambrianMunising Formation.Wave-cut
platformand undercut rockledges. Trees onolder wave-cut plat-form
formed duringa higher, post-glacial lake
stage.Dark-colored,basaltic glacialerratic on shoreline.
Michigan
L
inda
Har
rison
.
The Geology of Michigan and the Great Lakes is written to
augment any introductoryearth science, environmental geology,
geologic, or geographic course offering, and isdesigned to
introduce students in Michigan and the Great Lakes to important
regionalgeologic concepts and events. Although Michigans geologic
past spans the Precambrianthrough the Holocene, much of the rock
record, Pennsylvanian through Pliocene, is miss-ing. Glacial events
during the Pleistocene removed these rocks. However, these same
glacialevents left behind a rich legacy of surficial deposits,
various landscape features, lakes, andrivers. Michigan is one of
the most scenic states in the nation, providing numerous
recre-ational opportunities to inhabitants and visitors alike.
Geology of the region has also played an important, and often
controlling, role in the patternof settlement and ongoing economic
development of the state. Vital resources such as iron ore,copper,
gypsum, salt, oil, and gas have greatly contributed to Michigans
growth and industrialmight. Ample supplies of high-quality water
support a vibrant population and strong industrialbase throughout
the Great Lakes region. These water supplies are now becoming
increasinglyimportant in light of modern economic growth and
population demands.
This text introduces the student to the geology of Michigan and
the Great Lakes region.It begins with the Precambrian basement
terrains as they relate to plate tectonic events. Itdescribes
Paleozoic clastic and carbonate rocks, restricted basin salts, and
Niagaran pinnaclereefs. Quaternary glacial events and the
development of todays modern landscapes are alsodiscussed. Coastal
issues and mineral resources are detailed. Students will develop a
betterappreciation for the importance of geology to the inhabitants
of the region today.
About the authorsDr. Robb Gillespie is currently an Assistant
Professor in the Department of Geosciencesand Research Associate
with the Michigan Core Repository for Research and Education(MCRRE)
at Western Michigan University. Dr. Gillespie has over 24 years
experience in theoil and gas industry having worked for ARCO Oil
and Gas in their domestic, international,and research groups, and
for COHO Resources redeveloping old oil fields. He has also
oper-ated his own oil and gas consulting business since 1992, and
co-founded Tres Rios Resources,Inc. (TRR), a small oil and gas
company in 1993. Dr. Gillespies geological specialty is reser-voir
delineation, characterization and modeling based upon detailed
stratigraphic analysis.
Dr. William B. Harrison, III is Professor Emeritus in the
Department of Geosciences andDirector of the Michigan Basin Core
Research Laboratory that is part of the MichiganGeological
Repository for Research and Education (MGRRE) at Western
MichiganUniversity. Dr. Harrison has over 34 years experience in
research related to sedimentarygeology, Michigan stratigraphy and
petroleum geology. He is the founder of the MichiganBasin Core
Research Laboratory (1982). He taught Undergraduate and Graduate
studentsat Western Michigan University for 30 years. He continues
to be active in research andoutreach related to Michigan
geology.
G. Michael Grammer is Director of the Michigan Geological
Repository for Research andEducation at Western Michigan University
and an Associate Professor in the Departmentof Geosciences. He
received his B.A. from the University of South Florida, M.S.
fromSouthern Methodist University and Ph.D. from the University of
Miamis Rosenstiel Schoolof Marine and Atmospheric Sciences. He has
been at WMU since 2002 after earlier stops inthe oil and gas
industry and as a faculty member at the University of Miami. His
specialtiesinclude carbonate sedimentology and sequence
stratigraphy.
Visit Cengage Custom Solutions online at
www.custom.cengage.com
For your lifelong learning needs:www.academic.cengage.com
35133_Geo_Michigan_Cover.qxd 11/13/07 10:26 AM Page 1
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KEWEENAW
HOUGHTON
ONTONAGON BARAGA
MARQUETTEGOGEBIC
CHIPPEWA
LUCE
ALGER
SCHOOLCRAFT
IRON
DICKINSON
MACKINAC
DELTA
MENOMINEE
EMMET
CHEBOYGAN
PRESQUE ISLE
CHARLEVOIX
ALPENA
MONTMORENCY
LEELANAU
OTSEGO
ANTRIM
GRAND TRAVERSEALCONAOSCODACRAWFORDKALKASKA
BENZIE
IOSCOOGEMAWROSCOMMONMANISTEE MISSAUKEEWEXFORD
ARENAC
MASON GLADWINCLAREOSCEOLALAKE
HURON
BAY
MIDLANDISABELLAOCEANA MECOSTA
NEWAYGO
TUSCOLASANILAC
SAGINAW
GRATIOTMUSKEGON MONTCALM
LAPEER
KENT GENESEE
ST CLAIR
OTTAWA
SHIAWASSEE
CLINTONIONIA
MACOMB
OAKLAND
LIVINGSTONINGHAMEATONBARRYALLEGAN
WAYNE
WASHTENAWJACKSONCALHOUNKALAMAZOOVAN BUREN
BERRIENMONROE
LENAWEEHILLSDALEBRANCHST JOSEPHCASS
BEDROCK GEOLOGY OFLOWER PENINSULA
SALINA GROUP
BASS ISLAND GROUP
GARDEN ISLAND FORMATION
BOIS BLANC FORMATION
MACKINAC BRECCIA
SYLVANIA SANDSTONE
DETROIT RIVER GROUP
DUNDEE LIMESTONE
BELL SHALE
TRAVERSE GROUP
ANTRIM SHALE
ELLSWORTH SHALE
BEDFORD SHALE
BEREA SS & BEDFORD SH
SUNBURY SHALE
COLDWATER SHALE
MARSHALL FORMATION
MICHIGAN FORMATION
BAYPORT LIMESTONE
SAGINAW FORMATION
GRAND RIVER FORMATION
RED BEDS
BEDROCK GEOLOGY OFWESTERN UPPER PENINSULA
JACOBSVILLE SANDSTONE
FREDA SANDSTONE
NONESUCH FORMATION
COPPER HARBOR CONGLOMERATE
OAK BLUFF FORMATION
PORTAGE LAKE VOLCANICS
SIEMENS CREEK FORMATION
INTRUSIVE
QUINNESEC FORMATION
PAINT RIVER GROUP
RIVERTON IRON FORMATION
BIJIKI IRON FORMATION
NEGAUNEE IRON FORMATION
IRONWOOD IRON FORMATION
DUNN CREEK FORMATION
BADWATER GREENSTONE
MICHIGAMME FORMATION
GOODRICH QUARTZITE
HEMLOCK FORMATION
MENOMINEE & CHOCOLAY GROUPS
EMPEROR VULCANIC COMPLEX
SIAMO SLATE & AJIBIK QUARTZITE
PALMS FORMATION
CHOCOLAY GROUP
RANDVILLE DOLOMITE
ARCHEAN ULTRAMAFIC
ARCHEAN GRANITE & GNEISSIC
ARCHEAN VOL. & SEDIMENTARY
MACKINAC BRECCIA
BEDROCK GEOLOGY OFEASTERN UPPER PENINSULA
MUNISING FORMATION
TREMPEALEAU FORMATION
PRAIRIE DU CHIEN GROUP
BLACK RIVER GROUP
TRENTON GROUP
COLLINGWOOD SHALE MEMBER
UTICA SHALE MEMBER
STONINGTON FORMATION
BIG HILL DOLOMITE
QUEENSTON SHALE
MANITOULIN DOLOMITE
CABOT HEAD SHALE
BURNT BLUFF GROUP
MANISTIQUE GROUP
ENGADINE GROUP
POINT AUX CHENES SHALE
SAINT IGNACE DOLOMITE
SALINA GROUP
BASS ISLAND GROUP
GARDEN ISLAND FORMATION
BOIS BLANC FORMATION
MACKINAC BRECCIA
0 20 40 MilesDate: 11/12/99N
MichiganMICHIGAN DEPARTMENT OF NATURALRESOURCESLAND AND MINERALS
SERVICES DIVISIONRESOURCE MAPPING AND AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY
Michigan Resource Information SystemPart 609, Resource
Inventory, of the Natural Resources andEnvironmental Protection
Act, 1994 PA 451, as amended.
Automated from "Bedrock Geology of Michigan," 1987, 1:500,000
scale,which was compiled from a variety of sources by the Michigan
Departmentof Environmental Quality, Geological Survey Division.
SOURCE
RMAP
1987 BEDROCK GEOLOGY OF MICHIGAN
From
Sta
te o
f Mic
higa
n, D
epar
tmen
t of N
atur
al R
esou
rces
.
State of Michigan: Bedrock Geology Map
35133_Geo_Michigan_INC.qxd 11/13/07 10:27 AM Page ii
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ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS TO ASKMichigan.1 Introduction
Why is the geology of Michigan important to students of physical
geology and to allthe inhabitants of the state today?
Michigan.2 Precambrian and Paleozoic Geology What is the
structural pattern of the sedimentary rock layers of the Michigan
Lower
Peninsula that makes it a basin? What are the various regional
structural or geologic elements that define the margins
of the Michigan Basin? What are the ranges of ages for
sedimentary rocks in Michigans Lower Peninsula? Describe the main
geologic differences in rock in Michigans Eastern and Western
Upper Peninsula.
Michigan.3 Quaternary Geology What were the main controlling
factors during formation of the Great Lakes basins? When was the
last glacial (Wisconsinan) event? Where did erosional and
depositional glacial landscapes develop in the Great Lakes
watershed? What types of depositional landforms are found
throughout Michigan? What types of modern-day coastal features are
currently evolving along Michigans
shorelines? How did the inland lakes in Michigan form?
Michigan.4 Modern-Day Geologic Processes What are the two main
types of shoreline found around the Great Lakes in
Michigan? Name three processes that reshape the Michigan
shoreline and a depositional feature
produced by each process.
Michigan.5 Geology of Water Resources What are the two types of
geologic materials that contain groundwater in Michigan?
Michigan.6 Mineral Resources What is banded iron formation
(BIF)? What are the main types of copper ore? Name some of the
other non-metallic mineral resources produced in Michigan.
Michigan.7 Oil, Gas, and Coal Resources When and where was oil
first discovered in the Michigan Basin? What was the significance
of discovering oil at the Saginaw, Muskegon, and
Mt Pleasant Fields? What geologic factors controlled the
ultimate shape and size of the Albion-Scipio
Field? What oil and gas exploration and development plays were
important in Michigan
in the 1970s and 1980s? In the 1990s and 2000s?
2008 Cengage Brooks/Cole, a part of Cengage Learning. ALL RIGHTS
RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright hereonmay
be reproduced or used in any form or by any meansgraphic,
electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording,
taping, Webdistribution or information storage and retrieval
systemswithout the written permission of the publisher. The
Adaptable Courseware Programconsists of products and additions to
existing Brooks/Cole products that are produced from camera-ready
copy. Peer review, class testing,and accuracy are primarily the
responsibility of the author(s). Geology of Michigan and the Great
Lakes/Robb Gillespie, William B. Harrison III,and G. Michael
GrammerFirst Edition ISBN (13 digit) 978-1-426-63513-7, ISBN (10
digit) 1-426-63513-3. Printed in Canada.
35133_Geo_Michigan.qxd 11/14/07 6:21 PM Page 1
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Michigan.1IntroductionThe geology of the State of Michigan is
dominated by theMichigan Basin, which is an elliptical,
intracratonic basinnestled against the southern margin of the
Canadian Shield.The Basin occupies approximately 80,000 square
miles(180,000 square kilometers), and the sedimentary rocks inthe
Basin, which are predominantly Paleozoic in age, reach amaximum
thickness of 16,000 feet (4,848 meters). Geologicstructures define
the Basin. The core of the North AmericanCraton, the Canadian
Shield, bounds the Basin from thenorthwest to the northeast.
Structural arches define theremainder, with the Wisconsin and
Kankakee Arches tothe southwest and the Findlay and Algonquin
Arches to thesoutheast (Figure Michigan.1).
The Michigan Basin covers all of Michigans LowerPeninsula and
the eastern half of the Upper Peninsula. Thewestern half of the
Upper Peninsula consists of allPrecambrian-age rocks with
affinities to the southern mar-gin of the Canadian Shield. Strata
from Middle Cambrianthrough Upper Pennsylvanian Periods are well
representedthroughout the subsurface as seen in the many oil and
gaswells drilled throughout the Basin. There are also
limitedoutcrops throughout the Basin, especially at the marginsnear
the Great Lakes. Mesozoic rocks are poorly preservedin the Basin,
with Jurassic red sandstones known only fromwell samples in
isolated wells in the Basin center. Most ofthe rocks of the
Michigan Basin are buried beneath thickdeposits of Pleistocene
glacial drift that are the onlyCenozoic deposits known from the
Basin. These sands,
gravels, and clays are stacked in complex facies relation-ships
and control the patterns of topography seen in muchof the Basin.
Beneath this veneer of glacial sediments is theeroded bedrock. The
subcrop of the various formationsforms a series of concentric
patterns that mimic the Basinmargin and that are youngest near the
center and oldest atthe margin (State Bedrock Map, inside front
cover). Thelocations and shapes of Lakes Michigan and Huron are
alsocontrolled by the Basins bedrock geology. Geographically,the
Michigan Basin is centered on Michigans LowerPeninsula, but also
occupies portions of Michigans UpperPeninsula, Wisconsin, Illinois,
Indiana, Ohio, and Ontario,Canada.
Natural resources abound in the Michigan Basin. Oil andnatural
gas have been produced from subsurface formationsin the Basin in
Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, and southwestOntario. Almost 2 billion
barrels of oil and 10 trillion cubicfeet of natural gas have been
produced since the late 1800s.Underground mines near Detroit have
produced large quan-tities of rock salt from Silurian-age evaporite
deposits.Solution mining of these salts has occurred nearer the
Basincenter. Large amounts of potash, bromine, sodium, and
chlo-ride have been solution mined from these layers.
Limestone,dolomite, and gypsum have been extensively mined
fromsurface quarries in the outcrop areas. Sand and gravel
forconstruction and clay for ceramics and bricks are minedstatewide
from surficial glacial deposits.
The Great Lakes of Michigan, Huron, and Erie repre-sent the
greatest fresh water resources in the region. Alongwith Lakes
Superior and Ontario (which are not geologicallypart of the
Michigan Basin), these five Great Lakes com-prise the largest
accumulation of fresh water on the earthssurface. There are also
vast volumes of fresh water in theglacial drift and shallow bedrock
throughout the Basin. TheGreat Lakes owe their origin to the
erosional processes oflobes from the Laurentide ice sheet. The
moving icescoured the areas of softer bedrock, commonly composedof
shales.
Michigan.2Precambrian and PaleozoicGeologyStructuresThe
sedimentary rocks that comprise the Michigan Basinare layered in a
pattern like a set of nested bowls (FigureMichigan.2). The oldest
layers are at the bottom, and thelayers become progressively
younger moving upward. Theoldest layers outcrop at the Basin margin
and occur deeperin the Basin toward its center. All the strata in
thePaleozoic sedimentary rock section dip at one degree or lessin
all directions toward the approximate center of the Basin,which is
located just west of Saginaw Bay. The exact centerof the Basin
shifts slightly throughout deposition of the
2 Michigan Geology of Michigan and the Great Lakes
Figure Michigan.1 The Michigan Basin: Basement
StructuralFeatures.
Mod
ified
from
Cat
acos
inos
, Dan
iels
, and
Har
rison
199
1.
35133_Geo_Michigan.qxd 11/14/07 6:21 PM Page 2
-
Paleozoic sediments. The entire Basin is underlain byPrecambrian
rocks of varying lithologies and ages that werebrought together as
this part of the North American platewas assembled during middle
and late Precambrian time.These basement terranes (Catacosinos,
Daniels, andHarrison 1991, fig. 302) are mixes of plutonic and
vol-canic igneous rocks, along with high-grade metamorphicrocks and
metasediments.
The mid-Michigan gravity anomaly is a major piece ofthe basement
that follows a wide swath from the northwest-ern part of the Lower
Peninsula through central Michiganand then bends dramatically to
the east and intersects theGrenville Front (Figure Michigan.3). The
Grenville Frontis a major plate suture boundary that extends from
theCanadian Shield in central Ontario through easternMichigan and
into northwest Ohio. This anomaly, which isa strong gravity high,
has been modeled as a partly devel-oped crustal rift with block
faulting, extensive volcanic lay-ers, and sedimentary red bed
fills. Analysis of seismic dataacross the anomaly and samples from
Michigans deepestborehole (McClure-Sparks et al. 1-8, in Gratiot
County, at17,466 feet [5,327 meters] deep) provide good evidence
asto the origin of this anomaly (Fowler and Kuenzi, 1978).This
mid-Michigan rift is also thought to be connected tothe
Mid-Continent Rift that runs southwesterly from theUpper Peninsula
of Michigan through Wisconsin, Iowa,and Kansas. The basalt flows
and volcaniclastic sedimentson the Keweenaw Peninsula and through
the westernUpper Peninsula are part of this geologic feature.
Major structural features that occur in the MichiganBasin are a
series of arches to the southeast and southwest.These arches define
the margins of the Basin in those areas
by dictating the dip direction of the sedimentary rock
layers.The Findlay and Waverly Arches in northwest Ohio and
theAlgonquin Arch in southwest Ontario, Canada, separate
theMichigan and Appalachian Basins. The Kankakee Arch inIndiana and
the Wisconsin Arch in Illinois and Wisconsinseparate the Michigan
and Illinois Basins (see FigureMichigan.1).
The Bowling Green Fault, extending into southeastMichigan from
northern Ohio, and the Howell Anticline aretwo major structural
features that dominate the geology inthe southeastern part of the
state. Small anticlines with lessthan 100 feet (30 meters) of
relief are common throughoutthe central part of the state and serve
as structures to trap oiland gas. Many of these anticlines show a
northwest to south-east trend to their axes. Most of these
anticlines are thoughtto be produced by shearing forces associated
with local base-ment faults or fracture zones that are transmitted
upthrough the sedimentary section during times of
crustaldeformation due to continent-scale plate collision along
theeastern edge of the North American plate.
Lower Peninsula Sedimentary RocksMuch of the knowledge about the
geologic section inMichigans Lower Peninsula is developed from
cores(Figure Michigan.4), samples, and wireline logs in wellsand
boreholes drilled during oil and gas exploration and
Michigan.2 Precambrian and Paleozoic Geology 3
Niagaran Structure map overlain by Bedrock Map withindividual
well penetrations shown by blue lines.Compiled by Dr. David A.
Barnes, GeosciencesDepartment, Western Michigan University
Michigan Basin StructureMaps on selected units fromPre-Cambrian
Basement toDundee Ls. Overlain byBedrock Map
Figure Michigan.2 Structural maps of several formations in
thesubsurface of the Michigan Basincolor patterns create a
pseudo-three-dimensional effect.
Com
pile
d by
Dav
id B
arne
s.
Figure Michigan.3 Michigan Basement Provences.
Mod
ified
from
Cat
acos
inos
, Dan
iels
, and
Har
rison
, 199
1.
35133_Geo_Michigan.qxd 11/14/07 6:21 PM Page 3
-
mineral resource development. More than 50,000 suchwells have
been drilled in the Michigan Basin since theearly 1900s.
Additionally, hundreds of thousands of shallowprivate and municipal
water wells have been drilledstatewide. These water supply wells
provide data about theglacial drift and shallow bedrock layers.
Using this exten-sive shallow and deep well data, and the local
outcrops thatmainly occur near the Great Lakes shorelines, it is
possibleto reconstruct the details of Michigans subsurface
geology.
Michigan has a great thickness (16,000 feet [4,880meters]) of
sedimentary rocks deposited in a subsiding basinduring late
Precambrian through Pennsylvanian time.Jurassic red beds and
Pleistocene glacial deposits coverthese sedimentary rocks with
thickness that varies from afew feet to over 1,200 feet (Figure
Michigan.5). As the lastbillion years of earths history has
unfolded, Michigan hasgone through many changes in environment and
climate.As the North American continent drifted across the
globe,continental collisions and plate movements resulted ingreatly
varied conditions producing different types of sedi-mentary
deposits throughout Michigan. Continental flu-vial, terrestrial,
and lacustrine deposits occurred in the latePrecambrian age of
central Michigan. Shallow marine set-tings dominated during most of
the Paleozoic Era untildeposition of fluvial and deltaic deposits
returned in thePennsylvanian Period in response to Appalachian
mountainbuilding (Allegheny Orogeny).
The Middle Cambrian Mt. Simon Sandstone representsthe beginning
of Paleozoic deposition in Lower Michigan.These coastal and shallow
marine deposits are the start ofa thick transgressive interval of
sandstone, siltstone, andshale that continues into the Upper
Cambrian. Thick,shallow marine shelf deposits of dolomitic
carbonatesoverlie these siliciclastic strata in the Lower
Ordovician
Trempealeau and Prairie du Chien intervals. The strata fromthe
Mt. Simon to the Prairie du Chien represent the SaukMegasequence of
Sloss (Sloss 1963) (Figure Michigan.6).The Tippecanoe Megasequence
(Sloss 1963) starts with theMiddle Ordovician shallow marine and
eolian St. PeterSandstone and continues upward to the base of
theDevonian. This megasequence includes shallow shelf lime-stones
of the Middle Ordovician Trenton-Black RiverFormations and the
Middle Silurian Niagaran reefs andoverlying Salina evaporites.
These evaporites, which aremostly halite with secondary amounts of
anhydrite andpotash salts, attain a thickness of over 1,000 feet
(305 meters)in the Basin center and are of significant commercial
value.The Kaskaskia Megasequence includes most of the rest
ofMichigans Paleozoic strata. Ranging from Lower-MiddleDevonian to
the top of the Mississippian, restricted carbon-ates and
interbedded evaporites (mostly halite and anhy-drite) of the Lucas
Formation; open marine carbonates ofthe Dundee and Traverse
Formations; the black, euxinic,Antrim Shale; the fine-grained
sandstones and shales ofthe Mississippian Berea and Bedford
Formations; and thesandstones of the Michigan Formation are all
includedin the Kaskaskia sequence. The Pennsylvanian
SaginawFormation sandstones, shales, and coals are part of
thesubsequent Absaroka Megasequence and present only inthe Basin
center. Spotty occurrences of terrestrial red beddeposits are known
in the central Basin from well samples.These red beds have been
identified as Jurassic in age frompalynological analysis (Cross
1998). Pleistocene glacialdrift covers most of the bedrock strata
in the LowerPeninsula. Bedrock exposures are more common in
theUpper Peninsula. The best bedrock exposures are foundaround the
shores of the Great Lakes and in some rivervalleys (Figure
Michigan.7).
4 Michigan Geology of Michigan and the Great Lakes
Figure Michigan.4 Michigan Geological Repository for Research
and Education is the principal facility in Michigan that houses
cores, samples,and other information about subsurface geology.
Phot
ogra
ph b
y Li
nda
Harri
son.
35133_Geo_Michigan.qxd 11/14/07 6:21 PM Page 4
-
Michigan.2 Precambrian and Paleozoic Geology 5
?
?
MichiganDept.ofEnvironmentalQualityGeologicalSurveyDivisionHarold
Fitch, State Geologist
andMichiganBasinGeologicalSociety
Stratigraphic Nomenclature Project Committee:
Principal Authors:
2000
MIC
HIG
AN
BASIN
GEOLOGICALS
OC
IETY
1936
RELATEDTERMCORRELATION
LEGEND
Limestone
Shaley
Sandy
Dolomite
Sandy
Shaley
GlacialDrift
Anhydrite/Gypsum
Reefs/Bioherms
BasementRocks
CoalBed
Sandstone
Limey
Shaley
Dolomitic
Conglomeritic
Siltstone
Shale
Sandy
Limey
Dolomitic
Salt
DOMINANTLITHOLOGYOUTCROPNOMENCLATURE
SUBSURFACENOMENCLATUREGEOLOGICTIME
Acknowledgements
This work is the product of the combined efforts of the
geological communities of Michigan and the surrounding states and
provinces. Below are given just a representative few of the
contributors:
Academia:Dr. Aureal T. Cross, Michigan State University; Dr.
Robert H. Dott, Jr.,University of Wisconsin; Mr. William D.
Everham, Ph.D. Candidate, Michigan Technological University.
Government: Dr. Terry R. Carter, Ontario Ministry of Natural
Resources; Mr. John M. Esch, Michigan Department of Environmental
Quality; Dr. Brian D. Keith,Indiana Geological Survey; Mr. Lawrence
H Wickstrom, Ohio Geological Survey.
Industry:Mr. Donald J. Bailey, Consultant; Mr. Jimmy R. Myles,
Scot Energy; Mr. Dan E. Pfeiffer, Pfeiffer Exploration
Services.
A complete listing of all contributors will be found in the
Stratigraphic Lexicon for Michigan, of which this column is an
integral part.
ERA PERIOD EPOCHNORTH
AMERICANSTAGES
GROUP FORMATION MEMBER FORMATION GROUP
Killians Mbr
Collingwood Sh
Chapel Rock Mbr
Trenton Fm
Ogontz Mbr
Bay de Noc Mbr
Fiborn Ls Mbr
Cataract Gr
Burnt Bluff Gr
Manistique Gr
Salina Gr
Bass Islands Gr
Detroit River Gr
Bush Bay Fm
Rapson Creek Fm
Rockview Fm
Engadine Gr
Traverse Gr
Glacial Drift
Oronto Gr
Glacial Drift
Ionia Fm
Grand River Fm
Saginaw Fm
Parma Ss Parma Ss
Bayport Ls
Michigan Fm
Marshall Ss
Coldwater Sh
Berea Ss
Bedford Sh
Antrim Sh
Traverse Ls
Bell Sh
Dundee Ls
Lucas Fm
Amherstburg Fm
Sylvania Ss
Bois Blanc Fm
Garden Island Fm
Salina G Unit
Salina F Unit
Salina E Unit
Salina D Unit
Salina C Unit
Salina B Unit
Salina A-2 Carb
Salina A-2 Evap
Ruff Fm
Salina A-1 Evap
Cain Fm
Guelph Dol
Lockport Dol
Manistique Gr
Traverse Gr
Bass Islands Gr
Pte. aux ChenesFm
Niagara Gr
Burnt Bluff Gr
Cabot Head Sh
Manitoulin DolCataract Gr
Queenston Sh
Utica Sh
Trenton Fm
Richmond Gr
Black River Fm
Glenwood Fm
Precambrian Crystalline Basement Complex
Collingwood Sh
St.Peter Ss
Prairie du Chien Gr
Trempealeau Fm
Eau Claire Fm
Munising Gr
Mount Simon Ss
Pre-Mt. Simon Clastics
Precambrian Crystalline Basement Complex
Cenozoic
Quatern
ary
Pleistoc
ene
Mesozoic Jurassic Middle Oxfordian
ConemaughLate
Penn
sylv
ania
n
PottsvilleEarly
Mis
siss
ipp
ian
Late
Early
Meramecian
Osagian
Kinderhookian
Squaw Bay Ls
Chautauquan
Senecan
Erian
Ulsterian
Late
Middle
Early
Dev
on
ian
Pal
eozo
ic
Cayugan
Niagaran
Alexandrian
Late
Middle
Early
Cincinnatian
Mohawkian
Chazyan
Whiterockian
Canadian
Trempealeaun
Franconian
Dresbachian
Middle Proterozoic Eon
Silu
rian
Ord
ovic
ian
Cam
bri
an
Late
Middle
Early
Late
Norwood Mbr
Antrim Sh
Squaw Bay Ls
undifferentiated
undifferentiated
Detroit River Gr
Salina Gr
undifferentiated
undifferentiated
Potter Farm Mbr
Ellsworth Sh
Sunbury Sh
(western)Ellsworth Sh
(western)
Berea Ss
Bedford Sh
Sunbury Sh
(eas
tern
)
Saginaw Fm
Bayport Ls
Norway Point Mbr
Four Mile Dam MbrAlpena Ls
Genshaw Mbr
Newton Creek Mbr
Long Lake Ls
Groos Quarry Mbr
Au Train Fm
Munising Fm
Cordell Fm
Schoolcraft Fm
Hendricks Fm
Byron Fm
Lime Island Fm
Cabot Head Sh
Manitoulin Dol
Big Hill Fm
Stonington Fm
Bill's Creek Sh
Jacobsville Ss
Freda Ss
Nonesuch Sh
Copper Harbor Cgl
Archean to Middle Proterozoic Eons
Basal Cgl
Ionia Fm
Grand River Fm
Michigan Fm
Marshall Ss
Coldwater Sh
Thunder Bay Ls
Ferron Point Fm
Rockport Quarry Ls
Bell Sh
Rogers City Ls
Dundee Ls
Anderdon Ls
Lucas Fm
Amherstburg Fm
Sylvania Ss
Bois Blanc Fm
Garden Island Fm
Rasin River Dol
Put-in-Bay Dol
St. Ignace Dol
Black River Fm
Chandler Falls Mbr
Franconia Fm
Galesville SsMiner's Castle Mbr
Mac
kin
ac B
recc
ia
Mac
kin
ac B
recc
ia
(eas
tern
)
Paxton Mbr
Lachine Mbr
Upper Mbr
Richmond Gr
Wisconsinan
Dr. Paul A. CatacosinosDr. William B. Harrison IIIMr. Robert F.
ReynoldsDr. David B.WestjohnMr. Mark S. Wollensak
Dr. Paul A. Catacosinos, Co-chairmanMr. Mark S. Wollensak,
Co-chairman
STRATIGRAPHICPOSITION
Ionia Fm
Michigan Fm
Coldwater Sh
Antrim Sh
Dundee Ls
Lucas Fm
Amherstburg Fm
St. Ignace Dolomite
Salina B Unit
Ruff Formation
Cain Fm
Guelph Dolomite
Lockport Dolomite
Burnt Bluff Gr
Trenton Fm
Black River Fm
Glenwood Fm
St. Peter Sandstone
Prairie du Chien Gr
Trempealeau Fm
Galesville Ss
Pre-Mt. Simon Clastics
STRATIGRAPHICNOMENCLATUREFORMICHIGAN
RELATEDTERMS
Jurassic Red Beds
Clare Dolomite, Brown Lime, Stray Dolomite, Stray Sandstone,
Stray-Stray Sandstone, Stray-Stray-Stray Sandstone, Triple Gyp
Coldwater Red Rock, Speckled Dolomite, Wier Sand
Charlton Black Shale Member, Elltrim,Chester Black Shale Member,
Upper Black Shale,Light Antrim, Lower Black, Lower AntrimMiddle
Antrim, Middle Gray Antrim, Dark Antrim,Middle Gray Shale, Unit 1A,
Unit 1B, Unit 1C,Crappo Creek Grey Shale Member
Reed City Member/Dolomite/Anhydrite
Freer Sandstone, Horner Member, Iutzi Member, Massive
Salt/Anhydrite, Sour Zone, Big Anhydrite,Richfield
Zone/Member/Sandstone, Big Salt
Filer Sandstone, Meldrum Member, Black Lime
Salina H Unit
Big Salt, B Salt
Salina A-1 Carbonate, Rabbit Ears Anhydrite,
Salina A-0 Carbonate
Brown Niagara, Niagaran Reef, Pinnacle Reef,Engadine
Dolomite
Gray Niagara, White Niagara
Clinton Formation
Cap Dolomite
Van Wert Zone, Sneaky Peak, Black River Shale
Goodwell Unit, Zone of Unconformity
Bruggers Sandstone, Jordan Sandstone,Knox Sandstone, Massive
Sand
Foster Formation, New Richmond Sandstone, Lower Knox Carbonate,
St. Lawrence Formation,T-PDC, Oneota Dolomite, Brazos Shale
Lodi Formation
Dresbach Sandstone
Precambrian "Red Beds"
Partridge Point Mbr
? ? ?
? ? ?
? ? ?
? ? ?
Norwood Mbr
Paxton Mbr
Lachine Mbr
Upper Mbr
Foster Fm
Pre
cam
bri
an
Figure Michigan.5 State of Michigan: Stratigraphic Column and
Nomenclature.
From
Sta
te o
f Mic
higa
n, D
epar
tmen
t of N
atur
al R
esou
rces
.
35133_Geo_Michigan.qxd 11/14/07 6:21 PM Page 5
-
Upper Peninsula Sedimentary RocksKnowledge of bedrock geology in
Michigans UpperPeninsula is less dependent on borehole data, since
thereare many more outcrops (Figure Michigan.8) to help definethe
rock types and their distribution. There are, however,many
relatively shallow boreholes and some cores that havebeen drilled
throughout the Upper Peninsula, especially inareas of mineral
exploration. The Eastern Upper Peninsulais part of the Michigan
Basin and contains the older stratathat also occur deeper in the
center of the Basin. Many out-crops and shallow boreholes show the
bedrock in the UpperPeninsula to consist of Cambrian through Upper
Silurian
age rocks. Many of these units are quite similar to forma-tions
known from the deep subsurface in the LowerPeninsula.
Cambrian sandstones of the Munising Formation under-lie much of
the Eastern Upper Peninsula and outcrop alongthe Lake Superior
shore, especially at the famous PicturedRocks National Lakeshore
(Figures Michigan.9 andMichigan.10). The cross-bedded sandstones
are colorfullystained by mineral oxides of copper, iron, manganese,
andother metal cations that have precipitated from ground-water
flowing through the porous sandstone. The MunisingFormation is
thought to be slightly younger than theMt. Simon Cambrian sandstone
in the Lower Peninsula.The Au Train Formation, overlying the
Munising Formation,is a glauconitic or dolomitic sandstone that
completes theSauk Megasequence in the Upper Peninsula.
Tippecanoe Megasequence strata are nearly the same inthe Upper
Peninsula as seen in the Lower Peninsula, exceptmost units are
thinner due to their location near the Basinmargin where less
subsidence allowed for less depositionalspace to accumulate
sediments. Unconformities at Basinmargins also have more impact on
the preserved stratigraphicrecord. During regional sea level falls,
erosion at Basin mar-gins begins sooner and lasts longer than in
the Basin interi-ors. During the subsequent sea level rise,
deposition occurslast at the Basin margins. The St. Peter
Sandstone, a trans-gressive sandstone unit deposited after the
major regionalunconformity at the Sauk-Tippecanoe
Megasequenceboundary, is over 1,000 feet thick (305 meters) in the
centerof the Basin (Lower Peninsula), but does not occur anywherein
the Upper Peninsula.
An unusual geologic formation called the MackinacBreccia caps
the Tippecanoe Megasequence in the Upper
6 Michigan Geology of Michigan and the Great Lakes
Figure Michigan.7 Rocky Beach outcrop of Traverse Limestonewith
large glacial erratic boulders. U.S. Highway 31, roadside parknorth
of Charlevoix, MI.
Phot
ogra
ph b
y Li
nda
Harri
son.
RELATIVE SEA LEVEL
present
higher lower
TEJAS
ZUNI
ABSAROKA
KASKASKIA
TIPPECANOE
SAUK
Quaternary
Tertiary
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic
Permian
Pennsylvanian
Mississippian
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian
Precambrian400 m 200 m -200 m
Nondepositional Hiatuses Deposition
Figure Michigan.6 Cratonic sea level megasequences. Bluearea
represents relative global area of continental exposure above
sealevel at different geologic times.
Adap
ted
from
Slo
ss 1
963.
Figure Michigan.8 Quarry with Engadine Dolomite at the out-crop
of the Niagaran escarpment, State Rd. 123, Mackinac Co., MI.
Phot
ogra
ph b
y Li
nda
Harri
son.
35133_Geo_Michigan.qxd 11/14/07 6:21 PM Page 6
-
Peninsula. The Mackinac Breccia is a collapse megabrec-cia
resulting from the dissolution of Upper Silurian saltsalong the
northern margin of the Basin, principally in theregion of the
Straits of Mackinac. It contains randomlyoriented blocks of Upper
Silurian and Lower Devoniancarbonate formations that were turned to
rubble whenevaporite deposits beneath them dissolved by fresh
waterinflux during times of sea level drawdown. There are
nodeposits younger than Lower Devonian in the UpperPeninsula.
Upper Peninsula Precambrian RocksAbundant bedrock exposures
occur in the western part of theUpper Peninsula due to thin or
absent glacial drift and exten-sive mining operations. Rocks here
are not part of theMichigan Basin, but instead are related to the
Lake SuperiorBasin and several terranes and structural complexes
affixed tothe southern margin of the Canadian Shield. The oldest
for-mations are middle Precambrian (2.5 billion years
old)metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks in the MarquetteTrough.
This area also contains large deposits of banded
iron formations that have been extensively mined. TheMona Schist
is among the oldest of these formations. Itcontains large areas of
basalt with obvious pillow lava pat-terns (Figure Michigan.11) that
have now been altered togreenstone through metamorphic processes.
Slightly youngermetasedimentary rocks include cross-bedded
sandstones ofthe Mesnard Quartzite and stromatolite-rich, shallow
watercarbonates of the Kona Dolomite. The Banded IronFormations,
most notably the Negaunee Iron Formation, atabout 2.1 billion years
old are even younger. Less significantiron formations,
metavolcanics, metasediments, and intrusiveigneous rocks are
distributed throughout the region andrange in age from 1.6 to 2.0
billion years old.
Late Precambrian (Keweenawan age) volcanic and vol-caniclastic
sedimentary rocks occur in the far western part ofthe Upper
Peninsula, especially on the Keweenaw Peninsula.The Copper Harbor
Conglomerate is a volcaniclastic unitderived from weathered and
eroded rubble interbeddedwith basalt flows of the Portage Lake
Lavas. Vast nativecopper deposits were precipitated in
intergranular spacein these conglomerates or in amygdaloidal
vesicles within
Michigan.2 Precambrian and Paleozoic Geology 7
Figure Michigan.9 Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore:
LakeSuperior Shoreline, Chapel Rock member of the Munising
Formation.
Phot
ogra
ph b
y Li
nda
Harri
son.
Figure Michigan.10 Miners Castle is a developing sea stackalong
the Lake Superior shoreline east of Munising, Michigan. Notethe sea
cave near the waterline that has eroded through the peninsulato the
other side, beginning the formation of a sea arch. The under-cut,
notched cliff face is due to two conditions. First, the notched
sec-tion was situated right at lake level, and subjected to wave
pounding,prior to the recent drop of the Lake Superior water level.
Second, theChapel Rock sandstone, lower in the section at the
notch, is lessresistant than the overlying Miners Castle sandstone
(both units aremembers of the Munising Formation). The columns
remaining on topwere formed as sea stacks on a wave-cut platform
during an earlierand higher glacial lake stage.
Phot
ogra
ph b
y Li
nda
Harri
son.
35133_Geo_Michigan.qxd 11/14/07 6:21 PM Page 7
-
the basalt. These native copper deposits were extensivelymined
in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.Disseminated copper
also occurs in commercial amounts inthe black, petroliferous
Nonesuch Shale.
Michigan.3Quaternary GeologyFormation of the Great Lakes
BasinsEpisodic glaciation was the major process responsible
forcreating the Great Lakes basins (Figure Michigan.12); how-ever,
bedrock (type and distribution), regional structure
andpaleo-drainage patterns have all influenced the
present-dayconfiguration.
The watershed can be divided into two regions
(FigureMichigan.13). The northern upland region (the
CanadianShield) is underlain by Precambrian granites, gneisses,
andmetavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks. These rocks, inthe Lake
Superior area, were folded during the PenokeanOrogeny (middle
Precambrian time) into a northeastsouthwest-trending regional
syncline. During the Quaternary,this structural trough helped
funnel advancing glacial icesouthwestward, which scoured and
deepened the synclinalbasin even more, eventually forming Lake
Superior.
The northern upland region also includes the GeorgianBay basin
(eastern portion of Lake Huron) and part of theLake Ontario basin.
The underlying syncline of the LakeSuperior area is not present in
these areas. Only the regionaljoint pattern, northeastsouthwest-
and northwestsoutheast-trending conjugate joints, provides any
bedrockinfluence, sometimes producing straight erosional
linea-ments in an otherwise random, glacially eroded pattern(Figure
Michigan.14). Topography throughout the northernregion is dominated
by exposed Precambrian bedrock that hasbeen scoured and sculpted by
repeated glacial events. Somethin, discontinuous glacial sediments
are only locally present.
The southern lowland region (the Michigan Basin) isunderlain by
relatively soft, Paleozoic sedimentary rocks.These rocks all dip
toward the center of the state of Michiganinto the structural
basin. These rock layers appear as aseries of stacked bowls with
their truncated edges forming acircular pattern encompassing and
forming the state ofMichigan (much like a bulls-eye). This region
includes theLake Erie, the Lake Michigan, the western portion of
theLake Huron, and a portion of the Lake Ontario basins.Glacial
erosion has scoured out these lake basins followingthe circular,
structural pattern where the Paleozoic rockscrop out at the surface
around the Michigan Basin. Here, thepattern is much more controlled
and better developed thanthat formed by glacial erosion on the
Canadian Shield gran-ite, gneisses, and metasedimentary rocks. This
difference isparticularly apparent when observing the semi-circular
shapeof the western portion of Lake Huron carved out of
thePaleozoic rocks, in comparison to the more random shape ofthe
eastern portion (Georgian Bay) glacially scoured from
thePrecambrian Shield (see Figure Michigan.14). This semi-circular
pattern continues through the western end of LakeErie along the
Bass Islands, and is reflected in the curvilinearshape of Lake
Michigan to the west and Straits of Mackinacto the north. The Great
Lakes basins simply conform to theoutcrop pattern of the soft
limestones and shales of UpperSilurian, Ordovician, and Devonian
age.
The Great Lakes watershed was subjected to long-termsubaerial
erosion prior to Quaternary glacial events.Glacial ice was then
channeled through the region by thispre-existing drainage system.
Relatively weak bedrock,already exploited by valleys of the
paleo-drainage system,was increasingly scoured and eroded, thereby
exertingone more control upon the formation of the
present-daylandscape.
Even the Lake Superior Basin, which is located entirelywithin
the Canadian Shield and was initially developedalong the length of
a structural syncline, owes much of itscurrent shape to the
bedrock. Rocks within the synclineincluded Precambrian sandstones
and slightly metamor-phosed sedimentary rocks that are less
resistant to glacialerosion than the underlying volcanic rocks.
Glacial scour-ing and erosion removed these weak rocks, greatly
accentu-ating the Basin initially formed by the syncline.
Just the opposite holds true for the islands and
peninsulasthroughout the Great Lakes. More resistant rock
typesunderlie these areas. Many examples can be observed.Resistant
Silurian dolomite forms the Door and GardenPeninsulas separating
Green Bay from Lake Michigan. TheNiagaran Series of resistant
limestones and dolomites ofSilurian age occurring along the
northern shore of LakeMichigan form the islands separating the
North Channel andGeorgian Bay from Lake Huron, form the Bruce
Peninsula,and can be traced eastward as a long escarpment which
theNiagara River flows over at Niagara Falls. ResistantPrecambrian
Portage Lake Volcanics form the backbone ofthe Keweenaw Peninsula
and Isle Royale in Lake Superiorwithin the northern section of the
Great Lakes watershed.Glacial scouring varies considerably from
lake to lake
8 Michigan Geology of Michigan and the Great Lakes
Figure Michigan.11 Pillow Lavas in the Upper Peninsula
ofMichigan. These pillows are approximately 2 feet long and
indicatedeposition below water. They have subsequently been eroded
by over-riding glaciers that have polished, striated, and plucked
the exposedsurface.
Phot
ogra
ph b
y Li
nda
Harri
son.
35133_Geo_Michigan.qxd 11/14/07 6:21 PM Page 8
-
Michigan.3 Quaternary Geology 9
KEWEENAW
HOUGHTON
ONTONAGON BARAGA
MARQUETTEGOGEBIC
CHIPPEWA
LUCE
ALGER
SCHOOLCRAFT
IRON
DICKINSON
MACKINAC
DELTA
MENOMINEE
EMMET
CHEBOYGAN
PRESQUE ISLE
CHARLEVOIX
ALPENA
MONTMORENCY
LEELANAU
OTSEGO
ANTRIM
GRAND TRAVERSEALCONAOSCODACRAWFORDKALKASKA
BENZIE
IOSCOOGEMAWROSCOMMONMANISTEE MISSAUKEEWEXFORD
ARENAC
MASON GLADWINCLAREOSCEOLALAKE
HURON
BAY
MIDLANDISABELLAOCEANA MECOSTA
NEWAYGO
TUSCOLASANILAC
SAGINAW
GRATIOTMUSKEGON MONTCALM
LAPEER
KENT GENESEE
ST CLAIR
OTTAWA
SHIAWASSEE
CLINTONIONIA
MACOMB
OAKLAND
LIVINGSTONINGHAMEATONBARRYALLEGAN
WAYNE
WASHTENAWJACKSONCALHOUNKALAMAZOOVAN BUREN
BERRIENMONROE
LENAWEEHILLSDALEBRANCHST JOSEPHCASS
Peat and muck
Postglacial alluvium
Dune sand
Lacustrine clay and silt
Lacustrine sand and gravel
Glacial outwash sand and gravel and postglacial alluvium
Ice-contact outwash sand and gravel
Fine-textured glacial till
End moraines of fine-textured till
Medium-textured glacial till
End moraines of medium-textured till
Coarse-textured glacial till
End moraines of coarse-textured till
Thin to discontinuous glacial till over bedrock
Artificial fill
Exposed bedrock surfaces
Water
QUATERNARY GEOLOGY OF MICHIGAN
Drumlins
Eskers
Shorelines
Sinkholes
Striations/Grooves
0 20 40 MilesDate: 11/12/99N
MichiganMICHIGAN DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCESLAND AND
MINERALS SERVICES DIVISIONRESOURCE MAPPING AND AERIAL
PHOTOGRAPHY
Michigan Resource Information SystemPart 609, Resource
Inventory, of the Natural Resources andEnvironmental Protection
Act, 1994 PA 451, as amended.
Automated from "Quaternary Geology of Michigan", 1982, 1:500,000
scale, which was compiledby W. R. Farrand, University of Michigan
and the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality,Geological
Survey Division.
SOURCE
RMAP
1982 QUATERNARY GEOLOGY OF MICHIGAN
Figure Michigan.12 State of Michigan: Quaternary Geology.
From
Sta
te o
f Mic
higa
n, D
epar
tmen
t of N
atur
al R
esou
rces
.
35133_Geo_Michigan.qxd 11/14/07 6:21 PM Page 9
-
(Figure Michigan.15). Lake Superior, the deepest of thefive
lakes, is 1,333 feet (406 meters) deep. Lake Erie, theshallowest,
is only 210 feet (64 meters) deep. The floorsof Lakes Superior,
Huron, and the northern portion ofMichigan tend to be somewhat
irregular.
Glacial sediments, often greater than 165 feet (50 meters)thick,
and in places over 1,150 feet (350 meters) thick, blan-ket the
region. Broad, low, glacial moraines and a fewPaleozoic bedrock
escarpments provide moderate relief.
Quaternary glacial sediments also occur in the basins,
oftenexceeding 330 feet (100 meters) in thickness. Portions ofLake
Superior contain glacial sediments greater than 850 feet(250
meters) thick. These glacial sediments indicate that thepresent-day
Great Lakes Basins are the product of both gla-cial erosion and
post-glacial deposition.
Glacial EventsThe glacial history of the Michigan Basin is very
complex.Six major ice sheets advanced across the Michigan
regionprobably beginning as early as 2.4 million years ago (2.4
Ma).The oldest advances, previously called the Kansan andNebraskan
events, must have advanced across Michiganbecause sediments from
these events are found much farthersouth across Ohio, Indiana,
Illinois, and into Kansas andNebraska. Geologists now know that
these events were muchmore numerous and complex than originally
thought, andthe terms Kansan and Nebraskan are no longer used.
The last two events, the Illinoian and Wisconsinan events,are
much better documented and understood, and this termi-nology is
still in use. Illinoian events are inferred fromdeposits found
primarily in Illinois. Glacial sediments in theMichigan Basin once
thought to be Illinoian, are nowthought to actually be younger
Wisconsinan deposits.Currently, indisputable and direct evidence of
Illinoian gla-cial events in the Michigan Basin has yet to be
discovered.Warm conditions much like today, in a period 125179
thou-sand years ago known as the Sangamon interglaciation,
existedbetween the Illinoian and Wisconsinan glacial events.
10 Michigan Geology of Michigan and the Great Lakes
Area ofdeposition
and erosionscouringArea of
Area ofnon-glaciation
Figure Michigan.13 The Great Lakes Watershed: GlacialErosion vs.
Deposition.
Mod
ified
from
Mar
shak
200
5.
Figure Michigan.14 The Great Lakes Watershed: Patterns of
Landscape Development.
Phot
ogra
ph m
odifi
ed fr
om N
ASA,
JPL
, Cal
Tech
, USG
S.
35133_Geo_Michigan.qxd 11/14/07 6:21 PM Page 10
-
The last glacial episode, the Wisconsinan advance of
theLaurentide Ice Sheet, is well documented throughoutthe Michigan
Basin. Three separate sublobes of this lastglacial ice sheet
advanced and retreated across the Basin(the Michigan, Saginaw, and
Erie Lobes) (see FigureMichigan.12). Although no compelling
evidence exists, itis thought that advance and retreat of these
sublobes was notalways synchronous.
Wisconsinan glaciation began sometime between 65 and79 thousand
years ago (6579 ka). Glacial ice first invadedthe eastern section
of the Great Lakes watershed where theice margin oscillated until
approximately 25 ka. During thistime, a boreal forest-tundra
environment covered most ofthe western portion of the watershed
(the Michigan Basin).After 25 ka, the ice sheet advanced from both
the north andthe east, overriding the western forest-tundra
landscape, andcovered the entire watershed. Ice eventually reached
theOhio River to the south and northern Wisconsin and east-central
Minnesota to the west. The ice front fluctuated therefor nearly
4,000 years. After 18 ka, the ice margin began toretreat, but
experienced a series of re-advances about 15.5,13.0, 11.8, and 10.0
ka (Figure Michigan.16). Ice finally con-tinued its retreat about
10.0 ka, and the watershed was com-pletely ice-free by 9.0 ka.
Glacial LakesLarge, glacial, ice-margin lakes (proglacial lakes)
were devel-oped during each retreat of the ice sheet. These lakes
filled
the newly scoured Great Lakes basins. The northern marginof each
lake was established by the southern edge of the gla-cial ice
sheet. The extent and elevation of these lakes variedas outlets
were blocked by ice or uplifted by isostaticrebound. New outlets
formed as rising lake levels foundnew low spots through ridgelines.
Channels were erodedand downcut or melting ice re-opened old
channels.Occasionally, catastrophic influx of water from
neighboring
Michigan.3 Quaternary Geology 11
?
?
?
??
?
?
KEY
Advance of 15.5 kaAdvance of 13 kaAdvance of 11.8 kaAdvance of
10 ka
Michigan
LakeSuperior
Lake
Mic
higa
n
Lake Huron
Lake E
rie
Lake Ontario
Figure Michigan.16 Limits of Wisconsinan Ice Re-advances.
Mod
ified
from
Lar
son,
199
4; L
arso
n an
d Sc
haet
zl 20
01.
Lake Michigan
Lake Ontario
Lake St. Clair
Niagara River
St. Marys River St. Clair River Detroit River
Niagara Falls
St. Lawrence RiverLakeSuperior
LakeHuron
Lake Erie
Elevation183.2 m601.1 ft
Elevation176.0 m577.5 ft
Elevation174.4 m572.3 ft
Elevation173.5 m569.2 ft
Elevation74.2 m243.3 ft
Depth406 m
1,333 ft
Depth229 m750 ft
Depth281 m923 ft
Depth64 m210 ft
Depth244 m802 ft
Sea Level
Totals
Kilometres
Miles
2,011
1,249
610 97 359 143 380 56 242 124
379 60 223 89 239 35 150 77
Distance
Figure Michigan.15 Profile of the Great Lakes.
Mod
ified
from
Uni
ted
Stat
es A
rmy
Corp
s of
Eng
inee
rs, D
etro
it Of
fice.
35133_Geo_Michigan.qxd 11/14/07 6:21 PM Page 11
-
glacial lakes to the west affected the lake levels. This series
ofglacial lakes left a legacy of lake sediments, abandoned
spill-ways and channels, wave-cut cliffs, beach ridges, deltas,
andabandoned shorelines. Some of those old shorelines can stillbe
traced from one lake basin to another.
The history of the proglacial lakes that occupied theGreat Lakes
watershed is summarized in Figures Michigan.17and Michigan.18ad.
Fed by glacial meltwater during iceretreats, these lakes expanded,
often to the point where theymerged with one another. Conversely,
the lakes contractedas water levels fell due to the opening of new
drainagechannels, or as glacial ice once again advanced through
thevarious basins of the watershed.
The Lake Superior Basin remained ice covered untilapproximately
12 ka. Then, as glacial ice retreated from theBasin, a series of
relatively small proglacial lakes formed.These lakes expanded and
merged with lakes in theMichigan and Huron Basins to eventually
form glacialLakes Nipissing and Algoma.
The Lake Michigan Basin became ice free early in its his-tory.
Ice retreated from the southern portion of the basinabout 16 ka,
and the first of a series of proglacial lakesformed. This early
lake, termed Lake Chicago, expanded andcontracted in conjunction
with a series of glacial retreats andre-advances. Glacial Lake
Algonquin formed approximately
12 ka as ice retreated, the Straits of Mackinac opened, andLake
Chicago (Kirkfield Stage) expanded and merged withwaters occupying
the Huron Basin. Eventually, with contin-ued ice retreat, waters in
the Lake Michigan Basin joinedthose of Superior and Huron to form
glacial Lakes Nipissingand Algoma.
High rates of bluff erosion, development of strong cliffs,and
formation of very large sand dunes occurred in associa-tion with
the Lake Nipissing Great Lakes stage (see FigureMichigan.18d).
Tower Hill, in Warren Dunes State Parksouth of Benton Harbor, and
Mt. McSuba, just east ofCharlevoix, are two examples of these large
Lake Nipissingdune fields. Sleeping Bear Dune, north of
Frankfort,Michigan, is partially glacial moraine and outwash
depositscovered by windblown sand dunes formed during this
sametime.
The Lake Huron Basin (particularly the southern por-tion of the
basin), much like the Lake Michigan Basin,became ice-free early in
its history. There were at leastthirteen different proglacial lakes
that occupied the basinbefore merging into glacial Lake Algonquin.
These earlylakes, for the most part, drained westward across the
centerof the state of Michigan. This drainage pattern
eventuallydeveloped into the present-day Grand River Valley
system.Huron Basin waters expanded as the northern portion of
12 Michigan Geology of Michigan and the Great Lakes
SUPERIOR MICHIGAN HURON ERIEDATE GLACIAL EVENT ONTARIOYEARS
BEFORE
PRESENT
Port Huron (Mankato)
Algonquin
Kirkfield
Calumet
Glenwood II
640
Glenwood I
640
246
246
573580580
595
595 Stanley 190
605
605
620
640
675660 (Brief )
690- 680738
780760800
695
710, 700, 695
565 (?)
620 Lundy
Early Lake Ontario
Iroqouis
Ice
Ice
Ice
Ice
Lake
Lake
Small Lake
Vauxem 2
?
Lake Ontario
Grassmere
Lowest WarrenWayneWarren
Whittlesey
Cary-Port Huron Low Water Stage
602
3,000
4,000
9,500
11,500 Valders Maximum
Two Creeks
Lake Border Moraine
Tinley-Defiance Moraine
Valparaiso Mor.
Lake?
Lakes
Keweenaw
IceDuluth
Post Duluth
Sub-Minong
Algona
Nipissing
Chippewa
Post Algonquin Upper Group
Ice
IceIce
Ice
Maumee IIIArkona
Lowest Arkona IISaginaw 695
Maumee IIMaumee I
Ice
11,850
13,000
13,300
Ice
Early L. Chicago
EarlySaginaw
Ice
Ice
Early AlgonquinToleston 605
605605 Early Algonquin Ice
Early Lake Erie
Lake Erie 573
Figure Michigan.17 Chart: Evolution of Glacial Lakes throughout
the Great Lakes Basins.
Mod
ified
from
Dor
r and
Esc
hman
197
0.
35133_Geo_Michigan.qxd 11/14/07 6:21 PM Page 12
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the basin became ice-free, and merged with waters in theLake
Michigan and Lake Superior Basins to form glacialLakes Nipissing
and Algoma.
The same thirteen proglacial lakes that occupied the LakeHuron
Basin early in its history also occupied the Lake ErieBasin.
Beginning about 12 ka, the Huron and Erie Basinsdeveloped
separately as ice retreat and isostatic reboundcaused new drainage
patterns to develop. Waters from theHuron Basin merged westward
with those in the Michiganand Superior Basins to form Lake
Algonquin. The presenceof glacial Lake Algonquin is evidenced today
by numerouswave-cut platforms and other erosional coastal features
cutinto bedrock, now observed high up along much of the
pres-ent-day shoreline (Figure Michigan.19). Waters in the Erie
Basin fell to a lower level as new eastward drainage
developedfor that basin, forming the early stages of modern Lake
Erie.
Like the Lake Superior Basin, most of the Lake OntarioBasin
remained ice covered throughout its early history.Only the
southeastern portion of the basin was ice free after13.3 ka, and
was occupied by a series of small proglaciallakes. All these lakes
drained eastward, first along the glacialice front, and later
through New York State into theMohawk River Valley. The early
stages of glacial Lake Erie(12 ka) drained eastward into the
Ontario Basin where thesewaters formed glacial Lake Iroquois. When
eastwarddrainage through the present-day St. Lawrence Riveropened,
Lake Iroquois drained to a lower level, forming theearly stages of
modern-day Lake Ontario.
Michigan.3 Quaternary Geology 13
Ice
Lake Ontario
Lake Hough
Lake Stanley
Lake Chippewa
Minon
g-
Houg
hton
0 200 km
Cham
plain
Sea
Lake Er
ie
Laurentide Ice Sheet
LakeChicago
LakeWarren
0 200 km
Ice
Lake Duluth
Lake Ontario
0 200 km
Cham
pl
ain Se
a
Lake
Algonquin
Lake E
rie
0 200 km
Lake Ontario
St.
Law
re
nce R
iver
Nipissing Great Lakes
Lake Er
ie
13,000 years ago
9,500 years ago 6,000 years ago
11,500 years ago
a
c
b
d
Figure Michigan.18ad Glacial Lake Stages: Ice Advances and
Retreats.
From
Mon
roe,
Wic
ande
r, an
d Ha
zlett
2007
.
Figure Michigan.19 Profile of Mackinac Island showing Glacial
Lakes Algonquin and Nipissing wave-cut cliffs and platforms.
Phot
ogra
ph b
y Li
nda
Harri
son.
35133_Geo_Michigan.qxd 11/14/07 6:21 PM Page 13
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Glacial LandscapesGlacial landscapes in Michigan result from two
opposingprocesses: deposition and erosion. Thick deposits of
glacialdebris capped by associated depositional landforms
blanketthe entire Lower Peninsula of Michigan and the
easternportion of the Upper Peninsula. Only the western portionof
Michigans Upper Peninsula displays an erosional,Precambrian-aged,
bedrock landscape that is scoured clean.Northward, the Canadian
Shield is deeply eroded andscoured into the Precambrian bedrock
with only a scatter-ing of depositional features.
Erosional Glacial Landforms. Despite the blanket of gla-cial
sediments covering most of the Michigan Basin, thereare scattered
outcrops displaying the erosional power ofglacial ice that moved
through the region. Glacial groovesare displayed on Late Silurian
dolomite bedrock of the BassIsland Group where it crops out along
the west side ofSouth Bass Island in Lake Erie near Put-in-Bay. One
of themost spectacular, and perhaps the best known,
glaciallygrooved surfaces in the Great Lakes Region is found
onKellys Island, off Marblehead Peninsula in Lake Erie.
Glacial erratics (of Precambrian age), carried by theglacial ice
southward into Michigan from the CanadianShield, are found in
glacial deposits throughout the state.Boulders of Banded Iron
Formation (BIF) and pieces ofnative copper from the Upper Peninsula
are occasionallyfound in Lower Michigan. Although fairly rare, they
areeasily spotted because they are so distinctive and tend tostand
out from the drab sands and gravels. More commonly,rounded pebbles
of gray and pink granite, derived fromthe Canadian Shield, are
found in the gravels depositedthroughout the Michigan Basin (Figure
Michigan.20).
Depositional Glacial Landforms Figure Michigan.21shows the
locations of geologic features discussed in the fol-lowing
sections. Most of the Michigan Basin is blanketedby glacial
deposition in the form of diamictons (formerly
14 Michigan Geology of Michigan and the Great Lakes
Figure Michigan.20 Erratic pebbles in typical
southwesternMichigan gravel (note gray and pink granites, quartz
pebbles.)
Phot
ogra
ph b
y Li
nda
Harri
son.
termed glacial tills) and glacial outwash. Landforms,such as
drumlins and moraine systems, are composed ofdiamictons deposited
directly from the glacial ice.Diamictons are unsorted and
unstratified deposits com-posed of a heterogeneous mixture of
materials in all shapesand sizes.
Outwash, on the other hand, is a very general termapplied to
sorted and stratified deposits laid down by glacialmeltwaters.
Depositional glacial landforms such as kames,kame terraces, eskers,
and ice-channel fillings are indica-tive of ice-contact and outwash
deposition. Landforms suchas outwash plains and valley trains,
pitted outwash plains,kettles, and kettle lakes usually indicate
deposition near theice but farther removed from the immediate ice
front(Figure Michigan.22).
Diamicton and DrumlinsNumerous, well developed drumlins can be
observed alongboth sides of Grand Traverse Bay. Drumlins in
Charlevoixand Antrim Counties, just north of Torch Lake,
trendsouth-southwest, indicating the direction of the ice
move-ment. U.S. Route 31 follows the length of two drumlinsbetween
Torch Lake and Charlevoix. The exposed interiorof these drumlins is
composed of unsorted, unstratified clayand boulder diamicton
(till). Another drumlin field is situ-ated along U.S. Route 2
between Harris and Waucedah,Michigan, in the Upper Peninsula. Small
drumlins are alsolocated in Barry County, 20 miles west of
Kalamazoo, insouthwestern Michigan.
Moraines. Moraine systems are the most prominent land-scape
features across Lower Michigan. Three major ice lobesadvanced
across Michigan during the Wisconsinan glacia-tion. These advancing
ice masses took on lobate forms, fan-ning outward in radial
patterns along their fronts as glacialice was channeled through the
pre-existing Great LakesBasins. The Michigan Lobe advanced
southward through theLake Michigan Basin. The Saginaw Lobe advanced
south-westward as it was channeled through the Saginaw Bay area.The
Erie Lobe advanced westward as it was funneledthrough the Lake Erie
Basin (see Figure Michigan.12).These three lobes advanced into
northern Illinois, Indiana,and Ohio, developing a pronounced
terminal moraine (theCary Border) approximately 16 ka. The state of
Michiganwas covered by thousands of feet of ice during this
time.Retreat from this position lasted until about 13.513.2
ka,depositing a series of recessional moraines of Cary age.The
prominent Valparaiso Moraine and Lake BorderMoraine that parallel
the Lake Michigan coastline throughwestern Michigan, Indiana,
Illinois, and Wisconsin formedduring this time.
These moraines took on the form of rolling ridges ofdiamicton
and poorly sorted sediments laid down as ice-contact deposits,
grading into sloping wedges of outwashdeposits farther away from
the ice front (Figure Michigan.23).Minor re-advances interrupted
the retreat, often smearing outand re-working the just-deposited
recessional moraine system
35133_Geo_Michigan.qxd 11/14/07 6:21 PM Page 14
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as the advancing ice moved over it. This can be seen in onecase
where thin, weathered, till deposits overlay outwash sedi-ments in
the Whittaker-Gooding Pit off Cherry Hill Road,just south of
Dixboro, east of Ann Arbor.
Two major, interlobate moraines formed, one betweenthe Michigan
and Saginaw lobes, and one between theSaginaw and Erie lobes. The
first extends north-souththrough the center of the state. The other
follows the axisof the thumb (east of Saginaw Bay). These areas
containmuch sand and gravel in the form of kames and
extensiveoutwash plains (called the Sand Barrens) laid down by
melt-water deposition.
Michigan.3 Quaternary Geology 15
1. Mt. Baldy, Warren Dunes State Park area2. Sleeping Bear Dune
State Park (near Frankfort)3. Mt. McSuba (near Charlevoix)4.
Drumlins a. Charlevoix and Antrim Counties b. Torch Lake area c.
Harris and Waucedah areas d. Barry County area5. Eskers a. Blue
Ridge EskerU.S. 127 (south/southeast of Jackson) b. Mason EskarU.S.
127 (near Dewitt) c. EskarBarry County (Figure 24) 6. Kames a.
Stony Creek Park (near Rochester) b. Oxford area c. Irish Hills,
Walter J. Hayes State Park (near Jackson) d. Route 32 area (near
Lacine, west of Alpena)7. Valley Train Sedimentation (Mancelona to
Kalkaska)8. Castle Rock (near St. Ignace)9. Mackinac Island10.
Beach ridges (north of Port Huron)11. Beach groins12. Hooked spits
a. Tawas Point b. Hamlin Lake13. Mid-bay and bay mouth bars a.
Crystal Lake b. Herring Lakes14. Karst Topography a. Sunken Lake,
Rainy Lake, Fletcher County Park area (near Alpena, Leer, and
Posen) b. Monroe Area c. Presque Isle15. Tunnel Valley, Kalamazoo
River Valley (near Galesburg)16. Deltas a. St. Claire River b.
Rouge River, Detroit c. Huron River (near Yipsilanti) d. Grand
River (near Allendale)17. Scoured LakesBurt, Mullet, and Black
Lakes18. Significant Oil Fields a. Saginaw Field b. Muskegon Field
c. Mt. Pleasant Field d. Bloomingdale Fields e. Crystal Field f.
Albion-Scipio Trend19. Kettle Lakes
Figure Michigan.21 Location of Geologic Sites
Com
pile
d by
Rob
b Gi
llesp
ie.
ICE GONE
Recessionalmoraine
Kames EskerDrumlins
Abandoned outflow channel
Kettle ponds
Figure Michigan.22 Generalized block diagram of glacialdeposits
and landforms.
From
Mon
roe,
Wic
ande
r, an
d Ha
zlett
2007
.
35133_Geo_Michigan.qxd 11/14/07 8:42 PM Page 15
-
The Port Huron Border Moraine, immediately adjacentto the
Saginaw Bay shoreline, is the terminal moraine ofthe ice that began
re-advancing approximately 13.2 ka.Intermittent retreat from this
position quickly resumed,lasting until 11.811.5 ka. This period of
retreat is termedthe Two Creeks interstadial.
The last major advance of Wisconsinan glacial iceoccurred 11.8
ka (termed the Valders stadial). Ice, advanc-ing from the north
through the Lake Michigan Basin,picked up large quantities of red
silt and clay from the LakeSuperior Basin (evidence that the Lake
Superior Basin musthave been a proglacial lake prior to this event)
and from thePrecambrian iron formations of the Upper Peninsula.
Theresulting Valders-aged moraines and diamicton deposits, allof
which lay north of the older Port Huron Border, are adistinctive
red color as a result. This Valders ice advance isalso responsible
for the formation of the drumlins locatedin Leelanau and Charlevoix
counties.
Outwash, Ice-channel Deposits, and Eskers. Sinuous,elongate
ridges of outwash materials, flanked by slopes com-
posed of ice-contact sediments, result when glacial debris
islaid down within ice-bounded channels. Three excellentexamples of
such ridges occur in central Michigan. The firstis the Blue Ridge
Esker that is cut by U.S. 127 about 6.5 milessouth-southeast of
Jackson, Michigan. The second example isthe Mason Esker, located
just east of U.S. 127 and extendingfrom Mason to DeWitt, in Ingham
County. Barry County ishome to the third example. Here, a large
esker is observedassociated with a field of kames (Figure
Michigan.24).
Kames. Kames are hills of outwash flanked by slopes
ofice-contact materials. They initially form in low areas
betweenice blocks, or holes within the glacier. Meltwater
depositsflood into these depressions, and ice-contact materials
rapidlyaccumulate around the edges. When the ice melts, the walls
ofthese deposits collapse, leaving behind steeply sloping
hills.Groups of Kames can be found in Stony Creek Park
nearRochester, the gravel hills near Oxford, and the Irish
Hillsnear Walter J. Hayes State Park southeast of Jackson,Michigan.
Isolated kames occur along Michigan Route 32near Lachine, west of
Alpena, and many more can be foundscattered throughout the state.
Kames are also associated withthe previously mentioned large esker
in Barry County (seeFigure Michigan.24).
Proglacial Outwash and Valley Trains. Proglacial out-wash is
deposited as a sloping, apron-like fan of meltwater-laid sediments
out in front of an ice-contact recessionalmoraine being deposited
along the ice lobe. Most reces-sional moraines throughout Michigan
occur in associationwith proglacial outwash aprons that were
initially depositedaway from the glacial margin. The term valley
train isapplied to these sloping proglacial aprons when they
areconfined within valley walls. Good examples of valley trainscan
be observed in the valley extending from Mancelona toKalkaska,
Michigan.
Pitted Outwash, Kettles, and Kettle Lakes. Outwash sed-iments
are frequently laid down around separate blocks ofstagnant ice left
in front of the retreating ice sheet. Largedepressions in the
outwash plain result when these ice blocksfinally melt. These
depressions are termed kettle holes,and the resulting outwash fan,
pock-marked by a number ofkettle holes, is termed a pitted outwash
plain. Kettle holes
16 Michigan Geology of Michigan and the Great Lakes
Figure Michigan.24 Esker: Barry County Michigan. The esker is
seen as a large ridge (note cars sitting on esker, for scale).
Kames, depositedclose to the ice front, can be observed surrounding
the esker in the left portion of the photo.
Pano
ram
ic p
hoto
grap
h by
Ala
n Ke
hew
.
Figure Michigan.23 Outwash in Barry County gravel pit
(nearHastings).
Phot
ogra
ph b
y Al
an K
ehew
.
35133_Geo_Michigan.qxd 11/14/07 6:21 PM Page 16
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become kettle lakes when they fill with water. Most ofthe
numerous, small, inland lakes throughout Michigan arekettle lakes,
and are associated with pitted outwash plains.
Michigan.4Modern-Day GeologicProcessesThe geologic history of
the Michigan Basin does not endwith the retreat of the most recent
glaciers. Rather, land-scape development is an evolutionary,
ongoing process.For example, several distinct types of shorelines
exist alongthe Great Lakes.
Bedrock cliffs are most common along the shores ofLakes Superior
and Huron. Cliffs 1,3122,625 feet(400800 meters) in height are
common along the northshore of Lake Superior. Beaches of sand and
gravel arecommon along the southern shore. Limestone bedrock
andgravel form much of the Lake Huron shoreline east of theMackinac
Bridge. High dolomite cliffs are common alongthe Lake Huron and
Lake Michigan shorelines whereverthey intersect the Niagaran Series
of rocks. The easternmargin of the Door Peninsula, the Garden,
Bruce, andPresque Isle Peninsulas, and the western margin
ofManitoulin Island are examples of such areas. Rocky head-lands
and small pocket beaches composed of rounded lime-stone gravel and
sand are found along these shores. Bluffscut into glacial sediments
are especially prominent alongthe southeastern shore of Lake Huron,
the central sectionof Lake Michigan, and the shores of Lake Erie.
Many of theLake Erie shores are low and marshy.
Erosional ShorelinesMackinac Island continues to be, after more
than a century,a favorite tourist destination in Michigan. The well
devel-oped shoreline features of this island, as they relate to
thevarious glacial lake stages, can easily be observed fromthe
Mackinaw Straits Bridge (see Figure Michigan.19). TheAlgonquin
wave-cut cliff and terrace dominate the upperportion of the island.
The Nipissing wave-cut cliff and ter-race dominate the lower
portion. More than 14 differentbeach ridges are situated between
the Algonquin andNipissing terraces and can be explored all across
the island.Associated with these two major wave-cut cliffs are a
num-ber of erosional shoreline landforms. Arches, sea stacks,and
caves have all been eroded from the weak MackinacBreccia bedrock.
The best-known sea arch on the island isArch Rock, formed during
Glacial Lake Nipissing time (seeFigure Michigan.25). Sugar Loaf, a
prominent sea stack, islocated 300 feet (91 meters) east of the
Algonquin wave-cutcliff at Point Lookout. Skull Cave is cut into a
second stackformed by Glacial Lake Algonquin.
Sea cliffs and sea stacks can be observed at Miners Castle(see
Figure Michigan.10) in the Pictured Rocks area along
Michigan.4 Modern-Day Geologic Processes 17
Lake Superior east of Munising. Also, sea cliffs cut
intoMississippian age sandstones are visible at Pointe AuxBargues
at the tip of Michigans thumb. Castle Rock, awave-cut stack of
Mackinac Breccia, formed during GlacialLake Nipissing time, and can
be observed along I-75 justnorth of St. Ignace (Figure
Michigan.26).
Coastal bluffs, composed of glacial sediments, are subjectto
erosion (Figure Michigan.27). Recent studies by Dr. AlanKehew and
Dr. Ronald Chase of Western MichiganUniversity (United States Army
Corps of Engineers grant) ofbluffs along Lake Michigans shoreline
north of South Havenhave shown that bluffs are most susceptible to
erosion duringperiods of high water. Low lake levels, as
experienced duringrecent years, have greatly reduced the rate of
slope failuresalong the Michigan coastline. Also, water content of
bluffmaterials is a major controlling factor. Bluff stability
isgreater, displaying little to no slope movement, during
dryperiods when water tables are low. Pumping, to dewater
bluffareas, helps increase slope stability, thereby reducing
erosion.
Depositional ShorelinesSand Dunes. Beaches along the shores of
the state ofMichigan are some of the best-developed, quartz-rich,
sandbeaches in the world. Numerous areas of irregular
sandaccumulations and dune fields occur well inland from cur-rent
lake shorelines (Figure Michigan.28). These areas
Figure Michigan.25 Arch Rock, on Mackinac Island, was erodedfrom
the Mackinac Breccia bedrock at the time of Glacial LakeAlgonquin.
Modern Lake Huron, to the east, is visible in the back-ground
through the arch.
Phot
ogra
ph b
y Li
nda
Harri
son.
35133_Geo_Michigan.qxd 11/14/07 6:21 PM Page 17
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18 Michigan Geology of Michigan and the Great Lakes
Grand Sable Dunes
Sleeping Bear DunesBenzie State Park
Orchard BeachState Park
Ludington State Park Albert SleeperState Park
Warren Dunes
Lakeport State Park
HollandState Park
From glacial Lake Saginaw
Dunes formed during early Glacial Lake Stages
Dunes formed during Lake Nipissing Stage
Key
Areas of extensive modern sand movement and foredune growth
Figure Michigan.28 Blown Sand and Dune Areas in Michigan.Dotted
lines delineate areas of extensive modern-day sand movementand
foredune growth. Black areas are older, high dunes related mostlyto
Glacial Lake Nipissing. Dark green colored areas inland are
stillolder dunes related to earlier, higher glacial lake levels.
Note the dunefield southwest of Saginaw Bay which was created by
Glacial LakeSaginaw.
Mod
ified
from
Dor
r and
Esc
hman
197
0.
originated in conjunction with earlier proglacial lakesstanding
at much higher elevations, and are generally theoldest dunes in the
state of Michigan. The dune fielddeposited on the old lake plain of
Glacial Lake Saginaw(southwest of present-day Saginaw Bay), in
particular,
Figure Michigan.26 Castle Rock is a wave-cut sea stack
locatedalong I-75 just north of St. Ignace, Michigan. It was cut
from MackinacBreccia bedrock along the Glacial Lake Nipissing
shoreline.
Phot
ogra
ph b
y Li
nda
Harri
son.
Figure Michigan.27 Slumps along the Lake Michigan
shoreline.Located about 4 miles north of South Haven, the view is
southwardalong a part of the coast that is dominated by a sandy
bluff with someclay layers on top. This slump structure is typical
of bluffs withinterbedded clays and sands.
Phot
ogra
ph b
y Ro
nald
Cha
se.
stands out. These dunes can be observed along U.S.Highway 10
between Midland and Clare, Michigan.
Inland, high dunes are common along all the shorelinesthat ring
the state of Michigan. Many of these high dunesare related to
high-water levels of Early Glacial LakeNipissing (92.2 ka). Along
the western side of the state,many of the inland, high dunes are
related to the highstages of Glacial Lake Chicago that occupied the
LakeMichigan Basin. Generally, these inland dunes are no olderthan
about 13,000 years. They were stabilized by vegetationlong ago and
are no longer sites of extensive dune growth.
Coastal dunes are younger than inland dunes, havingformed along
the modern Great Lakes shoreline. They aregenerally less than 4,500
years old, and are mainly relatedto Late Glacial Lake Nipissing
water levels. Coastal dunescan be divided into two categories.
Foredune ridges arelow dunes (3050 feet [915 meters]) that are
found closeto the waters edge. High dunes (greater than 100 feet[31
meters]) are generally found slightly farther inlandbehind the
foredunes. High dunes may also be found at thewaters edge in a few
instances. Some of the older highdunes may have been deposited on
the tops of glacialmoraines and outwash deposits during periods of
higherlake levels. These are termed perched dunes. Sleeping
BearDune is just such a complex, standing 450 feet (137 meters)
35133_Geo_Michigan.qxd 11/14/07 6:21 PM Page 18
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above the current Lake Michigan water level (FigureMichigan.29).
Grand Sable Dunes in the Upper Peninsulais another such system,
standing 380 feet (116 meters)above Lake Superior. Perched dunes
tend to be less thickthan other foredune types.
Foredunes are the youngest and most active dunes alongthe
Michigan coast. Blowouts occur where dunes lack thestabilizing
effects of vegetation. Sand is blown from thewindward side of the
dune, up and over the crest, to bedeposited on the dunes lee side.
(Figure Michigan.30).The dune is observed to march inland as this
processcontinues. However, the coastal dunes eventually stabilizeas
(1) they move away from the beach; (2) the source ofsand supply
diminishes; (3) they become more protectedfrom the shore winds; (4)
they encounter the fronts of theinland high dunes; and (5)
vegetation takes hold and pro-vides stabilization. Unfortunately,
in some areas, these sanddune systems are being threatened, not
only by the flux ofnature, but more and more by human interference
and lackof sound environmental stewardship.
Beach Ridges. Many beaches along Michigans shoresare marked by a
series of recessional beach ridges. Theseridges, composed of gravel
and coarse sands, were formedalong the shorelines by progressively
dropping glacial lake
Michigan.4 Modern-Day Geologic Processes 19
Figure Michigan.29 Sleeping Bear Dunes (view northwardalong
coast). This Pearched Dune (right portion of photo), 450 feetabove
the current level of Lake Michigan, is partially stabilized by
veg-etation. It sits atop an older glacial moraine (left portion of
photo).Coarse cobble and pebble lag, weathered from the moraine by
thewind, covers the moraines surface. The depression (center) is
awind-generated blowout where sand is being scoured from the
duneand blown inland.
Phot
ogra
ph b
y Li
nda
Harri
son.
water levels. One set of well developed beach ridges can
beobserved along the Lake Huron shoreline just north of PortHuron
(Figure Michigan.31). Another example of beachridges can be
observed at Sturgeon Point on Lake Huronjust north of Harrisville.
Here, closely spaced lines of treesparallel the present-day
shoreline. These tree lines reflectformer beach ridges, where
sediments that favor treegrowth have accumulated.
Hooked Spits. Sands necessary for the growth of spitsand mid-bay
and bay-mouth bars are supplied as beachdrift. This beach drift
develops as longshore currentserode sands from the beaches they are
moving along(Figure Michigan.32). Groins, built at 90 degrees to
theshore out into the water, help prevent erosion by trappingbeach
drift moving along the beach. Examples of suchgroins can be
observed along the Lake Michigan shorelinenear Ludington,
Michigan.
Sand bars and spits grow as beach drift, moving alonga
shoreline, is deposited into an open embayment asit attempts to
extend the beach. Waves, coming into theembayment from offshore,
redistribute sediments nearthe end of the spit, carrying those
materials farther into theembayment. This results in the formation
of a hooked spit
Figure Michigan.30 Sands are constantly being blown inlandalong
the east shore of Lake Michigan. Here, in Indiana Dunes StatePark,
the lee-side of Mt. Baldy Sand Dune is encroaching upon thetrees.
Note the angle of repose for the sand face is approximately35
degrees.
Phot
ogra
ph b
y Al
an K
ehew
.
35133_Geo_Michigan.qxd 11/14/07 6:21 PM Page 19
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20 Michigan Geology of Michigan and the Great Lakes
Figure Michigan.33 The hooked spit at Tawas Point has a longand
complex history. Waves from Lake Huron refract around thesouthern
point of the spit, carrying sediment into the bay, and creatinga
shoal behind the spit. The numerous lakes observed within the
spitare the remnants of previous bay areas surrounded and cut off
by thegrowing shoal and migrating spit.
as the end of the spit bends around toward the innershore of the
embayment. Tawas Point, a hooked spit cur-rently evolving near
Tawas City on Lake Huron, has a longand complex history (Figure
Michigan.33). Nine separatehooks (points) and associated sub-bays
have developed, andsubsequently, have been highly modified, as this
largehooked spit continues to evolve.
Mid-Bay and Bay Mouth Bars. Waves, longshore currents,and wind
action constantly re-shape the shorelines ofMichigan. The Upper and
Lower Herring Lakes, located inBenzie County about 6 miles south of
Frankfort, are goodexamples of such evolving shorelines (Figure
Michigan.34).The two lakes lie within a U-shaped depression. This
depres-sion is enclosed on the north, east, and south by the
ManisteeMoraine, but was originally open toward the west as
anembayment to Lake Michigan. During late Lake Algonquintime,
mid-bay bars developed within the embayment. Thesebars isolated
Upper Herring Lake in the mid-eastern portionof the embayment and
another small basin in the very easternsection. This eastern basin
was a short-lived lake and is nowfilled with sediment and
vegetation.
Phot
ogra
ph m
odifi
ed fr
om M
ichi
gan
Depa
rtmen
t of N
atur
al R
esou
rces
[MDN
R], F
ores
try, M
iner
al a
nd F
ire M
anag
emen
t Div
isio
n, R
esou
rce
Map
ping
and
Aeria
l Pho
togr
aphy
[RM
AP],
Janu
ary
15, 2
001,
199
8 Se
ries
USGS
Dig
ital O
rthop
hoto
Qua
dran
gles
, Eas
t Taw
as S
W To
pogr
aphi
c Qu
adra
ngle
.
Figure Michigan.32 Northward view of groins along the
LakeMichigan beach north of Manistee. The groins were originally
used tocapture sand moving along the beach, but they now reside
high inthe dune line due to the significant drop in lake levels
during the last5 years. This is just one of many public beach
access points alongthe coast.
Phot
ogra
ph b
y Li
nda
Harri
son.
Figure Michigan.31 Recessional Beach Ridges, north of PortHuron,
were formed by progressively dropping glacial lake levels in
theLake Huron basin.
Phot
ogra
ph m
odifi
ed fr
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The remaining western portion of the embaymentdrained during the
early stages of Glacial Lake Nipissing,but during late Nipissing
time, the embayment was onceagain flooded. During post-Nipissing
times, the currentbay-mouth bar formed, isolating Lower Herring
Lake inthe western portion of the embayment. Eventually,
duringrecent times, low foredunes developed on top of this barand
adjacent shorelines. Presently, the two Herring Lakesare isolated
from Lake Michigan, being drained only bynarrow Herring Creek that
cuts across the mid-bay andbay-mouth bar systems.
Crystal Lake, located immediately north of Frankfort,formed in a
similar manner (Figure Michigan.35). Thearea originally occupied a
topographic low, situatedbetween two east-west trending glacial
moraines, andopened to Lake Michigan to the west. Development ofa
bay-mouth bar isolated the embayment, and completeclosure was
assured as dunes related to Glacial LakeNipissing covered the
bar.
Hamlin Lake, in Ludington State Park on Big SablePoint (just
north of Ludington, Michigan) is another prod-uct of shoreline
evolution (Figure Michigan.36). Originally,five rivers entered the
Lake Michigan Basin along this
portion of the coast. Sands carried into the lake by theserivers
fed the growth of two large hooked spits, one fromthe north and one
from the south. These spits formed twoarms that eventually enclosed
Hamlin Lake, first as an openembayment, and finally as a separate,
isolated lake. Highdunes related to Glacial Lake Nipissing formed
atop thesespits, completing the enclosure.
Michigan.5Geology of Water ResourcesGroundwaterMichigan is very
fortunate, mostly due to its glacial heritage,that high quality
water resources abound throughout thestate. The majority of
Michigans water wells tend to be shal-low, and can easily be pumped
from surficial sands and gravelsdeposited by glaciers. Much of the
grou