GEOG 6 – Resources and Energy Professor: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue Professor: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue Hofstra University, Department of Global Studies & Geography Professor: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue Hofstra University, Department of Global Studies & Geography Topic 4 – Fossil Fuels A – Energy Transitions B – Coal C – Petroleum D – Natural Gas
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GEOG 6 – Resources and Energy Professor: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue Hofstra University, Department of Global Studies & Geography Professor: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue.
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GEOG 6 – Resources and Energy
Professor: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Hofstra University, Department of Global Studies & Geography
Professor: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Hofstra University, Department of Global Studies & Geography
Professor: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Hofstra University, Department of Global Studies & Geography
Topic 4 – Fossil Fuels
A – Energy TransitionsB – CoalC – PetroleumD – Natural Gas
■ Hubbert’s peak• Geologist who predicted in the 1950s that oil production in the
United States would peak in the early 1970s:• US oil production peaked in 1973.
• Assumption of finite resource.• Production starts at zero. • Production then rises to a peak which can never be surpassed.• Once the peak has been passed, production declines until the
resource is depleted.• Peak was estimated to be around 2004-2008:
• One estimate placed it symbolically at Thanksgiving 2005.• Kuwait announced around Thanksgiving 2005 that the world’s second
largest oil field (Burgan) has reached its peak.• As of 2010, peak oil remains unconfirmed.
■ The case for Peak Oil• Largest oil fields discovered more than 50 years ago.• The peak of oil discovery year was 1965.• Some large discoveries in the 1970s (Alaska, North Sea), but
none since then.• The last year when more oil was discovered than consumed was
1980.■ Tar sands
• Large supplies, particularly in Canada (Alberta).• A bottleneck in extraction and distribution.• Require a lot of energy to extract and transform into a usable
• Low diversity of energy sources. Foreign sources. Dependence on oil. Keeping natural resources for future use. Low oil prices instead of an energy policy.
• Affordability:• Economies of scale. Waste involves less profits. Market forces and profit
■ Nature• Formed from decayed swamp plant matter that cannot
decompose in the low-oxygen underwater environment.• Coal was the major fuel of the early Industrial Revolution.• High correlation between the location of coal resources and early
industrial centers:• The Midlands of Britain.• Parts of Wales.• Pennsylvania.• Silesia (Poland).• German Ruhr Valley.
• Used mainly in power stations to produce high pressure steam, which then drives turbines to generate electricity.
• Also used to fire cement and lime kilns.• Until the middle of the 20th Century used in steam engines (“Steam Coal”).
• Coking coal:• Specific type of metallurgical coal derived from bituminous coal.• Used as a source of carbon, for converting a metal ore to metal.• Removing the oxygen in the ore by forcing it to combine with the carbon in
the coal to form CO2.• Used for making iron in blast furnaces (without smoke).
• New redevelopment of the coal industry:• In view of rising energy prices.• “Clean Coal” technologies, less ashes but same CO2.
■ Advantages of coal use• Easily combustible.• Easy to store and transport.• Relatively inexpensive.• Wide availability of sources.• Technologically simpler to use for energy generation.
■ Disadvantages of coal use• Non-renewable resource.• Combustion by-products (e.g. SO2 and sooth).• Coal mining is generally environmentally damaging.
• The share of transportation has increased in the total oil consumption.• Accounts for more the 55% of the oil used.• In the US, this share is 70%.• Limited possibility at substitution.
• Other uses (30%):• Lubricant.• Plastics.• Fertilizers.
• Choice of an energy source:• Depend on a number of utility factors.• Favoring the usage of fossil fuels, notably petroleum.
Occurrence Localized large deposits (decades)Transportability Liquid that can be easily transported. Economies of scaleEnergy content High mass / energy released ratioReliability Continuous supply; geopolitically unstableStorability Easily storedFlexibility Many uses (petrochemical industry; plastics)Safety Relatively safe; some risks (transport)Environment Little wastes, CO2 emissionsPrice Relatively low costs
■ “Scarce Abundance”• The world oil production is currently running at capacity:
• Limited opportunities to expand production.• 20% of the world’s output comes from 14 fields.
• Ghawar:• The world’s largest oil field; been on production since 1951.• Produces approximately 4.5 million barrels of oil per day.• 55 to 60% of Saudi Arabia’s production.• Expected to decline sharply (use of water injection).• Could be 90% depleted.
• OPEC countries may have overstated their reserves:• Production quotas are based upon estimated reserves.• The larger the reserves, the more an OPEC country can export.• In the 1980s, most OPEC reserves doubled “on paper”.• Extraction continues while reserves remain the same(?).
■ The Seven Sisters• Petroleum has for long been the object of geopolitical
confrontations.• The ability to fix the price and the production of oil was first
established in 1928 by the Achnacarry Agreements.• Between the “seven sisters” forming an oil oligopoly.• Major oil multinationals (Exxon, Texaco, British Petroleum, Shell, Gulf,
Standard Oil and Mobil Oil).• Invested massively in extraction infrastructures, especially in the Middle
East.• Several producing countries, most of them in the Third World,
wanted to have a more important share of the incomes of this lucrative market.
■ A perfect storm?• Booming oil prices after 2004.• Prior oil spikes linked with short lived geopolitical events.• The situation has changed at the beginning of the 21st century.• A production issue:
• Petroleum extraction appears to be running at capacity.• Demand, especially new consumers (China), is going up.
• A distribution issue:• Limited additional tanker and pipeline capacity.
• A refining issue:• Limited additional refining capacity.• No refineries were built in the US since 1974.
■ Natural gas formation• Thermogenic: converted organic material into natural gas due to
high pressure.• Deeper window than oil.
• Biogenic: transformation by microorganisms.■ Composition
• Composed primarily of methane and other light hydrocarbons.• Mixture of 50 to 90% by volume of methane, propane and butane.• “Dry” and “wet” (methane content); “sweet” and “sour” (sulfur
content).• Usually found in association with oil:
• Formation of oil is likely to have natural gas as a by-product.• Often a layer over the petroleum.
■ Use• Mostly used for energy generation.• Previously, it was often wasted - burned off. • It is now more frequently conserved and used.• Considered the cleanest fossil fuel to use.• The major problem is transporting natural gas, which requires
pipelines.• Gas turbine technology enables to use natural gas to produce