Genetics Part 1
Jan 12, 2016
Genetics Part 1
By the end of this class you should understand:
• The purpose of mitosis and the consequences of failure to control mitosis
• The purpose and mechanism of increasing genetic diversity
• The relationship between mutations and alleles
• The importance of genes to a living organism
Understanding Mitosis/Meiosis
• WHY do mitosis and meiosis matter?– What cells in
our bodies are performing mitosis?
– What cells in our bodies are performing meiosis?
Where Does Mitosis Occur? Stem cells in our bodies that grow new tissue
Bone marrow (blood) Skin (epidermis, hair & nails) Tissues (injury repair)
Development of a fetus Remember we all started as just one cell!
Amitotic cells
Many cells in our body are amitotic, which means they cannot produce more cells like themselves
Of course, some people seem to not have this problem.....
Mitosis = Tissue Growth
• Mitosis is how our cells make new cells– This is also why you get
bigger over time
• If this process gets out of control, we’re in trouble– Fortunately it rarely gets
out of control!
Failure of Mitosis Control Cancer is the result of
a single cell that is undesirably and constantly reproducing
Any cell in the body can become cancerous But some are more
likely candidates than others!
Cell Replication There are molecular
mechanisms (checkpoints) that prevent a cell from constantly undergoing mitosis Occur at G1/S and G2/M Cells also cannot
replicate without an external signal
Cancer Checklist To become cancerous, a
cell must: Have its control genes fail
via mutation (fresh or inherited)
Have its go-ahead signal stuck in the “on” position
Develop expression of telomerase if it was not already a stem cell
This is a long list! Typically, to
facilitate the checklist being met, cancer cells also have a failure of mutation repair This begins to
prompt many, many mutations
Tumors A cell that has begun to
undergo mitosis until it has exhausted all its blood supply forms a tumor A lump, sometimes hard,
sometimes just an outgrowth of flesh
If no further mutation takes place, it is typically benign (not harmful)
Dangerous Cancer For cancer to
become malignant, two additional steps must be met: Angiogenesis
(ability to create new blood vessels to feed the tumor)
Metastasis (ability to spread through tissues and blood)
Cancer Treatments Two standard treatments
today are radiation therapy and chemotherapy
Both work by poisoning cells during mitosis– Since cancer cells are
constantly undergoing mitosis they are affected the most
– This is why you also lose your hair
Lethal Cancer• If the cancer is not caught early
enough or develops too rapidly, risk of death is high
• Once cancer cells spread through the body, they hog all the resources and block blood flow to vital organs
• Deaths from severe cancer often involve liver and kidney failure, brain failure, and internal bleeding
Where Does Meiosis Occur?
The 'nads The technical term, gonads, refers to the testes of
men and ovaries of women The formation of gametes is triggered by
puberty In men it continues the entire life In women, the oogonia (precursor eggs) have
already formed as a fetus, but one cell completes meiosis per month
The Purpose of Meiosis
Meiosis is the cellular mechanism for sex Not all organisms engage in sex Bacteria and some plants and animals reproduce
asexually (purely through mitosis) Sex increases the available variation in
individuals If an organism has a mutation that gives them an
advantage, they will spread that genetic advantage around faster
Increased Variation During Metaphase I, the chromosomes engage in
crossing over before being separated This mixes the chromosomes inherited from each
parent together
Random Assortment = Increased Variation
Net Result
• Mitosis creates two identical cells– Cells may take on different
functions if they express different genes
• Meiosis creates haploid cells that can combine to form a brand new diploid cell– This individual has 50% of the
DNA from each parent
Quick check: why does it matter what’s in DNA?
DNA Information
• Genes code for proteins!– Enzymes– Structural fibers– Transport proteins
• If the DNA sequence is different, amino acid sequence is different– Protein has different shape!– Different versions of the same genes are called
alleles
Example:
• Hair color!– The proteins that make up your hair may be
different colors if the structures are different
Allele Origin
• Alleles originate from mutations– Accidental alterations to DNA– Caused by mutagens
• Most new alleles are problematic and the cell or organism dies– Imagine changing one word in an essay: unless it’s
just the right word, it probably makes no sense now…
• Occasionally beneficial!
Mutagens There are many different
mutagens Radiation– Energy from radioactive
materials– High-energy light from the
sun or tanning booths DNA-binding chemicals– Many are used in labs
Mutation Types Categorized by what has
happened to the DNA sequence– Point mutation/Substitution– Insertion– Deletion– Inversion
Results of Mutation
• Mutations alter the functionality of proteins• Usually harmful• Occasionally beneficial!
• Some proteins become defective (sickle cell anemia is a mutation of hemoglobin)
• Some proteins fail to be produced (albinism is a failure to produce melanin)
Enzymes and Mutation• Recall that enzymes are
proteins• Ergo they are each made from a
gene in your DNA• If the enzyme gene should
mutate the enzyme will be shaped slightly differently because its amino acid chain is different• Genetics result in different
metabolisms because of different enzyme functions!
Gene Expression Each cell has the entire
genome so why only express certain proteins? Some genes control other
genes (Homeotic genes) Many genes are permanently
inactivated in adult cells Much like bookmarks,
transcription factors must attach to genes to activate them
Homeotic Genes
• Genes that determine which cells will develop where are called homeotic genes• All animals have the same set
of homeotic genes• Mutations in homeotic genes
result in different body plans
• These genes control other genes by signaling cells to activate or block genes
Homeotic Genes in Animals• The development of
homeotic genes was a revolution in genetics
• In chapter 15 we will cover animal evolution, these genes will be discussed again!• Just like ribosomes are
part of the core operating system of life, homeotic genes are part of the core operating system of animals
That’s all for today!
• Next week: more genetics!