General Psychology

General PsychologyPSY201Instructor: Ms. T. Gumbs

Introduction to PSY 201My websites:

◦Blog: http://msgumbspsy201.wordpress.com/

◦Twitter: https://twitter.com/MsGumbsatMiles

PSY 201 Course Textbook

Psychology: Concepts and Connections, 10th edition by Spencer Rathus

Determinism v. Free WillDo you believe in determinism, (i.e.,

your is life determined by outside forces?) or

Do you believe in free will?

What can science hope to reveal if the world is not determined?

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

Pseudopsychologies

Pseudopsychologies are unreliable approaches that do not use the scientific method

Examples of pseudopsychologies include:◦ Phrenology: attempt to assess personality by

examining one’s head◦ Astrology: system that tries to relate personality

to the movement of the stars◦ Palmistry: idea that reading a person’s character

from the lines on their palms

The Study of Psychology

• Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

• Psychology employs scientific research• Psychology values empirical evidence• Psychology employs critical thinking

4 Goals of Psychology

1. Description identifies and classifies behaviors and mental processes using careful observations

2. Explanation proposing reasons for behaviors and mental processes

3. Prediction allows for specification of the conditions under which a behavior will occur or not

4. Control (Influence) uses the results of research to solve practical problems

Where did Psychology Come From?

Ancient Greek philosophers◦Aristostle-wrote Peri Psyches

“About the Psyche” Human behavior subject to rules

& laws like nature

◦Democritus-suggested thinking of behavior in terms of mind & body

◦Socrates-advised to “Know thyself” Reliable self-knowledge not attained

through the senses but through introspection (i.e., careful observation)

Historical Schools of Psychological Thought

StructuralistFunctionalistPsychodynamic (a.k.a. Psychoanalytic)BehavioristHumanist

Wilhelm Wundt (standing, with gray beard) and colleagues 1880

Structuralism (late 19th century)

Wilhelm Wundt“father of psychology”◦Disgusted w/phrenology ◦set up 1st psychology lab to study

consciousness in Leipzig, Germany (1879)◦observed various stimuli, physical energies

that evokes a response people & animals (eg. lights & sound)

◦used introspection, “looking inward” to examine his reaction to stimuli

◦called his approach experimental self-observation, which combined trained introspection with objective measurement

Structuralism (late 19th century)

Edward B. Titchener-carried Wundt’s ideas to the US (1890s), where it was called…

Structuralism-concerned with analyzing sensations and personal experience into basic elements◦ Focus: studying the structure of the

mindProblems:

◦ structuralists hardly agreed◦ Cannot prove/disprove introspection

Functionalism(early 20th century)

Functionalism-concerned with how humans and animals use mental processes in adapting to their environment◦ Focus: the function of the mind

Charles Darwin-evolutionary theory◦Contributions:

Increased animal use in psychological experiments

William James-”stream of consciousness” ◦Contributions:

Study of children, animals, and mentallyimpaired

Study of educational practices, individual practices and workplace adaptation

Early Pioneers of Psychology Structuralists focused on

sensations and perceptual experiences“structure of the mind”

Functionalists investigated functions of mental processes in adapting to the environment “function of the mind”

Behaviorism(most influential until 1960s & influential today)

challenged functionalism No need to study mental processes emphasized the study of overt behavior

objective and measurable behaviors

◦John B Watson-explained behavior as learned reactions to certain stimuli as a result of conditioning (discovered by Pavlov-1880s)

◦B.F. Skinner-explained that behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences

Contribution: ◦ Helped separate psychology from philosophy◦ Respected as a science

Psychodynamic/PsychoanalyticSigmund Freud-Austrian doctor

◦believed our behavior is influenced by unconscious thoughts, impulses, and desires (dark view of humans)

◦Contribution: Psychoanalysis-a “talking therapy”

where the psychologist explores the thoughts of patients (early1900s)

Importance of childhood experiences

Humanism (late 1930s & influential today)

Humanism- a positive view of humans◦ Stresses free will & inner-self (unlike

behaviorism) and private subjective experience

◦ Less concerned about the scientific aspect, more concerned with human potential

◦ Psychological needs for love, belonging, self-esteem, & spirituality

◦ Abraham Maslow developed the concept of self-actualization, reaching one’s full potential

“Psych humor”

“Psych humor”

Ancient Greek Phiolosphers

Aristostle- (384-322 B.C.E.)◦wrote Peri Psyches

“About the Psyche”◦Human behavior subject to rules

& laws like nature

Democritus- (400 B.C.E.) suggested thinking of behavior in terms of mind & body

Socrates-advised to “Know thyself” Reliable self-knowledge not attained through the

senses but through introspection (i.e., careful observation)

Who’s Who of Psychology

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) p. 10◦ What is he known as? ◦ Which school of thought does he belong to?

Charles Darwin (1809-1882)◦ What theory is he known for? ◦ How does his theory relate to behavior?◦ Which school of thought?

William James (1842-1910) p. 11◦ Author of first modern psychology textbook

Principles of Psychology◦ Which school of thought?

Late 19th century

Who’s Who of Psychology

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) p. 10◦ Which school of thought does he belong to?◦ What therapy technique is he known for?

Mary Calkins (1863-1930) p. 21◦ Attended Harvard University as a “guest

student”◦ Completed all her requirements for Ph.D. at

Harvard University, but was denied her degree◦ Pioneer in memory research

John B. Watson (1878-1958) p. 12◦ Which school of thought?◦ Theory: behavior is a set of learned reactions

to the environment (classical conditioning)

Early 20th century

Who’s Who of Psychology

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) ◦ Which school of thought?◦ Theory: behavior is shaped and maintained

by its consequences (operant conditioning)

Frances Cecil Sumner (1895-1954)◦ Father of Black Psychology◦ (1920) first African American to

receive a Ph.D. degree in psychology

Abraham Maslow (1908-1990) ◦ Which school of thought?◦ Theory: self actualization

Early-Mid 20th century

Black PsychologyFrances Cecil Sumner

◦Father of Black Psychology◦1920-first African American to

receive a Ph.D. degree in psychology◦Studied “race psychology” at Clarke University◦Chair of Psychology department at Howard

University

Dr. Kenneth Clark & Mamie Clark p.22◦ Doll Test

Introduction to Psychology Review

1. Psychology is defined as the study of _____.

2. The 4 goals of psychology is to describe, _____, _____, & _____ behavior.

3. What is the difference between behaviorism & humanism?

4. What is the difference between psychodynamic & humanism?

5. Name the following individuals pictured & identify the school of thought and major contributions.

◦ Mary Calkins Wilson◦ Dr. Kenneth & Mamie Clark◦ Sigmund Freud◦ William James◦ Abraham Maslow◦ B.F. Skinner◦ Frances Cecil Sumner◦ John B. Watson◦ Wilhelm Wundt

Other Modern Perspectives

• Cognitive psychology focuses on mental function and reasoning(1950s-today)• Gestalt psychology

emphasized perception; the notion that the whole is more than the sum of the parts

• Biopsychology views behavior as reflecting brain processes (1800s & major impact today)

• Evolutionary psychology asserts that certain behavioral characteristics are subject to natural selection(late 1800s-today)

• Sociocultural psychology examines the influence of culture and ethnic practice on people’s behavior(1930s-today; ethics crisis in 1970s)

Areas of Psychology• Clinical

Psychologists

• Counseling Psychologists

• Educational Psychologists

• School Psychologists

• Industrial/ Organizational

Psychologists

• Developmental Psychologists

• Social psychologists

• Health Psychologists

Consumer Psychologists

• Forensic Psychologists

• Sport Psychologists

Cultural Differences in Psychology

Black Folks Don’t….Go to TherapyAs a multicultural psychologist, you will research the

above theory and in your group, you will brainstorm...

1) How would you find out why African Americans are less likely than other racial groups to seek therapy.Next, you will use the

scientific method to solve the following problem:

2) How would you come up with techniques to increase African Americans’ participation in therapy programs?

Areas of Psychology• Clinical

Psychologists

• Counseling Psychologists

• Educational Psychologists

• School Psychologists

• Industrial/ Organizational

Psychologists

• Developmental Psychologists

• Social psychologists

• Health Psychologists

Consumer Psychologists

• Forensic Psychologists

• Sport Psychologists

Psychology Degrees By Area

Psychological Research

Two forms of psychological research:◦Pure (Basic) research seeks answers

for theoretical questions E.g. How is hunger controlled by the brain?

◦Applied research seeks answers for specific application problems E.g. Organizational psychology studies

leadership, job satisfaction, job training, and development

Overview of the Scientific Method

Descriptive Research

Naturalistic observation refers to the systematic recording of behavior in a natural state or habitat◦ Jane Goodall observing apes in the wild

Surveys are instruments designed to sample attitudes or behaviors ◦ Asking persons at a rally how they feel about

animal rights issuesA case study is an in-depth study of a

single person◦ Freud used the case study method to probe

anxiety

Research Methods-Naturalistic

Naturalistic Observation-observing in natural environment◦ Animal studies◦ Child studies

◦ Limitations: Observer effect-change in bx because

someone’s watching Anthromorphic error-attributing human

thoughts to animals

Correlational ResearchFinding the degree (strength) of

relationship between 2 traits, behaviors, or events◦Not interested in finding the cause,

just making predictions◦No causation established

Relationships measured by coefficient of correlation +1.00 –1.00

Correlational ResearchThe correlation technique indicates

the degree of association between 2 variables

Correlations vary in direction:◦ Positive association: increases in the value of variable 1 are associated with increases in the value of variable 2◦ Negative association: increases in the value of variable 1 are associated with decreases in the value of variable 2◦ No relation: values of variable 1 are not related to variable 2 values

Correlational Study examples

Consider each of the following paired variables. Make an estimate of whether the correlation between them would be generally positive, negative, or zero.

Correlational Study examples

1. IQ scores and school grades?

2. Reading ability and popularity?

3. IQ and shoe size?4. Height and weight

of a person?5. Team wins and the

number of penalties against a team?

6. Income and health?7. Years spent in

University and income?

8. Athletic ability and IQ?

9. Cell phone use and vehicle accidents?

10. Length of hair and IQ?

Correlational Study examples

1. IQ scores and school grades? +

2. Reading ability and popularity? -

3. IQ and shoe size? 04. Height and weight of

a person? 05. Team wins and the

number of penalties against a team? -

6. Income and health? +7. Years spent in

University and income? +

8. Athletic ability and IQ? 0 or -

9. Cell phone use and vehicle accidents? +

10. Length of hair and IQ? 0

Correlation review1) Which of the following has a stronger

correlation?◦Cognitive functioning & hours of sleep: r= +0.6◦ Internet usage & hours spent with family: r= -0.8

2) What is the problem with the following article?◦ Ice cream consumption is dangerous! Studies

show that there is a strong positive correlation between ice cream consumption and drownings, ice cream consumption and boating accidents, and ice cream consumption and shark attacks.

“Psych humor”

The Heisman CurseThe Heisman Curse article

Correlation Difficulties

The Experiment

An experiment involves a set of controlled conditions that aims to confirm a hypothesis, a prediction about a cause and effect relationship bet/2 variables◦Unlike correlations, experiments establish cause & effect relationshipsHow does X affect Y?

Experimental Method

Experimental Group◦ Exposed to X

(independent variable or IV) or multiple variations of a variable

Control group (Comparison group/point of reference)◦ Exposed to all the same

conditions except X (independent variable or IV)

How does X (indep. var) affect Y (dep. var)?

1) Form hypothesis2) Define variables3) Randomly assign groups

4) Measure effects of IV on DV5) Determine statistical significance- Did the IV

really make a difference? Results would have to be unlikely to occur by chance alone

Experimental VariablesHypothesis: “Listening to music increases productivity in the workplace.”To test a hypothesis, defines the variables of

the hypothesis:◦ Cause: Independent variable (IV)

Music: Participants working at an automotive company listen to jazz music while performing their tasks. Sometimes more than one IV- jazz, classical, rock, &

country

◦ Effect: Dependent variable (DV) Work productivity: Time to complete tasks such as tire

rotations and oil changesA) What is another way to test the effect of music in

the workplace? B) How do we measure the effects

Limitations of Experiments

• Placebo effects represent changes in behavior that are related to expectations of a treatment–Placebo effects are controlled by a blind

control group (the subject does not know whether the treatment was given or not)

Limitations of Experiments• Experimenter bias refers to expectations that influence subject behavior –can be controlled using double blind

procedures (experimenters and subjects are ignorant of treatment conditions)

• Selection bias occurs when participants are assigned to experimental or control groups in a way that systematic differences exist at the beginning of an experiment

Blind and Double-Blind Experiments◦Placebo or “sugar pill”

◦Blind: Control for the expectations of effects by creating

conditions where the subjects are unaware of the treatment.

◦Double-blind: Neither the subjects nor the experimenters know

who has obtained the treatment.

Experiments

Statistical Techniques

Statistics: science concerned with obtaining and organizing numerical information or measurements◦Descriptive Statistics:

provides information about distributions of scores

◦Inferential Statistics: determines whether we can

generalize (infer) differences among samples to the general population Uses statistical significance

Statistical TechniquesDescriptive Statistics

◦provides information about distributions of scores.

◦Relies on central tendencies or averages of scores in a frequency distributions. Mean: adding scores and dividing total by # of

scores Median: the score which lies in the middle of a

distribution Mode: most frequently occurring score

Ethical Issues in ResearchRespecting the rights of human research participants involves:

◦ Informed consent is an explanation of a study and the responsibilities of experimenter and participant

◦ Deception involving the subjects must be justified (benefit outweighs the harm)

◦ Confidentiality of study information must be maintained

◦ Debriefing refers to explaining the research process to the subjects at the end of the study

Animal research must be justified and must minimize discomfort to participants