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General Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of LiteratureGeneral Introduction and Review of Literature

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General Introduction and Review of Literature

Aquatic ecosystems are generally vulnerable to pollution as they receive the waste

materials and sewage/effluents from the nearby sources. Estuaries, the transitional zone

between sea and rivers are no exception (McCain et al., 1998; Lipp et al., 2001; Keser et al.,

2005 and Kessarkar et al., 2009. They are dynamic and complex ecological systems that

are the sites of unique ecological features possessing characteristic biological make up.

Being an interface between freshwater and marine environments, estuaries give abode to

several specific and valuable biota. Estuarine forms when exposed to pollutants will be

under stress consequent to changes in the physico-chemical factors of the aquatic systems.

Estuaries with freshwater inflow and tidal variations provide highly fluctuating

environmental conditions and the organisms exhibit homeostatic mechanisms to cope with

such conditions (Eliot and Quintino, 2007). Any factor that disturbs this state is found to

inflict adverse effect on organisms and hence stressors.

Indian estuaries are linked to the country’s vast network of rivers and rivulets

which are sources of nutrients. Estuaries in Indian subcontinent comprise 113 major and

minor estuaries which are linked to a combined river length of 45,000 km (Ramesh and

Purvaj, 2009). The Kerala coastal area supports nearly 30 brackish water perennial

estuaries covering an area of 2,42,600 ha (Bijukumar and Sushama, 2000).

The environmental degradation and contamination of backwater ecosystem is

generally due to anthropogenic activities which lead to the alteration in physical, chemical

and biological characteristics of water and results in the ecological imbalance.

1.1 Industrial pollution of estuaries

The past few decades have witnessed an overwhelming increase in the plight of

landscape and water quality deterioration of estuaries all over the world (Howarth et al.,

2000). Rapid industrialization and incessant anthropogenic pressures are the major driving

forces of pollution of estuaries (Kennish, 2002).

Increased population trend and development patterns around the coastal zone have

adverse impacts on estuaries. Complicated interconnections exist between the quality and

quantity of freshwater inflows and the health of estuaries. Estuarine pollution is considered

Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1Chapter 1

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as a critical ecological issue because of the high variation in several abiotic factors that

impose severe restrictions to the inhabiting organisms (Matthiessen and Law, 2002).

The Pollution of Thames estuary in London (Andrews, 1984), Forth estuary,

Eastern Scotland (McLusky and McCrory, 1989), Northern San Francisco Bay, U.S.A.

(Hager and Schemel, 1992), Humber estuary, U.K (Uncles et al., 1998) all highlight the

degradation of estuaries due to industrial and anthropogenic factors.

The influence of industrial and domestic sewage on eutrophication and bacterial

pollution in Baixada Santista estuarine system has also been reported (Braga et al., 2000).

Davis et al. (2000) highlighted the massive pollution of Rio Tinto estuary in Spain as a

result of uncontrolled mining industries. The variation of sewage inputs and related

contamination of Guanabara Bay (Rio de Janeiro) estuary in Brazil was investigated

thoroughly and noted that domestic and industrial effluents together with agricultural

runoff are the major contributing factors (Carreira et al., 2004). Scott et al. (2005)

documented the pollution status of North American estuaries. Freitas et al. (2008)

documented the anthropogenic influence of Sado estuary in Portugal.

The degradation of the upper and middle estuarine stretches of the Danshuei

ecosystem in Taipei have been investigated by Liu et al. (2003) and Wang et al. (2007).

The study of Hwang et al. (2010) also illustrated the pollution effects on zooplankton

distribution and diversity along the marine, estuarine, and riverine portions of the

Danshuei Ecosystem.

Estuaries in India are diverse distinctly, by virtue of its geographical extent, varied

terrain and climatic conditions. The situation of Indian estuaries is also in peril. Qasim and

Sengupta (1983) found out that about 5 million tonnes of fertilizers, 55,000 tonnes of

pesticides, and 1,25,000 tonnes of synthetic detergents were used in India alone.

Interestingly, about 25% of all these ultimately end up in the coast, especially in estuaries.

Some of these are biodegradable while others are persistent with catastrophic ecological

implications. Reddy et al. (2009) studied the pollution status of Pennar River Estuary,

India with drastic morphological abnormalities in benthic foraminifera.

Several investigators reported the extent of industrial pollution in various Indian

estuaries like Hoogly estuary (Dutta et al.,1954); Mandovia and Zuari estuary of Goa

(Sengupta et al., 1989); Vellar estuary (Palanichamy and Balasubramanian, 1989);

Rushikulya Estuary (Das et al., 2002); Ulhas Estuary (Ram et al., 2003); Tapi estuary


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(Krupadam et al., 2006); Ennore estuary (Padmini and Vijaya Geetha, 2007); Amba

estuary (Ram et al., 2009); Uppanar Estuary (Soundarapandian et al., 2009) and Dharma

estuary (Prasanna and Ranjan, 2010). The extent of pollution due to fertilizer output in

Devi estuary, Orissa has also been investigated (Pradhan et al., 2009).

There are a large number of perennial/ temporary estuaries, present in the Kerala

cost covering a total length is about 590 km long. Reports from estuarine pollution in the

state of Kerala are also available -Vembanadu estuary (Harikumar et al., 2009); Cochin

estuary (Remani et al., 1980; Sankaranarayanan et al., 1986; Anirudhan et al., 1987;

Balachandran et al., 2005; Kumar et al., 2010 and Anju et al., 2011); Ashtamudi estuary

by (George Thomas et al., 1995 and Geetha Bhadran et al., 1997).

The enrichment of heavy metals due to rapid industrialization and urbanization and

their effects of water quality were recorded from Vembanadu Lake (Mohan and Omana,

2007). Industries around Vembanadu release nearly 260 million liters of effluents to the

wetland ecosystem and in Cochin alone sixteen major industries, discharge nearly 0.104M

m3/d of waste containing organic load into the nearby backwaters (Balachandran et al.,

2002). Earlier reports are also available on the estuarine pollution by effluents containing

heavy metals (Ouseph, 1987).

Indu et al. (2011) documented the trace metal pollution in Meenachil River at

Kottayam, Kerala and observed that the major causes of depletion in water quality is due

to the discharge of domestic wastes, municipal wastes, effluents, terrestrial runoff from

seepage sites, agricultural sites and also due to geological weathering process. The water

quality of Adimalathura Estuary, Kerala, India has been investigated. It is found that all

the physico-chemical parameters (transparency, temperature, salinity, pH, dissolved

oxygen) and nutrients (nitrate, nitrite, phosphate and silicate) showed considerable spatial

and temporal variations (Anilakumary et al., 2007).

Anoop and Suryaprakash (2008) listed the problems faced by Ashtamudi estuary due

to pollution, over-fishing, sand mining, bank erosion and loss of mangroves. Ashraf et al.

(2008) observed heavy metal pollution in South Indian estuaries such as Vembanad,

Ashtamudi and Veli. Cochin estuary alone receives large quantities of untreated industrial

effluents and domestic effluents (CPCB, 1996).


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1.2 Industrial pollution and distribution of estuarine biota

Aquatic ecosystems are affected by several health stressors that significantly

deplete biodiversity. In the future, the loss of biodiversity and its effects are predicted to

be greater for aquatic ecosystems than for terrestrial ecosystems (Sala et al., 2000).

Estuarine systems are under developmental and pollution pressures because of

urbanization and green revolution. Some estuaries experienced heavy industrial pollution

by chemicals while others faced uncontrolled sewage inflow. The dumping of deluge of

sewage and industrial effluents into estuaries has resulted in a drastic reduction in

biodiversity, increased pollution and ecological imbalance (Rajendran et al., 2004).

Estuaries are dynamic water bodies in the coastal area which are the cradle grounds

for phytoplankton growth (Ketchum, 1967). Nitrogen (N) and Phosphorous (P) are

limiting nutrients (Neill, 2005) which support the growth of phytoplankton to establish a

suitable pelagic food web (Adams and Bates, 1999). The physical variables such as

flushing rate, salinity and turbidity also have profound influence on the distribution and

abundance of plankton communities in estuaries (Cleorn, 1987 and Ferreira et al., 2005).

The hydro ecology and phytoplankton diversity in the Coleroon estuary was studied by

Thillai et al. (2005).

Phytoplanktons are suitable indicators, as they are simple, capable of quantifying

changes in water quality, applicable over large geographic areas and can also furnish data

on background conditions and natural variability. The microalgal communities provide

immediate response to fluctuations and are suitable bio-indicators of water pollution status

which are beyond the tolerance of many other biota used for monitoring (Nwankwo and

Akinsoji, 1992).

An immediate decrease in faunal abundance was reported from Bilbao estuary,

Spain mainly due to industrial pollution and other human interferences (Saiz-Salinas,

1997). Whitfield (1999) demonstrated factors influencing the ichthyofaunal community

structure in South African estuaries due to industrial pollution. Whitfield and Elliot (2002)

reviewed the responses of estuarine fishes (both resident and migrant fish species) and

concluded that incessant anthropogenic pressure and uncontrolled industrial pollution

critically influenced distribution, diversity, breeding, abundance, growth, survival and

behaviour of fishes in estuaries.


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Arkoosh et al. (1998) observed the bioaccumulation of juvenile salmon

Oncorhynchus sp. and their prey from estuarine water with chlorinated and aromatic

hydrocarbons which lead to immunosuppression and increased disease susceptibility in

juvenile salmon. Gyedu-Ababio et al. (1999) established the influence of heavy metal

contamination in the sediments on the density and diversity of nematode communities

in the Swartkops river estuary, South Africa. The responses of estuarine meiofauna

community assemblages against fertilizer enrichment in estuarine complex of

Itamaraca Island and north coast of Pernambuco State, Brazil have been studied in

detail (Santos et al., 2009).

Abrupt fluctuations in plankton density and abundance of post-larvae were noticed

in estuaries of Madras region (Pulicate, Adyar and Ennore) as a result of chemical

discharges from the surrounding industries (Joseph et al., 1991). The relation between

phytoplankton availability and industrial pollution in Uppanar estuary was studied earlier

(Periyanayagai et al., 2007). Palleyi et al. (2011) studied the influence of water quality on

the biodiversity of phytoplankton in Dhamra River Estuary of Odisha Coast, Bay of

Bengal. Their findings indicates that the major genera observed are Coscinodiscus,

Skeletonema, Nitzschia, Navicula, Thallasiothrix, Triceratium, Biddulphia, Ceratium,

Rhizosolenia, Thallasionema, Bacillaria, Chaetocerous, Melosira, Trichodesmium,

Podosira and Pleurosigma.

The presence of seventy seven species of phytoplankton was noticed in Mahanadi

estuary, east coast of India with 63 species of Bacillariophyceaae, 8 species of

Dinophyceae and 6 from Cyanophyceae (Naik et al., 2009). They also established the

presence of pollution indicating species such as, Anabena sp., Chlorococcus sp.,

Dinophysis sp., Gymnodium sp., Mycrocystis sp., Nitzschia seriata, Oscillatoria sp.,

Prorocentrum micans, Phaeocystis sp. and Trichodesmium sp. from the estuary and throw

some light into the pollution status of the estuary by phytoplankton analysis. Perumal et al.

(2009) evaluated the seasonal variations in plankton diversity in the Kaduviyar estuary,

Nagapattinam, southeast coast of India.

The distribution of zooplankton along Southern Kerala revealed a very high

numerical abundance of siphonophores from Veli which indicates the pollution thriving

nature of that species especially at low pH and high water temperature (Robin et al.,

2009). Latha and Thanga (2010) also analyzed the macro invertebrate diversity and its

relation with pollution of Veli and Kadinamkulam estuaries, South Kerala, India. They


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reported 24 families represented by mollusca, annelida and arthropoda (crustaceans and

insects). The dominant taxon was Mytilidae (molluscan) and the diversity and distribution

patterns of some species were clearly related to water quality.

1.3 Industrial pollution and sediment quality

Sediment is a complex matrix of components and sediment quality has

considerable influence on the overall status of a water body. Sediments act as a reservoir

for contaminants and are a primary source of contaminant exposure for sediment-dwelling

organisms and animals that feed on the bottom. This exposure can produce deleterious

impacts on benthic communities and can also lead to indirect effects due to

bioaccumulation.

Traditionally, sediment quality was assessed by making comparisons between

concentrations of contaminants with sediment quality guidelines (SQGs). Based on such a

comparison, the potential risks, or hazardous sediment-bound contaminants can be

estimated (Den Besten et al., 2003).

Sediments are natural buffers and form an important habitat as well as a main

nutrient source for aquatic life which have an impact on ecological quality and well being

(Stronkhorst et al., 2004). It is well established that sediments are integral part of

biogeochemical cycle of most contaminants, acting as source, sink and transformation

centre (Moreira et al., 2006). Estimation of anthropogenic impact on sedimentary

composition is pivotal for environmental monitoring studies, as sediments are sensitive

and reliable recorders of both natural and anthropogenic interferences (Szefer, 2002).

Sediment monitoring are thus considered as vital to evaluate the extent of contamination

and pollution histories within estuarine, coastal and shelf regions globally (Zwolsman et

al., 1996; Nolting et al., 1999 and Selvaraj et al., 2004).

Numerous contaminants introduced into aquatic ecosystems via industrial and

domestic sewage discharge, surface run-off and atmospheric fallout are adsorbed,

transported and suspended in sediments. After complex cycles of deposition, resuspension,

transport, and biological and chemical interactions, these contaminants associated with

particles settled in bottom sediments, which become the ultimate pollutant sink with

catastrophic outputs (Luoma and Ho 1993 and Mecray et al., 2001). Sediment

contamination is considered as one of the worst environmental problems for estuarine and

marine ecosystems. Sediments act as sinks and also as sources of contaminants in aquatic


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systems, as heavy inputs of effluents are taking place regularly (Mucha et al., 2003 and

Ajay et al., 2008).

Loizeau et al. (2004) studied the sediment quality and its relation with effluents

from sewage treatment plant at Bay of Vidy, Lake Geneva, Switzerland. It was concluded

that the quantity of heavy metals deposited in the bay was considerable which created

sediment instability and consequently constituted a potential hazard for biota.

The relation between watershed stressors and sediment contamination in

Chesapeake Bay estuaries was well evaluated (Comeleo et al., 1996). Liu et al. (2003)

concluded that sewage discharges from Shanghai, in China provides large quantities of

nitrogen and phosphorus to the estuary and the estuary was under the risk of

eutrophication and red tide. Riba et al. (2002) studied the influence of the Aznalcóllar

mining spill on the vertical distribution of heavy metals in sediments from the

Guadalquivir estuary, SouthWest Spain.

Franc et al. (2005) assessed the sediment quality and its relation with pollution

loads in various sites in Tagus estuary, Portugal. Binning and Baird (2001) reported heavy

metal pollution in sediments due to industrial pollution of Swartkops river estuary, South

Africa with an elevation of concentrations of chromium, lead, zinc, titanium, manganese,

strontium, copper and tin. Leton and Akpila (2008) reported the deteriorating sediment

quality of Woji River, as a result of industrial effluents. Olomukoro and Azubuike (2009)

assessed the extent of heavy metal in sediment samples in Ekpan Creek, Warri, Nigeria

and suggested the influx of industrial effluents.

The study by Kehrig et al. (2003) suggested that metal concentrations in sediment

samples from Jequia mangrove and estuary in Brazil, was very high which indicated a

significant anthropogenic input of zinc, lead, chromium, copper and methyl mercury.

Sujatha et al. (2009) studied the sediment quality of Ashtamudi and Vembanadu

lakes and concluded that Vembanadu is more deteriorated than Ashtamudi and is due to

urbanization, demographic explosion, industrial discharges and enormous use of

agrochemicals.

1.4 Impact of industrial wastewater on fishes

Chemicals in industrial effluents are toxic to animals and even cause death or

sublethal pathology of various internal organs like the liver, kidney, reproductive,


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respiratory and nervous systems. Fishes are very sensitive to toxicants in water and it can

be easily established. Fish is considered as highest in trophic level in aquatic ecosystem.

They are excellent bioindicators of pollution as it is easy to collect, enough potential to

accumulate toxins, increased lifespan and optimum size for studies (Batvari et al., 2007).

The bioaccumulation of toxins and metals in fishes are directly proportional to ecological

requirements, metabolic activity, salinity, level of pollution in food, water and sediment

(Fidan et al., 2007).

The deluge of chemicals entering the aquatic ecosystem through human activities,

cause adverse effects on the aquatic life, including deleterious changes which alter or

destruct metabolic activity and rate (Hirth, 1964). When any aquatic animal is exposed to

a polluted environment, a sudden and immediate stress is developed by the animal which

meets more energy demand to overcome the toxic stress from surroundings (Sreenivasan

et al., 2011).

Ahmad and Shuhaimi-Othman (2010) established the presence of Cu, Zn, Pb and

Cd in fishes (Puntius schwanenfeldii, P. bulu, Ompok bimaculatus, Cylocheinichtys

apogon, Osteochilus hasseltii, O. melanopleura, Notopterus notopterus, Chana

micropeltes, Labiobarbus festiva, Hampala macrolepidota, Chela oxygastroides,Mystus

nigriceps, Thynnichthys thynnoides, Barbichthys laevis and Helostoma temmincki)

inhabiting lake Chini, Malaysia.

The effect of electroplating industrial effluent with chromium on energy

metabolism of air breathing cat fish Mystus cavasius was studied in detail (Palanisamy et

al., 2011). Almeida et al. (2001) studied the metabolic responses of Nile tilapia,

Oreochromis niloticus after exposure to environmental cadmium. Pathan et al. (2009)

noted extreme behavioral changes and toxicity in freshwater fish Rasbora daniconius

exposed to paper mill effluent from Kaiogaon paper mill, Aurangabad.

Bainy et al. (1996) studied oxidative stress in gill, erythrocytes, liver and kidney of

Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) collected from a polluted water body and these

changes are detrimental to normal functioning. Severe biochemical and morphological

changes in gills of Tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) after experimental cadmium

exposure was studied earlier (Wong and Wong, 2000). According to SEM analysis they

concluded that an augmentation of micro bridges in pavement cells and an increase in the

apical membrane of chloride cells was observed after cadmium exposure which leads to


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hypocalcemia. Sun and Tsai (2009) reported intersex Tilapia (Oreochromis sp.) due to

endocrine disruption as a result of exposure to toxic chemicals in Era-Jiin River of

southern Taiwan.

Ghazaly (1992a) monitored the effect of nickel on carbohydrate metabolism, blood

and mineral contents of Tilapia nilotica. Ghazaly (1992b) also reported severe

haematological and physiological fluctuations to sub lethal concentrations of cadmium in

Tilapia zilli. The accumulation of heavy metals from effluents among fishes, especially

Tilapia mossambiccus inhabiting Ureje Dam in south-western Nigeria was also reported

(Adefemi et al., 2008).

Ravanaiah and Murthy (2010) observed severe pathologic changes in Tilapia

mossambicca collected from Pennar estuarine water of Nellore district, in Tamil Nadu.

The histopathological changes recorded in the gill epithelium appear to be a primary

response to the toxic influence of the industrial pollutants in the region. Navaraj (2003)

observed the toxic effect of electroplating industry effluent on respiratory rate and oxygen

consumption of Oreochromis mossambicus. Ambedkar and Muniyan (2011) observed the

accumulation of Chromium, Cadmium, Copper, Lead and Zinc in Tilapia mossambica

collected from Vellar River, Tamil Nadu, India.

1.5 Bacteria in sediments

Sediments form a large global reservoir of organic carbon which contributes to

global biogeochemical processes and through the way they influence carbon degradation

and preservation (Berner and Lasaga, 1989). Sediments are large repositories of bacterial

populations, being found in sediments as deep as 800 meters below the seafloor and as old

as 15 million years (Parkes et al., 2000 and Wellsburry et al., 2002). Sediment inhabiting

bacteria are of great ecological and economic importance as they are responsible for

decomposition, mineralization and recycling of organic matter.

Guo et al. (2005) isolated PAH-degrading bacteria from mangrove sediments in

China. Inniss and Mayfield (1979) studied the seasonal variation of psychrotrophic

bacteria in sediment from Lake Ontario. Piza et al. (2004) investigated the actinobacterial

communities present in two tropical estuarine sediments in Brazil. Mucha et al. (2004)

monitored the sediment quality and other characteristics of sediments in Douro river

estuary, Portugal.


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Eze and Okpokwasili (2010) isolated bacteria such as Nocardia sp., Pseudomonas

sp., Klebsiella sp., Lactobacillus sp., Flavobacterium sp., Escherichia sp., Bacillus sp.,

Micrococcus sp., Proteus sp., Citrobacter sp., Staphylococcus sp. and fungi like Rhizopus

sp., Aspergillus sp., Fusarium sp., Mucor sp. and Candida sp. from industrially polluted

sediments collected from Okpoka-Woji river estuary, Nigeria.

Boyle et al. (1999) isolated several strains of Desulfovibrio from estuarine

sediments. Li et al. (1999) investigated the microbial diversity in sediments from Nankai.

Wuertz et al. (1991) enumerated the presence of tributyltin-resistant Bacillus sp. from

estuarine and freshwater sediments. The presence of Hydrogen-oxidizing, Fe (III)-

reducing bacteria from the Great Bay Estuary, New Hampshire was also documented

(Caccavo et al., 1992). Tal et al. (2005) established the presence of anaerobic ammonia-

oxidizing bacteria in Baltimore Inner Harbor sediment samples.

Anon (1997) reported a higher bacterial population density in sediments than water

due to the rich organic content in sediments and lesser residence time of the

microorganisms in the water column than the sediments from Nagapattanam. Karthikeyan

et al. (2007) noted the fluctuations in heavy metal resistant bacteria inhabiting Uppanar

estuary. Mahalakshmi et al. (2011) monitored the presence of total heterotrophic bacteria

and human pathogens among sediment and water samples in Cuddalore fishing harbor,

Tamil Nadu.

1.6 Bioremediation of heavy metals using bacterial isolates

Heavy metals are natural constituents of the earth crust which are persistent

environmental contaminants as they are non-biodegradable. Heavy metals enter the body

through food, air, and water and bio-accumulate over a certain period of time (Lenntech,

2004). They are normal constituents of the aquatic environment (Nieboer and Richardson,

1980), which even at low levels are able to elicit profound biological effects (Duruibe et al.,

2007). Majority of heavy metals are toxic, but Hg, Cu, Cd and Pb are considered as more

toxic than others (Bryan, 1979). The presence of heavy metals in aquatic realm was

deleterious to all aquatic life forms.

Pollution due to heavy metals is very prominent in regions with mining and old

mine sites (Peplow, 1999). Heavy metals are leached out through slopes and finally

reaches water bodies which are emphatically polluted (INECAR, 2000). Heavy metals,

after ingestion, are converted to their stable oxidation states (Zn2+, Pb2+, Cd2+, As2+, As3+,


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Hg2+ and Ag+) and combine mainly with proteins and enzymes to form strong and stable

chemical bonds and are toxic (Ogwuegbu and Ijioma, 2003). Heavy metals enter into

aquatic environment from various anthropogenic sources, such as industrial wastewater

discharges, sewage overflow, fossil fuel combustion and atmospheric deposition (Linnik

and Zubenko, 2000 and Idrees, 2009).

Heavy metal contamination in the environment is uncountable due to the increase

in the addition of these metals to the environment either from natural sources or from

anthropogenic sources and has become a threat to public health (Roane and Pepper, 1999).

The concentration of metal contaminants in a habitat can be divided into three:- (a)

contamination indices which compare the contaminants with the clean or polluted stations

measured elsewhere; (b) background enrichments indices which compare the results for

the contaminants with the baseline or background levels and (c) ecological risk indices

that compare the results for the contaminants with Sediment Quality Guidelines (SQG)

(Caeiro et al., 2005).

Several techniques are used to remove heavy metals such as chemical

precipitation, chemical oxidation or reduction, electrochemical treatment, evaporative

recovery, filtration, ion exchange, and membrane technologies (Hussein et al., 2004).

Biological methods provide an attractive replacement to physico-chemical methods

(Kapoor and Viraraghavan, 1995). Recent investigations with microorganisms, especially

bacteria and fungi were promising to mitigate heavy metal pollution. Microorganisms

uptake heavy metals either actively (bioaccumulation) and/or passively (biosorption)

(Hussein et al., 2001 and Hussein et al., 2003).

It is well established that biosorptive process are more applicable than the

bioaccumulative processes as living systems often require the addition of nutrients and

subsequent increase in biological oxygen demand (BOD) or chemical oxygen demand

(COD). Moreover, the maintenance of viable microbial population is very difficult due to

heavy metal toxicity and other inhibitory environmental factors. In addition, potential for

desorptive metal recovery is restricted as metals are intracellular bound and metabolic

products may form complexes with metals to retain them in solution (Brown and Lester,

1982; Ajmal et al., 1996 and Dilek et al., 1998).

The process by which microorganisms are stimulated for rapid degradation of

hazardous organic contaminants to environmentally safe levels is termed as microbial


12

bioremediation (Umrania, 2006). The chemical transformations in bioremediation involve

cleavage of complex molecules into several molecules in simpler form. In some instances,

the byproducts of microbial bioremediation are harmless and in some cases it was proved

to be beneficial and favourable (Gupta et al., 2003).

Biosorption, bioleaching, biomineralization, intracellular accumulation and enzyme-

catalyzed transformation are the principal mechanisms adopted by microorganisms in

bioremediation of heavy metals (Lloyd, 2002). Bacteria, fungi, yeasts and algae are proved

to be metal biosorbents which can decrease heavy metal ion concentration in polluted

habitats (Das et al., 2008).

The past few decades had documented a steady hike in studies regarding the

interactions of microorganisms with heavy metals. The newer biotechnological processes

such as bioremediation and biobeneficiation through microbial metal re-absorption are

cost effective and eco-friendly and got wide acceptance.

Martin-Gonzalez et al. (2006) evaluated the ability of ciliated protozoa to

bioaccumulate heavy metals in wastewater treatment ponds. The potential of Vibrio

alginolyticus in bioaccumulation of heavy metals was well studied (El-Hendawy et al.,

2009). Ruiz et al. (2011) reported mercury bioremediation by transgenic bacteria

expressing metallothionein and polyphosphate kinase.

Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, was industrially exploited for treating heavy metal

contaminated soils, and bio-leaching of metal sulfide and uraninite ores (Straube et al.,

2003). Pseudomonas aeruginosa is very effective for reclamation of soil contaminated

with metals (Mathiyazhagan et al., 2011). Carrasco et al. (2005) and Monica et al. (2008)

established the association between plant community and abundance and composition of

microorganisms in quick and successful bioremediation and subsequent soil restoration.

Mathiyazhagan and Natarajan (2011) reported bioremediation of effluents from

Magnesite and Bauxite mines by applying Thiobacillus sp. and Pseudomonas sp. The

capability of Rhodobacter sphaeroides in bioremediation of cadmium contaminated

environments was also investigated (Bai et al., 2008).

Panwichian et al. (2010) isolated purple nonsulfur bacteria from contaminated

shrimp ponds which have capacity to detoxify heavy metals and sodium. Bacteria of

genera Bacillus, Enterobacter, Escherichia, Pseudomonas and also some yeasts and fungi

play crucial role in bioremediation of chromium-contaminated soil and water by bio-


13

absorption and bioaccumulation processes (Ray and Ray, 2009). The chromium reduction

potential of Bacillus sp., E. coli ATCC 33456, Shewanella alga BrY-MT is already

established (Guha et al., 2001 and Camargo et al., 2003).

Parungao et al. (2007) reported the biosorption of Cu, Cd and Pb by

Stenotrophomonas maltophilia under controlled conditions. Congeevarama et al. (2007)

proved the potential of Micrococcus sp. in removal of chromium and nickel from

industrial wastewater. In short, there is an urgent need to screen indigenous

microorganisms which provide new insights into bacterial diversity under unfavourable

conditions, with new genetic information on heavy metal resistance, which could be

exploited in mitigation of contaminated sites.

Molecular techniques have become the cornerstone in studies of microbial ecology,

in the past few decades. It is well evident that classical enrichment techniques often

underestimate the bacterial diversity within natural environments and only a minority of

bacterial species have been isolated and cultured in the laboratory (Pace, 1997). The

phylogenetic analyses of 16S rRNA gene sequences of various microbes were studied

(Strous, 2000; Jiang et al., 2006; Gontang et al., 2007 and Quian et al., 2010).

1.7 Objectives of the study

The present study was conducted in the Vattakayal estuary, which is near the

industrial area of Chavara, Kollam District and was earlier an important backwater for

fishing and shell fisheries. The estuary and neighbouring areas are now polluted due to the

industrial discharge for more than two decades. The Vattakayal backwaters were

supporting the livelihood of the local people before the arrival of the industry, but now the

estuary has been deteriorated because of the pollution load affecting the flora, fauna and

productivity. Only limited studies have been carried out so far on the pollution status of

Vattakayal backwaters. Hence the present study was taken up with the following

objectives

1. To assess the seasonal variation of water quality with special reference to the

parameters like temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, turbidity, TDS, total

alkalinity, total hardness, chloride, salinity, DO, BOD, COD, sulphate, nitrate-N,

total phosphorous and heavy metals - Zn, Cu, Cd, Pb, Cr, Fe.


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2. To assess the sediment characteristics (pH, electrical conductivity, organic carbon,

zinc, copper, cadmium, lead, chromium and iron) during different seasons in the

Vattakayal lake system.

3. To evaluate the stress effect of polluted wastewater from the factory on the fish

Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters).

4. To study the potentials of selected bacterial isolates from the sediment of

Vattakayal estuary for the bioaccumulation of selected heavy metals.


15

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