Genel Kimya - Afyonkarahisar Üniversitesi Mühendislik Kimyası Ders Notları

8/10/2019 Genel Kimya - Afyonkarahisar niversitesi Mhendislik Kimyas Ders Notlar

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2/49

Hmjfltnzhm [ npn Ltdnfgnd Mtahnd Hmjfltnd K mvrmf rfld

Knmhmjfltnzhm DdFljmtno

hmjfltndhahlftl

smenp klngknr

Pmrmhljfltnzhm DdPazntno

jlgnnjzlghmjfltndhahlftlsmenptnr

Olrrahmjfltnzhm

Iyd Pazntno

\yj. mgmffoafdsnyafu

Hndraympymimg

pmrmglg srmghmjfltndhahlftlsmenptnr

Mftnolrrahmjfltnzhm DdPazntno

dmrd pmrmglgvl mftnpmrmglg

hmjfltndhahlftlsmenptnr

Olrrnhmjfltnzhm

Iyd

Pazntno

Hndraympymimg

mftnpmrmglghmjfltndhahlftlsmenptnr

notglhlhn lgldtrafgmrm smenp hmkklglrnf jstlrknnhmjfltnd mgmfm karu ldnghl zlggnnfl pmrmhmjfltnzhm

klfnr.Iufuf zkk zlggnd knmhmjfltnzhmkr. ^mfn itflgldtrafgmr notglhn hmkklglrnf jstlrknn hmjfltnd mgmftmrmofkmf ntnghlsn zlggnnfl knmhmjfltnzhm klfnr.Pmrmhmjfltnzhm smklcl kmrkmf inr hmjfltnd mgmfuyjugmfk zmhmf jrglf inr zlggndtnr.

Inrkl Daimgt, Fndlg, Klhnr jnin hltmgglrnf kmrkmf inrhmjfltnd mgmf uyjugmfhmk emgkl dlfkngnnfklf hmjfltndzlggnd jstlrhlsn zlggnn vmrkr dn, iufm kmolrrahmjfltnzhm klfnr.

^rk. Ka. Kr. Mtnggm Lvcnf Moyafdmrmensmr Dacmtlpl fnvlrsntlsn Helfknsgnd Dnhyms Klrs Fatgmr 900?


3/49

rfld

f mz inr notglhlhn lgldtrafm smenp

Mtahgmr, hagldgglr

ymkm nyafgmr, pmrmhmjfltndtnr.

Mzat mtahu, PMYMHMJFL[D[Y

=s 9s 9p

F =s99s99p3



4/49

Saru 11

Mmkmdnglrklf emfjnsn pmrmhmjfltndtnr1

Fm (==)

Cm (90)

D+ (=>)

A9- (5)

rfld 2 Pmrmhmjfltnzhm

Plrnyaknd [miga

Plrnyaknd tmiga flklfflhgnknr 1

Plrnyaknd tmiga inrdnhymc nnf ad omykmgmrmtr.

Elr tlst vlmrmtrhmkm duggmfgr.

Lglhlftglr emdd

fkminr ad ingjnyn nnfklimrfkrr.

gd Klflhlglr

kzlfsnzkn !!!

Lglhlftglrnfarjmfnzmsyafu yadtu.

Ingjnyn iughmd jt.

Dnhymcgmr mfgmhyarku.

Plrnyaknd [migakmdn Mnglglr

Dagafgmr mnglglr emgnfkldnjrupgmrkr.

Mnglglr inr dagafkmagminglcln jnin inrdmdagafkm km agmingnr.

Mnglglr fuhmrmkmf znymklnsnhglrl smenptnr.



5/49

Plrnyaknd [miga

g ingnhslg plrnyaknd tmiga Yus dnhymc Khntrn Hlfklgllv

tmrmo

fkmf =5?> y

g

fkm artmym dafughutur.

Hlfklgllv, ilfzlr zlggndglr tmymf lglhlftglrn mrdmmrdmym knzknnfkl, mtah dtglsnfl kmymfmf inr tmiga lgkllthntnr.

A zmhmfgmr ingnfhlylf imz lglhlftglrnf (sdmfknyuh,jmgyuh vl jlrhmfyuh (ldmsngndaf) jnin) vmrgf, emttmzlggndglrnfn tmehnf lklinghntn.

Gatemr Hlylr nsnhgn mrmtrhmc km, =55? ygfkm, Hlfklgllv'klfimhsz agmrmd, mtah dtglglrnfl jrl inr plrnyaknd tmiga aguturhuvl "vmgmfs" dmvrmhf artmym mtht.

Lglhlftglrnf Snhjlglrn

ad mz smykm lglhlftnf ingnfknn zmhmfgmrkm, lglhlftglr, Pgmta'fuf

Lsdn ^ufmfggmrf duggmfk taprmd-emvm-su vl mtl slhiagglrnfklf

ympt uymrgmhmgmrgm snhjlglfnyarku. Kmem safrm ylfn lglhlftglr

dlolkngkndl, th lglhlftglrnf lfnfkl safufkm "mgtf"m kflcln

kfclsnfklf yagm dmf snhymcgmr tmrmofkmf, jfl (mgtf) hlrdlzgn

snstlhkldn elr jlzljlfnf mk, inr lglhlftl vlrngkn. A kflhkl ingnflf

lglhlftglrnf imzgmrff "snhym" slhiagglrn ygl2

Mtah durmhygm tmfkhz Baef Kmgtaf, lglhlftglrnfsnhjlglfhlsn dafusufkm, lhilrglrklf agumfslhiagglrnf duggmfghmsf flrkn. Iu yftlhl jrl, imzlglhlftglrnf snhjlglrn yglykn2

Lf safufkm, =5=3 ygfkm, Baf Bmdai Ilrzlgnus nsnhgn

mrmtrhmc, lglhlftglrnf mkgmr tlhlg mgfmrmdsnhjlglfhlsn ondrnfn artmym mtt. Eg duggmfghmdtm agmf iuyftlhl jrl2

=. Elr lglhlft, = ym km 9 emrotlf agumf inr snhjlygl nomkllkngnyar vl iu snhjlfnf ngd emron elr zmhmf iyd ymzgyar.

9. Snhjlglrkl sdgdgm, lglhlftnf fjngnzcl mkff ngd emronduggmfgyar.rflnf2 E (Enkrablf2 Eykrajlf), C (Dmriaf2 Cmriaf),

F (Mzat2 Fntrajlf)



6/49

3. Llr lglhlftnf im emronygl snhjlglflf imdm inrlglhlft vmrsm, iu lglhlftnf snhjlsnfkl im emronf ymffm,fjngnzcl mkff ndnfcn emron kl ldglfnyar.rflnf2 El (Elgyuh, Elgnuh), Cm (Dmgsnyuh2 Cmgcnuh),

Fl (Flaf2 Flaf)

;. Llr lglhlftnf fjngnzcl mkff ngd 9 emron, inr knlrlglhlftgl myfysm, snhjlsnfkl im emronf ymffm, iu dlzim emrotlf safrmdn ngd artmd aghmymf slssnz emro jltnrngnyar.rflnf2 Cg (Dgar2 Cegarnfl) vl Cr (Drah2 Cerahnuh)

?) Pnlrrl mfk Hmrnl Curnllnfstlnfnuh (Ls, >>) Mgilrt Lnfstlnfolrhnuh (Oh, =00) Lfrnca Olrhnjmggnuh (Jm, 3=) Jmggnm)emefnuh (=0) Gnsl Hlntflrhlfklglvnuh (Hk, =0=) Khntrn Hlfklgllvfailgnuh (Fa, =09) Mgorlk Failgralftjlfnuh (Yj, ===) Zngelgh Yalftjlf

(\fufuhnuh)rutelroarknuh (Yo, =0;) Lrflst Yutelroarkslmiarjnuh (Sj, =0?) Jglff [.

Plrnyaknd [migaMgdmgn Hltmgglr[aprmd Mgdmgn Hltmgglr

Jln Hltmgglrn

Emgablfglr

Msmg Jmzgmr

Gmftmfntglr mfk Mdtnfntglr

Mfm Jrup

Mfm Jrup



7/49


8/49

Iufuf kfkm plrnyaknd tmigakm ylr mgmf lglhlftglrnf uzlggndglrn kl vmrkr 4

Mtahnd vl nyafnd mp

yafgmhm lflrbnsn

Lgldtraf ngjnsn

Lgldtrafljmtnognd

Mtahnd vl nyafnd mp

Inrinrnfl imgmfh ndn mtahuf ldnrkldglrn mrmsfkmdnartmgmhm uzmdgf gghlsnygl mtah vlym nyaf ymrmpgmr

iugufmingnr.Inr drnstmg nnfkl dahu ndn nyafuf hlrdlzglrn mrmsfkmdnuzmdgd, U-fgmr drfh (knormdsnyafu UYK) ngl tmynflknglingnr. Drnstmgglrnf aufkm iu uzmdgd, inr dmtyafufymrmp ngl inr mfyafuf ymrmpff tapgmhfm lnttnr.

rfld

O9 hagldgglrnfkldn O-O im uzufguu =;; ph knr. Iu kllrnfymrs ogar mtahufuf ymrmp agmrmd dmiug lkngnr (=;;/98 :9ph).

dn nyat mrmsfkmdn uzmdgd ;39/98 9=? ph

Llr Gn nyafufuf hlrdlznygl inr nyatmfyafufuf hlrdlzn mrmsfkmdn uzmdgd

tmynf lkngnrsl Gn+ vl N- mrmsfkmdn uzmdgdtmf

Gn+ nyafufu ymrmp elsmpgmfmingnr.

95; ph8 Gn+

ymr

mp

+ N-

ymr

mp

95; ph 8 Gn+ ymrmp + 9=?

Gn+ ymrmp 8 ?5 ph

Dmtyafnd mp



9/49

Mfyafnd mp

Flklf 1

Mtah mp plrnyaknd tmigakm ymtmy agmrmd nglrglkndl (mtahfuhmrms mrttdm) dgr.

fd ymtmy agmrmd nglrglkndl mtahuf k dmiuufm inrlgldtraf vl ldnrkll kl inr prataf ngmvl lkngnr. Mfcmddmium ngmvl lknglf inr lgldtrafuf mtahuf emchnfnjlfnglthl jc, ldnrkll dmtgmf inr pratafuf mtahufemchnfn dgthl jcfl lnt klngknr, kmem ddtr.Pratafuf mtah emchnfn izhl jc jmgnp jlgknnfklf mtah

mp ymtmy agmrmd nglrglkndl dgr.

Flklf 1

Mtahnd mpgmr jrupgmrkm mm karu nfkndl iyr.

fd elr jruptm lgldtraf inr st dmium jnrlr vl ngmvllknglf pratafgmrf mtah mpf dgthl ltdnsn, st dmiumjnrhn iugufmf lgldtrafgmrf mp iygthl ltdnsnfnfymffkm dd dmgr.

Itf iufgmrf ymffkm lgldtraf dmyilttnn zmhmf agumfnyaf mpff kmem dd, lgldtraf dmzmfk zmhmf agumfnyaf mpff km kmem iyd agmcm mdtr.

yafgmhm Lflrbnsn

Kmnhm kmrkmf s mgmf (lfkatlrhnd) inr dnhymsmg agmykr.Inr mtahkmf inr lgldtrafu uzmdgmtrhmd nnf vlrnghlsnjlrldlf hnfnhuh lflrbnyl nyafgmhm lflrbnsn klfnr.

Inr lgldtrafu dmrhmd nnf jlrldgn lflrbn inrnfcn nyafgmhmlflrbnsn, ndnfcnyn dmrhmd nnf jlrldgn lflrbn ndnfcn nyafgmhmlflrbnsnknr.

[minndn inrnfcn nyafgmhmkmf safrm + ydg inr nyaf aguur vlmrtd iu + ydg nyafkmf inr lgldtraf dmrhmd kmem iydlflrbn jlrldtnrnr.



10/49

Hj =s9 9s9 9p? 3s9

Hj Hj+ + l- E8+:35 dB/hag

Hj+ Hj9+ + l- E8+=;


11/49


12/49

Elpsn kl, tlpdnhlglrkl ltdnfknr.

Lf ydsld tlhlg lflrbn kzlyglrnfkl inr tld lgldtraf tmrgmr.

Iu lgldtrafu ad dagmy dmyilklrld += ydg nyafgmraguturmingkndglrn nnf, duvvltgn nfknrjlfknrglr.

Ns vl lgldtrnn ad nyn ngltnrglr.

Suygm ltdnglnhglrn ad jgkr, suygm tlpdnhl safucufkmenkrablf jmz mm dmrrgmr.

Mgdmgn hltmgglr ucuzkur vl rlmdsnyaf dmrhfkmf kmhthmyaguygm smo emgkl lgkl lknglingnrglr.

Pmrgmd drhz smr har hmvnhsn drhz hmvn

Mgdmgn Hltmg Ylmdsnyafgmr

Enkrablf 9 H (d) + E9 (j) 9 HE (d)Adsnblf Gn (d) + A9 (j) GnA9 (d)

9 Fm (d) + A9 (j) Fm9A9 (d)H (d) + A9 (j) HA9 (d) H 2 D, Yi, Cs

Mzat ? Gn(d) + F9 (j) 9 Gn3F (d)Emgablf 9 H (d) + U9 (j) 9 HU (d)

Su 9 H (d) + 9 E9A (s) 9 HAE (mq) + E9 (j)

Enkrablf (E)

ecp 2 elxmjafmg cgasl pmcdlk

Enkrablf ngd agmrmd =::? ygfkm Elfry Cmvlfknsetmrmofkmf dlolknghntnr.

Enkrablf nshn nsl Mftanfl Gmvansnlr tmrmofkmf vlrnghntnr.

Enkrablf rlfdsnz vl dadusuz inr jmzkr.

^mfc zlggnl smenp agkuu nnf zlg mrtgmrkm huemomzmlkngnr.

Enkrablf au inglndglrnfkl += ,hltmgenkrr inglndglrnfkl nsl -= ydslgtjlfhl imsmhmfmsmenptnr.

zatapgmr

==E Enkrablf =

9E Ktlryuh =3E [rntyuh



13/49


14/49

Eacm - Inrnsn imfm plfclrlfnf kfkmdn iu dmkmr

ldncn lynf fl agkuufu syglylingnr hn 1

Sakyuh (Fm)

Icc 2 emcnh hlrdlzgn dind

Sakyuh

Sakyuh inglndglrn yzyggmrkmf ilrnnfsmfgmr tmrmofkmf duggmfghtr vlsakyuh, ilgdn kl, ingnflf hmkklglrnf lflsdnsnknr.

irmfnglr, sakyuh dmriafmtf hndrapdrc zlggndglrnfn iugmrmd ymrmpmfsuhmfgmrfkm, mtl krhlklduggmfh vl inglnl, irmfncn dprlf

mfgmhfm jlglf flglr mkf vlrhnglrkn.

Lczmcgd, tmrh vl oatarmogd mgmfgmrfkm cmh ymphfkmvl saorm tuzu (FmCg) lgklsnfkl

sv sakyuh, fdgllr smftrmgglrkl sautucu jrlvnfkl kfym dmiuufuf %9.?'sf aguturmf sakyuh, kfymkm lf

iag iugufmf mgtfc lglhlfttnr vl mgdmgn hltmgglr mrmsfkm kmlf iag iugufmfkr

Iufm dmrf, kamkm lglhlft emgnfkl rmstgmfhmz vl durusakyuh dgarnknf (FmCg) lgldtragnzn yaguygm lgkl lkngnr.

lntgn mgmhgmrf ympgmrff duvvltglfknrnghlsnfkl vlkdhl hltmgglrnf smogmtrghmsfkm duggmfgr.

FmD mgmh, flhgn inr s ngltncnsnknr. Sakyuh lglhlftnfnf knlr flhgn inglndglrnysl dastnd

FmAE sakm dg (Fm9CA3), dmimrthm tazu (FmECA3) vlsakyuh fntrmttr (FmFA3).

_urkuh_urkuhInr lgldtraf dmyilttnh

Lhnf hnsnf 1

Pazntnonh mrtd.

FmO



15/49

Patmsyuh (D)


Patmsyuh (D)

Patmsyuh Intdnglrnf jlgnnhn nnf ad flhgn inr lglhlft

agmf patmsyuh, au taprmd tnpnfnfinglnhnfkl ylr mgr vl jirlglrnf ympsfm kmdmtgr.

Slrmhnd, cmh, smiuf, glfs vl ilfzlrnhmkklglrnf ymphfkm,

Sakyuh vl patmsyuh mgmh (FmD), nyn inrs ngltncnknr.

Patmsyuhuf au tuzu, elh dnhymsmg elhkl tncmrn mkmf flh tmr2 rflnf,patmsyuh enkradsnt, patmsyuh fntrmt,patmsyuh dmriafmt, patmsyuh sgomt, vs.

Klfly 2 Patmsyuhuf sukmdn kmvrmf Yuinkyuh (Yu)


Yuinkyuh

Yuinkyuhu ngd agmrmd =5?= kl Yailrt Iufslf vl JustmvDnrceeaoo spldtrasdapn yftlhn ngl iugkugmr vl tmyofkmdn ndnilgnrjnf drhz nzjn flklfn ngl ymdut mfgmhfkm ruinkyuhagmrmd mkgmfkrkgmr.

ad dagmy nyafgmhms flklfnygl, slzyuhm mgtlrfmtno agmrmd,uzmy mrmgmrfkmdn "nyaf hatargmrfkm" duggmfghmdtmkr.

_mduh tpglrnfnf vl oataslgglrnf kl ympsfm dmtgmf flhgninr ingllfknr.

zlg cmhgmrf ymphfkm vl dmgp mrmtrhmgmrfkm kmduggmfgr. Myrcm dmtmgnzr agmrmd duggmfh km vmrkr.

Slzyuh (Cs)




16/49

Slzyuh (Cs)

Slzyuh Iu hltmgnf ngd dlon Yailrt Iufzlf vl Justmv Dnrceeaoo

tmrmo

fkmf =5?0 y

g

fkm hnflrmg sukm dlolkngkn. Slzyuhuf smo agmrmd lgklsn ingnflf srmkmf sakyuh lgklsn

jnin klngknr. Mtah smmtglrnfkl, dzgtlsn gmhimgmrfkm vl dmtmgnzr

agmrmd, ilgnrgn lglhlftglrnf enkrablfglfhlsnfkl duggmfgr. ^mdf zmhmfkm, ntncn j snstlhglrnfkl kl duggmfghmym

imgmfhtr. _mduh tpglrnfkl, emvm dmgftgmrf yad lthld nnf

duggmfgr. Adsnblfl dmr lngnhn ydsldtnr vl dagmy nyafnzl agur. Iu flklfgl kl, radlt hatargmrfkm ntncn agmrmd duggmfgr.

Ormfsnyuh (Or)

Ormfsnyuh ngd agmrmd =>3> ygfkm Hmrjulrntl Plrlytmrmofkmf dlolknghntnr.

Ormfsnyuh \rmfyuh vl taryuh hnflrmgnfnf nlrnsnfkliugufur. Omdmt smo lglhlft agmrmd nzagmsyafu hhdfklngknr.

Ormfsnyuh, mdtnfyuhuf pmrmgmfhms safucufkm vlymtaryuh prataf iahimrkhmf safucufkm lgkl lkngnr.

Ormfsnyuh hltmgnfnf duggmfh mgmfgmr ingnfhlhldtlknr. Ormfsnyuh hltmgn emddfkm dlsnf inr ingjn iugufhmhmdtmkr.

Hltmg yzlyn emvmkmdn flhklf kagmy hmtgmhmdtmkr.Emvkm ymfhms ngl ormfsnyuh adsnkn aguturur. Or(d) + A9(j) OrA9(d)

9M Jruiu [aprmd MgdmgnHltmgglr

[aprmd Mgdmgn Hltmgglrzlggndglrn

Plrnyaknd tmigafuf imtmf ndnfcn jruiufkm (kndly srmsfkm)

ylr mgmf lglhlftglrknr. Sdgdgm ilymz rlfdgn agup, yuhumdvl nglflingnr ympkmkrgmr.

Mgdmgn hltmgglrklf kmem mz tlpdlf (tlpdnhlyl jnrhlyllngnhgn) dmrmdtlrkl aghmgmrff ymffkm, lrnhl vl dmyfmhmscmdgdgmr kmem ydsldtnr. yafgmhm lflrbnglrn kl mgdmgnhltmgglrklf kmem ydsldtnr.

[aprmd lglhlftglrn nshn, iu jruptmdn lglhlftglrnf taprmdtmiugufmf adsntglrnfnf, lsdn dnhymingnhcnglr tmrmofkmf myrinrlr lglhlft agmrmd kfghlsnfklf jlgnr.

^ad yad partmdmg drhz dzg ylng



17/49

Ilrngyuh (Il)

Mdumhmrnf

RhrtEcp 2 elxmjafmg cgasl pmcdlk

Ilrngyuh ^dsld armfkm s lhlinghl zlggnn flklfnygl, emvm vl

uzmy tmtgmrfkm, ngltnnh uykugmrfkm, fdgllr smftrmgglrklvl ozl ymphfkm, emono hltmg mgmhgmrfkm, U-f tpglrnfnf plfclrlglrnfkl ^dsld inr lrnhl fadtmsfm smenp aghms, emonognn vl

lgndtlf ad kmem lsfld inr hltmg aghms flklfnygl,ingjnsmymr pmrmgmrfkm,

bnrasdapgmrkm vl nfmmt sldtrfkl imdr mgmh km, dmyfmd ymphfkm, lgldtrnd

imgmftgmrfkm vl lgldtratgmrkm duggmfgr. Rhrt vl mdumhmrnf, ilrngyuhuf kllrgn drnstmg oarhgmrkr.

Hmjflzyuh (Hj)

Ecp 2 elxmjafmg cgasl pmcdlk

Hltmgnd hmjflzyuh =>. yzygf imgmrfm dmkmr lgkllknglhlhntnr.Iufm dmrgd, hmjflzyuh, inglndglrnfnfimzgmr, ad kmem fcl ingnfnyarku.

=505 kl fjngnz dnhymcs Euhpery Kmvy duru hmjflzyuhdgarrgl hltmg patmsyuhu ztglhlyn immrk.

=53= kl yltlrgn hndtmrkm hmjflzyuh lgkl lknglingkn. Hmjflzyuh, fnspltlf tlpdnf inr hltmgknr. Iu yzklf,

kamkm slrilst agmrmd iugufhmz. [aprmdtm lf iag iugufmflglhlftglr mrmsfkm sldnznfcn srmy mgr.

Imgcm ndn hnflrmg emgnfkl iugufur2hmjflznt (HjCA3) vlkagahnt THjCm(CA3)9X.

Oatarmo hmdnflglrnfnf jvkl vl ogm

dmpgmhmgmrfkm, nmrlt onldglrnfkl vl ymfjfiahimgmrfkm

mghnfyuhkmf tl inr armffkm kmem emonoaghms flklfnygl, mgmhgmrfkmf umd vl ozlymphfkm

lczmcgd mgmffkm flh tmymf inglndglrn klvmrkr.

kdh klhnr ymphfkm vl urmfyuh imtmaghmd zlrl lntgn hltmgglrnf tuzgmrfkmfsmogmtrghms nglhnfkl

hnfl tugmgmrff, mykfgmthm mhpugglrnfnf,rlfd hmkklglrnfnf vl ongtrlglrnf ymphfkm

Dmgsnyuh (Cm)

ccp (cuinc cgasl-pmcdlk)



18/49

gd agmrmd =505 ygfkm Ilrzlgnus vl Paftnf, cnvm nlrnsnfkldnCmAnf (gnhl) lgldtragnzn ngl dmgsnyuh mhmgjmh (cnvmg

hmklf mgmh) lgkl lthn. Kmem safrm Euhpery Kmvytmrmofkmf ngd klom smo agmrmd nzagl lknghntnr.

Dmgsnyuh kamkm smo agmrmd iugufhmz. Lf omzgm dnrltmfkm (CmCA3) iugufur.

Hlrhlr vl dmgsnt tl myf oarhgl smenptnr. Lf flhgnhnflrmgglrn kagahnt (CmCA3 HjCA3), mpmtnt (3Cm3(PA;)9),jnis (CmSA;.9E9A) knr.

_cut smg nnf lf jlrldgn lglhlfttnr. Dlhndglrnf vlknglrnf jlgnnp duvvltglfhlsnfn smgmr. Omdmt vcuttmdmgsnyuh omzgmg iirld tmfm slilp agur.

[aryuh, urmfyuh vl znrdafyuh jnin hltmgglrnfemzrgmfhmsfkm vl lntgn mgmhgmrf lgklsnfkl

sv ymgmrf klenkrmsyafufkm cmfggmrf dlhnd, kn, dmiud vl ilfzlrn k nsdlglt

ympgmrfkm intdnglrnf ifylsnfkl kfym dmiuufkmdn lf iag ilnfcn lglhlft aghms dmrf,

ad rlmdtno aghms flklfnygl msgm lglhlft emgnfkliugufhmz.

dnrltm, bnps vl ogarntnf ympsfkm km vmrkr. CmCA3, CmA jnin inglndglrn flh ldncn agmrmd

Strafsnyuh (Sr)


Strafsnyuh Mkmnr Crmwoark ngd agmrmd =:>0 ygfkm straftnmfnt (SrCA3)

hnflrmgnfn tmfhgmhtr. =505 ygfkm nsl Euhpery Kmvytmrmofkmf lgldtragnz yftlhn ngl nzagl lknghntnr.

Ylfdgn tlglvnzyafgmr nnf jrft tpglrnfnf vl klhnr lsmsghdfmtsgmrf ymphfkm,

nfdafuf smogmtrghmsfkm, nmrlt onldglrnfkl vl emvmn onldglrkl drhz rlfjnf lgkl

lknghlsnfkl fdgllr pngglrkl vl oasoargu iaymgmrf ymphfkm Strafsnyuh tntmfmt, ydsld inr drghm nfknsnfl vl lghmstmf

kmem jlfn inr aptnd kmghm smenp aghms flklfnygl, ngjnldncn inr aptnd hmkklknr.

Imryuh (Im)

icc (iaky-clftrlk cuinc)



19/49

Imryuh Imryuh ngd agmrmd =::; ygfkm Cmrg Scellgl tmrmofkmf

tmfhgmfhtr. Ngd agmrmd =505 ygfkm Euhpery Kmvytmrmofkmf fjngtlrlkl ldstrmdtl lknghntnr.

_mduh tpglrnfkl, iubnglrkl, emvmn onldglrkl vl ogarlsmfgmhimgmrkm

imryuh sgomt vl nfda sgomt nlrlf inr pnjhlft agmf"Gntapaf",

Imryuh sgomt, dmgc ilymz zlggnnygl iaymgmrf nlrnnfkl,U-f nfclglhlglrnfkl vl cmh ymphfkm

imrnt, pltrag duyugmrf mhmdtm duggmfgmf svgmrfnlrnnfkl mrgd dmzmfkrc ufsur agmrmd, dmuudymphfkm,

imryuh dmriafmt omrl zlenrn agmrmd, imryuh fntrmt vl dgarmtkm pnratldfnkl (onldngnd) ylng rlfjnf lgklsnfkl duggmfgr.

Ymkyuh (Ym)

icc (iaky-clftrlk cuinc)

Ymkyuh Ymkyuh, =5>5 ygfkm Curnlglr tmrmofkmf plceiglfk

(\3A5) mk vlrnglf urmfyuh hnflrmgn zlrnfkl ympgmfmrmtrhmgmr srmsfkm artmym dmrgk.

Ymkyuh, urmfyuhuf rmkyamdtno agmrmd pmrmgmfhmssafufkm hlykmfm jlglf rfglrklfknr. Iu yzklf knhurmfyuh hnflrmgglrnygl inrgndtl, jlflggndgl jrmfntgn dmymgmrkmiugufur.

Ymkaf jmz lgklsnfkl duggmfgr. Dlfkngnnfklf gkmymfiaymgmrf ympsfm dmtgr.

zlggndgl dmfslr tlkmvnsnfkl, rmkyuh ylrnfl Ca-?0 jninkmem jvlfgn ym km kmem jg rmkyanzatapgmrfduggmfghms yagufm jnknghldtlknr.

Ftraf dmyfm agmrmd km duggmfgr.

3M Jruiu Lglhlftglrn

Iar (I)

reahiaelkrmg



20/49

Iar Lglhlftlr iar =505 ygfkm Ormfsz dnhymc Jmy-Gussmc ngl

Imraf Gauns [elfmrk vl imhsz agmrmd fjngnz dnhymc SnrEuhpry Kmvy tmrmofkmf iugufhutur.

Hltmggl mhltmg mrms ymr n gltdlf zlgg nl smenp inr lglhlfttnr.

Iar tminmttm eninr zmhmf slrilst emgkl iugufhmz. Kamkm ymdgmd 930 lnt iar hnflrmgn agkuu

ingnfhldtlknr. Mharo iar, myrt lkncn ylng rlfjn nnf pnratldfn (onldngnd)

mgmffkm vl mtlglyncn agmrmd radltglrkl duggmfgr. [lfns rmdltglrnfnf, fdgllr smftrmgglrkl duggmfgmf

rljgmtrglrnf vl sym kmymfdg cmh rfglrnfnf ymphfkmkm flh tmr.

Iaruf lf flhgn tncmrn inglnn, ymgth mhmg cmh lgymoffvl inr mmrtc agmf sakyuh plriarmtf ymphfkmduggmfghmdtmkr.

Knlr iar inglndglrn kl, iarasngndmt cmhgmrf ymphfkmduggmfgr.

Iaraf-=0 nzatapu, fdgllr smftrmgglrkl artmhkmdn ftrafgmrezgm lhlrld tlpdnhlglrn ymvmgmthmd ym km kurkurhmdnnf, fdgllr rmkymsyafm dmr dmgdmf agmrmd vl ftrafilgnrglyncn mgltglrkl duggmfgr.

[ldstng mgmffkm flh tmymf inr knlr iar inglnnysl,iarnd msnttnr.

[ntmfyuh vl tufjstlf ngl inrgndtl duggmfh safucufkm,mrg kd mfcmd sym dmr knrlfgn mgmhgmr lgkl lkngnr.

^mdf zmhmfkm mrtrnt (ldglh ngtnemi) tlkmvnsnfklduggmfghmym imgmfmf iar inglndglrn kl uhut vmmt lknyar.

Jz klzlfoldtmfgmrff inglnhnfkl kl iar iugufuyar.

Iar, zlggndgl slrmhndglrnf srgmfhmsfkm vl lhmylsmfmynnfkl duggmfgr. Iu sldtr [rdnylfnf lf ad iartdlttnn mgmfgmrkmf inrnfn aguturhmdtmkr. ^mrmrgmfgmfimgcm iar zlggndglrn mmkmdn jninknr2

Srf dvmhggf krr.

Srf yzly jlrngnhnfn krr.

Pmrgmdg vl smykmhg mrttrr. Lgldtrnl dm ymgtdmf kmvrmfrdlf, inr hltmgnfdnfl ilfzlr sjlnrjlfgnn jstlrlf iaraf fntrnt inglnn, myf zmhmfkm,dmrtrgk elremfjn inr hmkklyn lghms slrtgnnfl jltnrncnzlggndtlknr.

Iar enkrrglr lftlrlsmf inglndglrknr, ad rlmdtnoglrknr.Dlfkngnnfklf ymfmrgmr. Su ngl iarnd msnt vl enkrablf vlrnrglr.

IE3 yadtur, I9E? , I;E=0 , I , I


21/49

Mghnfyuh (Mg)


Mghnfyuh =59: ygfkm Zaeglr tmrmo fkmf iugufhutur.

Mghnfyuh emono inr hltmgknr. [adsnd lngknr. Kamkmslrilst emgkl iugufhmz.

lntgn hutomd mgltglrnfnf vl kldarmsyaf hmgzlhlglrnfnfmfm ymph hmkklsnknr.

Imdr, hmjflzyuh vl knlr hltmgglrgl aguturkuumgmhgmr, smo emgnfklf ad kmem jg zlggndglrlsmenptnr.

mgmhgmr emono mfcmd jg hltmgglrnf jlrld kuyugkuu,imtm ozl vl umd ymph aghmd zlrl, elr trg

mgmfkm duggmfgr. Lgldtrnd ngltdlfgnn imdrf ymgfzcm %?0' dmkmr agsm km,

emono ymps flklfnygl lgldtrnd ngltnh emtgmrfkm duggmfgr.

Mghnfyuh taz emgkl Ol (NNN) adsntnlglhlftlg klhnrlnfknrjlylrld iyd hndtmrkm s mm dmrtr vl iu lsfmkmnfknrjlfhn klhnr lrnr. Iu rlmdsnyafm [lrhnt rlmdsnyafuklfnr.

9 Mg(d) + Ol9A3 (d) 9 Ol(d) + Mg9A3 (d)E08-5


22/49

Jmgyuh (Jm)

arteareahinc

Jmgyuh hltmgn ngd agmrmd =5:< ygfkm Glcaq kl Iansimukrmftmrmofkmf dlolknghntnr.

Jmgyuh mghnfyuhuf lgklsn srmsfkm ymf rf agmrmd lgkllkngnr. Iadsnt hnflrmgnfnf smogmtrghms ngl mghnfyuh nglilrmilr lgkl lkngnr. Kmem safrm lgldtragnz ngl smo agmrmd lgkllkngnr.

Cmh vl parslglfglrl sgmd inr jrfh vlrhldtl duggmfgr. Cmh zlrnfl srgkfkl, agkudm pmrgmd inr myfm

aguturur. ^mr ngltdlfglrnf vl trmfsnstr ilfzlrn myjtgmrf rltnhnfkl

ymyjf agmrmd duggmfgr. Myrcm, dumrtz tlrhahltrlglrnf vl gmzlr knyatgmrff

ymphfkm vl thr tlspntnfkl kl duggmfgr. Jmgyuh mrslfnt, lgldtrnn karukmf m lvnrlinghl

zlggnnfl smenptnr.

fknyuh (Nf)

tltrmjafmg

fknyuh Kd scmdgdgmrkm lrnylinglf mgmhgmrf ymphfkm

duggmfgr. rflnf, %:? armffkm jmgyuh, %9; armffkm km nfknyuh

nlrlf mgmh, akm scmdgfkm svkr. Jlrhmfyuh trmfsnstrglrnf, kmhtcgmrf, tlrhnstrglrnf vl

oatangltncnglrnf ymphfkm duggmfgr. Hltmgglrnf vl cmhf zlrn nfknyuhgm dmpgmfkfkm,

mthasolrnd mfhmym dmr jhgl ympgmfgmrkmf kmemkmymfdg agmf myfmgmr lgkl lkngnr.

[mgyuh ([g)

ecp (elxmjafmg cgasl-pmcdlk)

[mgyuh hltmgn ngd agmrmd =5?= ygfkm Snr Znggnmh Craadls

tmrmofkmf dlolknghntnr. [mgyuh hltmgn vl inglndglrn ad tadsnd hmkklglrknr. Iu

flklfgl duggmfh lsfmsfkm ad knddmtgn agufhmgkr.Imdgm dlsnglinglcld dmkmr yuhumd hltmgknr.

[mgyuh hltmgn ddrtg hnflrmgglrnf ympsfkm iugufur. Lfad pnrnt hnflrmgnfkl iugufur.

Ddrt, slglfyuh ym km mrslfnd ngl aguturkuu inglndglr,=9


23/49

;M Jruiu Lglhlftglrn Dmriaf (C)

ecp (elxmjafmg cgasl-pmcdlk)

Dmriaf Dmriaf, cmfggmr nnf lf emymtn lglhlfttnr. fd itf

cmfg hmkklglr dmriaf inglndglrnfklf aguhugmrkr. Ecrl zmrfkmf mm dmiuufm, jz hlrclnfklf inr

jlynnf iayfuzgmrfm, yuhurtm ilymzfkmf ygmf zlenrnfldmkmr saf klrlcl omrdg arjmfnd ympgmrf elpsn, dmriaftlhlggn inglndglrklf aguur.

[h arjmfnd inglndglrnf ympsfm jnrlf dmriaf, svymgmrf klenkrmsyafufkm (sukmf mrfkrghmsfkm), myrcmklhnr vl mgmhgmrff nglfhlsnfkl duggmfgr.

lgnd ymphfkm, fdgllr tlpdnhlglrnf daftragfkl,

gmstndglrnf rlfdglfknrnghlsnfkl, pgmstnd smfmynfkl, iaympnjhlftglrnfnf lgklsnfkl vl ymgmyc hmkklglrnfymphfkm km iu lglhlfttlf ymrmrgmfgr.

Duruf dmglhglrkl duggmfgmf jrmont oarhu vl lghms oarhu,dmriaf lglhlftnfnf ndn flhgn mggatrapukur.

Dmriaf-=; nzatapu km, rmkyamdtno ym tmynfnfkl duggmfgr. Dmriafuf "ougglrlf" klflf drl innhgn ym km "fmfatp"

klflf sngnfknr innhgn hagldgglrn kl, saf yggmrkm zlggndgllgldtrafnd vl fmfatldfagabn mgmfgmrfkm klvrnhslgnglrglhlglr smgmhmdtmkr.

Dmriafuf ; tmfl mggatrapu vmrkr.

Iufgmr mharo, jrmont, lghms vl ougglrlfknr

Ougglrlf jlflggndgl ? dmriaf mtahufuf kzglhslg agmrmdinrinrn ngl imgmfmrmd aguturkuu nn ia drlslg, sngnfknrndvl emgdmsmg ympgmrkr.


24/49

Dmriaf fmfatpglr flhgn lgldtrafnd vl hldmfnd zlggndglrlsmenp fmfaympgmrkr. Fmfatpglr ngd agmrmd tld iayutgu

dumftuh tlgglr nnf pratatnp agmrmd kfgkfklf adiyd inr ngjn ldtn. Knlr duggmfg zlggndglrnfdlolknghlsnygl 4 zlggndgl kmymfdgg, patmfsnylg duggmfhmgmfgmrf amgtt. rflnf, dmriaf fmfatpglr fmfahltrndiayutgmrkmdn lgldtrafnd klvrlglrkl ym km duvvltglfknrnghnpagnhlr hmgzlhlglrkl duggmfgmingnr.

Sngnsyuh (Sn)

knmhafk

Sngnsyuh Sngndaf Sngnsyuhuf ngd dlon =59; ygfkm Ilrzlgnus tmrmofkmf

jlrldglstnrnghntnr. Sngnsyuh kajmkm sngndmt msnkn (hSnA9.fE9A) vl tuzgmrn

emgnfkl iugufur. ^lrdmiujufuf ymdgmsnd %9


25/49

Mr smo sngnsyuh, iar, jmgyuh, oasoar ym km mrslfnd ngljglfknrngknnfkl4 trmfsnstrglr, jfl jzlglrn vlkarugtucugmr jnin, lgldtrafnd lfkstrnsnfkl iyd flh

tmymf myjtgmrf ymphfkm duggmfgmf sngndaf dmrhgmrlgkl lkngnr. Lgldtrafnd hndranpglrnf ymphfkm ymrngltdlf agmrmd

duggmfgr. Knmtahgmr vl rmkyagmrymgmr jnin ahurjmszgmrf k

nsdlgltglrnfnf ympsfm dmtghms flklfnygl kl, ymmhsmgflh tmhmdtmkr.

Iu k nsdlgltglr, kmem safrm knil dlrld, lntgn dmymgmrfympsfm dmtgr.

Intdnglrnf vl nfsmf nsdlgltnfnf ympsfkm km sngnsyuh iugufur.Sngndaf dmrink (SnC), ingnflf lf slrt hmkklglrklf inrnknr.

Sngnsyuh enkrrglr Sngmf mkf mgrgmr. Lf imsnt hafasngmfSnE; kr. Enkradmriaf inglndglrnfl ilfzlrglr.

SnA9 fnf haknondmsyafgmr mrmsfkmdn imft mmkmdnldngkl jstlrngnr

5:00C =;:00C =:0


26/49

Dmgmy Kamkm lf omzgm dmgmy tm agmrmd ingnflf SfA9 ongnzn

(dmssntlrnt) emgnfkl iugufur. Knlr inr ongnz kl Cu9OlSfS; stmffntknr. Smo aghmymf dmgmy ilrmilrnfkl iugufmf klhnr, duruf jnin

ymimfc hmkklglrklf tldrmr lrntnglrld myrgr. Lrnhlfadtmsff inrmz yudmrsfkm stgkfkm ydsld scmdgdtmlrnylfglr dmgmykmf myrgmrmd dpd aguturur.

(jrn dmgmy), (ilymz dmgmy) vl ngl jstlrnglf 3haknondmsyafu vmrkr.

Dmgmy emvmkm farhmg mrtgmr mgtfkm dmrmgkr. Omdmtstghms ngl dmgmyknadsnt aguturur.

Sf(d) + A9(j) SfA9(d)

SfA SfA9

Hltmgnd dmgmy flhgn emvm, zmyo msnt vl imzgmrm kmymfdgaghms flklfnygl dmp ymphfkm duggmfgr.

Lf flhgn mgmhgmr irafz (Cu-Sf) vl glenhknr (Pi-Sf).

Sf + A9 SfA9 E8-=35.5 dcmg

lgnd dafslrvl dutugmrff dmpgmhm hmkklsnknr.

Myrcm glenh, irafz, dmgmy vl duruf mgmhgmrfkm ylr mgr.

Imz kn hmcufgmrff nlrnnfkl, dmgmy vl ogar inglnn agmfSfO< duggmfgr.

Splrngltdlf hdfmtsgmrf ymphfkm km duggmfgr. Smolglhlft emgnfnf duggmfh ad sfrgkr.

Duruf (Pi)


Duruf Kamkm jlflggndgl inglndglr emgnfkl, imzlfkl lglhlftlg

emgkl iugufur. Lf flhgn ongnzn PiS jmglfknr. PiCA3 Slrznt PiSA; mfjglznt Sls tntrlnhglrnfn lhncn zlggnn ad jg agmf iu lglhlft,

sls ymgthfkm duggmfgr. U-f ldnphmfgmrfkm vl fdgllr smftrmgglrkl rmkymsyaf

dmgdmf agmrmd nglv jrr. Imz zlggnn jstlrlf inr dmriafmt inglnn agmf ilymz

duruf vl ilfzlrn knlr duruf inglndglrn, iaymgmrfympsfm dmtgr.

Mfcmd, smgd msfkmf aguhsuz ltdnglrn flklfnygl iu

duggmfh mzmgtghtr. Duruf adsnt, drghm nfknsn ydsld agmf drnstmg cmhgmrf

rltnhnfkl duggmfgr. Icld gkrc ngmgmrf nlrnnfl dmtgmf duruf tuzgmr,

lvrl vl nfsmf smgfm kmem mz aguhsuz ltdnsn agmfarjmfnd inglndglrgl ymvm ymvm ylr klntnrhldtlknr.

9 PiS + 3 A9 9 PiA + 9 SA9 PiA + CA Pi + CA9 PiA (drhz) PiA (smr ) Pi3A; drhz mstmr iaym PiCrA; smr iaym



27/49

?C) sv mzatsm, ad kd

scmdgdgmrkm jlrldgltnrnghlsn jlrldlf kafkurhmnglhglrnfkl duggmfgr. [ncmrn agmrmd lf ad kllr tmymf mzat inglnn mhafymdtr

(FE3). Jg inr zc agmf mhafymd, jirlglrnf inglnnfkl

iugufmf vl pgmstnd lfkstrnsnfkl kl flhgn ylrn agmf "rl"hmkklsnfnf lgklsnfkl duggmfgr.

FE

3



28/49

Mzat, pratlnfglr imtm aghmd zlrl, arjmfnd inglndglrnfympsfkm ylr mgmf ad flhgn inr lglhlfttnr.

Gmiarmtuvmrkm FE;FA9 fnf stghmsygm lgkl lkngnrFE;FA9 F9 (j) + 9 E9A (j)

Mzatuf th inglndglrn, ym adsntglyncn zlggndtlknrglr, ym kmjg inrlr rlmdtnotnrglr.

Iu flklfgl kl, uyjuf dauggmrkm nkkltgn tlpdnhlglr vlrnrglr.Iufgmrf mrmsfkm [F[ (trnfntratagulf), vl mhafyuh fntrmtsmygmingnr.

[F[ [rnfntra tagulf

Oasoar (P)

trncgnfnc

Oasoar lntgn mgmhgmrf ymphfm dmtgmf oasoar, sakyuh

mhpugglrnfnf ymphfkm duggmfgmf cmhgmrf lgklsnfklflhgnknr.

Oasoarnd msnt, zlggndgl jirl lgklsnfkldn duggmfhygm, safyggmrkm tmrh vl emyvmfcgdtm iyd flh tmr emgljlghntnr.

Emvmn onld, dnirnt, kltlrbmf vl kn hmcufu ymphfkmduggmfgmf oasoar, zmrmrggmrgm hcmklglkl duggmfgmf audnhymsmgf (plstnsntglrnf) inglnhnfkl kl iugufur.

Cmfggmrkm ecrl nlrnnfnf ymmhsmg inr ingllfn agmrmd,zlggndgl snfnr vl dlhnd kadugmr nnf ad flhgnknr.

[rnsakyuh oasomt nsl, sugmrf yuhumtghmsfkm, tlhnzgndtl

vl pmsgmfhmym dmr duggmfgmf flhgn inr oasomt inglnnknr. Dlhndtl ymdgmd % ?3 armffkm Cm3(PA;)9 [CP iugufur. Lglhlftlg oasoar, dmgsnyuh oasomtf duh ilrmilrnfkl dad ngl

nfknrjlfhlsnygl lgkl lkngnr.

Cm3(PA;)9 + 3 SnA9 + < C CmSnA3 + < CA + P9

Ilymz, drhz vl snyme oasoar mggatrapgmrkr. Ilymz oasoar ad zlenrgnknr. P; hagldg emgnfkl iugufur, dagmy tutuur. Snyme oasoar, drnstmg ympg, hltmgnd zlggnd jstlrnr.

Enkradsn mpmtnt Cm


29/49

Mrslfnd (Ms)

trnjafmg

Mrslfnd


30/49

Inzhut =:


31/49

Pmsgmfhm km, adsnblfnf vmrgfkm jlrldglnr.

Dnhymsmg rlmdsnyafgmrm jnrhl dmingnyltn enkrablfnfdn jnin artm

klrlclknr. Msmg jmzgmr emrn th lglhlftglrgl inglnd ympmr.

Ogarkmf safrm lf lgldtrafljmtno lglhlfttnr.

Inglndglrnfkl -9 ydslgtjlfhl imsmhmfkm iugufur.Plradsntglrkl -= (Fm9A9), splradsntglrkl (DA9) vl ogargmympt inglndglrkl += vl +9 (A9O9 , AO9) kllrgndgnknr.

Adsnblf duvvltgn inr ydslgtjlyncnknr.

9 Cu(d) + A9 (j) 9 CuA(d)

Adsnblf knlr lglhlftglrgl stgkfkm farhmg adsntglrnfnvlrnr.

M) MhltmgglrglS5 (d) + 5 A9 (j) 5 SA9 (j)ddrt ddrtknadsnt

P; (j) + < A9 (j) P;A=0 (d)oasoar oasoar-


32/49

Ddrt (S)

arteareahinc

Ddrt Sgor Ddrt kamkm ymyjf agmrmd iugufmf inr lglhlfttnr (ylr

drlfnf % 0,0?'sf aguturur). Ddrt, mftndmkm ingnflf kaduz ymgf cnsnhklf inrnykn

ddrkf dnhymsmg inr lglhlft agkuu =:::'klGmvansnlr'kmf artmym mtt. =5=0'm karu Jmy Gussmc ngl[elfmrk tmrmofkmf klflyslg agmrmd karugmfk. Ddrttmtsz, dadusuz inr dmtkr, s vl lgldtrnn nyn nglthlz.

Ddrt tminmttl sgor vl sgomtgmr emgnfkl vl lglhlftlgemgkl iugufur.

Snyme imrutuf vl pngglrnf tlhlg ingllfglrnfklf inrn agmfddrt, hmftmr gkrc dnhymsmggmrf (oufjusntglrnf) vlkamg dmuuuf ymphfkm duggmfgr.

Oasomt nlrndgn jirlglrnf inglnhnfl kl dmtgmf ddrtf,tncmrn mkmf lf omzgm kllr tmymf inglnn sgornd msnttnr.

Sgont dmk imtm aghmd zlrl lntgn dmtgmrf ymphfkm,iuemrgm klzlfoldtl nglhglrnfkl vl durutughu hlyvlglrnfmmrtghmsfkm duggmfgr.

^mgmrf, vcut svgmrff vl nsdlglt nnf jlrldgn hnflrmgglrnfympsfkm ylr mghms flklfnygl kl, ymmhsmg flh tmr.

Yahind vl hafadgnfnd aghmd zlrl ndn mggatrapu vmrkr. Akm scmdgfkm dmrmrg agmf rahind, ad ymvm stgkfkm

>?.< Ckl hafadgnfndldgnfl kfr. Inglndglrnfkl -9 , +; vl +? kllrgndglrnfkl iugufur.

E9S SA9 SO?

Klrnnd sgonrnd msnt m

rg

dm % >5gndtnr vl su ldncnzlggnnfl smenptnr. zlrnfl su kdgkfkl ad tlegndlgnmsnt srmhmgmrfm slilp agur. A flklfgl msntglrnf zlrnflsu kdghlz.

Slglfyuh (Sl)

hafacgnfnc

Slglfyuh Slglfyuh ngd agmrmd =5=: ygfkm Bafs Bmcai Ilrzlgnus

tmrmofkmf dlolknghntnr. Oatangltdlf zlggnn flklfnygl oatadapn hmdnflglrnfkl

duggmfgr. Cmh lfkstrnsnfkl, zlggndgl ymdut rlfdgn cmh vl hnfl

ymphfkm duggmfgr. Myrcm, oatarmond taflr, oatalgldtrnd ecrlglrkl, tlglvnzyaf

dmhlrmgmr vl dglrglrnf ymphfkm jfl ecrlglrnfkl ymrngltdlf vl lgnd ymphfkm km dmtd

hmkklsn agmrmd duggmfh vmrkr.

[lggr ([l)

trnjafmg



33/49


34/49

Emgablfglrnf zlggndglrn

Mt

N

Ir

CgO

Ylfd

^lng

Partmdmg

Jrn-snyme

Emg

Jmz

Sv

Dmt

Smr

Snyme Dmt

JmzHAGLD

HAGLDGLY

IA^\[MY[MY

GLY

IA^\[MY[MY

^A^A\FG\D

MY[MY

\FG\D

MY[MY

YLMD[

YLMD[OGOGD

MRMGNY

D

MRMGNY

Emgablfglrnf Duggmfh

Ogar NyatIrahDgar

Knhmcufu

Su mrthm

Mghnfyuhufldstrmdsnyafu

^mphmymfDmpgmhmgmr

\rmfyuhzlfjnfgltnrhl

Suklzlfodsnyafu

Enkradgarnd msnt

Pgmstndglr

Mmrthmgmrkm

Oatarmond ongh

Jzymmrtcjmz

Mglvjlcndtnrncnglr

Omrhmdagabn

Klzlfoldtmf

Emgablfgmhimgmr

U fgmrtlkmvnsn

[uz dmtds

[nrank tlkmvnsn

Dmfslr nglhglrn

Emgablfglrnf Ylmdsnyafgmr(=)

[h emgablfglrMgdmgn hltmgglrgl nyafnd inglndglr aguturhmd zlrlrlmdsnyafm jnrlrglr.

MGDMGN HL[MG + EMGABLF HL[MG EMGABLFY

Sakyuh + Dgar Sakyuhdgarr

9Fm + Cg9 9FmCg

Mmkmdn rlmdsnyafgmrymzfz 4

Gntyuh + Irah

Patmsyuh + Nyat

Gntyuh Irahr

Patmsyuh yakr

Emgablfglrnf Ylmdsnyafgmr(9)

Emgablfglrnf elpsn jmz rlthld nnf enkrablfgl rlmdsnyafm jnrlr.

EKYABLF + EMGABLF EKYABLF EMGABLFY

Enkrablf + Dgar Enkrablf Dgarr

E9 + Cg9 9 ECg

Mmkmdn rlmdsnyafgmr tmhmhgmyfz 4

Enkrablf + Irah

Enkrablf + Nyat

Enkrablf Irah

Enkrablf Nyat

Emgablfglrnf Ylmdsnyafgmr(3)

[h emgablfglr suygm ndn msnknfn hlykmfm jltnrnrglr.

S\ + EMGABLF MS[ = + MS[ 9

Su + Dgar Enkradgarnd + Enkradgarz

Msnt Msnt

E9A + Cg9 ECg + EACg

Iu rlmdsnyaf Irah vl yat nnfkl jllrgn agup, agumf msntglr agkudm

duvvltgnknr. !!!



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Ogar (O)

hafacgnfnc

Ogar Ogar mkf, mdmf mfgmhfm jlglf Gmtnfcl ogulrl

dlgnhlsnfklf mghtr. Akm scmdgfkm uud smr rlfdgn, dlsdnf dadugu ad tmern

lkncn inr jmzkr. [minmttm, ogarnt (CmO9),

drnyagnt ( Fm3MgO?) vlmpmtnt (Cm


36/49

Dgar [minmttm emgablfglrnf lf ad iugufmfkr.ngd klom =::;tl

Scelggl tmrmo fkmf dgarr msnknfnf pnraguznt nglydslgtjlfhlsnygl lgkl lkngkn

Kfymff elr ylrnfkl, nhl sugmrff klzlfoldtllknghlsnfkl duggmfgr.

Myrcm, dmt ymf rfglrnfnf, iaym hmkklglrnfnf, tldstngrfglrnfnf, pltrag rfglrnfnf,

lntgn ngmgmrf, mftnslptndglrnf, icld gkrcglrnf(nfsldtnsntglrnf),

zcglrnf, pgmstnd rfglrnf vl ad lntgn tdltnhhmgzlhlglrnfnf lgklsnfkl duggmfgr.

Dgaraogaradmriafgmr (COC), dgarmtgmr vl dgaraoarh jnin adlntgn inglndglrnf ympsfkm ylr mghms flklfnygl, dnhymlfkstrnsnfkl flhgn ylr tuthmdtmkr.

Dnhym lfkstrnsnfkl lf ad tdltnglf 5. srmkmdn hmkklknr.

=. Sgonrnd msnt 9. Mzat

3. Mhafymd ;. Adsnblf


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yat yat ngd dlz Imrfmrk Caurtans tmrmofkmf =5== ygfkm

dlolkngkn. Irah kmmkm Fm, D, vl Hj irahrglr emgnfkl iugufkm

iugufur. Klfzn suyufkm mz hndtmrkm iugufmf irahrglrlklfnz intdnglrnfkl, imz hmklf ymtmdgmrfkm rmstgmfr.

yat inglndglrn, arjmfnd dnhym vl lczmcgd mgmfgmrfkm adflhgnknr.

[ptm, nyakntglr vl nyaknf nlrlf tnradsnf kmengn agmrmd,tlftrknyat vl iu jnin nyat nlrndgn hndrap drcgmr km emrncnagmrmd duggmfgr.

Inr zmhmfgmr mftninyatnd agmrmd duggmfgh, mfcmd, zlenrgnaghms flklfnygl iu duggmfhm saf vlrnghntnr.

Smo nyat zlgtnsn kl, fnmstm nnf vlrknn dmrmdtlrnstnd dayuhmvn rlfdgl inr nfkndmtr (ilgnrglyncn) sv jrlvn jrr.

yat flklf flhgnknr1

yat, nfsmf vcukufkm ad mz hndtmrkm iugufmf farhmgiyhl vl jlgnhl nnf jlrldgn inr lslr lglhlfttnr.

yat vcukm4 ilsnfglr, su vl klfnz rfglrn tdltnhn ngl mgfr. fsmf vcukufkm ilynf vl snfnr snstlhnfnf farhmg iyhl

vl jlgnhlsn ngl vcut s vl lflrbnsnfnf klvmh nnf jlrldgnagmf tnrank earhafgmrfkmf tltrmnyakatnrafnf ([;, tnradsnf) vltrnnyakatnrafnf ([3) ymphfkm duggmfghmdtmkr.

Farhmg mrtgmrkm vcukuhuzkm =


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Myrcm, kd scmdgd mrmtrhmgmrfkm vl fdgllr lflrbnsmftrmgglrnfkl "sautucu" agmrmd km flhgnknr.

[h lglhlftglr mrmsfkm, lf kd lrnhl vl dmyfmhmscmdgdgmr elgyuhm mnttnr.

sv elgyuh, HY km duggmfgr.

^mdf zmhmfkm, sv radlt ymdt sdtrhmkm km elgyuhkmfomykmgmfghmym imgmfk.

Flaf (Fl)


Flaf gd klom =5>5 ygfkm,nfjngnz onzndadnhymc Snr Zng gnmh

Ymhsmy tmrmofkmf, svgmtrgh emvmff ormdsnyafgukmhth ngl nzagl lknghntnr.

Flaf,emvmff ad czn inr dshf(


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Drnptaf

=5>5 ygfkm Snr Znggnmh Ymhsmy vl Harrns Z. [rmvlrs

tmrmofkm dlolknghntnr. Drnptaf mthasolrkl ad mz hndtmrkm iugufhmdtmkr.

Drnptaf, sv emvmff ormdsnyafgu klstngmsyafu safucufkmsmo agmrmd lgkl lkngnr.

Slrn oatarmogdtm duggmfgmf imz ogm gmhimgmrfkmiugufur.

Ogarlsmf mhpugglrkl vl kmgjm iayu stmfkmrk agmrmdhartlsn (\_) gmzlrglrkl kl duggmfgr.

Drnptaf-5< nzatapu, lntgn dmtgmrf ifylsnflylrgltnrnglrld, dnhymsmg mfmgnzglrkl duggmfgr.

Dslfaf (Ul)


Dslfaf =5>5 ygfkm Snr Znggnmh Ymhsmy vl Harrns Z. [rmvlrs

tmrmofkm dlolknghntnr. Dslfaf mthasolrkl ad mz hndtmrkm iugufhmdtmkr.

Dslfaf, sv emvmff ormdsnyafgu klstngmsyafu safucufkmsmo agmrmd lgkl lkngnr.

Lgldtraf tpglrnfnf, straiasdapnd gmhimgmrf, imdtlrngkrc gmhimgmrf vl ymdut rlfdgn gmzlrglrn uymrmfgmhimgmrf ymphfkm duggmfgr.

Hagldgglrn, pmrmcd onznn mgmffkm, ydsld hagldgmrgff flh tmk dafugmrkm, rflnf dmimrcd

akmgmrff vl praigmrf nlrnnfkl duggmfgr. Dlfknsn zlenrgn aghmhmsfm dmrf, inglndglrn ad zlenrgnknr.

Plrdsmfmtgmr, mfmgntnd dnhymkm adsntglyncn agmrmd duggmfgr

Ymkaf (Yf)

Ymkaf Ymkaf rlfdsnz, jzgl

jrghlz, tmtsz, dadusuz vlrmkyamdtno inr jmzkr.

=5>> ygfkm LrflstYutelroark vl =>00 ygfmOrnlkrnce Lrflst Karftmrmofkmf dlolknglf rmkafjmz mgom pmrmc ymyhmdtmagup hsmmkl lknglf

hndtmrgmrf zlrnfklsagufkuufkm mdcnlr dmfslrnrnsdnfn mrttrhmdtmkr

Ymkaf ynfl rmkyamdtno inr hmkkl agmf urmfyuhufiazufhms safucu aguur vl rmkaf dlfknsn mgom pmrmcymymrmd pgutafyuhm kfr.

Imz emstmflglrkl rmkymsyaf tlkmvnglrnfkl

imz dmfslr trglrnfl dmr uyjugmfhmdtmkr.

Klprlh tmehnfglrnfkl kl rmkaf duggmfgr.

Ymkyamdtno Ymkaf Jmzff ymr hr 3.5 jfkr.



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Hlfklgllv ilfcl slfnf iu plrnyaknd tmiga inthlylcld jmgnim !

K Jruiu lglhlftglrnJln Hltmgglrn

K Jruiu lglhlftglrnJln Hltmgglrn

Jln hltmgglrn plrnyaknd tmigafuf hlrdlznfkl iyd inrlglhlft igadukur.

Iu lglhlftglr s vl p jruiu lglhlftglrn mrmsfkm dpraguturur.

K arintmgglrnfn kagkurmrmd plrnyaknd tmigakm ylr mgrgmr. Elr slrnkl =0 lglhlft ylr mgr. gmvl lknglf elr lgldtraf 3k mgt dmiuufm ldglflrld klvmh

lklr. K-jruiu lglhlftglrn agmrmd km mkgmfkrgrgmr.

Jln hltmgglrn, lsms agmrmd slrtgndglrn, ydsld yaufgudgmr,nyn s ngltdlfgndglrn vl ydsld lrnhl-dmyfmhm scmdgdgmrygmtmffrgmr. zlggndgl slrtgndglrn flklfnygl, smo emgkl ym kmmgmh emgnfkl ymp hmgzlhlsn agmrmd duggmfgrgmr

Jln hltmgglrn sdgdgm inrklf omzgm ydslgtjlfhlimsmhmfm smenptnr.

au, msnt zlgtnglrnfkl enkrablfgl ylr klntnrlcld dmkmrlgldtrapazntnotnr.

yafgmr rlfdgn agkuu nnf, mfmgnzglrkl dagmy myrt lkngnrglr.

Jln lglhlftglrnfnf elpsn, lgldtraf knzngnhglrnfkl, lf ktmelr zmhmf k arintmgnfkl lgldtraf tmrgmr.

[lpdnhlglrl jnrlf lgldtrafgmr km, k arintmgnfkldnlgldtrafgmrkr.

LglLgldtdtrafnrafndd KKzlfglfhlzlfglfhl

Lglhlft R 3k ;s

ScSc 9=9= TTMrMrXX

[n[n 9999 TTMrMrXX

__ 9393 TTMrMrXX

CrCr 9;9; TTMrMrXX

HfHf 99> TTMrMrXX

RfRf 3030 TTMrMrXX

Jln slrnsnfkl ndn mgtjrup nlrnrglr. Gmftmfntglr vl Mdtnfntglr

k-igad lglhlftglrnfklf imgcmgmr 4

Lf ingnflf ymp hmgzlhlsn (Ol) gd hltmgglr (Mu, Mj, Pt) Hmklfn lymgmrkm duggmfgmfgmr (Cu, Fn) glrn tldfagabn hltmgglrn ([n) Ymkyamdtno lglhlft ([c)



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Inrad k-igad lglhlftn emymt nnf flhgnknr 4 Ca I=9 vntmhnfnfnf inr dshf aguturur.

(^mgmr

f, pratlnfglrnf vl dmriafenkrmtgmr

f hltmiagnzhms

fkmduggmfgr) Ol elhajgainfkl iugufur.

(Adsnblfnf ecrlglrl tmfhms vl imgmfhmsfkmfsaruhgukur)

Ol, inyagabnd lgldtraf trmfsolrnfn dmpsmymf jrupgmr aguturhmdnnf S ngl inrglnr.

Ha, Ol vl S , F9 vl FE3 f nfknrjlfhlsnfklf saruhgu inrjrup aguturhmd nnf inrglnr.

Cu vl Rf inyagabnd rlmdsnyafgmrm dmtgr. Inrdm jln lglhlftn tadsndtnr (Ej jnin)

k-igad lglhlftglrnfnf au rlfdgnknr vl pnjhlft agmrmdduggmfgr.

Ol;TOl(CF)?X3 "Prussnmf igul knyl ingnfnr. Cr9A3 ylng

[nA9 smo ilymz

CkS smr

au jln hltmgglrn nyafnd inglnd aguturhmd zlrladsnkmsyaf-rlkdsnyafm urmr.

Iu rlmdsnyafgmrf inr au inyagabnd rlmdsnyafgmr nnfflhgnknr.

Cr+3 Ol+9 Ca+9 Cu+9

Hf+9 Ol+3 Fn+9Rf+9

Inr jln hltmg inglnn, FnCN9 jnin, sukm zgkfkl, suhagldgglrn ltrmof smrmr.

Fn9+ + 9 CN - 86 Fn9+(mq) + 9 Cg- (mq)

Pagmr su hagldgglrnfnffljmtno ucu Fn9+ dmtyafufmdmtgr.

Iu inglnd sukmdrnstmgglfknnfkl, ? su

hagldg Fn9+ l img dmgr.

Imdr (Cu)




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=I Jruiu lglhlftglrn

Imdr Imdrf lf flhgn duggmfh mgmf, lgldtrnd-

lgldtrafnd smfmynknr. Lgldtrnd ngltdlfgnn ad ydsldtnr. Hmklfn pmrm vl sngme ymphfkm duggmfgmf

hltmg mgmhgmrff iyd aufguu imdrnlrnr.

Knlr mgmhgmr km, duyuhcugudtm vl irafzelydlgcngnnfkl duggmfgr.

Pnrnf (Cu-Rf) vl irafz (Cu-Sf), imdrmgmhgmrkr.

[mrhkm, su yasufu gkrc (mgjmsnt) agmrmdduggmfgr.

Imdr += vl +9 kllrgndgn inglndglr ympmr.

Imdr tuzgmr jlflggndgl hmvn rlfdgnknr.

CuSA;.


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pgmstnd vl dazhltnd rfglr jnin jfgd ymmhhzf lntgntmhmhgmycgmrfkm dmrhzm dhmdtmkr.

nfda sgont ogarlsmf zlggnl smenptnr vl pmrgmd dmkrmfgmrf,ogarlsmf gmhimgmrf,

U-f vl tlglvnzyaf ldrmfgmrff ymphfkm duggmfgr. Emyvmfgmrf ilsglfhlsnfkl kl flhgn inr ylr tuthmdtmkr. [aprmd mgdmgnglrl ilfzlr zlggnd jstlrhldtlknr. Omdmt

afgmrm jrl kmem lgldtrafljmtnotnrglr, kmem kd lrnrglr.

Dmkhnyuh Dmkhnyuh, lf kd lrnhl fadtmsfm

smenp mgmhgmrf flhgn inr ingllfnknr. Duggmfh mgmfgmr mrmsfkm %?0 ngl lf

iyd pmy, lgldtragnz yaguygm dmpgmhm mgr. Fndlg-dmkhnyuh pngglrn ymphfkm4 myrcm

ftraf yutucu zlggnn flklfnygl fdgllrrlmdtrglrkl daftrag uiudgmrfkm vlzregmhmkm duggmfgr.

Imz inglndglrn, snyme-ilymz vl rlfdgntlglvnzyaf tpglrnfkldn oasoarlsmfinglndglrkl duggmfgr.

P_C hmkklyl kmymfdggd dmzmfkrr. Dmkhnyuh vl inglndglrnfnf zlgtnglrn

zlenrgnknr.

Cnvm [lrhahltrlglrnf, imrahltrlglrnf, knozyaf

pahpmgmrff vl kmem inrad gmiarmtuvmrjlrlcnfnf ymphfkm duggmfgr.

Cvm iuemrg gmhimgmrf vl rldgmhdgmfkrhmgmrff, cvmgmgtlrglrnf,

kn eldnhgnnfkl duggmfgmf imz dmrhgmrf, daruyucu iaymgmrf, icld gkrc ngmgmrf

vl pngglrnf ympsfkm km cvm iugufur.

3I jruiu lglhlftglrn

Sdmfknyuh Cvm iuemrg gmhimgmrf nnfl dmtgkfkm,

jfl fm ilfzlr ad vlrnhgn inr ddmyfm aguturur.

Iu flklfgl iu lglhlft, jgdgmfkrhmgmrkm duggmfgr.

Ymkyamdtno nzatapu agmf Sc-;?, rmonflrnglrklemh pltrag vl ilfzlrn hmkklglr nnf nzsrc agmrmd duggmfgr.

S

z

ft

tlspnt lkncnglrkl vl uzmylfkstrnsnfkl duggmfghmsff ymf srm,taeuh yllrtncn dnhymsmggmrf inglnhnfkl klylr mgr.

trnyuh Drah, hagniklf, znrdafyuh vl tntmfyuh

jnin lglhlftglrkl tmfl iayutufufdgtghlsnfkl4

mghnfyuh vl hmjflzyuh mgmhgmrffkmymfdggdgmrff mrtrghmsfkm,

vmfmkyuh vl ilfzlrn hltmgglrkladsnkmsyafuf fglfhlsnfkl,

ltnglf pagnhlrglrnfnf aguturugkuutlpdnhlglrnf dmtmgnzglfhlsnfkl,

cmh vl slrmhnd ymphfkm, mtllkmymfdg tugm ymphfkm,

dmhlrm hlrcldglrnfkl vl gmzlrsnstlhglrnfkl duggmfgr.

Lvrapyuh lglhlftnygl inrgltnrnghn emgn, rlfdgn

tlglvnzyafgmrkm drhz rlfd lgklsnfkl duggmfgr. Lf flhgn inglndglrnfklf inrn agmf ntrnyuh adsnt, saf klrlcl

ltdngn hndrakmgjm ongtrlglrn agmf ntrnyuh-klhnr inglnhgn gmgtmgmrff aguturughmsfkm duggmfgr.

trnyuh nlrndgn gmg tmgmr, ngjnf hmfyltnd zlggndglrjstlrnrglr. trnyuh-mghnfyuh tm km, ympmy lghms agmrmdkllr jrr.



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;I jruiu lglhlftglrn

[ntmfyuh lntgn hltmgglrgl inrgndtl duggmfgmf ad

flhgn inr mgmh lglhlftnknr. Iu mgmhgmr, emonognd, smgmhgd vl sym

kmymfdggf flh tmk lfkstrnglrklduggmfgr.

[ntmfyuh, lgnd dmkmr kmymfdg, mfcmdafkmf %;< kmem emonotnr.

Mghnfyuhkmfsm %?0 kmem mr aghmsfmdmrf, 9 dmt kmem kmymfdgkr.

Kmymfdgg vl msntglrl dmr knrlfgn aguuflklfnygl, lntgn mgmhgmrf ympsfmdmtgr.

[ntmfyuh tltrmdgarnt inglnn, cmhgmrfrlfdglfknrnghlsnfkl duggmfgr.

Klfnz suyufm dmr lsnz inr kmymfdggm smenp aghmsflklfnygl, klfnz suyufkmf tmtg su lgkl lknglf tlsnsglrkl vltuzgu suym tlhms lklf jlhn kafmfh pmrmgmrff

ymphfkm duggmfgr. Dmgcgd vl dmpmtcgd zlggnn flklfnygl, omrdg tnptldn

iaymgmrf ympsfm km dmtgr. Dzgtlsn ymfsthm zlggnn jstlrlf tntmfyuh

iaymsfkmf, s flklfgn jr dmyiff ymmfk jfljzglhlvglrnfkl kl ymrmrgmfgr.

Ilymz vl nyn dmpmtc inr pnjhlft agmf tntmfyuh knadsnt([nA9) kl sngjn, dmt, iaym vl ilfzlrn hmkklglrnfymphfkm duggmfgr.

Smonr vl ymdut drnstmgglrnfnf ygkz ldngglrn, nlrndglrnfkldntntmfyuh knadsnttlf nglrn jlgnr.

Rnrdafyuh lgnd lgklsnfkl, vmduh tnpglrnfkl, clrrmen

uyjugmhmgmrkm, ogm mhpugglrnfkl,pmtgmycgmrkm duggmfgr.

Pmsgmfkrc hmkklglrgl mgmf dnhymkmggmrfkm km jlfn duggmfh vmrkr.

Fnyaiyuhgm inrgltnnfkl, kd scmdgdgmrkmsplrngltdlf zlggnd jstlrnr.

Rnrdafyuh adsnt, s adufm kmymfdggmiarmtuvmr hmgzlhlglrn rltnhnfkl,hltmgrbnd orfgmrf dmpgmfhmsfkm vl symkmymfdg hmkkl agmrmd cmh-slrmhndlfkstrnglrnfkl duggmfgr.

Myrcm, vurhmg mgjgmrf vl orf tugmgmrffymphfkm km znrdafyuhkmf omykmgmfgr.

Emofnyuh Mfhmym dmr agmmfst klrlclkl

kmymfdg agmf iu lglhlft, ad nyn ftrafsaurminghl zlggnn flklfnygl fdgllrklfnzmgtgmrkmdn rlmdtr daftraguiudgmrfkm duggmfgr.

_mduh tpglrnfkl kl jmz lhncn fntlgnnyglinr "jmz mvcs" agmrmd duggmfgr.


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Splrngltdlf zlggnl smenp agmf vl jg hmfyltndmgmfgmrkm ingl iu zlggnnfn yntnrhlylf FiRr mgmhfkmf

ympgmf tlgglr, jg vl kmymfdg hdfmtsgmrf ymphfkmduggmfgr.

Duyuhcugud mgmffkm km jlfn duggmfh vmrkr.

Fdgllr rlmdtrglrkl duggmfgmf pmsgmfhmz lgndmgmhgmrff, blt vl ozlglrnf, dlsncn mgltglrnf vl iaruemtgmrff ymphfkm km fnyaiyuhkmf omykmgmfgr.

[mftmg Lgldtragntnd dmpmsntrglrnf, vmduh orfgmrff,

dnhymsmg nglhglrkl duggmfgmf mgltglrnf,fdgllr rlmdtrglrnf, emvm tmtgmrff vlozl pmrmgmrff ymphfkm duggmfgr.

_cut svgmrff tmhmhfm dmr knrlfgnaghms flklfnygl, mhlgnymt jlrlglrnfnfymphfkm km ymrmrgmfgr.

[mftmg adsnttlf lgkl lknglf ydsld drghmnfknsnfl smenp zlg cmhgmr, dmhlrmhlrcldglrnfnf ymphfkm duggmfgr.

Gas Mgmhas'tm mgmf ingnh nfsmfgmrtmrmofkmf ympgmf vl lrnhl fadtms 3:35Cagmf tmftmg dmrink jrmont mgmh, ympgmf lfslrt hmkklglrklf inrn agmrmd dmiug lkngnyar.

?I jruiu lglhlftglrn

Drah Hmvnhsn rlfdgn slrt, drgjmf, ad pmrgmd vl

darazyafm ad kmymfdg inr hltmgknr. Drahnt clvelrn OlCr9A; emgnfkl iugufur. lgnnf slrtgltnrnghlsnfkl, pmsgmfhmz lgnd

rltnhnfkl vl lntgn mgmhgmrf lgklsnfklduggmfgr.

zlggndgl atahaing pmrmgmrfkm vl dlsncnmgltglrkl darazyaf fglyncn dmpgmhm agmrmdduggmfh km ymyjfkr.

Drah, cmhm zhrt ylngn inr rlfd vlrnr vlsd tlrcne lknglf inr dmtmgnzrkr. ^mdut vl zhrtf rlfjnfn vlrlf kl drah

lglhlftnknr.

^dsld lrnhl scmdg flklfnygl, tugm vl dmgp ymphfkmkm rmilt jrhldtlknr.

Hltmgnd drah hltmgnd mghnfyuhgm nfknrjlhl yaguygm lgkllkngnr.

9 Mg(d) + Cr9A3 (d) 9 Cr(s) + Mg9A3 (s) E8-


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:I jruiu lglhlftglrn

Hmfjmf Duru pngglrkl klpagmrnzmtr agmrmd vl cmh

zlrnfkl klhnr dnrgngnn flklfnygl agumfylng rlfjn yad lthlkl duggmfgr.

Mhltnst tmff rlfjnfn vlrlf klhmfjmflzknr.

lgnd vl png rltnhnfkl, klhnryaguhmdmsgmrff vl dmsmgmrf ymphfkm,myrcm slrmhnd smfmynnfkl

Jg inr adsntglyncn agmf plrhmfjmfmt(HfA;), lczmcgd mghmgmrfkm fnclgmfmgnzglrkl duggmfgr.

Cmfggmr nnf flhgn inr lslr lglhlft agmfhmfjmflz, zlggndgl emyvmfgmrkm I=vntmhnfn duggmfhfkm rag ayfmr.


Klhnr ad lsdnklf ilrn ingnfhldtl agmf vl

ylryzfkl lf iag iugufmf hltmgknr. Emvmkm dagmygdgm adsntglfnr. Intdnglrnf vl emyvmfgmrf ymmh nnf saf

klrlcl flhgn inr lglhlft agmf klhnr,elhajgainf pnjhlftnfnf ympsfkm kmadsnblf tmyc agmrmd nglv jrr.

Smo emgkl klhnr agmrmd, sdgdgm dmriaf vlknlr hltmgglrgl mgmh emgnfkl duggmfgr.

fmmtgmrkm iltaf dagaf, dnrn vl yzlyglrnfjglfknrnghlsnfkl duggmfgr.

lgnd smfmynnfnf mfm emhhmkklsnknr.

Klhnr pnrnt OlS9 , elhmtnt Ol9A3 , hmjfltnt Ol3A; ldgnfkliugufur.

Klhnrnf lf flhgn mgmh lgndtnr. C-Cr-Hf-Fnlglhlftglrnfnf ympt ad lntgn mgmhgmrf thfl lgndklfnr.

Kmymfdgg, pmrgmdg, nglfhl dagmyg imdhfkmf adduggmfgmf inr hmgzlhlknr.

Pnd klhnr (emh klhnr) nnfkl dmriaf, hmfjmf, ddrt,oasoar, sngnsyuh vl knlr smoszgdgmr vmrkr. Iu smoszgdgmrf

jnklrnglrld nstlff hltmg mgmhgmr lgkl lthld nnf pnd klhnrnylfnklf lrntngnp, emvm ngl ymdgr. Dmriaf armf kfgr.stlflf hltmgglr dmtgmrmd lgnd lgkl lkngnr.


Daimgt Klhnr, fndlg vl knlr hltmgglrgl

inrgltnrnglrld, "Mgfnca" mk vlrnglf vlmgghf kfkm hmfyltndglfhl jcflsmenp agmf mgmhf lgklsnfkl duggmfgr.

Hmfyltnd vl pmsgmfhmz lgnd lgklsnfkl,blt trinfglrnfkl vl jmz trinfblflrmtrglrnfkl duggmfgmf mgmhgmrfrltnhnfkl kl ymrmrgmfgr.

Kmymfdg vl adsntglfhlyl dmr knrlfgninr hltmg aghms flklfnygl, lgldtragnzgl

dmpgmhm nglhnfkl kl duggmfgr. Parslglf vl cmh smfmynglrnfkl, dmgc vl

pmrgmd hmvn rlfjnf rltnghlsnfkl daimgttuzgmr duggmfghmdtmkr.

Daimgt zmyo rlmdsnyaf yltlflnfl smenptnr. Msntglrkl adymvm zfr, emvmkm ad ymvm darazyafm urmr.

Ol9+ vl Ol3+ tuzgmrfkm agkuu jnin Ca9+ zlrnfl CF-

ngmvlsnygl inr snymfr inglnn dlgnr.

Ca9+ + 9 CF- Ca(CF)9 Daimgt inglndglrnfklf CaSA; dayu hmvn

Ca(E9A)?CN9 plhil, Ca(E9A)?(FA3)9 drhz rlfdgnknr.

Fndlg Pmsgmfhmz lgnd imtm aghmd zlrl,

darazyafm knrlfgn mgmhgmrf lgklsnfklduggmfgr.

Imdr-fndlg mgmhgmrfkmf ympgmf tpglr,klfnz suyufkmf tmtg su lgkl lknglftlsnsglrkl duggmfgr.

Hmklfn pmrmgmrf, fndlg-dmkhnyuh pngglrnfvl zre dmpgmhmgmrff ymphfkm kmymrmrgmfgr.

Fndlg dmpgmhm, knlr hltmgglrn daruyucuzlggndtlknr.

Darazyafm dmr kmymfdg agkuufkmflgldtragnzgl dmpgmhm km tlrcne lkngnr.



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Fndlg inglndglrnfklf

FnCN9 smr FnCN9 .?E9A ylng

FnSA;.?E9A ylng Fn(FE3)?(FA3)9 md hmvn rlfdgnknr. Fndlg enkrablfglhlkl dmtmgnzr agmrmd duggmfgr.

Fndlggn lgndglr darazyafm kmymfdg, slrt vl smgmhkrgmr.

Pmggmkyuh Enkrablf ldglhl vl dmrhm

tlpdnhlglrnfkl sd duggmfgmf inrdmtmgnzrkr.

Mgmhgmr, duyuhcugud mgmffkm kmduggmfgr.

rflnf ilymz mgtf, mgtf lglhlftnfnfpmggmkyuh ngl aguturkuu inr mgmhkr.

Kn eldnhgnnfkl, dag smmtn ymphfkm,slrmhndglrl hltmg dmtghms nglhglrnfkl,lgldtrnd rglglrnfkl vl mhlgnymt mgltglrnfnfymphfkm duggmfgr.

Pgmtnf Gmiarmtuvmr dmpgmrff, iazufhmym

kmymfdg jlrlglrnf, tlgglrnf vl sgugmrfymphfkm,

duyuhcugudtm, kn eldnhgnnfkl vllgldtrnd daftmdgmrfkm duggmfgr.

Pgmtnf-daimgt mgmhgmr jg hmfyltndzlggnd jstlrnr.

Pgmtnf rlznstmfs tlgglrn, ad ydsldscmdgdgmrkm mgmf lgldtrndgn orfgmrfymphfkm duggmfgr.

Mrmimgmrkm emvm dnrgngnnfn fglyncnkafmfhgmrf ymphfkm, ozlglrnf udafnglrnfnf vl blt hatargmrffmzgdgmrff dmpgmhmsfkm,

iyd jlhnglrnf, klfnzmgt iaru emtgmrff vl lgndklstldglrnf dmtaknd daruhm snstlhglrnfkl kl pgmtnfklfymrmrgmfgr.

Sgornd msnt lgklsnfkl vl pltrag rfglrnfnf nglfhlsnfkldmtmgnzr agmrmd pgmtnf duggmfghmdtmkr.

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