Gendered Muslim Voices in Twentieth-Century Egypt

IsaWoman’sVoice‘Awra?:GenderedMuslimVoicesinTwentieth-CenturyEgypt

JayYeo

AthesissubmittedtothefacultyattheUniversityofNorthCarolinaatChapelHillinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthedegreeofMasterofArtsintheReligiousStudies

Department(IslamicStudies)intheCollegeofArtsandSciences.

ChapelHill2018

Approvedby:CarlErnstJulianeHammerMichaelFigueroa

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©2018JayYeo

ALLRIGHTSRESERVED

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ABSTRACT

JayYeo:IsaWoman’sVoice‘Awra?:GenderedMuslimVoicesinTwentieth-CenturyEgypt(UnderthedirectionofCarlErnst)

“Isawoman’svoice‘awra?”isaquestionthataboundsononlinefatwaforumsand

expressesthecontemporaryconcernsurroundingtheappropriatenessofMuslimwomen’s

voicesrelativetotheirbodies.Thispaperpresentsaninitialforayintothehistoricalroots

ofthisquestionbyexaminingwomen’svoicesintwentieth-centuryEgyptwithparticular

attentiontotheimpactofaudiotechnologies.Iarguethatwomen’svoicesbecameasiteof

culturalcontestationduringtheearlyandmidtwentiethcentury,whichcombinedwiththe

anxietiessurroundingreligioninthe1970sand1980swithriseofthe“NewIslam”to

producethiscontemporaryquestion.IdrawattentiontothepoliticalstakesofMuslim

women’svoicesintwentieth-centuryEgypt,specifically,andpointtothebroaderrelevance

ofwomen’svoicesacrossdiversecontexts.Farfromconclusive,thispaperoffersan

argumentthatinturnposesmanymorequestionsforfurtherhistoricalandethnographic

investigation.

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TABLEOFCONTENTS

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….1

“IsaWoman’sVoice‘Awra?”……………………………………………………………………………….1

EgyptandGeographicalFocus…………………………………………………………………………….3Politicsof(Muslim)SoundandVoice…………………………………………………………………………….7 ThePoliticalStakesofSoundandVoice……………………………………………………………….7 Sound,Voice,andListeninginMuslimTraditions………………………………………………10 VoiceintheQur’anandHadith………………………………………………………………………….15Women’sBodiesandtheVisualinColonialEgypt:TheHijabDebates……………………………………………………………………………………………………….20 AWoman’sBody:TheSiteofCulture…………………………………………………………………20 WomenandReligion/Secularism………………………………………………………………………23 ReligiousPracticeandClass………………………………………………………………………………27 Sight,Sound,andGender…………………………………………………………………………………..28Mediated(Gendered)Voices:TheIntroductionoftheGramophoneandProliferationoftheRadio………………………………………………………………….31 TheGramophoneEraandtheCultivationofTasteandPractice………………………….32 RadioandtheSexualizationoftheSonic……………………………………………………………37Cassettes,the“NewIslam,”andWomen’sVoices…………………………………………………………..44 CassettesandInfitah…………………………………………………………………………………………44

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WomenandtheReligious-Secularinthe“NewIslam”………………………………………...47 Women,Voicing………………………………………………………………………………………………..50 TechnologyasSocialCommunication,theVoice,andClass…………………………………52 Television,SatelliteTV,andthe“FīdīyuKlīb”Era……………………………………………….55“AreWomen’sVoices‘Awra?”:PreliminaryConclusionsandFutureResearch……………….59Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….63

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Introduction

“…MisogynyaboundsinthepronouncementsofmanyIslamic‘scholars’and

‘imams’…Thepromotionofsuchnegativityagainstwomenhasledmany‘scholars’

and‘imams’tomaketheunsubstantiatedrulingaboutfemalespeech.Theyclaim

thatwomenshouldlowertheirvoicetowhispersorevensilenceexceptwhenshe

speakstoherhusband,herguardianorotherfemales.Thefemaleactof

communicationhasbecometosomeasourceoftemptationandallurementtothe

male.”1

“Yes,womenareorderedtoavoidfitna;therefore,iflisteningtoawoman’svoiceentices

men,sheoughttoconcealit.”2

“IsaWoman’sVoice‘Awra?”

Typingsawtal-mar’a,woman’svoice,intotheGooglesearchbarwillyield a page full

of results, all of which include in their title, “Is a woman’s voice ‘awra?” The majority of these

1Yusufal-QaradawiisacontemporaryEgyptianscholarwhodedicatesasectionofhisIslam101siteto“Islamandwomen.”Onthispage,“TheVoiceofaWomaninIslam,”heoffershisopinionthatwomen’svoicesarenottobediminishedorsilencedandcriticizesscholarsandimamsforsayingotherwiseandprovidesQur’anicsupportforhisposition,citingQur’an28:23,33:32,and33:53alongwithacoupleofhadithtosupporthisposition.Thefactthatthereisafullpagedevotedtowomen’svoicesaspartofan“Islam101”websitesuggeststheprominenceofthequestionandthesubsequentfeltneedtosubstantivelyaddressit.Yusufal-Qaradawi,“TheVoiceofaWomaninIslam,”Islam101,http://www.islam101.com/women/qaradawi.html.2SalihbinFawzanal-Fawzan,“IsaWoman’sVoice‘Awra?”Islamway.net,https://ar.islamway.net/fatwa/7640/%D9%87%D9%84-%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A3%D8%A9-%D8%B9%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9.ThispostisinArabic,andthetranslationismyown.

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sites are online fatwa forums where one can seek a legal opinion (or two or three, often

depending on one’s satisfaction with the first) from the comfort of one’s computer or mobile

device. While searching “woman’s voice” in English produces alistofresultsthatreflectsa

metaphoricalunderstandingofvoiceaspresenceorparticipation,addingthecontextual

modifier“Muslim”resultsinalistmuchliketheArabic.Theseresultsareillustrativeof

concernofwhetherawoman’svoiceis‘awra,orofthepartsthatshouldbecoveredor

nakedness.Theanswertothisquestion,furthermore,isnotsettledwithvariousiterations

ofbothsidesofthedebatereflectedintheresponsesoftheshaikhs,imams,andscholars.

Thesetwoexamples,whileanecdotalandnotrepresentativeoftheworldofonline

fatwas,letalonetheMuslimcommunitiesofwhichtherequestersareapart,areoneofthe

manifestationsofagrowingconcernaboutMuslimwomen’svoicestakingplaceonaglobal,

thoughnotuniversal,scale.3Thepresent-daydebatesurroundingwomen’svoicesisnotan

entirelynewquestion,asmedievalscholarshipillustrates,butratherisaresurgent

questionarisinginanewforminwhichwomen’svoicesareofparticularconcernandare

understoodinrelationtotheirvisual,genderedandsexualizedbodies.Itisaquestion

aboutvoiceexpressedinlanguageofthevisualthatreflectsthecolonialheritageof

women’sbodiesinculturaldebatesand,similartothediscoursesurroundingthehijab,

reflectstheongoingstruggletonavigatethepost-colonialterrainasaMuslimwoman.

3SeeforexampleRasmussenandGadefordiscussionsofwomenQur’anrecitersinIndonesiawherewomen’svoicesdonotappeartobeunderstoodasacatalystforfitnaastheyareinotherpartsoftheworld.JulianeHammeralsodrawsattentiontothevoiceandonlinefatwaforumsandtheirimplicationsforgender,space,andpracticeinAmericanmosques.AnnaGade,PerfectionMakesPractice:Learning,Emotion,andtheRecitedQur’aninIndonesia(Honolulu:UniversityofHawai’iPress,2006);AnneRasmussen,Women,theRecitedQur’an,andIslamicMusicinIndonesia(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2010);JulianeHammer,AmericanMuslimWomen,ReligiousAuthority,andActivism :MorethanaPrayer(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,2012)144-145.

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Thedebatessurroundingwomen’svoicesthereforeparallelmanyofthe

developmentssurroundingthehijab,thoughtheydivergeatkeypointsbecauseofthe

sensorialdifferenceandtheunderstanding,construction,andmanipulationofbothsight

andsound.Theintroductionofaudiotechnologyduringthecolonialperiod,which

mediatedsoundfromvisualbody,isthereforeoneofthekeysitesinwhichthe

contestationssurroundingthesonicvoiceandthevisualbodycanbeidentifiedandalsoa

siteinwhichtheywerenegotiatedandnavigated.4Audiotechnologiesposednew

questionsregardingthevoiceatthesamewomenbecameobjectsofculturalcontestduring

thecolonialperiod,atrendthatcontinuedthroughthenationalistagendasofthemid-

twentiethcenturyuptothepresentday.This,inturn,positionedwomen’svoicesassitesof

controlanddebateastheywerecollapsedintothevisualbody.Thisformulationofthe

question–Isawoman’svoice‘awra?–comesasaresultoftheimportanceofwomenand

theirrepresentationsduringthetwentiethcentury,theabilitytoseparatevoicefrombody

enabledbyaudiotechnologies,andthesubsequentappearanceofthevoiceasasiteof

neo/colonialdebateaboutwomen’sbodies.

EgyptandGeographicalFocus

Thoughtheconversationofawoman’svoicebeing‘awraisoccurringonaglobal

scale,assuggestedbythevariouslanguagesandcountrydomainsrepresentedonthe

onlinefatwaforums,IwillbedirectingmyattentiontotheEgyptiancontextforpractical

researchconsiderationsandbecauseofEgypt’sgeographical,scholarly,andeconomic

4Whilethe“colonialperiod”isdifficulttopindownasaresultoftheongoinginteractionbetweenEgyptandEuropepriortothetwentiethcenturyaswellasthecontinuingimpactoftheseinteractionstothepresent,Ifollowthecommondesignationofthecolonialperiodasoccurringbetween1882atthetimeofBritishoccupationupuntilthefinalwithdrawalofBritishforcesandtheoverthrowofthemonarchyin1952.Asexpressedinthepaper’stitle,however,muchofmyanalysisfocusesonthetwentiethcentury.

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positioninthesedebatesduringthetwentiethcentury.InthefollowingIhighlightsomeof

keyreasonsforstartingwhatIaimtobeanongoingengagementwiththisquestionin

Egypt.Thispaperwilltakeamorenarrowgeographicalfocustoaconcernthatisexpressed

onaninternationalscaleandwillthereforeofferconcretecontributionstothescholarship

onEgyptduringthetwentiethcentury.Ialsoendeavorinsodoingtouncoversomekey

questionsandareasofinquirythatmaybefruitfulforfutureprojectsinothercontexts.

Practically,thereismorescholarshipavailableinEnglishandArabiconcolonial

Egypt,musicandsoundinEgypt,politicsandsocietyinEgypt,MuslimwomeninEgypt,and

recordingtechnologyinEgyptthaninotherMuslim-majorityareasthatweresubjectto

colonialcontrol.Consideringthegeneralpaucityofmaterialonthistopic,Ihavetherefore

optedtobeginwhereIhaveaccesstoscholarshiponrelatedandintersectingtopics.

Inadditiontothepracticalconsiderationofavailableresources,Egypt’shistorical

positioninrelationtoscholarlyinfrastructure,colonialism,audiotechnologiesandsound,

anditsregionalimportancesituateitasagoodfocalpointforsuchanalysis.Egypthasbeen

andcontinuestoberecognizedasaleaderineducationandscholarship,especiallyIslamic

educationaswellasQur’anrecitation,perhapsbestrepresentedbythehistoricaland

contemporaryprestigeofal-AzharUniversityinCairo.Itthereforealsohadarichscholarly

andintellectualinfrastructureduringthecolonialperiodthatengagedindebates

surroundingthesetopicsandproducedscholarshiponthem.5This,combinedwithits

geographicalproximitytoEuropeandhistoryofeconomicandmilitaryconnectionstoand

5Forexample,variousformsofprintpublicationsaboutmusicbeginsurfacinginEgyptinthelateeighteenthcentury.AliJihadRacy,“MusicinNineteenth-CenturyEgypt:An[sic]HistoricalSketch,”ElectedReportsinEthnomusicology4(1985):166.

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exploitationbyEuropeanpowers,meantthatEgyptwasthesubjectof,contributorto,and

alsoanauthorityonintellectualthoughtduringthistime.

Furthermore,byvirtueofthesameconnectionstoEurope,Egyptwasoneofthefirst

Muslim-majorityplacestoacquireandputtouserecordingtechnology,whichprompted

earlyengagementandwritingonvoiceaudiotechnologies.Consideringthescholarlyclout

ofEgyptianthinkers,theearlyarrivalofrecordingtechnologyaswellaspresenceofprint

technologythatcreatedbroadcirclesofdistribution,scholarshipregardingsound,music,

andaudiotechnologyalsoservedasareferentformanyotherMuslimcommunities.6

Relatedly,upuntilrecentlywhenithasfacedincreasedinternationalcompetition,Egypt

hashadastronghandovertheinternationalArabic-languagerecordingandfilmindustries,

whichresultedinthemassdistributionofEgyptianmusic,Qur’anrecitationstyles,and

film.7Thoughthesevariousmediaandthisscholarshipwerenotsimplyand

unproblematicallyadoptedbyallwhomtheytouched,theyshapedandinfluenced

engagementwith,forthepurposesofthisproject,sound.Egyptthereforeiswell-positioned

asastartingpointinconsideringgenderedvoiceinboththepracticalaccesstoresources

6MichaelFrishkopf,forexample,discussesthewayEgypt,andespeciallyCairocametoberegardedasthedestinationformusicproduction,drawingpeoplefromallovertheworldandparticularlyfrommajorityArabic-speakingcountries.MichaelFrishkopf,“Introduction,”inMusicandMediaintheArabWorld,ed.MichaelFrishkopf(Cairo;NewYork:TheAmericanUniversityPress,2011),12-14.ItwasalsoKingFu’adIwho,ontherecommendationofRodolphed’Erlanger,helptheCairoCongressofArabMusicin1932,theaimsofwhichwererevitalization,preservation,andstandardizationofArabmusicalongWesternconceptionsandstandardsofwhatArabmusicandcultureshouldbe.Seethesectionentitled,“Mediated(Gendered)Voices:TheIntroductionoftheGramophoneandProliferationoftheRadio,”pp.30-42ofthispaper;AnneThomas,“InterventionandReformofArabMusicin1932andBeyond,”CongrèsdesMusiquesdanslemondedel’islam,Assilah(2007):8-13.7ThoughinthisworkFrishkopf’sfocusisonQur’anrecitation,heconsiderstherecordingindustrygenerallyinhisdiscussion.MichaelFrishkopf,“MediatedQur’anRecitationandtheContestationofIslam,”inMusicandthePlayofPowerintheMiddleEast,NorthAfrica,andCentralAsia,ed.LaudanNooshin(Burlington,VT:Ashgate,2009),75-114.

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aswellasitsrelatedhistoricalrelationshipsandimpact,thoughitcannotserveasa

representativeforotherorallMuslimcommunities,pastorpresent.8

Inmyanalysisofwomen’svoicesincolonialEgypt,Iwillfirstaddressthepolitical

andsocialimportanceofsoundandvoiceanddiscusstherelevanceandsignificanceof

theminIslamictraditions.Iwillfollowthisbytracingdiscoursessurroundingwomen’s

bodiesduringthecolonialperiodandtheirinterplaywiththoseofvoice.Next,Iwill

examinetheroleofaudiotechnologiesandthesubsequentmediationofvoiceandbody

beforemovingintoadiscussionoftheimpactofthedevelopmentsofthesediscoursesfor

thecontemporaryquestionofwhetherawoman’svoiceispartofher‘awra.Byfollowing

thistrajectory,Iwilldemonstratethatduetothecontestationssurroundingwomen,

women’sbodies,andsoundthatensuedinresponsetocolonialisminEgypt,women’s

voicesbecamearenewedsiteofdebateandcontrolthatresultedintheconjoiningofvoice

andthevisualbodyexpressedinthecontemporaryquestion,“Isawoman’svoice‘awra?”

IncludingthevoiceinthinkingaboutMuslimwomen’sbodiesanddiscoursessurrounding

themthroughanexaminationoftherecentconcernaboutawoman’svoicebeing‘awra

thereforebringstotheforefrontanothersignificantandoftenoverlookedaspectofgender

andIslam

8Thisisbothconceptuallyclearinconsiderationofthecomplexpracticesofexchange,distribution,andreceptionaswellasmademanifestlyapparentintheverydifferentapproachtogenderandgenderedvoiceinIndonesia,forexample(seenote3above).Itshouldalsobenotedthatthefocusofthispaperduringthefirstpartofthetwentiethcenturyis,evenmorespecifically,centeredonCairo,asitwastheprimarylocusofthesevariousintersectinghistoricalstrands.WiththegrowinginterconnectednessofEgyptundercolonialismaswellasthroughthenationalistoutlookduringthemid-twentiethcentury,manyofmajorcitiesparticipatedinthesameculturaltrends,thoughruralareashave,andcontinuetobe,lessintegratedintourbandiscoursesandmovements.

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Politicsof(Muslim)SoundandVoice

ThePoliticalStakesofSoundandVoice

Whilethehijabasavisible,genderedbodilypracticehasdrawnextensiveattention

tothesocialandpoliticalsignificanceofsightinrelationtocolonialism,questions

regardingsoundandvoiceinMuslim-majoritycontextshaveonlymorerecentlyemerged

asanareadeservingofconsideration.Thegrowingrecognitionofthevalueofincluding

soundinsocialandpoliticalanalyses,thoughitdoesnottakeupthespecificquestionofa

woman’svoicebeing‘awra,laysthegroundworkforconsideringthewaysMuslimwomen’s

voicescametobeasiteofsocialandpoliticaldebateatatimeinEgypt’shistorywhen

fundamentalculturalandreligiouspracticeswerebeingquestioned,theeffectsofwhich

continuetobeseentoday.9

PerhapsthemostcanonicalworkthataddressessoundinEgyptisCharles

Hirschkind’sTheEthicalSoundscape:CassetteSermonsandIslamicCounterpublics,inwhich

hedemonstratesthewaysoundandsoundpractices,inhiscasecassettesermons,actively

impactpoliticalrealities.10Heemphasizeshearing,drawingonthetraditionsofIslamic

scholarshipthathaveplacedthemoralresponsibilityonthelistenerratherthanvoicer,and

drawsattentiontotheroleofsoundinshapingaffectandinthecultivationofaselfthatin9Importanttonotehereisthat“political”isnotactingasastand-infordemocracyoraneo-liberalagendaof“givingvoice”to“oppressed”and“repressed”women.Rather,inthecaseofwomen’svoiceincolonialEgypt,itisaimedatattendingtoconstructionsofwomen’svoicesastheyarevariouslycreated,debated,andnavigatedduringthetwentiethcentury.10CharlesHirschkind,TheEthicalSoundscape:CassetteSermonsandIslamicCounterpublics(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2006).

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tunewiththeidealself.11Sound,Hirschkindargues,isan“acousticarchitectureofa

distinctmoralvision”thatconstructsthosepracticescompatiblewithreasonandprogress

asdesirablewhileexcludingthosethataredisfavored.12WorkingfromWilberg’s

conceptionofcommunication,Hirschkindillustratestheperformativityof(sonic)

communicationanditsfoundationinaffectthatconditionsthepossibilitiesofvoicing,

hearing,andlistening.13Sound,farfrombeingtheinconsequentialbackgroundnoiseof

society,activelyshapesthesocialandpolitical,evenwhenitisnotbeingconsciously

registeredasdoingso.ContinuingHirschkind’sattentiontotheaffectiveimpactofsound,

LaudanNooshinidentifieskeywayssoundastypeofmoving,andactivelyconstructive

acousticarchitectureoperatesonmultiplelevels.Itissimultaneouslyaspacefor

promoting,resisting,andsubvertingideologyandauthority;alocationofsymbolicpower;

andthesiteofsocialcontroland/oragency.14

Writingamidstsomeofthesameculturalshiftsthatcreatetheissuesunder

considerationbyHirschkind,Foucault’sconceptofethicalworkhelpfullyelucidatesthe

importanceofsonicpracticesinthecreationofthesubject.Sonicpracticescanbeseenas

sociallycommunicativeandconstructiveethicalwork,particularlyfollowingtheidealized

bifurcationofreligious-secularandtheintroductionofindividualizedmusicpractices

11Ibid.Inusing“affect,”IfollowMassumi’shelpfuldistinctionbetweenemotionassomethingthatisconsciouslyexperiencedbyasubjectandaffectthatispre-subjective.BrianMassumi,ParablesfortheVirtual:Movement,Affect,Sensation(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2002).12Hirschkind,16.13Hirschkind35,citingPeterWilberg,“ChargingtheQuestion:Listening,Questions,andtheCounselingDialogue,”(nolongeravailableonline).14LaudanNooshin,“Prelude:PowerandthePlayofMusic,”inMusicandthePlayofPowerintheMiddleEast,NorthAfrica,andCentralAsia,ed.LaudanNooshin(Burlington,VT:Ashgate,2009),3.

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affordedbytechnology,inwhichoneengagesinparticularpracticesinordertocultivate

thecorrectaffectiveorientationthatwillallowonetorealizetheethicalidealinasocial

setting.15Byvoicing,oneconditionsthepossibilitiesofsubjectformationand,drawingon

NooshinandHirschkind’semphasisonthesocialityofsonicpractices,thepossibilitiesfor

others.Thiscultivation,however,doesnotfollowpolarorunidirectionalschemainwhich

theconceptionofanidealsubjectiscreated“outthere”andtheninternalizedasindividuals

attempttomodelthemselvesafterthatideal.Rather,thepracticesthemselvesconstitute

thepossibilitiesofsubjectformation.SabaMahmood,forexample,thoughdealinglesswith

sound,demonstratesthewaysbodilyandrepresentationalpracticesarenotonlypartofan

internalpietybutalsoarepoliticallyactive.16Inthecaseofsoundandthecassettesermons

underdiscussionbyHirschkind,playingthecassettesermons,whetherathomeafteralong

dayatwork,inacab,orinapublicvenue,activelyconstructsthepublicarenaas

individuals’playbackdecisionsarenotonlyanindividualpursuitbutalsosocially

communicative.17Intherealmofmusic,asLohmanillustratesinheranalysisofUmm

Kulthum,soundwasaspacewherelistenerswerepersonallyempoweredduringatimeof

politicalandeconomicupheavalinEgyptandalsocreatedanewpublicandnational

15MichelFoucault,CareoftheSelf,trans.RobertHurley,vol.3ofTheHistoryofSexuality(NewYork:VintageBooks,1998).16Thoughnotdealingwithsound,SabaMahmoodalsowritesaboutthepoliticalsignificanceofbodilypractices,includingthevisualpracticesofthebodysuchaswearingahijab,showingthewaythatthesepracticesconstituteapoliticallyimpactfulhabitus.SabaMahmood,PoliticsofPiety:TheIslamicRevivalandtheFeministSubject(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,2005).17Hirschkind.

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consciousness,especiallyfollowingthe1967defeat.18Soundpractices,ratherthansimply

individualpracticesofinternalizationandimitation,are,toborrowNooshin’slanguage,

socially,politically,andideologicallyagentive.

Thevoiceisoneaspectofthisin-fluxacousticarchitectureandameansthrough

whichitisconstructed.Itisperformative:Itisaprocessthatactivelyconstructs,

dismantles,andshiftspossibilitiesofsubjectformation,publics,andpowerrelationships.

Moreover,itistightlytiedtoaffectwiththeabilitytobesociallyandpolitically

communicativeandimpactfulevenwhenitisnotconsciouslythoughttodoso.Thevoice,

aswillbediscussedinthefollowing,isalsoperpetuallyunsettledbetweenvoicingand

listeningasitisbothproducedandlistenedto,whetherliveormediated.This

unsettlednessallowsthevoiceaswellastherolesofthevoicerandthelistenertobe

variouslyconstructedfordifferentpurposes,whethertopromoteorresist,controlor

subvert.Inthecaseoftwentieth-centuryEgypt,thevoiceshiftsbetweenemphasesonthe

voicerandlistener,thereligiousandthesecular,andcontrolandagency.Women,

spotlightedduringthistimeasindicatorsandrepresentationsofculture,arethereforeboth

subjectsofcontrolanddebateaswellasagentswithuniquelypositionedsymbolicpower.19

Women’svoices,then,becomeaprimesiteofwheretheculturalstrugglesofcolonialism

andthosefollowingthecolonialperiodareplayedout,exercised,enforced,andresisted.

Sound,Voice,andListeninginMuslimTraditions

18LauraLohman,“‘TheArtistofthePeopleintheBattle:’UmmKulthum’sConcertsforEgyptinPoliticalContext,”inMusicandthePlayofPowerintheMiddleEast,NorthAfrica,andCentralAsia,ed.LaudanNooshin(Burlington,VT:Ashgate,2009).19Aswillbediscussedfurtherlater,thisunsettlednessandpropensityformovementthroughitsaffectiveimpact,positionthevoiceasakeysightofcontrolandagency,asitisconstantlyimaginedtothreatentoundercutrationalthoughtbydirectlyshapingpre-subjectiveaffect.Hirschkind,134.

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Thequestionofwomen’svoiceisparticularlyinterestinginaMuslim-majority

contextwheresoundandsoundpracticesarecentraltoreligiouspracticeandanareaof

heightenedattentionandconcern.OneofthemostlaudedcharacteristicsoftheQur’an,

comingoutofthepre-IslamicArabiancontextinwhichrecitedpoetrywaswidely

appreciatedandoccupiedaprivilegedculturalposition,isitssoniccharacteristics,though

itdistancesitselffromhuman-madepoetryandistreatedassuperiortopoetryand

music.20ThebeautyoftherecitedQur’aniscited,forexample,innumeroushadithreports

andhistoricalnarrativesasthecauseforconversion,opponents’surrenderinbattle,and

militarysuccess.21Thistraditionofattentivenesstosoundiscontinuedintothepresent

day,asevidencedbyWilliamGraham,NavidKermani,andMichaelSells’,amongothers,

emphasisontheaestheticqualitiesoftherecitedQur’anandtheirpowerfulimpacton

affect,emotion,andmeaning-making.22Ethnographersandethnomusicologistshave

similarlynotedtheimportanceoftherecitedQur’aninthecultivationofparticularaffective

sensibilities,thedevelopmentandexpressionofemotioninindividualsandcommunities

orgroups,andtheshapingoflocalandtransnationalpoliticalpossibilities,asbothgoaland20Qur’an36:69.ForadiscussionofQur’anrecitationinEgyptandthewaysQur’anrecitersnavigatethemusicalandpoeticintheirrecitationoftheQur’an,seeKristinaNelson,TheArtofRecitingtheQur’an(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,1985).21Perhapsoneofthemostwell-knownconversionstoriesisthatof‘Umar,whowouldlaterbecomethesecondcaliph.Whilesearchingforhisdrinkingcompanions,‘UmarpassedbytheKa’bawhereheheardMuhammadrecitingtheQur’aninhisprayers.‘UmarwasovercomewithemotionatthesoundoftheQur’an:“‘…myheartwassoftenedandIwept,andIslamenteredintome.’”AsKermanipointsout,thisstoryisonlyoneofmanythathavebeentoldandretoldtoevidencethepoweroftherecitedQur’an.NavidKermani,“TheAestheticReceptionoftheQur’anasReflectedinEarlyMuslimHistory,”inLiteraryStructureofReligiousMeaningintheQur’an,ed.IsssaJ.Boullataa(Richmond,Surry:Curzon,2000),261.22SeeWilliamGraham,BeyondtheWrittenWord:OralAspectsofScriptureintheHistoryofReligion(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1993);WilliamGrahamandNavidKermani,“RecitationandAestheticReception,”inTheCambridgeCompaniontotheQur’an,ed.JaneDammenMcAuliffe(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2006);NavidKermani,GodIsBeautiful:TheAestheticExperienceoftheQuran(Cambridge,UK;Malden,MA,USA:PolityPress,2015);MichaelSells,ApproachingtheQur’an:TheEarlyRevelations(Ashland,OR:WhiteCloudPress,2006).

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resultofrecitingtheQur’an.23TheQur’an,then,powerfullyoperatesintherealmofsound

whereaffect,emotion,meaning,andpoliticsarenavigatedthroughitsrecitation.

ThecontinuedemphasisontheoralityandauralityoftheQur’anhasconsequently

positionedsoundasoneofthekeyareasofreligiouspractice.Ithasthusgivenriseto

substantialliteratureanddebatearoundpropermodesofrecitationwithparticular

attentiontopreservingtheQur’an’si’jaz,orinimitability.Throughthedistancingofthe

Qur’anfrompoetryanditspositioningassuperiortopoetrybecauseofitsi’jaz,it

simultaneouslydrawsattentiontotheareasofoverlapbetweentheQur’anandhuman-

madepoetry.Throughitsdistancing,itthereforesetsupanunsteadydialectic,theborder

betweenthetwosidesofwhichisconstantlyinneedofpatrollingandregulation.A

significantamountofinkhasbeenspilled,forexample,onwherethelimitbetweenthe

beautificationofone’svoiceinQur’anrecitationandtheimpositionofhuman-made

innovationsontotheQur’anlies.Similarly,therehavebeenongoingdebatessurrounding

thepermissibilityofpoetry(whetherexplicitlyreligiousornot),instrumentalmusic,and

vocalmusicandbywhom,inwhichcontexts,andunderwhatconstraints.24Asaresultof

thecentralityoftherecitedQur’anandtheongoingdebatesarisingoutofthetense

connectiondrawnbetweenitandhuman-madesounds,soundhasbeenandcontinuesto

beasiteofheightenedattentionandinterestfornavigatingreligiousandculturalpractices.

ThesedebateshavebeenparticularlynoticeableintheEgyptiancontextbecauseof

itsscholarlyinfrastructureandprestige,includingEgyptianQur’anrecitationstyles.Ithas23SeeFrishkopf,“Introduction;”Frishkopf,“Mediated;”Nelson;Gade;Rasmussen;PieternellavanDoorn-Harder,WomenShapingIslam:ReadingtheQur’aninIndonesia(Urbana;Chicago:UniversityofIllinoisPress,2006).24SeeNelson,forexample,whodiscussestheongoingnegotiationrequiredtoachieveanidealrecitationoftheQur’an.

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consequentlybeenthesiteofreligiousandideologicaldebatesandpowerstruggles,

particularlywithSaudiArabia,whoseQur’anrecitationstyleshavebeengrowingin

popularityandcompetingwiththeEgyptianstyles.InwhatMichaelFrishkopfhastermed

theideologizationofQur’anrecitation,soundcontinuestobeasiteofongoingreligious

debate.25Thisfocusonsound,comingoutofthetenserelationshipbetweentheQur’anand

poetryandmusic,washeightenedwiththeintroductionofaudiotechnologiesandbecomes

ofparticularconcernforwomenastheybecomethefocalpointincolonialcontestations.

Forexample,whilerecordingandbroadcastingtheQur’anwasseentoopenupchannels

forwiderwomanlistenerparticipationandthereforelaudable,womenwerealsoactively

excludedfromusingtheirownvoicesforpublicandpublicallymediatedQur’anrecitation.

Upuntilthe1930s,whenwomen’svoicesinQur’anrecitationweredeclared‘awraby

Egyptianradioofficials,womenhadinfact,throughatleastthenineteenthcentury,been

abletobeprofessionalQur’anreciters.26Asthesecontemporaryexamplesandscholarship

illustrate,soundisnotonlyhistoricallyorideallyimportantinMuslimtraditionsbut

continuestobehighlyrelevanttocontemporarypracticesanddebates.

Importanttonoteinadditiontothegeneralsignificanceofsoundaretherelative

rolesoflisteningandvoicinginMuslimtraditions.AsHirschkindandothersexplain,there

issubstantialemphasisplacedonlisteningandtheearandlisteningasanagentiveactin

Muslimthoughtandliterature.27Theresponsibilitylieswiththelistenertocultivatethe

25SeeFrishkopf,“Mediated”regardingtheideologizationofQur’anrecitationstylesbeginninginthe1970sand80s.Thiswillbeaddressedmorefullyinthesectionstofollow.SeealsoNelsonontheprominenceofdebatessurroundingrecitation,poetry,andsoundinEgypt.26SeeFrishkopf,“Mediated,”83,n.25.27SeeHirschkind,especiallyhisintroduction;Gade;andNelsonfordiscussionsoflistening.

14

correctmoraldispositionwithwhichtoapproachQur’anrecitation,poetry,ormusic.As

illustratedbythesameliteratureandevidencedincontemporaryethnographicliterature,

thoughthereisanemphasisonhearingaspartofaninteractionalpractice,tarab,inwhich

thevoicerandthelisteneraremutuallydependentononeanother.28Thevoicerdepends

onthelistenerstocome“readytolisten,”whoalsorelyonthevoicertoactivateand/or

heightentheirexperience,whotheninturnreliesonthelistenerstovoiceresponsesas

encouragementortohighlightparticularlymovingpassages,inanongoingfeedbackloop.

Thevoiceoperatesbetweenboththelisteningandthevoicing,asitisbothactively

receivedanda/effectiveaswellasproducedandcreativelyresponsive.Thevoiceis

subsequentlyopentoanalysisonboththelisteningandvoicingsidesofthisloopwhilealso

drawingattentiontothedifficultyinseparatingthem.Thequestionexpressedin“Isa

woman’svoice‘awra?”however,isdirectlyconcernedwithwhethervoicingispermissible

forwomenandinwhichcircumstances.Aswillbediscussedinthesectionstofollow,

despitethetraditionofcultivatingtheearandastheemphaticfocusonvoicinginthis

questionexemplifies,thevoicingaspectofthevoicegainsprominenceduringthetwentieth

centuryinEgyptwiththeintroductionofaudiotechnologies,particularlythecassetteand

especiallyinregardtowomen’svoices.

Thevoicehasbeenandcontinuestobeahuman-relationalaspectofsoundin

Muslimtraditions,inwhichsoundoccupiesapositionofimportanceinnavigatingthe

religiousandcultural.ThisongoingattentiontoandconcernaboutsoundinEgypt

combineswiththemoregeneralrecognitionofthesignificanceofsoundinquestionsof

28Thoughaspreviouslydiscussed,Qur’anrecitation,poetry,andmusicaretreatedseparatelyfromoneanother,theyutilizethesameinteractiveandaffectiveaestheticpractices.Foranillustrationoftheirsharedstylisticandperformativefeatures,seeVirginiaDanielson,“The‘Qur’an’andthe‘Qasida:’AspectsofthePopularityoftheRepertorySungbyUmmKulthum,”AsianMusic19,no.1(1987):26-45.

15

cultureandpoliticstomakeitakeyareaofanalysisandwindowintothedebates

surroundinggenderduringthetwentiethcenturyandwhyitisatthistimethatthe

questionofwhetherawoman’svoiceis‘awrasurfaces.

VoiceintheQur’anandHadith

Theconcernexpressedinthequestionofwhetherawoman’svoiceis‘awraisone

regardingthepermissibilityofvoicing,inwhichcircumstances,andunderwhich

constraints(ifany).BecausethisquestionoperatesinaMuslimframeworkandisdirected

towardensuringpropermoralbehaviorandpractice,itisusefultotracktheQur’anand

hadithpassagesthatarecitedinscholars’responsesandonwhichtheirresponsesrely.

DoingsorevealstheuseofwhatappeartoberelativelyrecentinterpretationsofQur’anic

verses,likelysurfacingoverthelastcenturyandahalf.29WhiletheQur’anhasbeenand

willcontinuetobemultiplyinterpreted,whatisinterestingaboutthesemorerecent

interpretationsisthequestionstheyraiseastowhytheseinterpretationsandwhynow.

OneofthemostoftcitedversesisversenineteenofSuratLuqman(31:19),which

reads,accordingtotheSahihInternationaltranslation,“Andbemoderateinyourpaceand

loweryourvoice;indeedthemostdisagreeableofsoundsisthevoiceofthedonkeys.”It

may,however,becitedonlyinpartwiththelasthalfoftheverse,“indeed…,”being

29BecausethisprojectisnotfocusedontrackingQur’aninterpretation,anin-depthanalysisofthisphenomenonliesoutsidethescopeofthispaper,thoughitproposesitselfasaninterestingandusefuldirectionforfurtherresearch.TheapproximatetimeframegivenfortheappearanceoftheseinterpretationsissuggestedbasedontheabsenceoftheinterpretationsunderconsiderationinthetafsiroftheJalalain,completedin1505inEgypt,andthefactthatwomenwereabletobeprofessionalQur’anrecitersinadditiontomen,thoughwithlessfrequencyandsurroundedbymorecontroversy,inEgyptsincethe1800supuntilthe1930sand1940s(seenote27above).Danielson,“The‘Qur’an’andthe‘Qasida,’”28.

16

excluded.30Theremainderoftheverse,“Andbemoderateinyourpaceandloweryour

voice,”isthenappliedexclusivelytowomenasaninjunctionnottospeakinanalluringor

enticingwaytomen.31Interestingly,itisasoftvoicethatisconsideredtobeparticularly

problematicandenticinginthesameopinionsthatinterprettheverseinthisway,sowhat

resultsisanobligationtoatoncelowerone’svoicewhilealsonotmakingone’svoicesoft.

Thismixedmessageiscompoundedbythewordtranslatedas“lower.”Theverbcomes

fromtherootgh-ḍ-ḍ,whichisusedtomeantobecome fresh or succulent, especially when

applied to women, in addition to meaning to lower one’s gaze.32Inlightofthecontrastwith

thedonkey,“lower”couldalsobeinterpretedasmakingone’svoiceagreeable,ratherthan

abrasivelikeadonkey’s.

Whatisperhapsmoresignificantfortheinterpretationofthisverseisthelarger

contextofthesuraandthisparticularpassagewithinthesura.Thesurabeginsaddressing

the“doersofgood”withoutanygenderdistinction,andposestheversestofollowas

guidanceforthem.33Afterseveralversesencouragingrightactionandwarningagainst

wrong,thesuramovesintothetopicofitsnamesake,Luqman.Thefollowingsection,of30SeeIslamWeb,“Women’sVoicesinQur’an,”http://www.islamweb.net/emainpage/index.php?page=showfatwa&Option=FatwaId&lang=E&Id=84462;IslamWeb.“Woman’sVoice.”TheFatwaCenter.http://fatwa.islamweb.net/fatwa/index.php?page=showfatwa&Option=FatwaId&Id=157777.Whilenotafatwaforum,awomen’sforumthatcitesthesameverse,https://www.gwf-online.org/pens/11197/%D8%A8%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B0%D8%A7-%D8%AA%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%91%D9%8E%D8%B2%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%86%D8%AB%D9%89-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B0%D9%83%D8%B1%D8%9F-2/.31ThisresultsfromtheinterpretationofQur’an33:32,discussedbelow.32“gh-ḍ.”ArabicAlmanac.http://ejtaal.net/aa/#hw4=804,ll=2356,ls=5,la=3262,sg=774,ha=538,br=693,pr=112,aan=452,mgf=649,vi=271,kz=1875,mr=471,mn=1008,uqw=1172,umr=786,ums=664,umj=582,ulq=1286,uqa=314,uqq=265,bdw=h642,amr=h467,asb=h702,auh=h1153,dhq=h405,mht=h665,msb=h177,tla=h79,amj=h574,ens=h1,mis=h1586.33Qur’an31:3.

17

whichversenineteenisapart,isLuqmanaddressinghissons,notwomen,andexplaining

howtodorightly.Thevoiceofthedonkeyiscontrastedwithhavinganappropriatevoice,

whichinturnstandsinoppositiontotheboastfulnesswarnedagainstintheprevious

verse.Whenviewedinitsentiretyinwithinthelargerpassageandsura,versenineteencan

alsobeinterpretedwithsubstantialtextual,structural,andlinguisticsupportasadvising

the“doersofgood”againstbeingboastfulandraisingtheirvoices.

AsimilarinterpretativeapproachisusedforSuratal-Ahzab,versethirty-two

(33:32),inwhichthewivesofMuhammadareaddressedandinstructed“nottobesoftin

speech,”soasnottotemptmenwithimpureintentionsordesires.Thisversehas

subsequentlybeeninterpretedasapplyingtoallwomenandtomeanthatwomeneither

shouldnotspeakwithasoftvoice,thoughttobealluring,ornotspeakwithnon-mahram

men.34Itisthisinterpretationofthisverseinconjunctionwiththeinterpretationofverse

nineteeninSuratLuqmandiscussedabovethatresultsintheambiguousdutytolower

one’svoicewhilenotbeingsoftinspeech.35Incontrast,Suratal-Ahzab,versefifty-three

(33:53),inwhichMuhammad’sguestsareinstructedtoaskhiswivesfrombehinda

curtain,isusedtosupportthepermissibilitybutregulationofwomen’svoicesinrelationto

theirbodies.Inseveralonlinefatwaforumswithsuchaninterpretiveoutlook,askingis

understoodtoimplyansweringandthereforethepermissibilityofwomenusingtheir34See,forexample,al-Fawzan,MuhammadibnAdam,“TheFemaleVoiceandSinging,”IslamQA,http://islamqa.org/hanafi/daruliftaa/7914;MuhammadSaalihal-Munajjid,supervisor,“IsaWoman’sVoice‘Awra?”IslamQuestionandAnswer,https://islamqa.info/en/26304;al-Munajjid,MuhammadSaalih,supervisor.“Women’sVoicesintheFieldofAnimation.”IslamQuestionandAnswer.https://islamqa.info/en/140315.MuhammadSalihal-‘Uthaymin,“IsaWoman’sVoice‘Awra?”IslamWay,https://ar.islamway.net/fatwa/16477/%D9%87%D9%84-%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A3%D8%A9-%D8%B9%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9;35Qur’an49:1-49:3isapproachedsimilarlytoQur’an31:19.Qur’an49:1-3isaddressedtobelieversandexhortsthemnotto“raise[their]voice[s]abovethevoiceoftheProphetorbeloudtohiminspeechliketheloudnessofsomeofyoutoothers.”Notonlyistheversenotexclusivelyaddressingwomen,theoccasionoftherevelationisthoughttobewhenThabitbinQays,aman,raisedhisvoiceoverthevoiceofMuhammad.

18

voicestocommunicatewithmen(inthiscase,non-mahrammen),whilethecurtainisused

tosupportvariousregulationsonthecircumstancesofspeech,includingthevisual

distancingofthebody.36

Whiletheseversesareusedtosupportparticulardetailsofgenderedvoice

practices,whatissignificantamidsttheexegeticalargumentsisthenoveltyofthe

interpretationsand,inparticular,theirapplicationtowomenexclusively,evenwhenthe

textdoesnotsingleoutwomengenerallyandseemstoresistthistypeofinterpretation.

Thequestion,therefore,isnotwhichinterpretationis“correct,”butratherwhyitisthat

theseinterpretations,whichappeartobeunprecedentedinthiscontext,surfaceatthis

time.

Thisisnottosay,however,thatpriortotheappearanceoftheseinterpretationof

verses,thepermissibilitywomen’svoicesincertaincontextswasnotdrawnintoquestion.

Thisisperhapsmostclearlydemonstratedthroughthecitationsofhadithandscholarly

tafsirs,manyofwhichwerewrittenduringthemedievalera,bythesameonlinefatwa

forums.Suchnotableexegetesasal-Qurtubi,AbuBakral-Jassas,andIbnAbidinare

regularlycitedwiththeircommentaryonthepermissibilityofwomensayingtheadhan,

theimproprietyoflearningfromamanQur’anreciter,singing,andotherrelated

situations.37Whatisuniqueinthecontemporaryquestionofwhetherawoman’svoiceis

36Theregulationsonwomen’svoicessignifiedbythecurtainoftenrelatetoappropriateappearanceandaudience.Forexampleanopinionmightstipulatethatawomanmustbewearingahijabwhenspeakingtonon-mahrammen,whileothersmightsaythattheymustbeseparatedbyacurtainorothermoresubstantialbarrier,regardlessofdress.SeeMuhammadSaalihal-Munajjid,supervisor,“ManTeachingWomenQur’aanMemorizationfromBehindaScreen.”IslamQuestionandAnswer.https://islamqa.info/en/83032;IslamWeb“ListeningtoWomenGiveIslamicLecturesonYouTube.”http://www.islamweb.net/emainpage/index.php?page=showfatwa&Option=FatwaId&Id=246091.37Itshouldbenoted,however,thatthereliabilityofsomeofthequotationsfromhistoricalscholarsisquestionable.Whetherbecauseofviewingdifferentversionswithdivergentpaginationorsomeotherreason,

19

‘awraisthecollapseofawoman’svoiceintohervisualbodyandthesurfacingofthis

concernfollowingaperiodwhen,despitetheopinionsrecordedinhistoricaltafsirs,

womenhadbeenabletousetheirvoicesinabroaderarrayofcircumstances,including

Qur’anrecitation.Whiledebatessurroundingtheappropriatenessofwomen’svoicesin

variouscontextsarenotinthemselvesnew,theformtheyhavetakenandtherenewed

interestinengaginginthemare.38

IwasnotabletolocatethepassagesquotedfromIbnAbidin’sRaddal-MuhtarorIbnHumam’sFatihal-QadirbyMuhammadibnAdaminhisresponsetoaquestionregardingthepermissibilityofwomensinging.MuhammadIbnAdam,“TheFemaleVoiceandSinging,”IslamQA,http://islamqa.org/hanafi/daruliftaa/7914.38Interestingly,anothernewaspectofthedebatessurroundingwomen’svoicesistheinterpretationoftheQur’an.Inmanyofthetafsirscitedbycontemporaryscholars,onlineorinprint,favorthecitationofhadithandprevioustafsirstoelucidatetheirposition.Now,however,thestressseemstobeplacedonQur’anicprecedentfortheiropinions,asevidencedbytheinterpretationsmentionedabove.Thoughonlyanunprovenintuitionatthispoint,Isuspectthatthis,whatseemstobeaprioritizationofinterpretingtheQur’anratherthanrelyingonhadith,ispartofthesamemovementtowardstextandQur’anexegesiswitnessedinthemodernera.

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Women’sBodiesandtheVisualinColonialEgypt:TheHijabDebates

Whilelittlehasbeenwrittenonwomen’svoicesduringthecolonialperiod,thereis

asubstantialbodyofliteratureonthehijab.Thedebatessurroundingthehijab

demonstratethewaysthatwomenandwomen’sbodiescametorepresentcultureand

culturalattainmentandwerecontrolledandusedbycolonialpowersandthoseresisting

them.Tracingthecontoursofthesedebateswillthereforeilluminatetheshifting

conceptualizationsofwomenandtheirbodiesatplayduringthecolonialperiodwhilealso

demonstratingtheprioritizationofsightoversoundinboththedebatesaswellasthe

literatureaboutthem.

AWoman’sBody:TheSiteofCulture

Parallelingtheresurgentcharacteroftheconcernaboutawoman’svoice,the

debatessurroundingthehijabthatcametotheforefrontduringthecolonialperiodwere

notentirelynoveloraquestionwithoutprecedent.AsLeilaAhmedandothershaveshown,

thequestionofwhetherwomenshouldwearahijab,whichwomen,inwhich

circumstances,andwhichtypeofhijabhavebeenthesubjectsofdiscussionsforcenturies

andwereparticularlyprevalentduringtheAbbasidera.39Theyresurfaceduringthe

colonialperiod,however,aswomenwerepositionedasindicatorsofcultureincolonial

strugglesoverculturalpracticesandsuperiority.Europeanmodernistspointedtothehijab

asanindicationoftheculturalbackwardnessofIslam,whereasEgyptianswhosupported

39LeilaAhmed,WomenandGenderinIslam:HistoricalRootsofaModernDebate(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1992).

21

variousversionsofIslamicmodernismarguedthatthehijabwasevidenceoftherespect

forwomeninIslamandtheirelevatedstatus.40Womenandtheirbodieswerethereforethe

subjectofdebateintheseculturalcontestations.Thehijabbecameabattlegroundforthese

culturalconflictsaswellasanindicationofideologicalsuccessorfailure.Wearingornot

wearingahijabwasreadintermsofthestrugglebetweenEuropeandIslam,andtomakea

decision,regardlessofwhichdecisionitwas,wasapoliticalstatement.

Atthesametime,however,theOrientalWomanoftheharamwasalso

hypersexualizedandtheobjectofEuropeandesire.Thewoman’sbodywasthuspositioned

asboththeobjectofdesireandalso,withthehijab,theobstacletotheattainmentofthat

desire,mirroringthelargercolonialdynamicinwhichthelandsunderMuslimcontrol

werebothwhatwasdesiredandalso,becauseofIslam,theobstacletoit.41Towearornot

towearthehijabwasthenapoliticalstatementunderstoodintermsofsexualizedwomen’s

bodies:tochoosenottowearahijabwasreadbycolonialpowersandtheiralliesas

freedomfrom“oppressivereligion”byallowingvisualaccesstoasexualizedbody,whileto

choosetowearthehijabwasreadasthemisuseofthefreedomofchoicebyoptingfor

repressive(andinappropriatelypublic)religionthatdisallowedwomen’ssexuality.To

choosetowearthehijabornot,notonlydemonstratedone’sassumedadoptionor

rejectionofaEuropeanviewofthehijabbutwasalsoevidencefortheredemptive

40Thisviewisreflectedintheopeningquotationbyal-Qaradawi,whocitestherespectthatwomenreceiveinIslam,whichisrealizedbywearingthehijab,asexplainedelsewhereonhiswebsiteinanarticleauthoredbySehminaChopra.SheminaChopra,“LiberationbytheVeil,”Islam101,http://www.islam101.com/women/hijbene.html.41TomokoMasuzawa,TheInventionofWorldReligions,or,HowEuropeanUniversalismWasPreservedintheLanguageofPluralism(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2005),183.

22

possibilitiesforIslamandEgyptortheinherentbackwardnessofIslamiccivilization,which

inturnwastiedtowomen’ssexuality.42

Thoughwomenbecameobjectsofdiscourse,theyalsohadsignificantsymbolic

powerandtherebysocialagency.AsbothBadranandBarondemonstrate,womenwere

activelyengagingwiththesediscoursesandusingtheirsymbolicpowertobothsupport

andchallenge,variouslycritiquingthecolonizer,traditionalgenderroles,and/orclass

distinctions.43Bydoingso,womenwerecreativeagentsofsocietythroughtheiruseofthe

hijab,asonemeansamongmany.44Thoughthelanguagehadbeendeterminedbythe

emphasisonwomenandtheirsexuality,especiallytheirappearance,women’sengagement

withanduseofthislanguagewasfullofcreativepossibilities.Itwasasiteofbothsocial

controlandagencythroughitssymbolicpower,whichwomencoulddeployasachallenge

tocolonialimpositions,recognitionoftheirsexualitywithinIslamaswellasoutsideofit,

refusaltobedefinedbysexuality,participationintheeconomy,demonstrationofthe

42Theroleofwomenandwomen’ssexualityincolonialdebateshasbeendocumentedanddiscussedmanytimesover,fromtheearlyandpivotalOrientalismbyEdwardSaidtoAhmed’sWomenandGendertomorecontemporaryworksuchasSabaMahmood’sPoliticsofPiety.SeeAhmed;SabaMahmood,PoliticsofPiety:TheIslamicRevivalandtheFeministSubject(Princeton:UniversityPress,2005);andEdwardSaid,Orientalism(NewYork:PantheonBooks,1978).43MargoBadran,Feminists,Islam,andNation:GenderandtheMakingofModernEgypt(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1995),generallyandespeciallychaptertwo,”ClaimingPublicSpace,”47-60;BethBaron,TheWomen’sAwakeninginEgypt:Culture,SocietyandthePress(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1994.44WhileIamfocusinghereonthehijabbecauseofitsoperationinvisualrealmaswellastheavailabilityofliteratureonitincontrasttothatonvoice,Idonotsuggestthatitistheonlyorprimarywaywomenweresocialandpoliticalagents,for,asBaronshows,womenweresociallyandpoliticallyactiveinmanyways.ThoughIamconsciousofthedangersofreifyingthefocusonthehijabasacultural,religious,andpoliticalsymbolandwomen’ssexualized,visualbodiesbydiscussingthehijabhere,itismyaimtotakeintoconsiderationsignificanceofthehijabinshapingthelivesofwomenduringtheperiodunderconsiderationinordertobegintomapnewpossibilitiesofthinkingaboutgenderinrelationtosound.

23

abilitytobeMusliminthemodernworld,critiqueofpredominantgenderrolesand

expectations,orthemanyotherpossibilities.45

WiththeadoptionofEuropeaneconomicpoliciesandculturalpracticesintheearly-

tomid-twentiethcenturyinEgypt,therewasamoveawayfromthehijabasthe

governmentstrovetoincreaseparticipationofwomeninmixedgenderpublicspaces,

particularlyintheeconomyandeducation.WithEgypt’sdefeatin1967,mounting

economicunrest,andcompetitivepressurefromincreasinglywealthyandsuccessful

WahhabiSaudiArabia,womenbegantowearthehijabinincreasingnumbersduringthe

1970s,atrendthathascontinuedtothepresentday.46Thismovementtowardthehijab

continuedtobeunderstoodbythecoloniallogicdiscussedabove,aswomenoptedfornew

formsofIslamicmodernismafterthefailureofEuropeaneconomicandculturalpractices.

EvenwiththemorerecentrecognitioninEuro-Americanscholarshipoftheadoptionofthe

hijabasaformofmultiplecritique–critiquingthelocalsocialconditionswhilealso

critiquingtheongoingneocolonialdemandthatawomanexposeherbodyinordertobe

“free”–thatwomen’sclothingandtheirdecisionsabouttheirbodiesshouldbeconsidered

thecentralsiteandmarkerofdebateistheresultofaplayingfieldsetthroughthecolonial

period.47

WomenandReligion/Secularism

45See,forexample,Ahmed,125-248;Mahmood;andBadran,Feminists.46Seethesection,“Cassettes,the“NewIslam,”andWomen’sVoices”inthispaper.SeealsoAhmed;Badran,Feminists;Frishkopf,“Mediated.”47Ahmed;Mahmood;onmultiplecritique,seemiriamcooke,“MultipleCritique,”inPostcolonialism,Feminism,andReligiousDiscourse,ed.LauraDonaldsonandKwokPui-lan(NewYork:Routledge,2002).

24

Whilethediscussionaboveisonlyasketchofamuchbroaderareaofinquiry,the

conversationssurroundingthehijabillustratethewaywomencametobetheobjectsand

actorsofmuchattentionduringthecolonialperiod,construedastheindicatorsand

representativesofculturalandideologicaldebates.Becauseofthisspotlightingofwomen,

variousotherconceptual,politicalandeconomicshiftscometobemappedontowomen

andtheirbodies,includingthedivisionbetweenthereligiousandsecularwiththeprime

operatorinthesedivisionsbeingtheindividualagent.

Oneoftheconceptualframeworksthatcomestotheforefrontduringthisperiodis

thedivisionbetweenandcreationofthereligiousandthesecular.48Inusingtheseterms,it

isimportanttonotethattheidealsof“religion”and“secularism”arethemselves

contemporarilycontestedanddebated,as,forexample,secularisexposedashaving

religiousunderpinnings,attheveryleast,andassharinganearlyindiscernibleborderwith

“religion.”The“religious”andthe“secular”thusrepresentidealsthatareneverfully

actualized,whetherinEuropeorabroad.Asideals,however,theyarepoliticallyactiveand

wereidealsoperativeatthetime,thoughtheywerebuiltuponChristian-European

conceptionsofreligion.Theythereforealsomotivateandbuilddiscourses,eveniftheyare

themselveshighlyproblematiccategories,andattendingtothemandthewaythey

operatedintwentieth-centuryEgyptdrawsattentiontohowandwhywomen,theirvoices,

andtheirbodiescametobedebatedinsuchawaysoastogiverisetothequestiondriving

48Whilethisobservationhasbeenechoedbynumerousauthorsandisthesubjectofasubstantialamountofliterature,ahelpfuloverviewofthehistoricaldevelopmentofreligionandsecularismandtheirdivisionfromoneanothercanbefoundbyBrentNongbri,BeforeReligion:AHistoryofaModernConcept,(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,2013).Iuse“creation”heretoalludetothedevelopmentofaconceptofreligioninoppositiontosecularismthatcomesoutofaparticularChristian,Europeancontext.Withthisview,secularismisexposedasbeingaproductof“religion”andisnecessarilydependentuponit.Aswillbediscussedinthefollowing,thisoppositiondemandednewconceptualarrangementsofreligion,public,private,andwomen’srolesinthem.

25

thisinvestigation.Inusing“religion”and“religious”asdistinctfrom“secularism”and

“secular,”Iaimtocapturetheidealizedpolaritythatanimatesthecontestations

surroundingwomenratherthantoascribetothemaninnate,monolithic,natural,superior,

oractualizedcharacter.

Withinthisconstructedandidealizedpolarity,the“secular,”asmentionedaboveis

infacttightlyintertwinedwiththe“religious.”Religion,ontheEuropeanmodernistview,

wasideally,thoughoftennotactually,tobeaprivateaffairanddidnothaveplaceinthe

public,whilesecularismwasthetobetheruleinpublic,asinglepublicthatwastobe

sharedbybothmenandwomen.49Thus,asseenabove,suchoutwarddisplaysofreligion

asthehijabwereseentobeaninappropriateincursionofthereligiousintothepublic,

whilebodilyandsexualfreedom,signaledbytheabsenceofthehijab,weretobeseenas

therealizationoffreedomandtherejectionofoppressivereligion.Thebifurcationof

religionandsecularism,oppressionandfreedom,wasalsoadivisionbetweenreligionand

sexualitywithwomenasthecentralmediators.Religion,accordingtothismodeofthought,

waspositionedinoppositiontosexuality,andsexuality,orrathervisibleexpressionsof

sexuality,wassupportedademonstrationofthefreedomsofsecularism.50Thechoiceto

49This,asBadranillustrates,wasanidealthatwasstrictlypatrolledandoftendivergedfrompractice.WhileinclusionofwomeninthepublicspherewaslaudedbyEuropeancolonialists,theyoftenputupbarrierstotheirinclusion.CitingafearofnationalistmotivationbehindEgyptianmodernists’effortstoallowwomentomatriculateintouniversityintheearlytwentiethcentury,colonialofficialsstalledtheirefforts.Badran,Feminists,52-56.Fearsofnationalistmotivationsarenolongercitedwiththeoverthrowofthemonarchywhentheofficiallinewasanationalistone,buttherewere,asdiscussedhere,veryparticularexpectationsofthetypeofparticipationappropriateforwomen.50FatimaMernissipointstothisoppositionbetweenreligionandsexuality,arguingthatitistheproductofaparticularlyChristianviewofsexualityandwasnotcharacteristicofMuslimsocietiespriortocolonialismwhenitbecamethedominantarrangement.FatimaMernissi,TheVeilandtheMaleElite:AFeministInterpretationofWomen’sRightsinIslam(Reading,MA:PerseusBooks,1991),44.Itisalsoimportanttonoteherethatthisconstructionofsexualfreedomandsecularismisbasedinamisogynisticframeworkinwhichwomenarereductivelyessentializedassexualandobjectsofsexualdesireandpleasure.The“liberation”ofwomen,therefore,istheliberationofwomenfromtheirveilsotheycanbe“freely”enjoyedbymen.

26

wearthehijabornotwasconsequentlyadecisionofpoliticalimpactandexpressionthat

reifiedorcontestedthereligion/private-secular/publicaswellasthereligion/(sexual)

repression-secular/(sexual)freedomdivides,placingwomenatthecenterofthedebate.

Alldidnotadoptthisschema,thoughpropoundedasitwasbycolonialpowers.Two

predominantcompetingdiscoursessurfaced:secularnationalism,whichadoptedinwhole

orinpartthecolonialconceptualframework,andIslamicmodernism,whichdeniedthe

religion/(sexual)repression-secular/(sexual)freedomdivisionandheldIslamtobe

compatible,andoftenparticularlyso,withmodernityandsocietalsuccess.51Regardlessof

thediscourse,however,womencontinuedtobemarkersofcultureandevidentiary

supportforonesideortheother.52Women’svisualrepresentationsofthemselvesthrough

thehijabweremarshaledassupportforthevarioussidesofthedebates,andtheirbodies

cametobeunderstoodintermsofthem.

Whatemergesoutoftheattemptstonavigatetheshiftingterrainsofreligion,

secularism,sexuality,public,andprivateistheconstantunderlyingemphasisofwomen

andtheirbodiesascontestedsitesininterconnectedandintertwinedculturaland

ideologicalstruggles.Aswillbediscussedinthefollowingsectiononmediationandthe

introductionofaudiotechnologies,thecentralityofwomeninthesedebatesissimilarly

apparentintherealmofsoundwiththeaddedconsiderationsofmediatingthesoundfrom

thebody,thealready-othernessofsound,andthedangersposedbysoundinaframework

ruledbytherational.

51SeeBadran,Feminists,onthedevelopmentofthesetwodiscourses.52Ibid.

27

ReligiousPracticeandClass

Theconditionsofcolonialismthatplacedwomeninsuchaprominentpositionwere

notlimitedtothediscursiveorconceptual,however,andinsteadhadsignificantpractical

implications,includingclassimplications.AsAhmed,BadranandBarondemonstrate,

religionandsecularclassandeconomicswere,infact,tightlyintertwined.53Inthe

centuriesproceedingthecolonialperiod,thehijab,commonlywornbynon-Muslimwomen

aswell,hadbeenusedinmultiplecontextsasamarkerofacombinationofclass,

occupation,andmaritalstatus.Duringthemidtwentiethcentury,wearingahijabwasless

popularatatimewhenprogressandupwardmobilitywerelinkedtotheadoptionofthe

idealsofEuropeanmodernism.Itwasthereforeisolatingandlimitedwomen’seconomic

mobilityasitwascharacteristicassociationoflowerclasswomen.54Torejecttheidealsof

Europeanmodernismandwearahijab,then,hadtangibleeffectsonwomen’seconomic

possibilities.Theseeffectswere,however,directlyconditionedbytheidealssurrounding

women’sbodiesandtheirsexualizationandthetiesbothtothedebatesofthereligious-

seculardividehighlightedabove.

Inthe1970s,however,whenmanyEgyptiansbecamedisenchantedwiththe

EuropeanmodelthathadonlyresultedinEgypt’s1967defeatandeconomicstrugglesand

womenincreasingbegantowearthehijab,itaidedinsocialmobility.Maintainingthe

separationbetweenreligionandseculareconomics,education,andclassalongEuropean

modernistlinesfelloutofvogue,andeconomicandclasssuccesswaslinkedwithwhatwas

seenasmorestrictreligiousobservance,signifiedbythevisualpresentationofwomen’s

53Ahmed;Badran,Feminists,Baron.54Ahmed.

28

bodies.Towearahijaballowedonetoengageineducation,participateinthejobmarket,

andnavigatepublicspaceswhilestillmaintainingtheauthorityandrespectofbeing

religiouslyobservant.55Themovetowardtheadoptionofthehijabbeginninginthe1970s

wasalsomoreexplicitlyplayedoutonaninternationalstageandincompetitionwithSaudi

ArabianWahhabism.Thefieldofcontestationoverandthroughwomenwasexpandedto

aninternationalscalenotonlywithEurope,butalsowithcompetingregionalpowerswho,

inthecaseofSaudiArabia,seemedtobeflourishingunderamoderntraditionalist

approachtoreligion.Economicsuccesscametobeassociatedwithreligiousobservance,

signifiedbywomen,notonlyasindividualwomenandfamiliesstrovetowardgreater

economicmobility,butalsoastheEgyptianstatecompetedwithitsneighbors,particularly

withtheintroductionoftelevisionandtheconsequentialproliferationandbroader

geographicaldistributionofimagesofwomen.56Thesocialandclassmobilityaffordedby

thehijab,whetheronanindividualorstatelevel,however,onceagainremainedafunction

oftheforegroundingofwomeninculturaldebates.

Religiouspracticewasthustiedtoeconomicopportunities,whethercreatingthem

orlimitingthem,aswomencontinuedtobethesitesofdebate.Thewaywomenbodily

engagedwiththeshiftingdiscoursessurroundingreligionandreligiouspracticewerenot

onlyconceptuallyimportantbutalsobroughtwiththemconcreteeconomicandclass

implications.

Sight,Sound,andGender

55Ahmed.56SeeFrishkopf,“Introduction;”Frishkopf,“Mediated;”PatriciaKubala,“TheControversyoverSatelliteMusicTelevisioninContemporaryEgypt,”inMusicandMediaintheArabWorld,ed.MichaelFrishkopf(Cairo;NewYork:TheAmericanUniversityPress,2011).

29

Followingthedebatessurroundingthehijabandbrieflyconsideringtheir

connectionstoclasshavedemonstratedthediscursiveshiftsthatoccurredduringthe

colonialperiodthatplacedwomenandtheirbodiesatthecenterofthedebate.Uptothe

present,muchofthediscourseonwomenduringthecolonialandnationalistperiodsas

wellasthepresentdayhasfocusedonvisualrepresentationsofwomen’sbodies.57Suchan

emphasisonsightisitselfaproductofEuropeanmodernitythatislinkedtotheremove

thoughttobeallowedbytheeyeforrationalconsiderationandjudgmentincontrasttothe

dangerousimmersivenessoftheearthatriskssubvertingremoved,rationalthought.

Sound,moreover,comestobeassociatedwithreligionandthenon-rationalincontrastto

sightanditsassociationswiththesecularandrational.58The“important”areaof

consideration,then,wasthevisual.Concernforandwiththevisualthusdominatedand

continuestodominatediscoursesofpowerandrepresentation,includinginEgyptandin

discoursessurroundingwomeninEgyptandMuslimwomengenerally.59Withthevisualas

theauthoritativemodeofanalysisanddiscourse,thelanguageofthevisualbecamethe

languageofdiscussion,critique,anddebate.

Meanwhile,ashasbeendiscussedaboveandwillbecomemoreapparentinthe

following,soundhascontinuedtohavesignificantsocial,political,andreligious

57Evencontemporarycritiquesoftheculturalplayingfieldsetthroughcolonialismandthecontinuing,thoughlessobvious,modesofneocolonialismfocustheirattentiononthevisualbodywithlessconsiderationofvoice.Presentdaycritiquesofthevisualwillbediscussedlater,inthesectionentitled“Television,SatelliteTV,andthe“FīdīyuKlīb”Era.”58SeeHirschkind’sdiscussionoftheeyeandearinhisintroduction,14-44.59Ibid.ThiswillbediscussedlaterinconnectiontotheEgyptiancontext.Seenote45regardingthedominanceofthediscussionofthehijab.

30

ramifications.Thishasbothhelpedtogiverisetoandshapethequestionofwhethera

woman’svoiceis‘awra.Thequestionitselfisformulatedinthelanguageofthevisual,as

evidencedbytheuseof“’awra,”whichgenerallyreferredtothosepartsofthebodythat

oneshouldcoverfromsight.Thepresenceofthequestionatall,aswillbedemonstratedin

thefollowingsection,isaresultofthetransformationsthatoccurredinsoundinregardsto

womenduringthecolonialandnationalistperiodsthathaveprimarilygoneunaddressed

and,muchinthewayfearedbyEuropeanmodernists,operatedundertheradar.60

60Seenote19.

31

Mediated(Gendered)Voices:TheIntroductionoftheGramophoneandProliferationofthe

Radio

InhersurveyofresponsestoAminaWadud’sleadingtheFridayprayerin2005,

LaurySilversnoteshowman-ledprayerhasbeen“pipedover”toroomsforwoman

congregantsadjacenttothemainprayerhall.Shesuggeststhatthesamemightbedone

withawoman’svoice,inthecasethatawomanleadsprayerandgenderseparationis

maintained.However,neithersheatthetimeofwritingthearticle,norIhavefoundan

exampleofthisbeingdone.61Thoughthesightofawoman’sbodyis,asSilvers’article

attests,theprimaryreasongivenfortheimproprietyofwoman-ledprayer,women’svoices

seemalsotobeacentral,ifoftenunnoticed,concern.62

WhiledirecttreatmentsofgenderandvoiceduringthecolonialperiodinEgyptare

difficulttocomeby,thediscourseandliteraturesurroundingsoundinrelationtothe

introductionofaudiotechnologiesillustratesthewayssoundwasorganizedandcontrolled

withandthroughthem.Theseprocessesresultinwomen’svoicesbeingconstruedinterms

ofasexualitythatissimultaneouslylaudedandcriticized.Meanwhilesoundcomestobe

organizedaccordingtoEuropeanconceptualizationsofculture,taste,religion,and

performancewithwomen’svoicesonceagainatthecenterofthesestruggles

61LaurySilvers,“’IamOneofthePeople:’ASurveyandAnalysisofLegalArgumentsonWoman-LedPrayerinIslam,”JournalofLawandReligion26,no1(2010-2011):141-171.62AwelcomeexceptiontothistrendisJulianeHammer,whodrawsattentiontotheimportanceofvoiceforpossibilitiesofleadership,space,andparticipationinherchapter,“Space,Leadership,Voice.”Hammer,124-146.

32

TheGramophoneEraandtheCultivationofTasteandPractice

AudiotechnologieswereintroducedinEgyptrelativelyearlywiththeforeign

recordingcompanies,mostnotablyBritishGramophone,firstproducingaudiorecordings

in1904.63Forthefirstpartofthetwentiethcenturyuntilthemoreaccessibleradiocame

onthesceneinthe1930sand1940s,havingandlisteningtoaudiorecordingswasaartistic

pleasureofthewealthy,asthetechnologywasprohibitivelyexpensiveforwidespreaduse.

Followingtheclassicalcolonialparadigm,thesonic“rawmaterial”wasrecordedby

Britons,processedandproducedinEuropeintheformofrecords,andthensoldbackto

Egyptians.64Meanwhile,thosewithaccesstoagramophonewereabletolistentoclassical

Europeanmusic,whichwasportrayedasbeingculturallysuperiorandpossessingahigh

degreerefinementandperfectionincontrasttoArab,andespeciallyIslamic,music.Already

duringthisperiodoflimitedaccesstoaudiotechnology,thereappearsadivisionbetween

themodernandsecularandthetraditionalandreligious,asthepursuitandcultivationof

musicalartistryitselfcomestobeseenasrepresentativeofaflourishing,moderncultured

society.65

Assoundwasbifurcatedalongthesecular-religiousboundarywithEuropeanmusic

asthemodelofthemodern,therealsoaroseanostalgiaforpre-mediatedEgyptianmusic.66

Inresponsetothefeltneedtobethoroughlymodernwhilealsomaintainingrootsin

Egyptianculture,thesecular-religiousEuropeanmodernistmodelwasappliedand

63Frishkopf,“Introduction,”6-7.64Ibid.,14.65Thomas,1.66Ibid.,5.

33

integratedintoEgyptianmusicalculture.Perhapsoneoftheclearestearlyexamplesofthis

istheCairoCongressofArabmusic,athree-weeklongconferenceheldinthespringof

1932byKingFu’adIonthesuggestionsofbaronRodolphed’Erlanger.Cairo,alreadya

centerofscholarshipandmusic,hostedscholarsandperformersfromthroughouttheArab

worldand,significantly,Europe.67Thestatedgoaloftheconferencewastoattainthe

degreeofrefinementpresentinEuropeanmusic,premisedontheideathatArabmusicwas

indeclineandwasinneedofsimultaneousrevitalizationandpreservationofitsmore

perfectheritage.68Inordertocarryoutsuchamonumentaltask,hundredsofperformances

weregivenandrecordedandacommitteejurysystemwasimplemented,eachcommittee

requiredtohaveaminimumofoneEuropean,todefine,delimitate,andstandardizeArab

music(particularlyincontrasttoPersianandTurkishmusics).69Thoughtheconference

didnotresultinsuchaclearlydefinedaccountofArabmusicasKingFu’admighthave

liked,itdidproduceaArabictuningsystem,recommendationsonusingEuropean

instrumentsbecauseoftheir“superiorexpressivequalities,”andacollectionofrecordings

takentoberepresentativeofArabicmusicatthetime.70

67ScholarsinEgyptwerealsoalreadyproducingprintedmaterialaboutmusicbytheendofthenineteenthcentury.Thisinadditiontothescholarlyandculturalcloutofal-AzharUniversityandthecloseconnectionswithBritainmadeCairotheideallocationtohostsuchanevent.SeeFrishkopf,“Introduction,”1-5onEgyptduringtheearlygramophoneera.68Thomas,3.WhileanevolutionarydevelopmentalapproachwastakentomusicandtheshortcomingsofArabmusicwereexplainedintermsofthestrengthsofEuropeanmusic,Arabmusicitselfwasnotnecessarilyunderstooddeficientbutwasthoughttohavebeencorruptedbythelazinessandneglectofthecontemporarymusicians.69Ibid.,3-13.TheconcernwithdifferentiatingArabfromPersianandTurkishmusicsforeshadowsthePanarabistattitudeofNasserandalsoindicatestheawarenessofEgyptoperatingonaglobalmusicalstage.ThisisperhapsparticularlyrelevantasEgyptestablishesitselfasastateinitsownrightonaglobalstagewithitsowncolonialintentionswiththeSudanand,later,inthecontemporaryperiodinrelationtoSaudiArabia.70Ibid.,3.

34

Theaudiotechnologyitselfalsotransformedsonicpractices.Priortothe

introductionofthegramophone,music,poetry,andQur’anrecitationtookextended

lengthsoftimeoftenspanningtensofminutestoanhour.Therecord,however,was

limitedtotwotofourminutesofrecordingperside,dependingonsizeandspeed.This

requiredmusiciansamputatelargesectionsoftheirperformanceinordertomakeitatthe

three-minutemark,orelsehaveitbrokenintomultiplesections.Inadditiontolimiting

timeandconsequentlytheformofmusic,thegramophonealsodisruptedthetarab

aesthetic,astheresponsibilityandweightofperformancewasshiftedontothemusicians.71

Therewasnomechanismbywhichalistenercouldinteractwiththemusiciansorthe

musicianswiththelistenerexceptthroughtheexchangeofmoneyforagood;instead,

musiciansperformedintoahornforalengthlessthanfiveminutes,aprocessthat

producedarecordtobeconsumedbylisteners.Althoughthelengthlimitationswere

alleviatedbylateraudiotechnologies,thechangeintarabaestheticandsignificanceof

capitalsuccessremained.72

ThegramophoneeraandtheearlyengagementswithmediatedandEuropeanmusic

alsoresultedinashiftinperformerswithnewsponsorshipofgentlemanperformers

supportedbyboththewealthyandthegovernmentandsubsequentsubordinationof

“vulgar”andmorallyquestionablepopularperformers.Priortomediation,musicians,

singers,andentertainerswereorganizedbyguildsandhadalowersocialstatus.Withthe

introductionofaudiotechnologiesandthegrowingconcernforcultivatingmusicaltaste

71Foreffectofrecordingtechnologyontarabaesthetic,seeFrishkopf,“Introduction,”7;AliJihadRacy,“RecordIndustryandEgyptianTraditionalMusic:1904-1932,”Ethnomusicology20,no.1(1976):23-48;andRacy,“MusicinNineteenth-CenturyEgypt.”72SeeFrishkopf,“Introduction,”7,forexample,commentingonthetransitionfromgramophonetoradio.

35

andstyleasrepresentativeofculturealongtheEuropeanmodel,thegovernmentandthe

wealthysupportedthereplacementofthesepopularperformerswithgentleman

performers,drawnfromtheeffendiyya.Thisgroupofmusicianseventuallyformedthe

RoyalOrientalMusicInstitute,thegroupresponsibleforholdingtheCairoCongress

discussedpreviously.73Asaresultofthisshift,themusicianswhoweretoreceivethe

greatestsupportwerethosewhowouldadvancetheideaofmusicasamarkerofculture

alongthelinesofEuropeanmusicaesthetics.

Althoughmuchofthisdivisionandorganizationofsoundwasbeingdonewitha

top-downapproach,andindeedmusicpracticesthatrancontrarytothesedivisions

continuedtoexist,theeffectsofthesesonicdivisionprogressivelytookholdinEgyptian

musicpractices.74Underregimesthathadadirecthandinsocialandculturalorganization,

thisEuropeanmodernistmodelwasactivelysupportedinthepublicsphere.The

gentlemanmusiciansthatgraduallydisplacedthepopularmusicianswereabletodoso

becauseofthewidesupporttheyhadfromthegovernmentandcolonialpowersinaddition

totheirfinancialfreedom.They,unlikethepopularmusicians,didnotneedtoplayfor

73Thomas.Itisimportanttonotethatwhilethereisaclearmovementtowardsachangeinmusiciantraining,socialclass,andtastebeginningintheearlytwentiethcentury,itwasnotanimmediateandwhole-saleshift.AsFrishkopfnotesinhisintroduction,authenticitywasstillamajorconcernforlisteners,andsuchauthenticitywasgainedthroughpre-mediatedpopularityaswellastiestoArabandEgyptianmusicandrecitationaesthetics.Itwas,therefore,thoseperformerswhostraddledthemediationdividethatinitiallyenjoyedwidespreadpopularityandstardom,aswasthecasewithUmmKulthum,whosepre-mediationandQur’anrecitationtrainingbackgroundallowedhertoclaimauthenticitywhilethemusicsheproducedwasnotexplicitlyreligiousandtendedtoadoptsomeEuropeancharacteristics.SeeFrishkopf,“Introduction,”13;VirginiaDanielson,TheVoiceofEgypt :UmmKulthūm,ArabicSong,andEgyptianSocietyintheTwentiethCentury(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1997).74Asnotedabove,thiswasnotacompletereorientationoftheentiretyofEgyptianculture.Justasthecolonialdiscoursesurroundingthehijabdidnotrepresenttheadoptionofitasdifferentviewscontinuedandnewalternativesimagined,thisorganizationofsoundwasnotuniformlyadopted.Inthecaseofsound,however,thestatewasabletodirectlyinterveneandcontrolpublicsoundpractices.Withamonopolyovertheadministration,publicperformance,recordingtechnology,andeducation,then,thegovernmentmadeitdifficulttoengageinothermodesofsoundorganizationand,importantly,passthemontothenextgeneration.

36

moneytosupportthemselvesandinsteadcouldperformpubliclywiththesupportofthe

government.Itwasduringthistimewhensingersandmusicianswerealsorequiredto

attendmusicinstitutesbeingestablishedbythegovernmentandtheRoyalOrientalMusic

Instituteinordertoreceiveacardthatwouldallowthemtosingpublicly.Themusic

(re)educationeffortsofthegovernmentextendedtoEgypt’spublicschoolsaswell,as

Mahmudal-Hifni,workingunderRobertLachmann,aGermanethnomusicologist,inthe

1920sandthefirstEgyptiantoreceiveaPhDinmusic,wasappointedasmusicinspector

fortheMinistryofEducation.AcriticofthedegradedstateofArabmusic,al-Hifni

implementedcompletemusiccurriculumreforminthepublicschools.75Meanwhile,the

RoyalOrientalMusicInstitutewaspublishingmusicmethod,teaching,andself-study

guides.76ThegovernmentsupportoftheEuropeanmodernistmodelanditswide-reaching

musiceducationreformeffortsencouragedthedivisionbetweenthereligiousandthe

secular.Thisdivisionwasunprecedented,asthetwogenreshadpreviouslybeen

performedatthesameoccasionsandoftenbythesamepeople,whowouldbebothsinger

andreciterwithoutanyapparentcontradiction.77

Whileagradualprocessthatbroughtwithitchangesinmusicproduction,form,

style,andtaste,thistop-downapproachwaseffectiveininitiatingandcontinuingthe

cleavagebetweenthereligiousandthesecular.Withtheintroductionoftheratioand

Nasser’sheavilyregulatednationalizedmediaprograminthemid-twentiethcentury,this

75Thomas,3-4.76Ibid.,2.77Frishkopf,“Introduction,”5-11;Frishkopf,“Mediated,”83.

37

dividewasonlyreinforcedwhilealsoimplicatingwomen’svoicesintothenegotiationand

maintenanceofthisdivide.

RadioandtheSexualizationoftheSonic

Theadventofradiobroughtthedividebetweenreligiousandsecular,andtheirtwo

logics,tofruition.Unlikethegramophoneindustrythathadbeenavailableonlytothe

wealthyelite,radiowasmuchmorewidelyaccessible,atfirstinpublicandlaterinprivate

homes,andalsoheavilyregulated.78Underthisnewsonicregime,womenwerepulledin

twodifferentdirections,understoodeitherintermsofsecularsexualfreedomorreligious,

non-sexuallegalism.Inbothcases,however,theirvoicesareunderstoodintermsofa

sexualizedbodythatisrepresentativeofcultureandbearstheresponsibility,asvoicer,for

societalmorality.

Inthecaseofthehijab,therewerecompetingdiscoursesandsubsequenttrends,but

thegovernmentdidnotdirectlyintervene(suchaswasthecasewithTurkey’sbanonthe

hijabor,morerecently,France’sbanonfacecovering).Withradio,ontheotherhand,the

Egyptiangovernmentdirectlycontrolledthebroadcasts,includingwhattypesof

broadcastswouldbepermitted,whotheprogramswouldfeature,andwhatthediscourse

wouldbesurroundingperformances,inadditiontoitsongoingpublicperformance

regulationandeducationalreforms.Government-regulatedradiocameintoeffectin1932

withthefoundingofEgyptianRadio.ThefirstdirectorofEgyptianRadiowasMedhat

Assem,whowasgiventhepostontherecommendationoftheheadoftheOrientalMusic

78TheearliestradiostationsplayedinCairoduringthe1920sandwereprivatelyownedwitharelativelysmalllistenership.In1934,aroyaldecreeallowingfortheestablishmentoflocalradiostationswentintoeffect,andstationswereestablishedinAlexandriaandlaterPortSaid,inadditiontoCairo.Frishkopf,“Introduction,”8;Nassar,68.

38

Institute,mentionedabove.79Atfirst,from1935to1937,EgyptianRadiobegantohost

Arabmusiciansandreciters,especiallyfromSyriaandLebanon.WhileEgyptianRadio

continuedtohostArabmusiciansandrecitersandcontributedtotheformationofmusical

starssuchasUmmKulthum,italsohostednumerousEuropean-ledorchestras.The

orchestralprogrammingwasexplicitlypromotional,andairtimeforitwasplanned

accordingly.80

Itwasalsoduringthistimethatwomenwereunambiguouslyimplicatedinthesonic

religious-seculardivide.Whilewomansinger-starsrosetofame,womenwerenot

permittedtorecitetheQur’anontheradio,radioofficialsdeclaringwomen’svoicetobe

‘awra.81Aclearsonicdivisionwasmadebetweenthesecularandthereligiousandwas

characterizedbythepresenceorabsenceofwomen’svoices.Withwomen’spresenceinthe

secularbeingassociatedwithhervisualbodilyunveilingasarealizationofhersexual

freedom,hervoiceinthesecularcametobeunderstoodinthesameway.Sightandthe

eye,however,continuedtobethedominantmodeofthoughtanddiscourse,andso,the

problematicwoman’svoicewasunderstoodintermsofhervisualbody.“‘Awra,”usedto

denotethepartsofthebodyoneshouldcoverfromsight,explicitlycreatedthislink

betweenwomen’svoicesandtheirsexualizedvisualbodiesasthewordcametoencompass

inappropriatesexuality,whetherinsightorsound.79Nassar,68.80ZeinNassar,anotableEgyptianscholar-critic,citestheuseofweeklystatisticstopromoteorchestralmusicalonganorganizedplan.Thoughitisunclearwhatthestatisticswere,howtheymighthavebeenproduced,andhowtheywereusedtoplan,Nassar’smentionofthemindicatesanattempttopromoteorchestralmusicthroughdatacollectionandanalysis.ZeinNassar,“AHistoryofMusicandSingingonEgyptianRadioandTelevision,”inMusicandMediaintheArabWorld,ed.MichaelFrishkopf(Cairo;NewYork:TheAmericanUniversityPress,2011),69.81Frishkopf,“Mediated,”83,citingIbrahimDaoud,Al-Qur’anfiMisr(Cairo:Toot,1997).Thisisthefirstexplicitconnectionbetweenwomen’svoicesand‘awraIhavefound.

39

Thisorganizationwasfacilitatedbytheradio’spositioninmediatingbetweenthe

two.Asamedium,itbroadcastedbothsecularandreligiousfareforthepublicandwas

controlledbygovernmentandradioofficialswhowereinterestedinpromotingthe

secular/sexualfreedom-religious/sexuallyrepresseddividetothepublic.Thetechnology

itselfwascontroversial,asscholarsbeganquestioningthepermissibilityofmusicandthe

technologiesthatcommunicatedthemwithrenewedvigor.82Thestate’ssupportand

sponsorshipofthesetechnologieswasthereforealreadyanembraceofthesecularanda

rejectionofthereligiousthathadironicallyagreaterpropensityforprivitization.What

resultsisamediumthat,whilebroadcastingbothsecularandreligiousprogramstoa

public,demandsthatthetworealmsbeorganizedaccordingtothisdivide,wherebythe

“proper”positionofwomenineachisreinforcedandthesecularisprioritized.When

singingsecularmusic,womenweresonicallyandsexuallyfree,theirsexinessinfactbeing

keyfactoroftheirprofitability,butwhenrecitingtheQur’an,theirvoicesneededtobe

curtailed,followingthereligion/sexualrepressionschema.83

Thedividebetweenthereligiousandsecular,witheachoftheirattending

organizationallogics,wasnotjustpresentinmediatedsound,butalsoshapedthetastesof

listeners,thetrainingandstyleofsingers,andtheaudioindustry.AsNassarnotes,evenin

theearlycaseoforchestralmusic,tasteswerealreadybeingformulatedandreinforced

throughtheweeklyprogrammingandplanning.84Secularmusicstarsbegantoriseinfame,

recognition,andappreciation,andsingersstoppedvocaltraininginQur’anrecitationas

82Kubala196.83SeeFrishkopf,“Mediated,”83fortheprofitabilityofsexinessanditsdivisionfromreligious.84Nassar,69.

40

Qur’anrecitersgraduallyceasedtoparticipateinothervocalpractices.85Vocalstyleaswell

ascareerintheaudioindustrywasthereforeseparatedalongthereligious-seculardivide.

Theintroductionofaudiotechnologies,andespeciallywiththemorewidely

accessibleradio,sawthebeginningsofatrendtowardanincreasedemphasisonthevoicer

overthelistenerasbearersofcultureanditsrepresentation.Thevoice,itstraining,

cultivation,andgenderassociationcametorepresentthesecularorreligious,respectively.

Itwasalsoasiteofcontrolbythegovernmentinordertocreateandmaintainthesecular

andreligious.Withthebreakingofthetarabaesthetic,thelistenerandthevoicerwere

divided,eachoperatingseparatelywithonlyanindirectinteractionwithoneanother

throughthegovernmentcontrolledmarket.Whilethesechangesdidnotobfuscatethe

needforthelistenertoapproachbroadcastsappropriately,itshiftedthedebates

surroundingthereligiousandseculartotherealmofvoiceasrepresentationthatthen

wouldinfluencelisteners.Thesocialcontextofthetarabaesthetic,whichsupported

appropriatelistening,86continuedtobereplicated,however,throughthecommunal

settingsinwhichradiowastypicallylistenedtobeforetheintroductionoflessexpensive

andmoreportabletransistorradiosinthe1950s.87Aswillbediscussedinthefollowing

section,thischangedmostnoticeablywiththeproliferationofcassetteplayersforpersonal

use.

85Frishkopf,“Mediated,”83.86SeeHirschkind,48-49foradiscussionoftarabanditstiestolistening.87Frishkopf,“Introduction,”8.

41

Whilethegramophoneeraandearlyradio88laidthegroundworkforsonic

organizationand,ofparticularconcerninthispaper,thepositionofwomen’svoicesin

thesearrangements,thesocialprominenceoftheradioanditslistenershipgrewfollowing

Nasser’srisetothepresidencyandtheintroductionofthetransistorradio.Thistime

periodwascharacterizedfarreachingreformsaftertheoverthrowofthemonarchyanda

modernnationalistapproachtogovernance.Radioandtelevisionbroadcasting,inaddition

tostate-runnewspapersandcinemas,weretoolsinthisagenda.Ina1959presidential

decree,NasserstatedthatEgyptianbroadcastingwouldspreadcultureamongthemasses

andeducatethepublicaboutthe“bestproductsofhumancivilization,”allwhileremaining

rootedinauthenticEgyptianculturalheritage.89Nasser-approvedlisteningcommittees

thatpatrolledthereligious-seculardivideandcontrolledfortasteregulatedradio

broadcasting.90

ItwasunderNasserthatradioproliferatedtechnologically,socially,and

internationallywhileitcontinuedtobeorganizedbythereligious-seculardivide,including

itsimplicationsforwomen’svoices.Bytheendofhispresidency,thestatehadastrong

holdandmonopolyoverEgyptianmediaproduction,which,inturn,duringtheheightof

Panarabismandwiththeincreasingreachoftechnology,alsohadanoticeableinfluence

88Iuse“earlyradio”heretosignifythetimeperiodwhenradiowasinexistenceinEgyptandthe“groundwork”oftypesofradioprogrammingwasstillbeingformed.AusefulchronologicalmarkerisradiobeforeGamalAbdelNasserbecamepresidentin1956,atimeperiodthatsawatechnologicalshiftwiththeadventoftheless-expensivetransistoraswellasexpliciteffortstousemediaaspartofNasser’snation-buildingcampaign.89Kubala,179.90Frishkopf,“Introduction,”13-14.

42

overregionalmediaproduction.91Byenforcingtheappropriatelymodernnationalistvision

ofthesecular,aprogressivearenaofculturalsophisticationthatwasthoroughlymodern

butstillconnectedtoitsEgyptianandArabroots,thepresenceofwomen’svoicesinthe

secularbothreinforcedthedivisionwithinEgyptwhilealsosignifyingtootherArab

countriesaswellasEuropetheprogressivenessofEgypt.Women’svoicesweretherefore

representativeculturenotonlytoEgyptbutalsoonagrowinginternationalstage.

ThecombinationofNasser’smodernnationalistapproachandtheintroductionof

morewidelyaccessibleaudiotechnologydidmuchtoproliferatethealreadyestablished

religious-seculardivideinsoundandalsoplacedwomen’svoicesasymbolsofculturein

theinternational,especiallyregional,arena.Women’svoiceswerethuspairedwiththeir

visualbodies,includingtheemphasisontheirsexualityanditsimplicationsforthe

religious-seculardivide.Forawomantousehervoicetosingsecularmusic,therefore,was

tosonicallyindicateherfreedomfromsexualrepression.Bycontrast,tousehervoicein

theexplicitlyreligiousrealmofQur’anrecitationwastobreakthedividebetweenthe

secular/sexualfreedomandreligious/sexuallyrepressed.TorecallLaurySilvers’

observationhighlightedatthebeginningofthissection,itispreciselybecausewomen’s

voicescametobeassociatedwiththeirvisualandsexualizedbodiesthatvisuallyand

spatiallyseparatingmenandwomenisoftennotenough;instead,women’svoicesare,in

thismodel,understoodintermsofwomen’ssexuality.

Theaddedsymbolicimportofwomen’svoicesinrelationtotheirbodiesandthe

religious-seculardivide,likewiththehijab,positionsthemnotonlyassitesofcontrol,

91Seeibid.,14-15.

43

however,butalsoassitesofsocialagency.Andalthoughtheradioofficialsofthe1930s

begantoestablishanearlylinkbetweenwomen’svoicesandtheirbodies,itwouldnotbe

untilthelastdecadesofthetwentiethcenturywhentheassociationbetweenvoiceand

bodywasreinforcedandjoinedwithindividual,“grass-roots”concernandanxietyabout

womenasvoicersthatthequestionofwhetherawoman’svoicewas‘awracouldsurfacein

itspresentformulation.

44

Cassettes,the“NewIslam,”andWomen’sVoices

Upuntiltheintroductionofcassettesinthe1970s,mostmediatedmusicwas

experiencedthroughstate-controlledsynchronousmediawithawealthyminoritythatalso

hadaccesstothegramophone.Thecassette,however,posednewpossibilitiesforlistening

thatalsocoincidedwithSadat’sinfitah,orOpenDooreconomicpolicy,andanincreased

interestin“tradition”andIslamicmodernism.Asaresult,thisperiodwitnessedshiftsin

theapproachestothereligious-seculardivideaswellasthewaysoneengagedwithit.

Whiletheassociationbetweenwomen’svoicesand‘awrahadalreadybeenmadeinthe

1930s,itisthisperiodthatcreatestheneedforindividualwomentoposequestionsabout

therelationshipbetweenvoiceand‘awra,ratherthanstate-sponsoredofficialsdeclaringa

women’svoicetobe‘awraintherealmofQur’anrecitation.

CassettesandInfitah

Thepresidentialturnover,fromNassertoSadat,in1970notonlymarkedachangein

government,butalsousheredinthetimeofthecassette.Introducedinthe1970sand

growingrapidlyinpopularitythroughoutthe1970sand1980s,cassettesandcassette

playerswererelativelyinexpensiveandwidelyaccessible.FollowingNasser’ssocialist

economicframeworkinwhichthestatehadaheavyhandinregulatingthemarket,Sadat

implementedanopendoorpolicythatallowedforadramaticincreaseinthenumberand

45

operationofprivatelyownedmediacompaniesthatwerenotsubjecttostatecontrol.92

Thiswasamarkeddivergencefromthetop-downcontrolimplementedunderNasser.

Instead,themusicindustryunderSadatsawagreaterparticipationoflayEgyptian

listenershipinsoundproduction,distribution,andlisteningpractices.

FollowingtheeconomicdownturnduringthelatteryearsofNasser’spresidencyand

thedefeatof1967,therewasgrowingdissatisfactionwiththemodernistapproachhehad

championedandenforced.Egyptianshadnoticedthediscrepancybetweenthemodernist

ideasandthepromisethattheywouldenrichtheirlivesandcultureandtheirreality,

whichhadworsenedbothdomesticallyandinternationally.ThecassetteandSadat’sopen

doorpolicyprovidedanidealopportunitytosubverttheofficialdiscoursesandsonic

sensibilitiesthathaddominatedmedia.Morepeoplewereabletoproducecassettesthat

contradictedofficialstate-producedbroadcastsortapes,andthecassetteswereeasily

reproducible.Theintersectionofaneconomicdownturn,militaryfailure,newpossibilities

forparticipationinthemusicindustry,andareadilyaccessibleandeasilydistributed

mediumresultedinthebroadparticipationofEgyptiansinasoniccultureofcritiqueand

skepticismaboutthestate.

Followinganearlyperiodofmorediverseexperimentation,thisconvergencegaverise

tothesha’bi,orpopular,musicgenretargetedtowardyouththatwasexplicitlyatodds

withtheofficialmodernistideals.Itwasalsoagenrethatwasoperatinginconversation

withanincreasinglyaccessibleglobalmusicindustry.93Whiletheradiohadbroughtwithit

92Frishkopf,“Introduction,”3.AsFrishkopfnotes,althoughthegovernmentcouldintheoryrefusepublication,therapidproductionofcassettesaswellastheirunregulatedreproductionanddistributionmadethisrare.Frishkopf,“Introduction,”16.93Kubala,179-184.

46

areturnofthelongersongscharacteristicofpre-mediatedmusic,sha’bimusictendedto

featureshortersongsthatincorporatedpopularmusicstylesandinstrumentsfromEuro-

Americanmusic.94Theywereusuallystylisticallyandformallysimpleand,becauseoftheir

shortshelfliferesultingfromboththeirsimplicityandthespeedofbootlegproduction,

neededtobeproducedrapidly.Atthesametime,therewereveryfewmarketanalyticsby

whichonecouldmakeproductiondecisions,andtheyneededtobereliablysuccessfuldue

tosmallprofitmargins.95Thisresultedintheproductionofcassettesbasedonwhathad

soldwellbefore,leadingtoalackofdiversity,reliablysimplerecordings,andnoticeable

Euro-Americaninfluenceamongsha’bicassetterecordingsthroughthe1980s.These

recordings,popularamongtheurbanworkingclass,werewidelycriticizedforlacking

attentiontoartistryandtheir“vulgarity”onbothmodernistandreligiousgrounds.96

Meanwhile,cassetteswerealsousedtoproducevarioustypesofreligiousmedia.

Particularlyearlyonintheintroductionofthecassette,itwasusedtorecordliveQur’an

andSufirecitation,whichwouldthenbereproducedandcirculated.97Itwasalsoused,as

Hirschkindhasillustrated,toproducesermonsthatrancountertothosesupportedbythe

stateaswellasQur’anrecitationandreligiouslectures.98Althoughcassetteswereusedfor

bothsecularandreligiousmedia,thetwogenresoperatedlargelyasseparatearms,asthe

94Frishkopf,“Mediated,”98.95SeeFrishkopf,“Introduction,”16-19.96SeeKubala,179-184andFrishkopf,“Introduction,”16-19forbriefdescriptionsofcriticism.Thereasonsforandeffectsofthecriticismwillbediscussedinmoredetailinthediscussionstofollow.97Frishkopf,“Introduction,”15.98Hirschkind.SeeFrishkopf,“Mediated,”99forgenres.

47

audioindustryitselfwasbifurcatedalongthereligious-seculardivisioninthe1970s.99

WhiletheseculararenawasbeinginfluencedbyEuro-Americanmusics,thereligious

mediawereincreasinglybeinginfluencedbySaudiArabiaasitroseinpoliticaland

economicsignificanceunderitsWahhabiregime.100

Thereligious-seculardividewasgrowingmorecomplexandtensewithboththechange

ingovernmentaleconomicpolicyandtheintroductionofthecassetteaswellasthe

attendingchangesinparticipationinmediatedaudioculture.Thesechangesfacilitateda

newapproachtothereligious-seculardivideinsoundaswellaswomen’sroleinit.

WomenandtheReligious-Secularandinthe“NewIslam”

Thecombinationofthemilitaryfailureof1967andtheworseningeconomic

conditionsofEgypt,especiallyinrelationtothenewlyboomingeconomyofWahhabiSaudi

Arabiaasaresultoftheoiltrade,werecatalystsforaturntowardwhathasbeencalledin

Egyptal-islamal-gadid,ortheNewIslam.101TheNewIslamwasaturntowardreligion

beginninginthe1970sasaresponsetosocialissuesandregionalpowerstruggles,coupled

withtherecognitionthatEuropeanandEuropean-imposedmodelshadnotproducedthe

prosperityandsuccessthathadbeenpromised.TheNewIslamwasamultifaceted

reorientationandwastheunderlyingcurrentbehindthetumultuousyearsofthe1970s

and1980s(andarguablyuptothepresent),includingtheincreasedwearingofthehijabas

discussedabove.

99Frishkopf,“Mediated,”98-99.100SeeFrishkopf,“Mediated.”101Frishkopf,“Mediated.”

48

Ratherthanobfuscateordismantlethereligious-seculardivide,theNewIslam

upheldit,thoughitwasapproachedandnavigateddifferently.Ratherthanprioritizingthe

secularandmodernashadbeendonebythestatefortheprecedingdecades,thereligious

sideofthebinarywasreinvestedwithimportanceandsignificanceforshaping

government,economy,andculture.Withaneyetotheeconomicandpoliticalsuccessof

SaudiArabia–theproducts,lifestyle,andcapitalofwhichmanyEgyptianssentbackand

broughtbackinawaveofreturnin1986–Egypt’sperceivedlackofattentiontoward

religionwasthoughttobeareasonforitswaningeconomyandregionalreputationand

significance.102Thereligious,ratherthanthesecular,wasbecomingthemarkerofculture.

Boththereligiousandthesecular,however,continuedtobeinternallyorganizedinmuch

thesamewayinregardstowomen.Thesecular,nowmoreoftenandpubliclycriticized,

continuedtobeassociatedwiththenon-religious,sexually“free”anduncovered,andEuro-

Americaninfluencebutwasdisinvestedastheciteofcultureandofsocialsuccess,

includingingovernment,economy,sound,anddress.Religion,likewise,continuedtobe

associatedwiththenon-sexualandIslamictradition,thoughitwasreinvestedasthesiteof

cultureandthereforemovedfromitssequestrationintheprivatetothepublic.This

movementwasnotasimpleswitchorasmoothtransition,ascontinuestobeapparentin

theongoingpoliticalandeconomiccontestsoccurringinEgypttoday,butratherrequired

thenavigationofaworldsystemdefinedbythenation-stateandcapitalistmarket,inwhich

102SeeFrishkopf,“Mediated,”especially90-100;Ahmed,127-168.ItisalsoimportanttonotethatSaudiArabianWahhabismisalsorespondingtothesamemodernistpressuresofwhichEgypthadbeenapartwithitsrenewedinterestintext,textualinterpretation,andorigins.Itishelpfultokeepinmindthatthisispartofaglobalshifttowardsthesameacrossandwithinmultiplereligions,ratherthanasasituationuniquetoIslamortotheregionalgeography.

49

Egyptcontinuedtooperate.103TheNewIslamwasthereforecharacterizedbya

prioritizationofreligionpairedwithcapitalism,consumerism,privatization,and,following

themultiplechangesandrisesandfallsofthepreviousdecades,aconcernforpolitical

stability.104

Becauseoftheincreasedattentiontoeconomicsuccess,especiallyincomparison

withSaudiArabia,classanditsintersectionswithreligionandrepresentationwerealso

reimagined.Religionwasassociatedwithwealthandsotorepresentoneselfasreligious

wasalsotoassociatewiththeupperclass.Representingoneselfasreligioussimultaneously

wasastrategyforupwardmobility.Aspreviouslydiscussed,forexample,wearingthehijab

providedopportunitiesforgreatersocialmobilitybecauseitallowedthewearertoclaim

theauthorityofreligion,evenwhenengaginginmixedgenderspacesforeducationor

economicgain.Religion,andspecificallywomen’sself-representationsoftheirreligiosity,

tookonclassandeconomicvalencesandwasexplicitlyusedtonavigatethem.Moreover,

theserepresentationswereplayingoutonaglobalstagewiththeproliferationandeasy

accesstomediaas,toputit(over)simply,acritiqueofEuropeandcompetitionwithSaudi

Arabia.105Women’svoicesintheseclassdynamics,discussedinthefollowingsection,took

103WhileananalysisofthevariouseffortsatmaintainingorincreasingEgypt’sintegrationintothepoliticalandeconomiclandscapeorganizedbythesecularmodernistframeworkitwascriticizingwhileforefrontingreligionliesoutsidethescopeofthispaper,itshouldbenotedthatthisisbynomeansasettledterrainandthereligiousinthereligious-seculardivideneededtoberethoughttomakethispossible.104SeeFrishkopf,“Mediated,”96-97.105CompetitionwithSaudiArabiameantadouble-moveofassociationanddisassociation.WhiletheSaudiArabianemphasisonandprioritizationofreligionwasadmiredandinspiredthewidesocietalshifttowardtheNewIslam,Egyptiansalsosoughttodifferentiatethemselvesfromitinordertobeabletoclaimsuperiority.Thus,religionwaslaudedinthemediawhiletheexcessivenessofSaudiArabiaandits“petrodollars”wereridiculed.SeeFrishkopf,“Mediated.”

50

onsimilarroles,thoughwithdifferentimplicationsandindifferentformsthroughtheuse

ofaudiotechnology.

Womencontinuedtobecentralintheseculturalshiftsasbothsocialagentsand

indicatorsofculture.Withthesecularandthereligiouseachpre-fashionedthroughthe

colonialencounter,womenpositionedthemselvesinthesechangesthroughtheiruseof

self-presentation,aswasseeninthediscussionofthehijab,whilealsocontinuingtobe

usedtoindicatetheIslamic-nessofEgypt.Theytherefore,similartotheunveiling

characteristicofthemid-twentiethcentury,performativelycreatedculture,evenasthey

weresingledoutasitsindicatorandrepresentative.

Women,Voicing

Thesegregationofwomen’svoicesalongthereligious-seculardividecontinuedin

publiclyproducedanddistributedcassettes,bringingwithittheimplicationsforwomen’s

voicespresentduringthegramophoneand,especially,radioeras.Women’svoices

continuedtobeconsideredinappropriateforreligiousmaterial,thoughtheywere

prominentinsingingandpopularmedia,includingthesha’bigenre.106Thustolimitone’s

voiceasaMuslimwomanwastoclaimtheauthorityofreligioninordertoupholdwhat

wereviewedastraditionalIslamicgenderroles.

Ironically,cassettecultureinfactenabledgreaterparticipationofwomeninmany

spheresofinteractionwheretheirpresencehadbeendiscouragedordeniedwhileitalso

upheldgenderrolesinlinewiththeNewIslam.AsbothHirschkindandMahmoodnote,

106Hirschkind,123-124;Kubala;NelsononQur’anrecitation;Frishkopf,“Introduction,”19-35.Thesha’bigenrewasbynomeanstheonlygenreofmusicavailableoncassette,ornecessarilytheonemostlistenedto,andwasinfactassociatedwithaparticulargroupofpeople:theurbanworkingclass.Ihighlightitherenotbecauseitisrepresentativeofallmusicavailableoncassette,butratherbecauseofthediscursiveroleitplayedasthesubjectofcriticismfrommultipleangles,itsclassassociation,andits,perhapsdisproportionate,prominence“onthestreet”andindiscoursessurroundingmusic.

51

evenifchoosingnottoproducecassettes,womenwereactivelistenersandconsumersof

newmedia.Manyperformanceanddiscussionspaceshadbeenpredominantlyoccupiedby

men,butthecassetteallowedwomentolistentocassettesermonsthatrancountertothe

officialnarrative,learntheQur’anfromrecordingsofprofessionalQur’anreciters,listento

varioustypesofmusic,and,importantly,engageinconversationwithoneanotherandwith

themenintheirfamiliesaboutthem.107Theproducersofthesemediawerealsoawareof

theirnewaudienceandreactedaccordinglyinbothsecularmedia,asdiscussedby

Frishkopf,andreligiousmedia,assuggestedbytheshiftinsermontopicstoaddressissues

takentobeofparticularimportancetowomenobservedbyHirschkind.108

Themoreflexibletermsofengagementwithsoundculturethataccompaniedthe

introductionofthecassette,however,presentednewchallenges.Cassettescamewitha

movetowardwiderusercontrol.Listenerswereabletochosewhen,what,how,with

whom,andforwhatreasonstoplayacassette.Thismeant,ontheonehand,thatthere

wereexpansive“grass-roots”playbackoptionsthatbecameamodeofsocial

communicationandallowedfor,asHirschkindargues,theformationofpublicsand

counterpublics.109Ontheother,itmeantthatrecordingscouldbeusedinunanticipated

waysforunforeseenreasons,whichgaverisetoageneralanxietyabouthowcassettes

107Mahmood;Hirschkind123-124;Labibas-Said,TheRecitedKoran:AHistoryoftheFirstRecordedVersion,trans.BernardWeiss,M.A.Rauf,andMorroeBerger(Princeton,N.J.:DarwinPress,1975).108Frishkopf,“Introduction,”33-35;Hirschkind,123,181.Whilecassettesalsoopenedupnewpossibilitiesfor“grassroots”recordingsaswellasproductionforanarrowtargetaudience,Iwasunabletofindevidenceofwomenmakingtheirownrecordingsforotherwomen.Thisdoesnotmeanitdidnotorisnothappening,especiallyinlightofmediaproductionbywomenobservedbyBaron,butitislikelynotawidespreadpractice.Whiletheremaybeseveralcontributingfactorsforthisseemingabsence,itcanbereasonablylinkedtothegeneralworryovertheinfinitepossibilitiesofprivateuseandreproductionofcassettes.109Frishkopf,“Mediated,”83,97;Hirschkind.

52

mightusedinwaysotherthantheirauthorhadintendedorappropriatetothematerial.110

Thisenvironmentinwhichtheroleoftheindividuallistener,player,andagentwasrising

intherealmofmediapractices,incontrasttothestatecontrolcharacteristicofthefirsthalf

ofthetwentiethcentury,gaverisetoatleasttwotrendsofparticularimportancefor

women:first,theneedforindividualethicalworkinordertorealizeone’sreligiousgoalsat

atimewhenmonopoliesoverinformation,production,consumption,andlifestylewere

beingdeconstructedandchallenged,andsecond,acontinuedemphasisonthevoicer

ratherthanthelistener,begunalreadywiththeintroductionofthegramophoneand

amplifiedwiththecassette.

TechnologyasSocialCommunication,theVoice,andClass

Asthestateanditsvariousarmsofcontrol,fromitsmonopolizationofthemedia

industrytoitseconomicsocialismunderNasser,wereloosenedunderSadatandtheneven

moresoduringthe1980sand1990s,theindividualwasresponsibleforcontrollingtheir

ownmediaconsumptionandproduction.111Doingso,moreover,becameaformofsocial

communication.Inotherwords,tonavigatethemediaterrainwastoactpoliticallyandina

sociallylegibleway.WiththebroadsocietalmovementtowardtheNewIslamthis,for

many,meantthatone’smediachoicesbothwere,torecallFoucault,aformofethicalwork

aswellasaninstanceofsocialagencythroughasociallylegibleidentificationwithIslam.In

thesamewaythatthehijabwasbothpartofreligiouspracticeaswellasasocialsymbol

110Forexample,Hirschkind,65,whereinappropriateemotionalresponsewasfearedonthebehalfofwomen.SeealsoFrishkopf,“Introduction,”inwhichhediscussestheissuesofprivateuseinrelationshiptotelevisionfollowedbythevideoclipintothehome.Thisconcernisnotlimitedtocassettes,however,andcanbefoundindebatesaboutthemobilephone,suchaswhetheritispermissibletobringyourphoneintothebathroomifonehasaQur’anappdownloadedonit,aquestionthataboundsonfatwaforums.111Frishkopf,“Mediated,”83,97.

53

thatconferredtheauthorityofadherencetopredominantideasofIslamicgenderroles,so

wereone’smediapracticesaformofreligioushabitusthatwasalsosociallyandpolitically

legible.112Forexample,tolistentosha’bimusicwastoactivelyidentifyoneselfwiththe

urbanlower-classaswellasEuro-AmericaninfluenceandinoppositiontotheNew

Islam.113Or,asMichaelFrishkopfargues,one’sselectionofarecordingofanEgyptian

versusSaudiArabianstyleofQur’anrecitationwasanideologicaldecisionand

identification.114

Thiswasparticularlyimportantforwomenaswomencontinuedtobethe

representativesofculture,andtheirlackofadherencetoNewIslamicgenderidealsina

mediaproductwasoftencitedasevidenceofcultural,moral,andartisticdecline.115While

thesha’bigenrecontinuedtogrow,forexample,“withthegradualvictoryofcapitalistlogic

overtraditionalvalues,”116womenwereabletodemonstratetheiradherencetoNew

Islamicgenderrolesbybeingdiscriminatingoftheiruseofvoice,inturnactivelyshapinga

societyinwhichthosegenderrolesweredominantandlegiblethroughaudiochoices.In

contrasttothestate-enforcedreligious-seculardivideinsoundoftheNasserera,this

boundarywas,undertheopendoorpolicyandwiththeproliferationofcassettes,

maintainedthroughindividuals’choicesasmodesofsociallyengagedethicalwork.As

womenwerelookedtoasbothindicatorsandrepresentativesofculture,theirchoices

112Seenote16andMahmoodonhabitus.113Kubala,181.114Frishkopf,“Mediated.”115Ahmed;Baron;Kubala;Frishkopf,“Introduction,”30-31;Abdel-WahabElmessiri,“RubyandtheCheckeredHeart,”inMusicandMediaintheArabWorld,ed.MichaelFrishkopf(Cairo;NewYork:TheAmericanUniversityPress,2011).116Frishkopf,“Introduction,”30.

54

carriedsignificantsocialandpoliticalweightwithinEgyptaswellasabroad.Itwastheir

decisionsregardinghowtheyusedtheirvoices,ratherthanalistener’sintentionor

attitude,thatwerepoliticallyimportantand,asreflectedinthispaper’sopeningquotation

bySalihbinFawzanal-Fawzan,boretheresponsibilityforpublicmorality.Thismodeof

ethicalworkwasnotlimitedtothesphereofmediatesound,however,asevidencedbythe

concernofwhetherawoman’svoiceis‘awrainpersonalinteractionsaswell,butrather

becameatypeofethicalworkthatwassociallycommunicativeinpersonalaswellas

mediatedinteractions.

Importantly,women’svoiceswerealsoaclassissue.TheadherencetoNewIslamic

genderidealswasassociatedwealthandthemiddleandupperclasses,whichmeantthat

adherencetothoseidealsalsolinkedonewiththoseclasses.Meanwhile,cassettes

underminedanyclassdistinctionsthatmighthavebeenmadeintermsofaccessto

mediatedmusic,aswasthecasewiththegramophoneandearlyradio,leavingvoicing

decisionstomakesuchdistinctions.Atthesametime,however,awoman’sdecisiontobe

selectiveabouthowsheusedhervoicewaspossibleonlyforupperclasswomenwhodid

notdependontheirvoiceforincome.Whilethehijaballowedforupwardmobilityby

enablingonetoworkandlearninmixed-genderspaces,thevoicestillneededtobeused

andthuspotentiallyunderminedtheNewIslamicideal.117Awoman’sdecisiontobe

selectiveabouthow,when,andinwhatwayssheusedhervoice,whilealsopartofher117Itisinterestingtonotetheseissuessurfaceinpresent-dayonlinefatwaforumswhere,inonerespondingtothepermissibilityofawomanstudyinginamixed-genderschooltospeakinclass,theresponsewasno,evenifitnegativelyimpactedherperformance.Inanotherresponseregardingthepermissibilityforawomantousehervoiceinamixed-genderenvironmenttopurchaseagoodfromastore,theresponsesaysthatitis,ifitisnecessaryandlimitedonlytothespeechneededforone’spurpose,butalsothatthereisariskofitincluding“laughterorchitchatoranalluringtone.”MuhammadSaalihal-Munajjid,supervisor,“SheHasNoChoicebuttoStudyinaMixedEnvironment–CanSheCommentandDebateinfrontofMales?”IslamQuestionandAnswer,https://islamqa.info/en/72448;al-Munajjid,“Women’sVoices.”

55

religiouspractice,wasalsoarealizationoftheNewIslamicideal:awealthy,upperclass,

MuslimwomanwhostrictlyadheredtoNewIslamicgenderroles.Therealizationofthis

idealfurtheroperatedasanongoingcritiqueboththe“vulgar”Egyptianlowerclassaswell

asEuro-Americanpolitical,cultural,andreligiousideals.

Television,SatelliteTV,andthe“FīdīyuKlīb”Era

Therelationshipofthevoicetothevisualbodyhasgrownincreasinglycomplexover

thelastseveraldecadeswiththeintroductionoftelevision,satellitetelevision,andthe

internet,mediainwhichaudioandvisualaremixedbutwherethevisualhasbecome

discursivelydominant,bothwithinthemediaitselfandinconversationssurroundingthem.

Whileacarefulparallelanalysisofthevoiceandbodyinthesemediaismuchneededand

wouldbeafruitfulareaofinquiry,forthepurposesofthispaper,itissignificanttonotethe

reifieddominanceofthelanguageofthevisual–evenwhilesoundhascontinuedtobe

politically,culturally,andreligiouslyactive–anditsimplicationsforthequestionof

whetherawoman’svoiceis‘awra.

Followingtheliftingofstatecensorshipwiththeintroductionofsatellitetelevisionin

the1990s,Egyptianmediawitnessedanexplosionof“videomusic,”ormusicthathad

cometobeexperiencedprimarilyvisually.118Fromtheintroductionofsatellitetelevisionto

theuseofmobilephonesuptothepresentinternetera,“videomusic”hascontinuedto

dominate.Thisvideomusic,moreover,features,andindeedrelieson,theportrayalof

hypersexualizedwomen,whosesexualityisthedominantfeatureofthefīdīyuklīb,video

clip,andiseconomicallylucrative.119Theriseofvideomusichasbeenandcontinuestobe

118Frishkopf,“Introduction,”20-21.119Ibid.,27-31;AbdelAziz,“ArabmusicVideosandTheirImplicationsforArabMusicandMedia,”inMusic

56

critiquedfrommultipleangles,includingnotablecritiquefromareligiousperspective.This

disapprovalhaslargelybeenvoicedintermsofthevisualasitwasreifiedasthelanguage

ofsexualityinvideomusic.120

Theriseofthevideoclipwasaccompaniedbyadecreaseinpopularityofnon-visual

audiomedia,suchasthecassette.Cassettes,however,stillcontinuetobeusedforreligious

media,inwhichwomenarenotfeatured,amongpiousMuslimsandcabandbusdrivers.121

AsHirschkindwithhisanalysisofcassettesermons,FrishkopfwithhisfocusonQur’an

recitationstyles,andthepresenceanddevelopmentofthequestionofwhetherawoman’s

voiceis‘awradiscussedherehaveshown,soundcontinuestoimpactandshapesocial,

political,andreligiousrealities.122Atthesametime,however,thecitystreetsareflooded

byvideoclipspubliclydisplayedincafesandshops.Thesevideoclipsnotonlyinternally

prioritizethevisualoverthesonicbuthavealsobeencriticizedanddiscussedintermsof

thevisual.Meanwhile,non-visualaudiomediahascometobeassociatedwiththereligious

andtheupholdingofastricterinterpretationofNewIslamicgenderideals.Whileitisnot

thecasethatthevisualneatly“mapsonto”tothenon-religiouswhilethesonic“mapsonto”

thereligious,asthediscussionssurroundingthehijabattheveryleasthaveshown,those

activitiesthatdonotupholdthestrictestinterpretationoftheNewIslamicidealwomanare

andMediaintheArabWorld,ed.MichaelFrishkopf(Cairo;NewYork:TheAmericanUniversityPress,2011);Elmessiri;Kubala.120Thisfocusonthevisualinmediaisnotlimitedtomusicandisreplicatedacrossgenres.Forexample,Frishkopfnotesthatitisalsopresentindiscussionofnewschannels.Frishkopf,“Introduction,”31.121Ibid.,19;Hirschkind;Thisislikelyalsoreplicatedincassettesandinternet-basedmp3andmp4audiofiles,thoughIhavenotbeenabletofindanyinformationontheseformsofreligiousmedia.Mostoftheattentiontothesemediahasbeencenteredonmusic.122Hirschkind;Frishkopf,“Mediated.”

57

primarilydiscussedintermsofthevisualwhiletheaudio-onlymediaareassociatedwith

thereligious.Theassociationofthesonicwiththereligiousandalsotheabsenceofwomen

inthemediumincontrasttotherationalandvisualinwhichwomenaremarketedand

understoodintermsoftheirsexualitywasthusreified.

Whilethediscussionaboveismoreofanexplorationthanacohesiveargument,itdoes

attheveryleastindicateanimpetusto“see”women’svoicesthatarenotbeingusedin

waysthatupholdNewIslamicgenderidealsintermsofthevisual,uncovered,and

sexualizedbody.Thus,toaskwhetherawoman’svoiceis‘awraistoaskwhethera

woman’svoicefallsintothisvisualaudiorealmofawoman’suncoveredsexualizedbody,

reinforcingtheconnectionbetweenawoman’svoiceandhervisualbodyfirstseeninthe

1930s.Atthesametime,however,itisaquestionthatconjoinsthevisualandthesonicand

mightalsobeseenaschallengingthesecategoricalarrangementsbyexplicitlylinkingthem

andmakingthemthejointobjectsofthoughtanddebate.

Aswomencontinuedtobeindicatorsandrepresentativesofcultureandmorality,the

renewedinterestinIslamasasolutiontosocialandeconomicproblemswithNewIslam

beginninginthe1970smeantthatmorewomenwereoptingtoupholdtheNewIslamic

genderideals,whichlargelycontinuedtobestructuredbythecolonialandthennationalist

religious-seculardivide,includingitexpressioninmedia.Meanwhile,womenwere

increasinglyresponsibleforupholdinggenderrolesthroughtheirmediapracticesatatime

whentherewasgeneralanxietyaboutprivateuseofmedia.Theirchoices,moreover,were

tobeviewedonbothalocalEgyptianandinternationalstage.Outofthiscomplex,thelast

keyaspectofthequestion,“Isawoman’svoice‘awra?”emerges:Whiletheconnection

58

betweenawoman’svisualbodyandhervoiceaswellastheneedtovoicethequestionin

termsofvisionaroseduringthecolonialandnationalistperiods(reinforcedwithsatellite

televisionandinternetbeginninginthe1990s),thislasteraofthecassette,television,and

internetcultivatedtheneedforindividualwomentoaskinordertonavigatethenew

political,cultural,andreligiousterrain;theanxiousconcernofhowprivatizedmediamight

beused;andtheimportanceofpursuinganeconomicandclassidealthatisalsorestrictive.

59

“AreWomen’sVoices‘Awra?”:PreliminaryConclusionsandFutureResearch

AsJudyWajcmanpointsoutinherstudyoftechnologyandcapitalism,technologyis

neverneutralandisinsteadinvestedandtailoredforthepredispositionsandassumptions

andprejudicesofthosethatmadeanduseit.123Theshiftsinconceptionsofvoiceandbody

thatoccurredthroughoutthetwentiethcenturyinEgyptcameasaresultofthemeetingof

multipleregimechangesfromthecolonialtothenationalandtheintroductionofnew

audiotechnologies,givingrisetoahighlychargedpolitical,religious,andculturalaudio

terrain.

NewaudiotechnologieswereintroducedandusedfirstduringtheBritish

occupationofEgyptinaculturalcontextinwhichwomenandtheirbodieswereushered

intotheculturalspotlightandimplicatedinathesimultaneousdivisionand

interdependencebetweenthereligiousandthesecular.Throughacombinationof

performance,media,education,andeconomiccontrol,exemplifiedbythefoundingofthe

RoyalMusicInstituteandtheCairoCongressofArabMusic,thisinitialdivideunder

colonialismwasreplicatedinsoundandintegratedintoEgyptiansoundpractices.The

introductionoftheradiowasthefirsttointroducetheassociationbetweenwomen’svoices

andtheirvisualandsexualizedbodies,aswomennavigatedthesecular-religiousthrough

modesofcoveringanduncovering;however,itwasnotuntiltheNewIslambecamethe

dominantsocialidealandwomenbecameincreasinglyresponsiblefortheirownsonic123JudyWajcman,PressedforTime:TheAccelerationofLifeinDigitalCapitalism(Chicago:TheUniversityofChicagoPress,2015).

60

representationalpracticesassocialcommunicationwiththeproliferationofindividualized

audiotechnologiesandtheopendooreconomicpolicyunderSadatthattheconcernand

urgencyfuelingthequestionofwhetherawoman’svoicewas‘awraarose.Thismarkeda

shiftfromatop-downmodeofmediacontroltoamoregrass-rootsconcernforuseofthe

mediatedandnon-mediatedvoice.

Thisquestion,whileposedbyindividualwomenconcernedabouttheirown

religiouspractice,operatesinabroaderfieldofmultiplecritique.Byupholdingthegender

idealsoftheNewIslam,itcritiquesEuro-Americaninfluenceandculturalmodelswhile

alsocompetingwithSaudiArabia.Bybringingvoiceandsoundtotheforefrontofsocial

andreligiousconcern,itmayalsobereadasachallengetothehegemonyoftheremoved,

rationaleye,evenasitusesthelanguageofvisiontobridgethegap.Atthesametime,itis

alsoasocialandclasscritiqueofthecurrentmediaenvironment,theworkingclass,and

women’spositionswithintheminEgypt.Itallowswomentodistancethemselvesfromand

objecttothesexualizationoftheirbodiesaswellascritiquethetastesandpracticesofthe

workingclass.

Thoughthequestionofwhetherawoman’svoiceis‘awraiswidelyrepresentedand

discussedinfatwaforumsaswellasinpopularonlinemedia,thestrictestinterpretation

andanswerthatwomenshouldnotspeaktonon-mahrammenlikelyremainsapracticeof

aminorityinEgypt,iffornootherreasonthanthepracticalneedformanywomentouse

theirvoicesonaregularbasiswithnon-mahrammentonavigatetheirdailylives.Beyond

thepractical,however,thepopularityofsha’bimusicandvideoclipsamongbothmenand

61

womenalsosuggeststhat,whilesuchstrictcontrolofone’svoicemaybeanidealfor

women,itatleastfacescompetitionintheformofthevideoclip.124

Thoughtheabovespeculationsariseoutoftheobservationsdiscussedinthispaper,

theypointtothemanyquestionssurroundingcontemporaryEgyptianwomen’suseoftheir

voicesandtheneedforfurtherandmorerobustresearch.Inparticular,forthe

contemporaryera,anethnographicstudyofhowwomenareusingtheirvoices,theirmedia

practices,andtheinterplayofthevisualandthesonicinbothmediatedandnon-mediated

encounterswouldofferimmenseinsightintohowthequestionofwhetherawoman’svoice

is‘awraisplayedoutinasocialcontext.Relatedly,athoroughanalysisoftheonlinefatwa

forumsinwhichthesequestionsarepostedwouldalsoaideinunderstandingwhoisasking

andansweringthequestions;thenumberofviewsandlevelofinterestinthem;potential

governmentsponsorship;theircitationsofQur’an,hadith,andtafsir;and,pairedwithan

ethnographicstudyliketheonesuggestedabove,howwomenareusingtheinternetto

navigatethisquestion.

Thereisalsosubstantialroomforfurtherhistoricalresearchandanalysis.Tobegin,

astudyofprimarysourceliterature,suchastheearlyeducationalmaterialsproducedby

theRoyalOrientalMusicInstituteandthegovernmentorpopularpublicationsaboutmusic

andtheater,fortheirportrayalandorganizationofsoundwouldprovidemoredirect

insightintotheshiftsinattitudestowardsoundandthedifferencesbetweentheofficial

viewandpopularviews.Thiswouldbewellsupplementedbyajointhistoricalanalysisof

soundandvision,tracingtheirinterconnectednessinthepremediatederatothepossibility

oftheirseparationenabledbymediationthroughtotheirreunioninmediationwhentheir124SeeFrishkopf,“Introduction,”31-35onthepopularityofvideoclipsandsha’bimusicamongmenandwomeninrelationtoeroticismofthem.

62

separationthroughmediationisstillpossible.Finally,amorecarefullookatwomen’s

voicesthrough,forexample,Qur’anrecitationormusicalcareers,duringtheseventeenth

andeighteenthcenturieswouldaideinunderstandingthesoniccultureintowhich

colonialismandaudiotechnologieswereintroduced.Ausefultoolinsuchastudywouldbe

ananalysisofQur’anictafsirstotrackwhentheinterpretationsmentionedinthefirst

sectionofthispaperbegantosurface.

Thoughthereremainnumerousavenuesopenforscholarlyexploration,ithasbeen

myaiminthispapertohighlightwomen’svoicesahistoricallyandcontemporarily

significantfieldofinvestigationandtoofferinsightintothewaysthecolonialencounter

andtheintroductionofaudiotechnologiesgaverisetothequestionofwhetherawoman’s

voiceis‘awra.Muchlessaconclusionthanabeginning,thispaperdemonstratesboththe

needforongoingconversationaswellasitspolitical,social,andreligiousweight,whether

inconsideringgenderincontemporaryEgyptorwomanmosqueandprayerleadershipin

America.

63

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