Gender Gap in Political Representation and Recruitment Professor Bernadette C. Hayes.

Gender Gap in Political Gender Gap in Political Representation and RecruitmentRepresentation and Recruitment

Professor Bernadette C. HayesProfessor Bernadette C. Hayes

Lecture OutlineLecture Outline

Introduction – A definition of the gender gapIntroduction – A definition of the gender gap Mechanisms used to increase female political Mechanisms used to increase female political

representationrepresentation Gender gap in political representationGender gap in political representation Theoretical explanations for the under-representation Theoretical explanations for the under-representation

of womenof women Gender gap in legislative recruitmentGender gap in legislative recruitment The process of legislative recruitment: the British caseThe process of legislative recruitment: the British case ConclusionConclusion

GENDER GAPGENDER GAP

Difference in the proportion of women and men Difference in the proportion of women and men holding political officeholding political office

(% women MPs - % men MPs)(% women MPs - % men MPs)

Difference in the proportion of women and men Difference in the proportion of women and men selected as political/parliamentary candidatesselected as political/parliamentary candidates (% women candidates - % men candidates)(% women candidates - % men candidates)

Assumptions of Democratic TheoryAssumptions of Democratic Theory

Citizens will participate equally in political Citizens will participate equally in political affairsaffairs

Their decisions will carry equal weightTheir decisions will carry equal weight

How to achieve this “ideal” open to much How to achieve this “ideal” open to much dispute dispute

particularly the case in relation to the political particularly the case in relation to the political representation of womenrepresentation of women

Mechanisms Used to Increase the Mechanisms Used to Increase the Political Representation of WomenPolitical Representation of Women

Quotas/all women short-listsQuotas/all women short-lists

Twinning constituenciesTwinning constituencies

Use of top-up seatsUse of top-up seats

Quotas/All Women Short-ListsQuotas/All Women Short-Lists

Introduced by Labour in the run up to (1993) the 1997 general election Introduced by Labour in the run up to (1993) the 1997 general election In January 1996, was abandoned following a legal challenge by two In January 1996, was abandoned following a legal challenge by two

aggrieved male applicants at an industrial tribunal as was believed to aggrieved male applicants at an industrial tribunal as was believed to have contravened the sex discrimination act (1975)have contravened the sex discrimination act (1975)

Change of law in 2002 [sex discrimination (election candidates) act Change of law in 2002 [sex discrimination (election candidates) act (sdca)](sdca)]

Allows but does not require political parties to implement quotas of Allows but does not require political parties to implement quotas of women/all women shortlists for a limited period of time women/all women shortlists for a limited period of time

The act has a “sunset clause” in that provisions expire at the end of The act has a “sunset clause” in that provisions expire at the end of 2015, although can be extended by secondary legislation2015, although can be extended by secondary legislation

In 2005, only Labour took advantage of its provisions by reintroducing In 2005, only Labour took advantage of its provisions by reintroducing all women shortlist (AWS) in its candidate selection in the majority of its all women shortlist (AWS) in its candidate selection in the majority of its retirement seats (labour mp standing down)retirement seats (labour mp standing down)

Also used by the Scottish Socialist Party (SSP) in 2003Also used by the Scottish Socialist Party (SSP) in 2003

Blaire’s babes: The 101 Female MP’s elected Blaire’s babes: The 101 Female MP’s elected in 1997in 1997

Fiona Jones died January 8Fiona Jones died January 8thth 2007 2007

Fellow MP, Jane Griffiths, who was deselected in 2005 Fellow MP, Jane Griffiths, who was deselected in 2005 said: “The Party nationally and locally threw Fiona to said: “The Party nationally and locally threw Fiona to the wolves, and if Tony can’t sleep at night it should be the wolves, and if Tony can’t sleep at night it should be about this.”about this.”

Retired after one termRetired after one term

Tess KinghamTess Kingham Jenny JonesJenny Jones

Conservatives: Rejects QuotasConservatives: Rejects Quotas

A- List: 100+ Priority CandidatesA- List: 100+ Priority Candidates

Equal proportions of men and womenEqual proportions of men and women

Local associations from 150 “winnable” seats Local associations from 150 “winnable” seats required to choose from the listrequired to choose from the list

Unpublished: Louise Bagshawe (novelist) and Unpublished: Louise Bagshawe (novelist) and Adam Rickitt (soap star) Adam Rickitt (soap star)

Newsnight researchNewsnight research

52% privately educated52% privately educated

46% women46% women

89% previous involved (worked with or stood for 89% previous involved (worked with or stood for election) with Conservative partyelection) with Conservative party

61% from South of England61% from South of England

66% work in business/media/politics66% work in business/media/politics

Conservative MP: Nadine DorriesConservative MP: Nadine Dorries

Changes have not gone far enough.Changes have not gone far enough.

““There is very little point in replacing a party There is very little point in replacing a party which used to predominantly have MPs who which used to predominantly have MPs who were white, male barristers with 2.4 children were white, male barristers with 2.4 children and a Labrador from the south of England.. and a Labrador from the south of England.. There is no point replacing them just simply There is no point replacing them just simply with women who are of the same profile” with women who are of the same profile”

Twinning Constituencies (Scotland and Twinning Constituencies (Scotland and Wales)Wales)

Introduced by labour in first Scottish parliament and Introduced by labour in first Scottish parliament and Welsh assembly elections in 1999Welsh assembly elections in 1999

– twin constituencies to allow both women and men twin constituencies to allow both women and men to stand for electionto stand for election

– the members of the two constituencies select the members of the two constituencies select candidates togethercandidates together

– woman with the highest number of votes selected to woman with the highest number of votes selected to stand for one constituency and the man with the stand for one constituency and the man with the highest number of votes selected for the otherhighest number of votes selected for the other

Use of Top-Up Seats (Scotland and WalesUse of Top-Up Seats (Scotland and Wales))

Introduction of top-up or party lists whereIntroduction of top-up or party lists where

– alternate female and male candidates on party alternate female and male candidates on party lists (zipping) – Labour in Waleslists (zipping) – Labour in Wales

– Place women at the upper-end of party lists Place women at the upper-end of party lists (Liberal Democrats in Scotland)(Liberal Democrats in Scotland)

Under-Representation of Women in GBUnder-Representation of Women in GB

Although over 51% of Population are:Although over 51% of Population are:

Significantly under-represented across: Significantly under-represented across:

All decision-making bodiesAll decision-making bodies

Including the House of CommonsIncluding the House of Commons

WOMEN MPS (WESTMINSTER)

Number of MPs % of MPs

1979 19 3.0

1983 23 3.5

1987 41 6.3

1992 60 9.2

1997 120 18.2

2001 118 17.9

2005 128 19.8

Note: There are 646 members of the House of CommonsSource: Campbell and Lovenduski, 2005.

WOMEN MPs (WESTMINSTER)

(Percentages)

Conservative Labour

1979 2.3 4.1

1983 3.3 4.8

1987 4.5 9.2

1992 6.0 13.0

1997 7.8 24.2

2001 8.4 23.1

2005 8.6 27.5

WOMEN MPS (SCOTTISH PARLIAMENT: N=129)

% 1999 % 2003 Total MSPs

LABOUR 50.0 56.0 50

SNP 42.9 33.3 27

CONS 16.7 22.2 18

LIB DEMS 11.8 11.8 17

GREENS 0.0 28.6 7

SSP 0.0 66.7 6

SSCU n/a 0.0 1

INDEP 0.0 66.7 3

TOTAL 37.2 39.5 129

WOMEN MPS (NATIONAL ASSEMBLY FOR WALES)

% 1999 % 2003 Total AMs

LABOUR 53.6 63.0 30

PC 29.4 50.0 12

CONS 0.0 18.2 11

LIB DEMS 50.0 50.0 6

INDEP/OTHER n/a 0.0 1

TOTAL 40.0 50.0 60

Note: There are 60 members of the Welsh Assembly.

WOMEN MPs (EQUIVALENTS) IN EUROPE

SWEDEN 45.3

FINLAND 37.5

DEMARK 36.9

NETHERLANDS 36.7

SPAIN 36.0

BELGIUM 34.7

AUSTRIA 33.9

GERMANY 31.8

LUXEMBOURG 23.3

LITHUANIA 22.0

PORTUGAL 21.3

LATVIA 21.0

POLAND 20.4

UK 19.8

ESTONIA 18.8

CZECH REPUBLIC 17.0

SLOVAKIA 16.7

CYPRUS 16.1

GREECE 14.0

IRELAND 13.3

NOTE: RANKED 14 AMONG THESE EUROPEAN NATIONS AND 51 OF 184 COUNTRIES LISTED BY THE INTER-PARLIAMENTARY UNION

Explanatory models for the Explanatory models for the representational weakness of representational weakness of

womenwomen

Socialisation modelSocialisation model

Situational factorsSituational factors

Voter stereotypes and discriminationVoter stereotypes and discrimination

Process of legislative recruitmentProcess of legislative recruitment

Socialisation modelSocialisation model One of the first explanations proposed by political scientistsOne of the first explanations proposed by political scientists

Rests on the assumption that during childhood men and women learn:Rests on the assumption that during childhood men and women learn: different set of behavioural patterns and attitudes which are deemed different set of behavioural patterns and attitudes which are deemed

appropriate for the sex/genderappropriate for the sex/gender

girls learn traditional female values of nurturing and caringgirls learn traditional female values of nurturing and caring boys learn to be competitive and aggressiveboys learn to be competitive and aggressive

Key point: girls and boys internalise these values and see them as Key point: girls and boys internalise these values and see them as natural and inevitablenatural and inevitable

so values that are considered appropriate for women are considered so values that are considered appropriate for women are considered inappropriate for politics inappropriate for politics

Thus, both women and men consider women unsuitable for politics Thus, both women and men consider women unsuitable for politics hence, politics is an exclusively male domainhence, politics is an exclusively male domain

More recent research questions these More recent research questions these assumptionsassumptions

1. Decline in traditional sex-role attitudes and behaviour1. Decline in traditional sex-role attitudes and behaviour appropriate models for male and female behaviour undergone appropriate models for male and female behaviour undergone

dramatic change since the 1970sdramatic change since the 1970s women no longer expected to be passive and nurturingwomen no longer expected to be passive and nurturing traditional sex-role stereotyping also in declinetraditional sex-role stereotyping also in decline hence, many of the characteristics believed suitable for political life hence, many of the characteristics believed suitable for political life

now found among womennow found among women

2. Research has found no difference between male and female 2. Research has found no difference between male and female children in relation to:children in relation to:

- political interest and knowledge- political interest and knowledge - no evidence to support sex-role stereotyping among children- no evidence to support sex-role stereotyping among children

Thus: socialisation theory not an adequate explanationThus: socialisation theory not an adequate explanation

Situational factorsSituational factors

Argues that the lack of female political representation due Argues that the lack of female political representation due to structural or situational factorsto structural or situational factors

lesser educational achievement and occupational lesser educational achievement and occupational involvementinvolvement

childcare responsibilities childcare responsibilities

Recent research refutes this:Recent research refutes this: similar education levels among men and womensimilar education levels among men and women rapid growth in female employmentrapid growth in female employment fastest growth in employment has been among married fastest growth in employment has been among married

women with young childrenwomen with young children Thus: situational factors not an adequate explanationThus: situational factors not an adequate explanation

Voter stereotypes and discriminationVoter stereotypes and discrimination

Key explanation is that the electorate will not vote for womenKey explanation is that the electorate will not vote for women reinvention of socialisation explanation under a different guisereinvention of socialisation explanation under a different guise

Recent research disputes this assumptionRecent research disputes this assumption women and men equally in favour of female representationwomen and men equally in favour of female representation in many cases a female may be preferredin many cases a female may be preferred

Recent research by EOC in Britain found:Recent research by EOC in Britain found: Turnout higher in constituencies where female candidateTurnout higher in constituencies where female candidate both men and women more likely to support a female candidateboth men and women more likely to support a female candidate

Hence, whatever the reasons for female lack of representationHence, whatever the reasons for female lack of representation voter bias is not one of themvoter bias is not one of them

Survey after survey in Britain show that not only does the electorate Survey after survey in Britain show that not only does the electorate support the idea of more womensupport the idea of more women

They should be encouraged to stand for parliamentThey should be encouraged to stand for parliament

Process of legislative recruitmentProcess of legislative recruitment Current explanation for the under-representation of womenCurrent explanation for the under-representation of women

Basic assumption: party selection committees both directly and indirectly Basic assumption: party selection committees both directly and indirectly discriminate against female candidate. How?discriminate against female candidate. How?

Not only fail to select female candidates but if do, are adopted for the most Not only fail to select female candidates but if do, are adopted for the most problematic seatsproblematic seats

Are not selected as: incumbents or inheritorsAre not selected as: incumbents or inheritors but as challengers (fighting a seat held by another party)but as challengers (fighting a seat held by another party)

Is this the case?Is this the case? To answer this question need to investigate selection outcomesTo answer this question need to investigate selection outcomes as well as the process of selectionas well as the process of selection Much of the work in this area by Joni Lovenduski and Pippa NorrisMuch of the work in this area by Joni Lovenduski and Pippa Norris

WOMEN CANDIDATES (WESTMINSTER)

(Percentages)

1979 7.4

1983 10.4

1987 12.9

1992 18.3

1997 19.5

2001 20.3

2005 20.0

WOMEN CANDIDATES BY PARTY, 1992-2005

(PERCENTAGES)

1992 1997 2001 2005

CONS 9.8 10.3 14.7 19.0

LABOUR 21.3 24.8 23.3 26.0

LIB-DEM 22.0 22.0 21.9 23.0

WOMEN CANDIDATES BY TYPE OF SEAT AND PARTY, 2005

(PERCENTAGES)

Inheritor Challenger <5%

Challenger <10%

Unwinnable >10%

CONS 8.5 13.3 18.0 24.0

LABOUR 28.5 25.0 9.5 24.0

LIB-DEM 8.0 22.0 38.5 23.5

Source: Campbell and Lovenduski

WOMEN MPS ELECTED BY TYPE OF SEAT AND PARTY, 2005

(PERCENTAGES)

Inheritor Challenger <5%

Challenger <10%

Unwinnable >10%

CONS 9 6 8 17

LABOUR 28 0 0 0

LIB-DEM 9 33 25 36

Source: Campbell and Lovenduski

The Selection ProcessThe Selection Process

Two explanations for the lack of female representation in relation to the selection Two explanations for the lack of female representation in relation to the selection process process

1. Women are discriminated against by local selection committees1. Women are discriminated against by local selection committees 2. lack of well-qualified women applicants2. lack of well-qualified women applicants known as the demand (selectors discriminate) versus the supply (women not apply) known as the demand (selectors discriminate) versus the supply (women not apply)

explanationexplanation

DemandDemand: selectors choose candidates on the basis of stereotypes : selectors choose candidates on the basis of stereotypes favour: well-educated, professional men in early middle-agefavour: well-educated, professional men in early middle-age ““right sort of chap”right sort of chap”

SupplySupply: social bias in parliament simply reflects the pool of applicants: social bias in parliament simply reflects the pool of applicants women absent:women absent:

not because discriminated against but because do not apply not because discriminated against but because do not apply or might wish to apply but cannot do so because of resource limitationsor might wish to apply but cannot do so because of resource limitations

Which Explanation Correct?Which Explanation Correct? To assess these competing explanations need to compare the To assess these competing explanations need to compare the

characteristics of characteristics of mps, candidates, applicants, party members and votersmps, candidates, applicants, party members and voters

MPs – members of parliamentMPs – members of parliament Candidates – individuals who are selected to stand for parliamentCandidates – individuals who are selected to stand for parliament Applicants on party lists – individuals who put themselves forward for Applicants on party lists – individuals who put themselves forward for

selectionselection Party members – rank and file and those involved in the selection Party members – rank and file and those involved in the selection

processprocess Voters – general electorate Voters – general electorate

This is what Lovenduski and Norris did using data from the British This is what Lovenduski and Norris did using data from the British candidate study of 1992candidate study of 1992

How assess the explanation?How assess the explanation?

If demand explanation correct (selectors If demand explanation correct (selectors discriminate): major difference in the discriminate): major difference in the characteristics of applicants versus characteristics of applicants versus candidatescandidates

If supply explanation correct (women not If supply explanation correct (women not come forward): difference between the come forward): difference between the characteristics of party members versus characteristics of party members versus applicants applicants

Major Findings of the StudyMajor Findings of the Study

MPs were not demographically representative of the British MPs were not demographically representative of the British public in terms of the following: race, education, class, age public in terms of the following: race, education, class, age and genderand gender

Parliament dominated by the professional “chattering Parliament dominated by the professional “chattering classes” - well educated/high income/professional jobsclasses” - well educated/high income/professional jobs

Argues this is not because of discrimination against Argues this is not because of discrimination against applicants (demand) but due to the available pool of applicants (demand) but due to the available pool of applicants (supply) willing to stand for parliamentapplicants (supply) willing to stand for parliament

ResultsResults

Found that within each party, the socio-economic Found that within each party, the socio-economic status of mps, candidates and applicants were status of mps, candidates and applicants were almost identicalalmost identical

Main difference was between these groups and Main difference was between these groups and party membersparty members

hence supports the supply-side explanation in that hence supports the supply-side explanation in that main difference is between applicants and main difference is between applicants and membersmembers

not demand explanation as no difference between not demand explanation as no difference between candidates and applicantscandidates and applicants

Gender resultsGender results

Not as clear-cutNot as clear-cut

Supply: more important for ConservativesSupply: more important for Conservatives

Demand: Greater role for LabourDemand: Greater role for Labour

Gender Differences

(Percentages)

MPs PPCs List Members Voters

Cons

Men 94 85 87 48 48

Women 6 15 13 52 52

Labour

Men 91 74 63 60 48

Women 9 26 37 40 52

Source: Lovenduski and Norris (1995: 117).

More recent researchMore recent research

Increasing importance of demand factorsIncreasing importance of demand factors

Direct (gender-discriminatory questions Direct (gender-discriminatory questions asked) and indirect (ideas of what count as asked) and indirect (ideas of what count as a good MP) discrimination in selection a good MP) discrimination in selection processprocess

See Lovenduski (2005)See Lovenduski (2005)