Gender and Migration in 21 st Century India

Gender and Migrationin 21st Century India

Indrani MazumdarCentre for Women’s Development Studies (CWDS)

New Delhi

• The context - a highly gendered employment crisis reflected in the declining female work participation rates in rural India and stagnation at extremely low levels of female employment rates in urban areas. Such a crisis was sharply foregrounded by the absolute fall in the numbers of women workers between 2004-05 and 2009-10, which, although concentrated in agriculture, is also evident in industry and services.

• Agrarian Crisis that unfolded within a decade of the structural shift in India’s policy regime towards liberalization characterised by dramatic step up in non agrarian growth, the rapid decline in share of agriculture in the country’s GDP and the non-viability of agriculture in providing livelihood for a large part of the rural population. Ongoing pauperisation of the peasantry evident in the fall in number of cultivators from 127.6 million in 2001 to 118.7 million in 2011 (from 40% of the rural workforce to 33%) and increase in Agricultural labourers in rural India on the other hand increased from 107.4 million to 144.3 million (from 33% to 39% of the rural workforce)

• Need to look at migration, labour, and labour laws in India not only in terms of categories and experiences derived from developed capitalism, but rather to also specifically examine how agrarian caste and feudal patriarchy based social relations are being incorporated into migration based wage employment even in more modern industries. Failure to do so results in a disconnect between concepts, entitlement regimes/policies, and empirical realities.

1983 1987-88 1993-94 1999-2000 2004-05 2007-08 2009-10

340323 328

299327

289

261248 in 2011-12

151 152 155 139166

138 138 147 in 2011-12

NSSO -Trends in Female Work Participation Rates(UPSS)

Rural Principal + Subsidiary statusUrban Principal+Subsidiary Status

• The most recent macro-survey of migration in India (National Sample Survey [NSS], 2007-08), estimated that some 327.7 million people in the country were internal migrants.

• 80 per cent of them were female, and migrants accounted for nearly 29 per cent of the country’s population.

• Defined as those who have changed their usual place of residence any time in the past (UPR), migrants encompassed 48 per cent of the country’s rural female population and 46 per cent of urban females.

• A decade and a half before - in 1993, the rates of female migration were much less, at 40 per cent of the rural and 38 per cent of urban female populations.

• In contrast migrants in the rural male population of India declined from 6 per cent to 5 per cent between 1993 and 2007-08, and increased by only 2 per cent from 24 per cent to 26 per cent in urban India

• The data shows that the striking increases in female migration rates have however been driven by marriage migration and not employment

Male employment migrants

Female employment migrants

Male associational migrants

Female associational migrants

Male marriage migrants

Female marriage migrants

Total Male migrants

Total Female migrants

1.5

0.3

1.2

2.1

0.55

43.5

5.4

47.7

2.1

0.4

1.8

2.7

0.770000000000021

37.8

6.9

42.6

3.1

3.3

1.4

9.5

0.2

24.7

6.5

40.1

Percentage of migrants in female and male populations by select reasons for migration (Rural India) [NSS]

1993 1999-2000 2007-08

Male employment migrants

Female employment migrants

Male associational migrants

Female associational migrants

Male marriage migrants

Female marriage migrants

Total Male migrants

Total Female migrants

14.4

1.2

6

13.4

0.4

27.7

25.9

45.6

13.3

1.3

6.9

12.9

0.4

24.5

25.7

41.8

9.9

1.9

6.8

18.9

0.2

12.1

23.9

38.2

Percentage of migrants in female and male populations by select reasons for migration (Urban India) [NSS]

1993 1999-2000 2007-08

Estimated Numbers of Labour Migrants in sectors/industries (2007-08) [NSS]

Industry Paid/Income earning Migrant

workers excluding

migrants for marriage (UPR)

[000s]

Short term Migrants

Total labour Migrants

Female Share of

Total[000s] [000s] [%]

Male Female Male Female Male Female

Agriculture, Hunting, Forestry, Fishing

6,430(14.53)

2,399(31.74)

2,449(19.32)

922(43.47)

8,879(15.60)

3,321(34.31)

27.22

Construction4,257(9.62)

402(5.32)

5,289(41.73)

700(33.00)

9,546(16.77)

1,102(11.39)

10.35

Mining, Manufacturing, Electricity

11,258(25.44)

1,575(20.84)

2,412(19.03)

306(14.43)

13,670(24.01)

1,881(19.44)

12.09

Trade, hotels, restaurants

8,027(18.14)

474(6.27)

1,190(9.39)

32(1.51)

9,217(16.19)

506(5.23)

5.20

All services other than trade, hotels, restaurants*

14,280(32.27)

2,698(35.70)

1,338(10.56)

161(7.59)

15,618(27.44)

2,859(29.54)

15.47

Total 44,252(100.00)

7,556(100.00)

12,675(100.00)

2,121(100.00)

56,927(100.00)

9,677(100.00)

14.53

Locations of CWDS Survey Sites

• A little over half of the women migrant workers (rural and urban combined) identified poverty, debt, decline in income, lack of local employment or loss of such employment as their reason for migration.

• The majority however bore their migration costs out of household savings/borrowings

• Women migrated more with family members while men migrated more alone.

• Nevertheless, it is significant that close to a quarter of the women (23%) reported having migrated alone and 7% in all female groups.

• Further, while 25% of the rural and 6% of the urban women migrants were dependent/mobilized by contractors, 81% of the urban and 63% of the rural women migrants said they migrated independently - whether with families or alone.

Others

Gone in all male group

Gone in all female group

Gone alone

Gone in mixed male and female group

Gone with only family members

0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00 45.00 50.00

1.04

19.10

0.00

42.69

18.34

17.96

1.92

0.00

6.89

22.58

24.33

43.25

Manner of Migration [CWDS Survey]

FemaleMale

Associational with or to join labour migrant

Mobilised by outside contractor/agent/employer

Mobilised by local contractor/agent/employer

Independent

12.23

9.08

15.55

63.14

12.86

2.77

3.69

80.68

Mode of last Migration by Women Migrant Workers [CWDS Survey]

Urban Rural

• Four occupations, namely agricultural labour, paid domestic work, construction , and brick making dominate and together accounted for more than 60 per cent of all the migrant women workers.

• These are the principal sectors/segments of concentrated demand driving women’s labour migration in the contemporary period.

• In other employment segments of female concentration such as

education, apparently the demand is being met more by non-migrants. • It is indeed striking that the principal drivers of work based migration for

women all involve hard and tedious manual labour and are essentially casual in nature.

• Significantly, circulatory and seasonal patterns of migration are defining features of at least three of these four sector/segments of demand.

• In rural areas, agriculture is the most prominent destination for rural women migrants.

• However, it also appears that the conditions in local agriculture, pushes a section of the agricultural workforce to migrate for non-agricultural employment in rural areas.

• Occupational shifts through migration by women concentrating in circular migration for brick-making

• Brick workers who constituted 8.7% in the pre-migration profile of individual women migrants with rural destinations increased to 21.1% post migration, while agriculture, including seasonal agricultural labourers, plantation workers and cultivating peasants, which accounted for 33.4% of rural female migrant workers after migration, had a larger share of the pre-migration profile of these rural migrants (48.3%).

• Nevertheless, agriculture has seen increases in demand for female migrants in some areas for crops such as BT cotton and BT cotton seed production and one of the most concentrated form of female labour migration in rural areas is for sugarcane cutting in western and southern India (but not in the sugarcane belt of UP in the north).

• Migration for sugarcane cutting is of a more longstanding nature and has been well documented in several studies for Maharashtra and Gujarat. Less well known is the operation of similar migration for sugarcane in Karnataka and Tamilnadu.

• Adolescent girls’ migration for BT cotton seed farms in Gujarat from the tribal communities in the Dungarpur/Udaipur regions of Rajasthan and of child migration for cotton seed production in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Gujarat has been documented by several studies. In addition, our own field work showed women migrating from Godhra and Dahod to the Saurashtra region of Gujarat for BT cotton farms as well as from Rajasthan to parts of Punjab.

Others

Agricultural workers - full time

Other farm workers

Tobacco products/beedi workers

Petty contractor based construction workers

Unemployed (seeking work)

Bhatta workers (brick making)

Only cooking, cleaning, care activities for immediate family

Cultivating peasants

Agricultural workers-seasonal

0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00

19.11

1.53

1.82

3.13

5.67

6.10

8.72

9.01

11.34

33.58

Occupation pattern of Female workers before migration(Rural) [%] [CWDS survey]

Others


Care activities supporting family

Independent (individual or family based) construction/painti

Construction - Company/large contractor based

Textile spinning workers

Paid domestic workers (live out)

Plantation workers

Construction -Petty contractor based

Bhatta workers (brick making)


0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00

21.11

2.35

2.55

2.95

3.15

3.62

3.89

5.36

8.24

21.11

25.67

Occupation pattern of female workers after migration(Rural) [%] [CWDS survey]

• The two concentrated streams of rural female migration, i.e., for cane cutting and brick manufacture both involve circular migration and onsite work/residence for a major part of the year.

• The laboring units in brick-making and cane cutting (where female labour is involved) largely comprises of male female pairs (jodis) or family units and generally a cycle of advances and debt-based tying of such labour. Jodi based wage labour combined with piece rated payment, leaves no scope for independent work/activity and income for women. Women’s individual entitlements in such forms of labour have not even been conceptually recognized in the labour law regime.

• 42% of the rural women migrant workers were involved in such pair, family or adhoc group based employment.

• The nature of annual circulation in both the above segments of migrant labour, its predominantly debt bonded nature (through advances), the degraded and harsh conditions of work, the disruption of children’s education and the semi-feudal and patriarchal jodi system – all predicate that while survival may be ensured by such a form of migration, possibilities of social advance are simultaneously limited.

• Brick-making, although no longer artisanal in nature, is distributed across unorganized manufactories with mainly unincorporated individual or partnership based owners/employers.

• On the other hand, Jodi based cane cutters (called koytas) are, recruited not by the individual farmers on whose fields they labour, but by modern organized sector sugar mills, often having corporate style management systems. Yet, typically in both segments, workers continue to be recruited through a variety of unregulated labour contractors.

• In urban areas, close to one third of the migrant women workers (31%) were either unemployed or engaged in only family domestic duties before migration (in comparison to 15% of rural women migrants)

• They were able to enter employment through urban wards migration. Only a small proportion of the urban women migrants had a pre-migration background in agricultural work (13%) and many were in service sector or other diverse jobs even before migration (20% were in paid domestic work and 30% in diversified services before migration).

• The relatively high proportions of both the non-employed and those in service sector employment before migration correlates with the majority of the urban migrant workers being from upper caste and OBC backgrounds (together 54%) in contrast to the rural migrants, where women from SC and ST backgrounds were the majority (together 62%). Women’s urban-wards labour migration is hardly a primary force leading the shift of women workers out of agriculture.

• Some diversification and expansion of occupations was nonetheless visible among urban migrants. Post migration occupations such as sales workers, beauticians, hair dressers, call centre workers were mostly absent in the pre-migration profiles of these urban women workers.

• However, the process of concentration in paid domestic work (whose proportions almost trebled from around 10% before migration to 28% post migration) was the most gender distinctive feature of urban wards labour migration by women.

Others

Food/beverage processing/manufacturing workers

Independent (individual or family based) construction/painti

Vendors/ petty trader

Nursing in hospitals/establishments/institutes

Agricultural workers - full time

Paid domestic workers in households(live-in)

Tailoring/stitching workers

Construction company and large contractor based workers

Petty contractor based construction workers




Only cooking/cleaning/ care for family

Unemployed (seeking work)

0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00

26.7

1.5

1.7

2.6

2.6

2.7

2.7

3.2

3.7

4.3

4.7

5.5

7.3

12.8

18.0

Occupation pattern of female migrant workers before migration (Urban) [%] [CWDS survey]

Others

Teachers in private schools

Beauticians, hairdressers and other related workers

Other production workers

Call centre employees

Professional, technical and related workers/employees/self e

Tailoring/stitching workers

Sales workers

Nursing in hospitals/establishments/institutes

Textile spinning and weaving workers

Construction - Company/large contractor

Vendors/ petty trader

Paid domestic workers in households(live-in)

Construction-Independent/petty contractor


0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00

19.05

1.95

2.78

3.41

3.69

3.89

4.10

4.17

4.24

4.59

5.49

5.98

6.19

9.67

20.79

Occupation pattern of female migrant workers after migration (Urban) [%] [CWDS survey]

Caste wise Distribution of Women Migrant Workers by Type of Migration (%)Type of Migrant General OBC MBC SC ST

Total Long term 44.51 41.56 21.51 25.98 20.81

31.34Medium term 30.02 22.98 30.11 17.36 10.48

19.51Short term and Circulatory

17.81 29.93 21.51 41.18 58.71

36.39

Daily/weekly commuters

4.97 3.69 25.81 14.67 8.71

8.74

Migrant for family care

2.69 1.84 1.08 0.81 1.29

1.51

All 100 100 100 100 100

Distribution of Individual Women Migrants

18.84 26.55 3.54 27.69 23.38 100.00

Caste wise Distribution of Male Migrant Workers by Type of Migration (%)Type of Migrant

General OBC MBC SC ST

Total Long term 8.49 7.57 3.88 3.83 9.14 7.05

Medium term

48.11 43.24 43.69 36.34 9.42 35.53

Short term and Circulatory 38.05 41.08 49.51 49.45 65.65

48.03

Daily/weekly commuters

4.72 7.39 1.94 10.38 15.51 8.93

Migrant for family care

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.28 0.06

All 100 100 100 100 100 100

Distribution of Individual Male Migrants

18.67 32.59 6.05 21.49 21.20 100.00

Destination of migration by Social Group/Caste composition of women workers (%)

Upper/General OBC MBC SC ST

Urban 24.9 28.9 3.7 21.5 21.1

Rural 10.9 23.3 4.2 35.4 26.2

Percentage Distribution of Migration Streams of Individual Migrant Workers

Male FemaleRural to rural 37.66 36.92Rural to urban 62.37 50.44Urban to urban NA 12.13Urban to rural NA 0.47

100 100

• The recent pattern of economic growth, characterised by a rapidly declining share of agriculture in the country’s GDP, and accelerated growth primarily in services has not generated commensurate demand in terms of employment, for which women have paid the main price of reduced employment.

• There is a need to bring into the debate questions related to structural limitations to the migration enterprise under the current growth path

• Nevertheless, the urge to change the conditions of their life and work for it is evident among women migrant workers – regardless of whether they migrate in families or independently.

• This, combined with a significant presence of autonomous migration by women, not all of which is contractor driven, does indeed indicate the makings of a wave of social assertion and aspirational motivation.

• Some worrying trends

Narrowing of the field of opportunity for women’s work-based migration and diversification of employment

Reinforcement of entrenched patriarchies

Renewed elements of concentrated inequality and degradation formany that are not compensated by the social advance of some.

• Need for a greater policy focus on redistributive growth, without which migration in India is less rather than more likely to offer a route towards social transformation of a more non-patriarchal and equalising nature

Gender and Migration in 21 st Century India

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