Top Banner
Powder TeChnology, 42 (1985)•67 - 78 -: :/ ••: : " • ---;: . -::./: .•: " :: .• -._. - -:- :..-:.:: ::•- ~ "?:. - ;67 :•! The Design of Distributors for G .as-Fluidized •-Beds - : - D. GELDART School of Powder Technology, University o]'Bradford, Bradford BD7 1DP (U.K.) .i and J. BAEYENS " Alpro N.V. Izegem (Belgium) SUMMARY The performance of the gas distributor often determines the success or fai!ure of a fluidized bed and although much more is known now than 20 years ago, there are still many pitfalls for the designer. Particle and gas properties play a key, ole in successful design together with the critical pressure drop ratio, and hole size, geometry and spacing; these strongly influence jet penetration, dead zones, particle sifting, attrition and mixing. The current state of the art .is reviewed in the light of recent research and industrial experience. INTRODUCTION Inadequate design of gas distributors, or their malfunction in operation, is responsible for a substantial proportion of the difficulties encountered in fluidized bed processes. In applications which involve the proces- sing of solids, the major concerns are to achieve rapid dispersion of the solids feed and to prevent segregation and settling out of the Iarger or denser particles on the distributor. The second situation is particularly serious, as it can cause variable temperatures and rapid defluidization of the entire bed, particularly if the solids go through a sticky stage. In applications where high conversions of the.reacting gases axe required, careful design of the distributor so as to give uniform gas distribution and small bubbles at the grid can improve performance: Distributors must also have sufficient strength to resist deformation under operating conditions and to support the static bed. They must be able to withstand stresses induced by thermal expansion, operate for long periods without blocking and be easy to unblock, prevent backflow (sifting) of solids into the windbox, avoid promoting erosion of the plate and attrition of the particles and operate at as !ow a pressure drop as possible in order to minimize power consumption. Not all these requirements axe compatible and their relative importance may change with the process requirements. How and why bed performance is influ- enced by the gas distributor is now much better understood, though much work re- mains to be done, and in this paper we review the current state of the art and present design equations. Some examples of distributors in common use are shown in Fig. 1. BASIC EQUATIONS FOR DISTRIBUTOR PRES- SURE DROP It is well known that if a gas distributor gives a pressure drop which is too low, the result is poor fluidization; that is, some parts of the bed will receive much less gas than others, and may be temporarily or perma- nently defluidized, whilst in other parts the gas forms semi-permanent spouts or channels. In order to understand the relative im- portance of the design variables, and their influence on the distributor pressure drop, let us consider a fiat plate with drilled holes (often known as a muiti~rifice distributor) as shown in Fig. 2. The pressure drop across the bed is M s pp(1 -- en~f)AZ-/mfg " ApB(N/m 2) - - (1) A A 0032-5910/85/$3.30 . © Elsevier Sequoia/Prlnted in The Netherlands
12
Welcome message from author
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
Page 1: geldart1985.pdf

Powder TeChnology, 42 (1985)•67 - 78 - : :/ •• : : " • ---;: . -::./: .•: " : : . • -._. - - : - :..-:.:: ::•- ~ "? : . - ; 67 :•!

T h e D e s i g n o f D i s t r i b u t o r s f o r G . a s - F l u i d i z e d •-Beds - : -

. . . _ .

D. GELDART School o f Powder Technology, University o]'Bradford, Bradford BD7 1DP (U.K.)

. i

and J. B A E Y E N S "

Alpro N.V. Izegem (Belgium)

SUMMARY

T h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e gas d i s t r i b u t o r o f t e n d e t e r m i n e s t h e s u c c e s s o r fa i !ure o f a f l u i d i z e d b e d a n d a l t h o u g h m u c h m o r e is k n o w n n o w t h a n 2 0 y e a r s ago, t h e r e are s t i l l m a n y p i t f a l l s f o r t h e des igner .

P a r t i c l e a n d gas p r o p e r t i e s p l a y a k e y , o l e in s u c c e s s f u l d e s i g n t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e cr i t i ca l p r e s s u r e d r o p ra t io , a n d h o l e s i ze , g e o m e t r y a n d s p a c i n g ; t h e s e s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e j e t p e n e t r a t i o n , d e a d z o n e s , p a r t i c l e s i f t ing , a t t r i t i o n a n d m i x i n g .

T h e c u r r e n t s t a t e o f t h e a r t .is r e v i e w e d in t h e l i g h t o f r e c e n t r e search a n d i n d u s t r i a l e x p e r i e n c e .

I N T R O D U C T I O N

I n a d e q u a t e d e s i g n o f gas d i s t r i b u t o r s , o r t h e i r m a l f u n c t i o n i n o p e r a t i o n , is r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a s u b s t a n t i a l p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s e n c o u n t e r e d i n f l u i d i z e d b e d p r o c e s s e s .

I n a p p l i c a t i o n s w h i c h i n v o l v e t h e p r o c e s - s i n g o f so l i d s , t h e m a j o r c o n c e r n s a r e t o a c h i e v e r a p i d d i s p e r s i o n o f t h e s o l i d s f e e d a n d t o p r e v e n t s e g r e g a t i o n a n d s e t t l i n g o u t o f t h e I a rge r o r d e n s e r p a r t i c l e s o n t h e d i s t r i b u t o r . T h e s e c o n d s i t u a t i o n is p a r t i c u l a r l y s e r i o u s , as i t c a n c a u s e v a r i a b l e t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d r a p i d d e f l u i d i z a t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e b e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t h e s o l i d s go t h r o u g h a s t i c k y s t a g e .

I n a p p l i c a t i o n s w h e r e h i g h c o n v e r s i o n s o f t h e . r e a c t i n g gases axe r e q u i r e d , c a r e f u l d e s i g n o f t h e d i s t r i b u t o r so as t o g ive u n i f o r m gas d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d s m a l l b u b b l e s a t t h e g r i d c a n i m p r o v e p e r f o r m a n c e :

D i s t r i b u t o r s m u s t a l s o h a v e s u f f i c i e n t s t r e n g t h t o r e s i s t d e f o r m a t i o n u n d e r o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s a n d t o s u p p o r t t h e s t a t i c b e d .

T h e y m u s t b e a b l e t o w i t h s t a n d s t r e s ses i n d u c e d b y t h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n , o p e r a t e f o r l o n g p e r i o d s w i t h o u t b l o c k i n g a n d b e e a s y t o u n b l o c k , p r e v e n t b a c k f l o w ( s i f t i n g ) o f s o l i d s i n t o t h e w i n d b o x , a v o i d p r o m o t i n g e r o s i o n o f t h e p l a t e a n d a t t r i t i o n o f t h e p a r t i c l e s a n d o p e r a t e a t as ! o w a p r e s s u r e d r o p as p o s s i b l e i n o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e p o w e r c o n s u m p t i o n . N o t a l l t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s axe c o m p a t i b l e a n d t h e i r r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e m a y c h a n g e w i t h t h e p r o c e s s r e q u i r e m e n t s .

H o w a n d w h y b e d p e r f o r m a n c e is i n f l u - e n c e d b y t h e gas d i s t r i b u t o r is n o w m u c h b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d , t h o u g h m u c h w o r k re - m a i n s t o b e d o n e , a n d i n t h i s p a p e r w e r e v i e w t h e c u r r e n t s t a t e o f t h e a r t a n d p r e s e n t d e s i g n e q u a t i o n s .

S o m e e x a m p l e s o f d i s t r i b u t o r s i n c o m m o n u s e a r e s h o w n i n F ig . 1 .

BASIC EQUATIONS FOR DISTRIBUTOR PRES- SURE DROP

I t is w e l l k n o w n t h a t i f a gas d i s t r i b u t o r g ives a p r e s s u r e d r o p w h i c h is t o o l o w , t h e r e s u l t is p o o r f l u i d i z a t i o n ; t h a t is, s o m e p a r t s o f t h e b e d w i l l r e c e i v e m u c h less gas t h a n o t h e r s , a n d m a y b e t e m p o r a r i l y o r p e r m a - n e n t l y d e f l u i d i z e d , w h i l s t i n o t h e r p a r t s t h e gas f o r m s s e m i - p e r m a n e n t s p o u t s o r c h a n n e l s .

I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e l a t i v e i m - p o r t a n c e o f t h e d e s i g n v a r i a b l e s , a n d t h e i r i n f l u e n c e o n t h e d i s t r i b u t o r p r e s s u r e d r o p , l e t u s c o n s i d e r a f i a t p l a t e w i t h d r i l l e d h o l e s ( o f t e n k n o w n as a m u i t i ~ r i f i c e d i s t r i b u t o r ) as s h o w n i n F ig . 2 .

T h e p r e s s u r e d r o p a c r o s s t h e b e d is

M s p p ( 1 - - en~f)AZ-/mfg " A p B ( N / m 2) - - (1 )

A A

0032-5910/85/$3.30 . © Elsevier Sequoia/Prlnted in The Netherlands

Page 2: geldart1985.pdf

6S

!I II II l Drdled plate w i t h prov,sion S lo t ted p l a t e -

for prevent ing sol ids backt low conidure type

( a } ( b )

o oooooooooli " 'NOZZle - s t a n d D , p e ' " d e s , g n C o n t i n u o u s h o r i = o n t a l sl~ts

( d ) ( e )

!! I ~parg~" tubes w,th "Cap" - des ign

s tandpipe - nozz les ( h ) { g )

Fig. 1. Examples of distributors in common use.

M u l t l - c o n e d i s t r i b u t o r

(c)

w i t h v e n t u r i - h o l e s

( f )

"9

( X - s e z t ~ re~ = ~ I

Free a rea f r ac f , an na~ f i

Ho le conc n = ~ - . ?~

| P NeT he igh t - . , . . . ; ~r; Gt mln~um IS

cnc . : c r~ss - ~ ~ _ L ~ ,cee ,s " ~ : . t , . "*

/area Of 2 ha l e = cJ

F I¢~ ? n r c ~ h 7 ha le = c To ta l f l a~

=C =n G

Fig. 2. 'X'Iulti-orifice distributor.

T h e f r a c t i o n a l f r e e a r e a F is

/ q a o r F - (2)

A

F = Naor (3)

B y B e r n o u l l i ' s e q u a t i o n , t h e f l o w r a t e t h r o u g h o n e h o l e is

(2 App',"2 -- ~ o r [ - - - ~ - ]

a n d ac ross t h e e n t i r e p l a t e

Q = Cdnaor( 2 A P D / ' / 2

\ Pg /

(4 )

(5)

D i v i d i n g b y A a n d s u b s t i t u t i n g f r o m e q n . (2 ) ,

C F ( 2 ApD/I/2 w h e r e U is t h e s u p e r f i c i a l v e l o c i t y o f t h e gas. R e a r r a n g i n g ,

U U F = - (7 )

Cd(2 APDI' '2 Uor

o r

pgU 2 Z ~ P D - 2Cd2F2 (8 )

I n m a n y a p p l i c a t i o n s t h e w i n d b o x a n d t h e b e d a r e a t d i f f e r e n t t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d i t is m o r e c o n v e n i e n t t o u s e t h e m a s s f l u x o f gas , G .

G = pgU = pgwUw (9)

w h e r e t h e s u b s c r i p t w r e f e r s t o c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e w i n d b o x .

T h e gas p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e h o l e s is u s u a l l y a t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e w i n d b o x so Pgw s h o u l d b e u s e d . E q u a t i o n ( 7 ) b e c o m e s

G F = (7a )

Cd~/2pgw Z~pD a n d e q n . ( 8 ) b e c o m e s

G 2

A p D - 2PgwCd2F2 (8a )

W h e n d e a l i n g w i t h a m u l t i - o r i f i c e d i s t r i b u - t o r i t is u s u a l l y c o n v e n i e n t t o e x p r e s s e q n . :

Page 3: geldart1985.pdf

(8a) in t e r m s o f t h e r a t i o o f p i t c h / h 0 1 e . i . " : q u o t e d Value [ 8 ] . i n o r d e r t b / a p p r e c i a t e h o w d i a m e t e r P[do,. t h e s e a p p a r e n t l y d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s h a v e c o m e

F o r s q u a r e p i t c h N = 1 /p2 a n d f o r t r i a n g u l a r t o b e i i s e d , w e m u s t : e x ~ i n e w h a t t h e re - p i t c h N = 2 / (~ / r3p2) . S u b s t i t u t i n g in e q n . ( 3 ) Sponse o f t h e s y s t e m is t o a d i s t u r b a n c e . f o r t r i a n g u l a r p i t c h ,

7r (dor /Z (I0) F - 2M/_~\ p /

S u b s t i t u t i n g in e q n . (8a ) f o r F ,

6G2 (~o r ) 4 (11 ) A p n - 7r2Cd2pg,v

E q u a t i o n s (Sa) a n d ( 1 1 ) s h o w c l e a r l y h o w s e n s i t i v e t h e d i s t r i b u t o r p r e s s u r e d r o p is t o F , p/dor a n d gas f l o w r a t e

THE PRESSURE DROP RATIO Z~PDIAPB

T h e n e x t s t e p is t o s p e c i f y w h a t t h e p res - s u r e d r o p s h o u l d b e t o e n s u r e ' s a t i s f a c t o r y " b e d o p e r a t i o n . I t s h o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d t h a t t h e f a c t t h a t e q u a l a r ea s o f a gas d i s t r i b u t o r de l i ve r , o n ave rage , t h e s a m e f l o w r a t e o f gas d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y m e a n t h a t t h e b u b b l e f l o w is s p a t i a l l y o r a t a l l t i m e s u n i f o r m .

I t is w e l l k n o w n (e.g. see Re f . 1) t h a t s o l i d s c i r c u l a t i o n p a t t e r n s d e v e l o p , e s p e c i a l l y in l a rge b e d s , w h i c h i n f l u e n c e t h e b u b b l e f l o w a n d t h a t h o l e s m a y n o t o p e r a t e c o n t i n u o u s l y . " S a t i s f a c t o r y " o r " s t ab le ' b e d o p e r a t i o n i m p l i e s [2 , 3 ] t h a t a l l h o l e s o r t u y ~ r e s a r e in c o n t i n - u o u s o p e r a t i o n . I n t h e ca se o f a n y i n d i v i d u a l o p e r a t i o n a l t u y ~ r e , t h e gas f l o w t h r o u g h i t o s c i l l a t e s r a n d o m l y in r e s p o n s e t o l o c a l p r e s s u r e c h a n g e s d u e t o s o l i d s f l o w a n d b u b b l e d e t a c h m e n t . D u r i n g o p e r a t i o n i n t h e u n s t a b l e r e g i m e , s o m e t u y ~ r e s o r h o l e s s t o p b u b b l i n g f o r p e r i o d s o f seve ra l m i n u t e s o r even p e r m a n e n t l y . N o n - o p e r a t i o n a l t u y ~ r e s o r h o l e s axe s u r r o u n d e d b y i m m o b i l e s o l i d s a n d a l t h o u g h t h e y d e l i v e r gas t o t h e b e d i t is n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o p r o d u c e b u b b l e s : c o n s e q u e n t l y , b o t h t h e gas f l o w r a t e a n d l o c a l p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n t i a l a r e s t e a d y . I t s h o u l d b e e m - p h a s i s e d t h a t s u c h h o l e s axe n o t n e c e s s a r i l y m e c h a n i c a l l y b l o c k e d .

.Agarwal et al. [ 4 ] p r o p o s e d t h a t ApD s h o u l d b e a p p r o x . 10% o f t h e b e d p r e s s u r e d r o p a n d n e v e r less t h a n a b o u t 3 4 0 0 N / m 2 (35 c m H 2 0 ) , w h i l s t o t h e r a u t h o r s [5 , 6 , 7 ] p r o p o s e m i n i m u m va lues f o r c , t h e r a t i o o f d i s t r i b u t o r t o b e d p r e s s u r e d r o p (ApD/APB) r a n g i n g f r o m 0 . 0 2 t o 1, w i t h 0 .3 as a w i d e l y

F o l l o w i n g t h e a p p r o a c h = o f H i b y [ 9 ] , c o n s i d e r F ig . 3 A , in w h i c h al l t h e h o l e s a r e o p e r a t i n g w h e n s u p p l i e d w i t h a f l o w o f gas Q, s u p e r f i c i a l gas v e l o c i t y Uo.

A

E3, (~ Lb

a tuo

B

-}-tu,

~PB

~Po

Fig. 3. Bubbling bed with (A) even bubbling (B) mal- distribution.

N o w a s s u m e t h a t t h e s y s t e m is d i s t u r b e d so t h a t s o m e o f t h e h o l e s cease t o o p e r a t e b u t t h e f l o w r e m a i n s a t Q ove ra l l . T h e v e l o c i t y in r e g i o n 1 fal ls t o Ui a r id t h a t in r e g i o n 2 r i ses t o U2- S o l i d s axe d i s p l a c e d f r o m s e c t i o n 2 t o s e c t i o n 1 a n d ApB2 < ApB1. H o w e v e r , b e c a u s e t h e v e l o c i t y h a s r i s e n in s e c t i o n 2, ApD 2 > A p n 1. I f t h e r i s e in t h e l o c a l v a l u e o f t h e d i s t r i b u t o r p r e s s t t r e d r o p is less t h a n t h e fa l l in t h e s a m e l o c a l b e d p r e s s u r e d r o p , t h e p e r t u r b a t i o n w i l l b e d a m p e d o u t , Le. i f /kPB2 + ApD2 > APBo + APDo-

I f t h e n e w t o t a l p r e s s u r e d r o p in t h a t r e g i o n is less t h a n t h e o r i g i n a l va lue , t h e m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n w i l l g e t w o r s e . C l e a r l y , t h e r a t e o f c h a n g e o f ApD w i t h v e l o c i t y , d(ApD)/dU, is t h e c o n t r o l l i n g f a c t o r , as i l l u s t r a t e d in F ig . 4 . A d i s t r i b u t o r h a v i n g a "high" p r e s s u r e d r o p a t t h e o p e r a t i n g v e l o c i t y Uo h a s a l a r g e r v a l u e o f d(ApD)[dU t h a n a d i s t r i b u t o r w i t h a ' l o w ' p r e s s u r e d r o p . H i b y ' s a n a l y s i s l e d t o a c r i t e r i o n f o r c o f 0 . 1 5 a t l o w va lues o f U]Umf a n d 0 . 0 1 5 a t h igh v e l o c i t i e s .

High'pressure drop

[ / kOw" pre~-suro drop apo I dra~J ~ d~m~to~

I !

u o u z u

Fig. 4. "High' and " low' pressure drop dist r ibutors.

Page 4: geldart1985.pdf

70

~'00 ~ - - - - T - - - - - - ,

\ r

-,oFf ,, i ° ° " _- 3 0 ~-

~o i " '" s,~,~,,~ , oO ~ _ _ _ "

t _ , 7 _ _ L _ _

O 0 5 i O 75 2-0 Aspect r~hQ i'I/O

Fig. 5. Data of Geldar t and Kelsey [3 ] for s table opera t ion of dis tr ibutors .

G e l d a r t a n d K e l s e y [ 3 ] , e x p e r i m e n t i n g i n a t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l b e d , c o n c l u d e d f r o m t h e i r d a t a t h a t t h e b e d h e i g h t / b e d w i d t h - - t h e a s p e c t r a t i o - - i n f l u e n c e d t h e c r i t i c a l v a l u e o f c r e q u i r e d t o e n s u r e s t a b l e f l u i d i z a t i o n , t h a t is f o r a l l h o l e s t o b e in o p e r a t i o n .

Q u e r e s h i a n d C r e a s y [ 1 0 ] r e v i e w e d t h e l i t e r a t u r e f o r d a t a o n s u c c e s s f u l a n d u n s u c - c e s s f u l c o m m e r c i a l f l u i d b e d s a n d a l s o c o n - c l u d e d t h a t a s p e c t r a t i o h a s a n i n f l u e n c e . T h e y p r o p o s e d t h a t f o r s t a b l e o p e r a t i o n

c ~> 0.01 + 0.211 -- exp(--0.5D/Hmf)] (12)

Geldart and Kelsey's [3] data (see Fig. 5) broadly agree with this, except for low aspect ratio beds, for which eqn. (12) gives values which are, in our opinion, too low.

A more conservative approach is to use e q n . ( 1 3 ) f o r v a l u e s o f H m f / D <: 0 . 5 .

c >~ e x p ( - - 3 . 8 H m f / D ) ( 1 3 )

T h e f i n d i n g t h a t c d e p e n d s o n a s p e c t r a t i o e x p l a i n s t h e r a n g e o f c r i t e r i a f o u n d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e ; w o r k e r s w h o u s e d s h a l l o w , l a r g e - d i a m e t e r b e d s in g e n e r a l r e c o m m e n d h i g h v a l u e s o f c , w h i l s t t h o s e w h o u s e d s m a l l - d i a m e t e r , f a i r l y d e e p l a b o r a t o r y e q u i p m e n t , r e c o m m e n d l o w e r v a l u e s o f c . F o r a p o w d e r w i t h a b u l k d e n s i t y o f 1 0 0 0 k g / m 3, a s t a t i c b e d d e p t h o f 0 . 2 m w o u l d r e q u i r e , f o r s t a b l e o p e r a t i o n , d i s t r i b u t o r p r e s s u r e d r o p s o f 4 . 4 , 1 3 . 6 a n d 1 6 . 5 c m H 2 0 in b e d s 0 . 5 , 1 . 2 a n d 4 m d i a m e t e r r e s p e c t i v e l y . A d i s t r i b u t o r p r e s s u r e d r o p o f 3 5 c m H 2 0 a t t h e o p e r a t i n g v e l o c i t y as a d v o c a t e d b y A g a r w a l e t al. [ 4 ] s h o u l d b e r e g a r d e d as c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r a l m o s t a l l b e d s u p t o a b o u t 4 m d i a m e t e r .

T h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e r e is a n y a d v a n t a g e t o b e g a i n e d f r o m i n c r e a s i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t o r p r e s s u r e d r o p a b o v e t h e m i n L m u m g i v e n b y e q n s . ( 1 2 ) a n d ( 1 3 ) ; i n d e e d , t h e r e m a y b e d i s a d v a n t a g e s , s i n c e h i g h p r e s s u r e d r o p s r e q u i r e l a r g e r v a l u e s o f p / d o t and Uor w i t h t h e a t t e n d a n t r i s k o f d e a d a r e a s a n d p a r t i c l e a t t r i t i o n .

I t s h o u l d b e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t , s i n c e f o r m u l t i - o r i f i c e d i s t r i b u t o r s A p D cc G2/p~ . ( e q n . ( 6 a ) ) , a d i s t r i b u t o r d e s i g n e d t o g i v e a n a d e - q u a t e p r e s s u r e d r o p a t t h e o p e r a t i n g v e l o c i t y a n d t e m p e r a t u r e m a y f a i l t o d o s o i f t h e m a s s f l u x o f g a s is r e d u c e d a n d / o r t h e w i n d b o x t e m p e r a t u r e f a l l s ; t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t u r n - d o w n m u s t t h e r e f o r e b e c o n s i d e r e d c a r e f u l l y w h e n d e s i g n i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t o r .

T h e o t h e r p a r a m e t e r w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s A p D is t h e d i s c h a r g e c o e f f i c i e n t Cd-

K u n i i a n d L e v e n s p i e l [ 1 1 ] p r e s e n t a c h a r t o f Cd versus t h e a p p r o a c h R e y n o l d s PgwUwD/P, t a k e n f r o m P e r r y [ 1 2 ] . F o r d i s t r i b u t o r s h a v i n g F < 0 . 1 , o p e r a t i n g a t R e > 3 0 0 0 a n d w i t h t h e p l a t e t h i c k n e s s / o r i f i c e d i a m e t e r , t /do t < 0 . 1 , Ca ~ 0 . 6 . F o r s q u a r e - e d g e d c i r c u l a r o r i f i c e s w i t h t /do t :> 0 . 0 9 , Q u e r e s h i a n d C r e a s y [ 1 0 ] g i v e

C d = 0.82(t/dor)O. I3 ( 1 4 )

A s s u m i n g t h a t A p D h a s b e e n s p e c i f i e d a n d Cd h a s b e e n e s t i m a t e d , t h e f r a c t i o n a l f r e e a r e a F c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e n o r m a l o p e r a t i n g v e l o c i t y u s i n g e q n . ( 7 a ) . E q u a t i o n ( 1 0 ) s h o w s t h a t t h i s a l s o f i x e s p/do~, b u t k n o w i n g p / d o t is n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o d e f i n e t h e d i s t r i b u t o r s i n c e , f o r a g i v e n v a l u e o f p / d o t , t h e r e c o u l d b e m a n y s m a l l h o l e s c l o s e t o g e t h e r o r a f e w l a r g e o n e s w i d e l y s p a c e d . I t is t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r y t o s p e c i f y p o r do~, o r a t l e a s t d e f i n e t h e i r l i m i t s .

SIZE AND SPACING O F HOLES

Practical cons idera t ions A n u m b e r o f g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s c a n b e m a d e

a b o u t t h e p i t c h a n d d i a m e t e r o f t h e m u l t i - o r i f i c e d i s t r i b u t o r . ( a ) D i s t r i b u t o r s h a v i n g h o l e s s m a l l e r t h a n 1 m m d i a m e t e r a r e e x p e n s i v e b u t a r e a v a i l a b l e c o m m e r c i a l l y d o w n t o 0 . 1 m m i n p l a t e s 0 . 7 5 m m t h i c k f o r a p p l i c a t i o n s s u c h as f l u i d b e d d r y e r s .

Page 5: geldart1985.pdf

. - .

(b) I f ho les are larger t h a n a b o u t 5 dp, t h e b e d will d ra in i n t o t h e w i n d b o x w h e n de f lu id i zed . H o w e v e r , th is l i m i t a t i o n can be a v o i d e d b y t h e use o f m e s h u n d e r t h e p la t e o r b y us ing b u b b l e caps , o r tuy&res w i t h h o r i z o n t a l holes . (c) P o r o u s p la tes give t h e smal les t bubb le s , h ighes t c h e m i c a l conve r s ion , n o d e a d areas a t t h e p la te level, a n d have t he a d v a n t a g e t h a t par t ic les c a n n o t fall t h r o u g h . H o w e v e r , t h e r e is o f t e n c o n s i d e r a b l e va r i a t ion in p o r o s i t y (giving u n e v e n f l u i d i z a t i o n ) a n d t h e d a n g e r o f b l o c k a g e f r o m the unde r s ide . Seg rega t ion is also m o r e l ike ly b e c a u s e t h e b u b b l e s a re t o o smal l t o l i f t t h e sol ids a n d m i x t h e m . (d) I f N exceeds 1 0 0 0 h o l e s / m 2, a f e w c e n t i m - et res a b o v e t h e p l a t e b u b b l e sizes are v i r tua l ly t h e s a m e as t h o s e f r o m a p o r o u s p la t e [ 1 3 ] . This suggests t h a t f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v iew o f c h e m i c a l r eac t ions , t h e r e is n o r m a l l y l i t t le p o i n t in m a k i n g p smal le r t h a n a b o u t 3 am. Howeve r , i f N is t o o smal l ( large p a n d dot) , p r o b l e m s o f j e t p e n e t r a t i o n a n d i n a d e q u a t e par t ic le m o v e m e n t m a y o c c u r a n d these are d i scussed be low.

Jet penetration and initial bubble size T h e r e is still d i scuss ion as t o w h e t h e r

dri l led p la te o r t u y 6 r e d i s t r i bu to r s give rise t o b u b b l e s o r jets . As Clif t [ 1 4 ] has p o i n t e d o u t , all t u r b u l e n t je ts are u n s t a b l e a n d p r e s e n t a w a v y a p p e a r a n c e w h i c h can be i n t e r p r e t e d e i ther as je ts o r r a p i d l y coa le sc ing bubb les . A t l o w values o f U Umf b u b b l e s axe p r o b a b l y f o r m e d d i r e c t l y ; a t h igh values o f U - - Umf j e t t i ng o c c u r s p r io r t o b u b b l e f o r m a t i o n . Even in t h e s e c o n d s i t ua t ion , t h e e v e n t u a l init ial b u b b l e size c an still be ca l cu l a t ed f r o m t h e D a v i d s o n - S c h i i l e r [ 1 5 ] e q u a t i o n f o r t h e v o l u m e o f a b u b b l e f o r m e d b y a f l o w ra t e o f gas q i n t o a l iquid.

1.14q 1.2 Vb - (15) gO.2

q -

F o r a multi-orifice d i s t r i bu to r ,

U ~ d e q 3

and Vb---- N 6

so t h a t

[q2\O.2 / U2 ~0.2 (16)

71

: iq~\O.2 = I'.43"|~--~,~/ " - -(17): dbi

w h e r e deq i :is t h e d i a m e t e r o f t h e equ iva l en t v o l u m e s p h e r e a t t he d i s t r i b u t o r a n d d b i iS t h e f r o n t a l d i a m e t e r o f t h e bubb l e s f o r m e d ini- t ia l ly . ( S o m e w o r k e r s p r e f e r t o use U - Umf in s t ead o f U in eqn . {16) , a rgu ing t h a t t h e gas n e e d e d t o i nc ip i en t l y f lu id ize t h e b e d leaks a w a y r a p i d l y b e f o r e bubb les are f o r m e d . ) T h e gas /so l id c o n t a c t n e a r t h e gr id is a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r in o b t a i n i n g g o o d c h e m i c a l c o n v e r s i o n a n d t h e smal le r t h e bubb les , t h e larger the i r su r f ace a rea a n d t h e b e t t e r t h e c o n v e r s i o n [16].

Whether or not there are j e t s or r a p i d l y coa lesc ing bubb le s , i t is c e r t a in t h a t i f sur faces s u c h as h e a t - e x c h a n g e r t u b e s are p o s i t i o n e d t o o c lose t o t h e d i s t r i bu to r , e ros ion b y t h e par t ic les c an occu r . I f t h e bed i s sha l low, b r e a k t h r o u g h o f je ts t o t h e su r face m a y o c c u r and this is usually undesirable. It is therefore i m p o r t a n t t o be able t o e s t ima te t h e h e i g h t ove r w h i c h par t i c le a cce l e r a t i on e f fec t s e x t e n d . H o w e v e r , p u b l i s h e d co r r e l a t i ons f o r t h e j e t p e n e t r a t i o n l eng th Lj p r e s e n t p r o b l e m s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

K n o w l t o n a n d Hi rsan [ 1 7 ] de f ine t h r e e l eng ths (see Fig. 6). T h e largest , Lb , is t h e d i s t ance r e a c h e d b y b u b b l e s b e f o r e the i r m o m e n t u m is d iss ipa ted .

S o m e w o r k e r s t a k e an average o f t h e l eng ths r e a c h e d b y t h e f l u c t u a t i n g d i lu te

( ' ]

l . . IL j

- ~ "~-dor

o r Fig. 6_ Jet penetration lengths.

Page 6: geldart1985.pdf

72

p h a s e r e g i o n , o t h e r s , t h e m a x i m u m o f t h e f l u c t u a t i n g r e g i o n .

S o m e w o r k e r s u s e d s e c o n d a r y gas t o f l u i d i z e t h e b e d [17 , 1 8 ] . M o s t d i d n o t [8 , 19 , 2 0 ] . G e n e r a l l y , t h e d i l u t e p h a s e p o r t i o n o f t h e j e t p e n e t r a t e s f u r t h e r w h e n t h e r e is n o s e c o n d a r y gas.

F e w w o r k e r s va r i ed a l l t h e p a r a m e t e r s i n c l u d e d in t h e i r c o r r e l a t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , a l t h o u g h t h e gas d e n s i t y is in all t h e c o r r e l a - t i o n s , u s u a l l y o n l y a i r a t a m b i e n t c o n d i t i o n s was u s e d . P r e d i c t i o n s f o r j e t s o r h o t gases a t h igh p re s su re s , o r gases c o n t a i n i n g so l id s , s h o u l d b e m a d e w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e c a u t i o n . K n o w l t o n a n d H i r s an [ 1 7 ] a n d Y a n g [ 2 1 ] a re t h e o n l y w o r k e r s t o v~_ry p~essure .

F o r s y s t e m s in w h i c h t h e r e is n o s e c o n d a r y s u p p l y o f gas, i.e. all t h e gas e n t e r s t h r o u g h t h e ho l e s , t h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f M e r r y [ 1 9 ] gives r e a s o n a b l e a g r e e m e n t w i t h d a t a d e d u c e d f r o m e r o s i o n p a t t e r n s in c o m m e r c i a l un i t s .

] d o , t - 1 ( 1 8 )

T h e c o r r e l a t i o n b y Y a n g [ 2 1 ] f o r t h e p e n e t r a - t i o n o f l a rge j e t s i n t o b e d s f l u i d i z e d a t U(t b y a s e p a r a t e s u p p l y o f gas m a k e s use o f d a t a b y K n o w l t o n a n d H i r s an [ 1 7 ] . Ucf is t h e v e l o c i t y a t w h i c h t h e b e d is c o m p l e t e l y s u p p o r t e d a n d K n o w l t o n a n d Hi r san h a v e p r o p o s e d t h a t i t c an be e s t i m a t e d f r o m

U~f = ~ , X i U m e l (19 )

T h e c o r r e l a t i o n , w h i c h is c l a i m e d t o b e a p p l i c a b l e t o p r e s s u r e s u p t o 53 a r m , is

L i [ 1 pg Uor2/0"472 - 7 . 6 5 / - - ( 20 )

dor \ R c f P p - - P g g d o r ]

Ucf a t p r e s s u r e w h e r e Rcf =

U¢f a t 1 a t m

O n c e F has b e e n s p e c i f i e d f o r a p a r t i c u l a r f l o w r a t e , t h e n Uor is f i x e d ( eqn . (7 ) ) . Se lec- t i o n o f a j e t p e n e t r a t i o n l e n g t h w h i c h a v o i d s i m p i n g e m e n t o n i n t e r n a l s u r f a c e s t h e n a l l o w s an o r i f i c e s ize do , t o b e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m eqns . ( 18 ) o r (20 ) , d e p e n d i n g o n w h e t h e r o r n o t s e c o n d a r y gas is u s e d . S i n c e F ec ( d o t ~ p ) 2 t h e p i t c h is n o w a l so f i x e d a n d m u s t b e c h e c k e d a g a i n s t o t h e r c r i t e r i a s u c h as d e a d a reas (see b e l o w ) . N o t e t h a t t h e s e e q u a t i o n s r e l a t e t o ver t i ca l j e t s . H o r i z o n t a l j e t s e m e r g i n g

f r o m n o z z l e s p e n e t r a t e t o m u c h s m a l l e r d i s t a n c e s , b u t f e w d a t a a r e a v a i l a b l e [ 2 2 ] .

P a r t i c l e m o v e m e n t a t t h e p l a t e I f t h e so l i d s t o b e f l u i d i z e d h a v e a t e n d e n c y

t o s t i c k i n e s s o r go t h r o u g h a s t i c k y s t age , i t is u s u a l l y i m p o r t a n t t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e r e a r e n o d e a d a r e a s o n t h e p l a t e . T h e p a r t i c l e m o v e - m e n t i n d u c e d b y t h e gas i s su ing f r o m a h o l e d e p e n d s o n t h e f l o w p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e f lu- i d i z e d so l i d s ( p a r t i a l l y c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y Umf) a n d t h e gas f l o w r a t e p e r h o l e . A t l o w gas f l o w r a t e s t h e r e is l i t t l e m o v e m e n t , a l t h o u g h w i t h p o r o u s p l a t e s b u b b l e s o c c u r r a n d o m l y , a e r a t i n g a l l t h e s o l i d s a t t h e p l a t e . H o w e v e r , t h e s m a l l b u b b l e s p r o d u c e d a t a p o r o u s p l a t e d o n o t h a v e s u f f i c i e n t e n e r g y t o c a u s e t h e v i g o r o u s m o v e m e n t r e q u i r e d t o r e m i x l a r g e r p a r t i c l e s w h i c h m a y h a v e s e g r e g a t e d o r even d e f l u i d i z e d . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f d r i l l e d p l a t e s h a v i n g l a rge h o l e s a r e u s e d , t h e l a rge d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e m ( f o r a g iven p i t c h / d i a m e t e r r a t i o ) a l l o w s so l i d s t o s e t t l e o u t (F ig . 7) . B a e y e n s [ 2 3 ] m a d e a s t u d y o f p a r t i c l e m o v e m e n t c a u s e d b y b u b b l e s a n d s u g g e s t e d t h a t f o r p a r t i c l e m o v e m e n t o v e r t h e e n t i r e p l a t e ,

p < Xdeqi ( 21 )

w h e r e k is a f u n c t i o n o f t h e p a r t i c l e m o b i l i t y a n d deq i iS t h e i n i t i a l b u b b l e s i ze p r o d u c e d a t t h e d i s t r i b u t o r . G e l d a r t [ 2 4 ] u s e d t h i s a p p r o a c h t o d e r i v e eqn . (22 ) , w h i c h gives t h e m i n i m u m gas v e l o c i t y r e q u i r e d t o a v o i d d e a d a reas b e t w e e n h o l e s :

I I I n f e r m i f f e n f l y m ixed z o n e

P a r t l y d e a d zone

D e a d z o n e

|

F i g . 7 . D e a d z o n e s o n a m u l t i - o r i f i c e p l a t e ( a f t e r W e n e t a l . [ 2 6 ] ) .

Page 7: geldart1985.pdf

+ + + (A)

F i g . 8 . O r i e n t a t i o n o f h o l e s i n t u y & r e s . B i s b e t t e r t h a n A i n r e d u c i n g d e a d z o n e s .

X

(B)

(gp)0.s

U Umf > 2 . 4 5 ~ , . 7 s ( 22 )

F o r c o n s e r v a t i v e de s ign , k ~ 1 f o r G e l d a r t [ 2 5 ] G r o u p B a n d D s o l i d s ( t y p i c a l l y s a n d l i k e m a t e r i a l s ) a n d 1 .5 f o r G r o u p A ( t y p i c a l l y c r a c k i n g c a t a l y s t ) . F o r f l u i d i z a t i o n b y a i r a t a m b i e n t c o n d i t i o n s , a p o w d e r is in G r o u p A i f

pp°-c)34(d-pp) 0-8 < 1 (23 )

W e n e t al. [ 2 6 ] u s e d t h e r m i s t o r s t o d e t e c t t h e m o v e m e n t o f p a r t i c l e s in G r o u p s B a n d D a t d i s t r i b u t o r p l a t e s a n d p r o p o s e d t h a t

3 0 - - dor)O.71.d po ..... U - - Umf ~ (P (24 ) P

U n i t s a r e c m / s a n d c m , w i t h dp in m i c r o n s . D e a d z o n e s a r e ea s i e r t o e l i m i n a t e u s i n g t u y S r e s w i t h m u l t i p l e h o r i z o n t a l h o l e s o r c o n i c a l - t o p b u b b l e c a p s ( s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d "chinese h a t s ' ) . T h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e h o l e s i n f l u e n c e s t h e d e a d z o n e s a n d W e n e t al. f o u n d a r r a n g e m e n t B in F ig . 8 b e t t e r t h a n a r r a n g e m e n t A .

A d d i t i o n a l p r o b l e m s a r i se w h e n c o h e s i v e G r o u p C p o w d e r s a r e f l u i d i z e d . P o w d e r s w i t h a m e a n s i ze less t h a n a b o u t 3 0 / ~ m fa l l i n t o t h i s c a t e g o r y a n d b e c a u s e t h e i n t e r p a r t i c l e f o r c e s a r e l a rge c o m p a r e d w i t h h y d r o d y n a m i c d r a g f o r c e s , t h e p o w d e r f l u i d i z e s p o o r l y e v e n w i t h v e r y u n i f o r m h i g h p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t o r s b e c a u s e i r r e g u l a r gas c h a n n e l s f o r m f r o m d i s t r i b u t o r t o b e d s u r f a c e . S t i r r e r s p o s i t i o n e d c l o s e t o a p o r o u s p l a t e a r e s o m e t i m e s u s e d a n d a c o m b i n e d s t i r r e r / d i s t r i b u t o r has b e e n u s e d w i t h s o m e success [ 2 8 ] . F o r h igh-

t e m p e r a t u r e a p p l i c a t i o n s , a screw" p l a t e is c o m m e r c i a l l y a v a i l a b l e [ 2 9 ] .

OTHER FACTORS INFLUENCING DESIGN

P r o p o r t i o n o f ho les in o p e r a t i o n T h e m i n i m u m p r e s s u r e d r o p r e q u i r e d

a c r o s s a m u l t i - o r i f i c e d i s t r i b u t o r t o e n s u r e t h a t al l h o l e s o p e r a t e can b e f o u n d f r o m eqns . ( 12 ) a n d {13), b u t s o m e w o r k e r s h a v e a d o p t e d a n a l t e r n a t i v e a p p r o a c h .

A t w h a t v e l o c i t y farm s h o u l d a d i s t r i b u t o r a l r e a d y b u i l t o p e r a t e t o e n s u r e t h a t a l l h o l e s o p e r a t e ? I f i t o p e r a t e s a t a v e l o c i t y l o w e r t h a n Ur, , w h a t f r a c t i o n o f t h e h o l e s wi l l b e in o p e r a t i o n ? W h i t e h e a d a n d D e n t [ 1 ] a n d F a k h i m i a n d H a r r i s o n [ 3 0 ] a d d r e s s e d t h e s e q u e s t i o n s a n d Y u e a n d K o l a c z k o w s k i [ 3 1 ] d e v e l o p e d t h e i d e a s f u r t h e r . T h e i r e q u a t i o n s b e l o w c a n b e r e a r r a n g e d t o p r o v i d e t h e m i n i m u m d i s t r i b u t o r p r e s s u r e d r o p r a t i o c r e q u i r e d t o e n s u r e u n i f o r m h o l e o p e r a t i o n . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e s u l t i n g e q u a t i o n s a r e n o t e x p l i c i t in ApD a n d h a v e t o b e s o l v e d b y a n i t e r a t i v e p r o c e d u r e . E q u a t i o n s ( 2 5 ) a n d (26 ) a r e o f m o r e v a l u e in g iv ing a n e s t i m a t e o f Urn, t h e s u p e r f i c i a l v e l o c i t y n e e d e d b y a g iven d i s t r i b u t o r t o e n s u r e a l l h o l e s o p e r a t e , a n d t h e f r a c t i o n o f t h e h o l e s i n o p e r a t i o n w h e n t h e f l o w is t u r n e d d o w n t o U, a l o w e r v e l o c i t y .

u m : b 0 3 s f 2cd u f2 | / 2

(25 )

Page 8: geldart1985.pdf

74

T h e f r a c t i o n o f h o l e s o p e r a t i n g a t a s u p e r f i c i a l v e l o c i t y U less t h a t Um is

nop U - - Umt - ( 2 6 )

n t o t U m - Vm f

e b is t h e f r a c t i o n o f t h e b e d o c c u p i e d b y b u b b l e s a n d c a n b e e s t i m a t e d f r o m

__ Q b / A eb - ( 2 7 )

t/bs

QD is t h e v i s i b l e b u b b l e f l o w r a t e , a n d b y t h e m o d i f i e d t w o - p h a s e t h e o r y

Qb -- ( U - - Umf)(1 + 2~bb) ( 2 8 )

A

A c c o r d i n g t o B a r - C o h e n e t al. [ 3 2 ] , t h i s is s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r l a rge ( G r o u p D ) p a r t i c l e s . H o w e v e r , i t p r o b a b l y o v e r e s t i m a t e s Q b f o r t h e s m a l l e r G r o u p B a n d A p o w d e r s a n d a b e t t e r a p p r o x i m a t i o n is

Q~ - Y ( U - - Umf) ( 2 9 )

A

w h e r e Y is a f u n c t i o n o f p a r t i c l e p r o p e r t i e s [ 2 3 ] a n d 0 _ 5 < Y < l . T h i s is i n b r o a d a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e d a t a o f W e r t h e r [ 3 3 ] , w h o p r o p o s e d Y ~ 0 . 6 7 f o r G r o u p B so l i d s .

T h e o t h e r t e r m i n e q n . ( 2 7 ) is t h e a v e r a g e b u b b l e r i se v e l o c i t y Ub~:

Ub~ = U - - Umf + 0 . 7 1 ~ q ( 3 0 )

d,,,, is t h e a v e r a g e b u b b l e s ize i n t h e b e d a n d c a n b e e s t i m a t e d f r o m o n e o f t h e b u b b l e s ize e q u a t i o n s , f o r e x a m p l e t h a t o f D a r t o n e t al. [34].

_ 0.54g0.2 ,( ] /~-'~0.s ( u - °-" h + } (31)

I t is u s u a l l y s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e t o u s e h = 0 . 5 H m f , b u t n o t e t h a t n e i t h e r e q n . ( 3 1 ) n o r a n y o f t h e o t h e r b u b b l e s i ze e q u a t i o n s c a n b e a p p l i e d i f t h e b e d is l i k e l y t o b e s lugg ing , t h a t is, i f d..q i n t h e u p p e r p a r t o f t h e b e d > D / 3 .

Sol ids back f l o w T h e b a c k f l o w o f s o l i d s t h r o u g h t h e d i s t r i b -

u t o r i n t o t h e w i n d b o x c a n o c c u r (a) d u r i n g s h u t - d o w n o f t h e b e d ( w h e n i t is k n o w n as d u m p i n g ) ; (b ) d u r i n g n o r m a l o p e r a t i o n ( w h e n i t is c a l l e d s i f t ing o r weep ing ) . T h e f o r m e r , (a) , c a n l e a d t o s u c h l a rge a m o u n t s o f so l i d s i n t h e w i n d b o x o r s p a r g e

• I o

,a,c pp . . . . . . ho,e j / ? . . . . . . tuyeres r ~ . ~

{b) P,pe grid w;th n o z z t e s

C~ <: ang~. of repose of d e f l u i d i z e d solids

Fig. 9. Designs to prevent solids backflow on shut- down (Group B and D solids).

p i p e s t h a t s t a r t - u p is d i f f i c u l t o r i m p o s s i b l e ; t h e l a t t e r , (b ) , is o n e o f t h e m a i n c a u s e s o f h o l e e r o s i o n .

F o r G r o u p B a n d D so l i d s , t h e s i m p l e c o n s t r u c t i o n s s h o w n i n F ig . 9 c a n b e e f f e c t i v e i n p r e v e n t i n g d u m p i n g ; t h e a n g l e ~ is m a d e s m a l l e r t h a n t h e a n g l e o f r e p o s e o f t h e so l i d s . H o w e v e r , t h e s e d e s i g n s a r e m u c h less e f f e c t i v e f o r G e l d a r t [ 2 5 ] G r o u p A p o w d e r s , w h i c h d e - a e r a t e s l o w l y a n d so r e t a i n t h e i r f l o w a b i l i t y f o r m a n y s e c o n d s a f t e r t h e gas ha s b e e n s h u t o f f . A s m o s t r e a c t o r s y s t e m s o p e r a t e f o r m a n y m o n t h s b e t w e e n s h u t - d o w n s , t h i s is n o t u s u a l l y a p r o b l e m , b u t w h e r e b e d s o f G r o u p A p o w d e r s a r e s h u t d o w n f r e q u e n t l y , b u b b l e c a p s m a y b e r e q u i r e d .

W e e p i n g o c c u r s e v e n w h e n t h e v e l o c i t y i n t h e h o l e s is f a r i n e x c e s s o f t h e t e r m i n a l v e l o c i t y o f t h e p a r t i c l e s . T h i s is d u e s o m e - t i m e s t o t h e p r e s s u r e p u l s a t i o n s i n t h e b e d a n d s o m e t i m e s t o t h e d e s i g n o f t h e t u y ~ r e o r h o l e w h i c h g ives r i se t o v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d s e c o n d a r y c i r c u l a t i n g f l o w s . S e r v i a n t e t el. [ 3 5 ] u s e d 6 0 p m c r a c k i n g c a t a l y s t a t s u p e r f i c i a l gas v e l o c i t i e s u p t o 0 . 3 m / s . R e s u l t s f r o m his s i n g l e - o r i f i c e e x p e r i m e n t s i n d i c a t e t h a t w e e p i n g d e c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g o r i f i c e v e l o c i t i e s , d e c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g l e n g t h o f t h e i n l e t n o z z l e a n d is r e l a t i v e l y i n s e n s i t i v e t o b e d h e i g h t .

M u l t i - o r i f i c e t e s t s i n d i c a t e t h a t w e e p i n g i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g p / d o t v a l u e s . C o n - t r a r y t o t h e s i n g l e - n o z z l e r e s u l t s , i t w a s f o u n d t h a t e x c e s s i v e w e e p i n g o c c u r s i f t h e n o z z l e l e n g t h e x c e e d s a c r i t i c a l l e n g t h l¢.

p~ 1 1¢ = c~ - - Uor 2 ( 3 2 )

PB 2g

c o m b i n e s e m p i r i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n f a c t o r s as i n d i c a t e d i n t h e o r i g i n a l p a p e r . T h i s I c v a l u e is i m p o r t a n t f o r e x a m p l e w h e n d e s i g n i n g a t h i c k r e f r a c t o r y - d o m e d d i s t r i b u t o r w i t h s i m p l e v e r t i c a l n o z z l e s .

Page 9: geldart1985.pdf

. • . •

B r i e n s e t el. [ 3 6 ] d e t e r m i n e d t h a t w e e p i n g o f c r a c k i n g c a t a l y s t t h r o u g h a n o r i f i c e p l a t e is c o r r e l a t e d as

F w p ( k g / ( m 2 s ) ) 6 . 3 4 X 1 0 9 U o r - v ' s 2 ( 3 3 )

T h i s e q u a t i o n is b a s e d o n t h e a c t i v e h o l e s f o r U ~ Um o r o n a l l t h e h o l e s i f U > Urn- T h e e x p o n e n t o f Uo~ c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e s l o p e o f S e r v i a n t ' s r e s u l t s .

E x p e r i m e n t s b y P e t r i e a n d B l a c k [ 3 7 ] f o r c a p d i s t r i b u t o r s a n d b y G r e g o r y e t el. [ 6 ] f o r b a f f l e d s l o t p l a t e s r e s u l t e d in w e e p i n g f l u x e s w h i c h a r e a l o t s m a l l e r t h a n f o r o r i f i c e p l a t e s a n d v i r t u a l l y n e g l i g i b l e f o r Uor ~> 3 0 m / s .

S o l i d s a t t r i t i o n W h i l s t h i g h v e l o c i t i e s i n t h e h o l e s m a y

r e d u c e o r e l i m i n a t e w e e p i n g a n d g i v e g o o d g a s d i s t r i b u t i o n d u e t o t h e l a r g e d i s t r i b u t o r p r e s s u r e d r o p , t h e y c a n c a u s e a t t r i t i o n o f t h e p a r t i c l e s . A t t r i t i o n in f l u i d i z e d b e d s h a s r e c e n t l y a t t r a c t e d m o r e a t t e n t i o n b u t i t is n o t e a s y t o c h a r a c t e r i z e b e c a u s e m u c h d e p e n d s o n t h e p a r t i c l e s . S t a n d a r d t e s t s a r e u s e d i n t h e p e t r o c h e m i c a l indu~L~9 a n d t h e s e a r e u s e f u l f o r c o m p a r a t i v e p u r p o s e s b u t c a n n o t b e r e a d i l y u s e d t o p r e d i c t aLL~it ion r a t e s in a f i u i d i z e d b e d [ 3 8 , 3 9 ] .

U s i n g p l a t e s w i t h m u l t i p l e d ~ l e d h o l e s , P e t r i e a n d B l a c k [ 3 7 ] f o u n d t h a t f o r a l u m i n a p a r t i c l e s a t t r i t i o n r e m a i n e d l o w a t o r i f i c e v e l o c i t i e s b e l o w 5 0 m / s , w h e r e a s a t 1 0 0 m / s e x c e s s i v e f i n e s w e r e p r o d u c e d . B e r g o u g n o u [ 4 0 ] a l s o s u g g e s t s t h a t v e l o c i t i e s > 9 0 m / s s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d . F o r s t a n d p i p e o r c a p d e s i g n s , t h e h i g h v e l o c i t y r e q u i r e d t o g i v e a n a d e q u a t e p r e s s u r e d r o p c a n b e r e d u c e d b e f o r e i t c o n t a c t s t h e p o w d e r a s s h o w n i n F i g . 1 0 .

! di -+ i-

(A}

La rge o~-if ice

// to l imi l " Ule t

1

I I

i I

i + •

i ~ ' , , ~ _ a l I or i f i ce t o f i x A P o

( B )

M o n s a n t o p a c e n t n o z z l e

Fig. I0. (A) Multi-hole tuy~re. (B) shrouded tuy~re.

. - _ . y - - •

. " . .- _+ + : - + : + - : : - 7 5 .'+ - " " " L : . - . . . . _ , _ _ .

W i t h a p o w d e r • w h i c h is +easily::d+amag:ed, p r e s s u r e d r o p ( a n d h i g h e s t v e l o c i t y ) - s h O u l d o c c u r a t t h e i n l e t , t h a t is d i 2 + ~ n ' d o ~ . I f , .- h o w e v e r , t h e p a r t i c l e s axe h a r d - a n d - p r e v e n t i o n o f s i f t i n g b a c k is o f p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e , + i t m a y b e a d v i s a b l e - t o e n s u r e t h a t n ' d o 2 < di 2 (n ' = n o . o f h o l e s / n o z z l e ) . T h i s a p p r o a c h is a l s o a d o p t e d i n t h e d e s i g n p a t e n t e d b y M o n s a n t o [ 4 1 ] . W h e r e v e r p o s s i b l e , t e s t i n g o n a p i l o t s c a l e s h o u l d b e d o n e .

E r o s i o n A l t h o u g h e r o s i o n is n o t g e n e r a l l y a

p r o b l e m , i t is r e p o r t e d t o h a v e o c c u r r e d a t l o c a l i s e d p o s i t i o n s i n o n e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r m s : ( a ) L o c a l e r o s i o n o f d i s t r i b u t o r p a r t s , b e d w a l l s o r i n - b e d s u r f a c e s is m a i n l y d u e t o t h e d i r e c t i m p a c t o f t h e e x i t ga s j e t s a n d e n t r a i n e d p a r t i c l e s . I t c a n b e a v o i d e d b y l i m i t i n g t h e j e t l e n g t h . ( b ) E r o s i o n in t h e n o z z l e o r o r i f i c e is o ~ e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s o l i d s w e e p i n g . I t c a n b e l i m i t e d b y c a r e f u l s e l e c t i o n o f t h e o p e r a t i n g v e l o c i t i e s . ( c ) E r o s i o n o f d i s t r i b u t o r p a r t s ( c a p s , o r i - f i c e s , . . . ) c a n a l s o b e d u e t o s e c o n d a r y c i r c u l a - t i o n . T h e e x a m p l e s b e l o w i l l u s t r a t e t h e p h e n o m e n o n a n d s h o w t h a t n o g e n e r a l r u l e a p p l i e s . O n l y l a r g e - s c a l e t e s t i n g c a n g i v e e v i d e n c e .

- - I n F i g . 1 1 , t h e s l o p i n g c a p d e s i g n c a u s e d s e c o n d a r y c i r c u l a t i o n p a t t e r n s , p e r m i t t i n g s o l i d s t o e n t e r t h e c a p . T h e s o l i d s w e r e a t t r i t e d a n d t h e c a p s w e r e p e r f o r a t e d b y e r o s i o n . T h e p r o b l e m w a s s o l v e d b y t h e r e d e s i g n e d n o z z l e s h o w n [ 4 2 ] .

z o n e of secondary c~culat ion

primary circulatio?...~ ~ .........

( A ) o r i g i n a l d e s i g n (B ) i m p f c ~ e d d e s i g n

F ig . 11 . S h e l l C h l o r i n e P rocess n o z z l e s e r o s i o n was considerable in (A) and negligible in (B).

- - I n F i g . 1 2 , c a p e r o s i o n w a s o b s e r v e d d u e t o p a r t i c l e s d r a w n u n d e r n e a t h t h e c a p w i t h i n v o r t i c e s b e h i n d t h e s u p p o r t a n d s p a c e r l egs . T h e c a p d e s i g n w a s a d a p t e d t o

Page 10: geldart1985.pdf

76

I

Q

{~) original design and erosion mechanisms

~ support and spacer leg

~ inser~ Support rod

• t ~ ' t t t t t t t t /

~ (A ) uniform disirlbul:on

( ~ Section Y-Y

(B) imp roved design

(•) d i s t r i b u t o r cap

d i s t r i b u t o r p l a t e

Particle movement under cap caused by

~the support leg

@the insert rod

Fig. 12. Erosion in waste calciner distr ibutor plates [37].

m i n i m i z e s o l i d s i n f l o w a n d u s i n g "outs ide" s p a c e r legs.

(d ) S t a n d p i p e s w i t h m u l t i l a y e r i d e n t i c a l o r i - f i ces as i l l u s t r a t e d i n F ig . 1 3 c a n s u f f e r e r o s i o n d u e t o d i r e c t i m p a c t o f p a r t i c l e s u p o n t h e r o o f a n d w i t h i n t h e u p p e r o r i f i c e s . T h e s e p a r t i c l e s a r e s u c k e d w i t h i n t h e s t a n d p i p e t h r o u g h t h e l o w e r o r i f i c e s d u e t o v e n t u r i e f f e c t s [ 4 3 ] . P r e s s u r e e q u a l i z a t i o n c a n b e a c h i e v e d b y v a r i a t i o n o f o r i f i c e s ize w i t h h e i g h t o r b y u s i n g s p e c i a l d e s i g n s s u c h as D o f f - O l i v e r ' s [ 4 4 ] .

• - , . d : . ' / ~ ; / ( > ' > ' ~ ? ":

5e¢ |1o~

. ~ ~

(A) o¢lginal n o z z l e d e s i g n

p ~ r t , c l e e c o S i o n a r e a s ~

(B) improved design { according to Oorr C~-~er ;97) )

Fig. 13. Erosion in multi-orifice tuy~re [43 ].

S p e c i a l d i s t r i b u t o r e f f e c t s A l t h o u g h h i g h p r e s s u r e d r o p d i s t r i b u t o r s

e n s u r e u n i f o r m d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e gas f l o w a t t h e base o f t h e f l u i d i z e d b e d , h i g h e r u p , u n i f o r m i t y m i g h t n o t b e a c h i e v e d b e c a u s e o f g ross c i r c u l a t i o n p a t t e r n s w h i c h d e v e l o p . D e l i b e r a t e l y n o n - u n i f o r m gas f l o w c a n p r o -

I ~ ' ~ ttttttttttt n o z z l e s w i l h I~rgtw" o r i f i c e s i n c e n t e r

( B ) n o n - u n i f o r m d i s t r i b u t i o n

Fig. 14. Bubbling distr ibution in large shallow beds. More uniform bubbl ing can be promoted by a non- uniform distr ibutor [1 ].

d u c e m o r e u n i f o r m b u b b l i n g p a t t e r n s as i l l u s t r a t e d i n F ig . 1 4 .

A l t h o u g h t h e f l u i d i z e d b e d d e s i g n s h o u l d t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t p a r t i c l e m i x i n g , t h e r e a r e a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p u t t i n g al l t h e gas r e q u i r e d t h r o u g h t h e d i s t r i b u t o r . T h e r e a r e a d v a n t a g e s i n p r o m o t i n g m i x i n g a n d p a r t i c l e m o v e m e n t b y o t h e r m e a n s so t h a t t h e r e s u l t i n g l o w e r gas v e l o c i t y t h r o u g h t h e d i s t r i b u t o r c a n h a v e a b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t o n c h e m i c a l c o n v e r s i o n a n d a t t r i t i o n / e r o s i o n . A d r a f t t u b e is d e s c r i b e d b y D e c a m p s e t al. [ 4 5 ] w h o u s e d a n i n t e r n a l a i r l i f t t o p r e v e n t s e g r e g a t i o n a t l o w e r o v e r a l l gas f l o w r a t e s . B a x e r r e s e t al. [ 4 6 ] u s e d a s l o p i n g d i s t r i b u t o r t o f o r m w h a t t h e y ca l l t h e ' w h i r l i n g " b e d . V i b r a t i o n o f t h e p l a t e c a n a l so b e b e n e f i c i a l i n p r o m o t i n g p a r t i c l e m o v e m e n t , e s p e c i a l l y f o r l a rge s t i c k y p a r t i c l e s .

CONSTRUCTION OF DISTRIBUTORS

F o r c o l d e x p e r i m e n t a l w o r k , a s i m p l e a n d e f f e c t i v e d i s t r i b u t o r c a n b e m a d e b y s a n d - w i c h i n g f i l t e r p a p e r o r f a b r i c b e t w e e n c o m - m e r c i a l l y a v a i l a b l e p u n c h e d p l a t e h a v i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 0 % f r e e a rea . T h e p l a t e p r o v i d e s s t r e n g t h a n d t h e p a p e r o r f a b r i c a c o n t r o l l a b l e p r e s s u r e d r o p . T h e s e d i s t r i b u t o r s a r e u s e f u l f o r s t u d y i n g b a s i c f l u i d i z a t i o n p r o p e r t i e s , b u t i f t h e n e e d is t o g e t d a t a f o r s c a l e - u p , d i s t r i b u t o r s m u s t b e u s e d w h i c h a r e fu l l - s i ze r e p l i c a s o f t h o s e i n t e n d e d f o r t h e f u l l s ize u n i t .

F o r c o l d o r l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e o p e r a t i o n s , s o m e s u i t a b l e c o m m e r c i a l d i s t r i b u t o r s a r e : (a) V y o n - - a s i n t e r e d p o l y t h e n e o r P V C f o r m e d i n t o a f l a t d i sc . ( b ) R i g i m e s h - - a w o v e n s t a i n l e s s s t ee l . T h i s c a n b e v a r i a b l e i n p o r o s i t y , as c a n V y o n , a n d i f b l o c k e d , i t is d i f f i c u l t t o c l e a n .

Page 11: geldart1985.pdf

( c ) C o n i d u r - - p r e c i s i o n - m a n u f a c t u r e d s l o t t e d h o l e s ; u s u a l l y m o r e s u i t a b l e f o r h i g h g a s v e l o c i t i e s b e c a u s e o f t h e h i g h f r e e a r e a ( 1 0 % ) , t h o u g h a w i d e r r a n g e d o w n t o 0 . 0 1 % - i s n o w a v a i l a b l e .

I n s o m e a p p l i c a t i o n s , a l t h o u g h t h e b e d is o p e r a t e d a t h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e , c o l d g a s e s a r e s u p p l i e d t o t h e w i n d b o x . T h i s s i m p l i f i e s m a t e r i a l s e l e c t i o n s i n c e t h e b a s e p l a t e a n d A n o z z l e s a r e p a r t i a l l y c o o l e d a n d t h e r m a l ao r e f f e c t s a r e r e d u c e d . I n t h i s c a s e t h e ' n o z z l e c s t a n d p i p e s ' t y p e o f d i s t r i b u t o r ( F i g . l ( d ) ) is c o m m o n l y u s e d . S i n c e t h e a i r e n t e r s t h e b e d Cd f r o m h o l e s o r s l o t s a t t h e t o p o f t h e n o z z l e , D b e d m a t e r i a l f o r m s a s t a t i c i n s u l a t i n g l a y e r d o r b e t w e e n t h e h o t f l u i d i z e d z o n e a n d t h e b a s e d e p l a t e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e b a s e p l a t e m a y b e dcq m a n u f a c t u r e d u s i n g m i l d s t e e l w i t h o u t p r o b l e m s o f t h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n , a n d o n l y t h e dp n o z z l e s n e e d b e o f e x p e n s i v e h e a t - r e s i s t a n t F w p m a t e r i a l . F

F o r u n i t s i n w h i c h t h e b e d is h e a t e d b y G f l u i d i z a t i o n w i t h h o t g a s e s , t h e d i s t r i b u t o r g a n d w i n d b o x m u s t b e d e s i g n e d t o o p e r a t e a t H t h e h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e ' n o z z l e s t a n d p i p e ' L j d e s i g n c a n s t i l l b e u s e d i f t h e b a s e p l a t e is l= c o n s t r u c t e d a s a s a n d w i c h , w a t e r c o o l e d a n d i n s u l a t e d . M

A b e t t e r s o l u t i o n is t o u s e a g r i d o f p i p e s N w i t h m u l t i p l e a i r o u t l e t s ( s p a r g e p i p e s ) ( F i g . l ( g ) ) . T h e s p a r g e p i p e s m a y h a v e d r i l l e d n h o l e s i n t h e u n d e r s i d e o r b e f i t t e d w i t h n o z z l e p s t a n d p i p e s . T h e a d v a n t a g e s o f p i p e g r i d s is Q t h a t t h e y c a n e x p a n d f r o m t h e f i x e d e n d . I f t h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n is n o t p o s s i b l e , a m e t a l b a s e Qb p l a t e w i t h a d i s h e d f o r m c a n b e u s e d t o q a c c o m m o d a t e t h e e x p a n s i o n o r t h e p l a t e m a y R c f b e f i x e d t o t h e w a l l w i t h e x p a n s i o n b e l l o w s (e .g . [ 4 7 ] ) .

S e l f - s u p p o r t i n g c e r a m i c d o m e s ( F i g . l ( f ) ) ( w i t h o r w i t h o u t c a p s ) a r e u s e d i n c o n t i n u o u s o p e r a t i o n s . R e s i s t a n c e t o t h e r m a l s h o c k is l o w a n d t h e r e f o r e f r e q u e n t s t a r t - u p ] s h u t - d o w n p r o c e d u r e s a r e n o t a d v i s a b l e .

CONCLUSIONS

T h e d e s i g n o f gas d i s t r i b u t o r s f o r n e w f l u i d i z e d b e d p r o c e s s e s a n d r e d e s i g n t o i m p r o v e p e r f o r m a n c e o f e x i s t i n g e q u i p m e n t is n o w m u c h m o r e o f a s c i e n c e t h a n i t w a s 2 0 y e a r s a g o . D e s i g n e q u a t i o n s h a v e b e e n p r e s e n t e d a n d c r i t i c a l P r o b l e m a r e a s h a v e

b e e n d i s c u s s e d . N e v e r t i ~ e l e s s , i f : a t a l l p o s s i b l e , t e s t i n g o f a f u l l - s i z e m o d u l e o r s e c t i o n o f t h e c o m m e r c i a l d i s t r i b u t o r is r e c o m m e n d e d .

LIST O F SYMBOLS

t Ubs

U Um

Vb X i

Y

b e d c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a , m 2 a r e a o f o r i f i c e , m 2 r a t i o o f p r e s s u r e d r o p t h r o u g h d i s t r i b - u t o r / b e d p r e s s u r e d r o p , d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t , b e d d i a m e t e r , m d i a m e t e r o f o r i f i c e , m b u b b l e d i a m e t e r , m d i a m e t e r o f t h e e q u i v a l e n t v o l u m e s p h e r e , m a v e r a g e p a r t i c l e s i z e , m s o l i d s b a c k f l o w f l u x , k g / ( m 2 s) f r a c t i o n a l f r e e a r e a , - - m a s s f l u x o f gas , k g / ( m 2 s ) g r a v i t a t i o n a l c o n s t a n t , 9 . 8 m / s 2 b e d h e i g h t , m j e t p e n e t r a t i o n l e n g t h , m c r i t i c a l n o z z l e l e n g t h a c c o r d i n g t o e q n . ( 3 2 ) , m m a s s o f s o l i d s i n t h e f l u i d i z e d b e d , k g n u m b e r o f o r i f i c e s p e r u n i t a r e a o f d i s t r i b u t o r , m - 2 n u m b e r o f o r i f i c e s , - - p i t c h , m g a s f l o w r a t e a c r o s s t h e e n t i r e d i s t r i b - u t o r , m 3 / s v o l u m e t r i c b u b b l e f l o w r a t e , m 3 / s g a s f l o w r a t e t h r o u g h o n e h o l e , m 3 / s c o r r e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t f o r p r e s s u r e ( e q n . 2 0 ) , p l a t e t h i c k n e s s , m a v e r a g e r i s e v e l o c i t y o f a s i n g l e b u b b l e , m / s s u p e r f i c i a l ga s v e l o c i t y , m / s s u p e r f i c i a l v e l o c i t y n e e d e d t o e n s u r e t h a t a l l d i s t r i b u t o r h o l e s o p e r a t e , m / s v o l u m e o f a b u b b l e , m 3 w e i g h t f r a c t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a r s i z e o f s o l i d s di i n a m i x t u r e , - - c o r r e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t f o r v i s i b l e b u b - b l e f l o w r a t e ( e q n . ( 2 9 ) ) , - -

Greek symbols c~ c o r r e l a t i o n f a c t o r o f e q n . ( 3 2 ) , - - A p B p r e s s u r e d r o p a c r o s s a f l u i d i z e d b e d ,

N / m 2

Page 12: geldart1985.pdf

78

A p D

Cb

Cmf

k

Pp Pg

pressure drop across the distributor, N/m 2

fraction of the bed occupied by bubbles, -- void fraction of the bed at minimum

f l u i d i z a t i o n , - - f u n c t i o n o f p a r t i c l e m o b i l i t y ( e q n .

( 2 1 ) ) , -- density of the particles, kg/m 3 density of fluidizing gas, kg/m 3

S u b s c r i p t s

m f o r

g , P %v

D

B e q b i c f

m f i

c o n d i t i o n a t m i n i m u m f l u i d i z a t i o n c o n d i t i o n a t o r i f i c e

r e l a t e d t o g a s o r p a r t i c l e r e s p e c t i v e l y

c o n d i t i o n i n t h e w i n d b o x

d i s t r i b u t o r

f l u i d i z e d b e d e q u i v a l e n t v o l u m e s p h e r e

i n i t i a l b u b b l e c o n d i t i o n a t w h i c h t h e b e d i s f u l l y s u p p o r t e d ( e q n . ( 1 9 ) ) a t m i n i m u m f l u i d i z a t i o n f o r p a r t i c u l a r

s o l i d s "/"

R E F E R E N C E S

1 A- B. W h i t e h e a d a n d D. C. D e n t , A I C h E J., 28 ( 1 9 8 2 ) 169 .

2 A- B. W h i t e h e a d a n d D. C. D e n t , in Proc. Sy rup . on F lu id i za t i o n , E i n d h o v e n , 1967 , p. 802 .

3 D. Ge ld a r t a n d J . R. K e l s e y , Proc. o f Tr ipar t i t e C h e m . Eng. Con f . , M o n t r e a L , Ins t . C h e m . Engr s . ( L o n d o n ) , 1 9 6 8 , pp . 90 a n d 114 .

4 J . C. Agarwa l , %V. L. Davis a n d D. T. K ing , C h e m . Eng. Progr., 58 ( 1 9 6 2 ) 85 .

5 F . J . Z u i d e r w e g , in A. A. H. D r i n k e n b u r g (ed . ) , Int . Sy rup . on F lu id i za t i on , N e t h . Un iv . Press , A m s t e r d a m , 1 9 6 7 , p. 7 3 9 .

6 S. A. G r e g o r y , in A. A. H. D r i n k e n b e r g (ed . ) , Proc. Int . Sy rup . on F lu id i za t i on , E i n d h o v e n , N e t h . Univ . Press, A m s t e r d a m , 1 9 6 7 , p. 7 5 1 .

7 A . B . W h i t e h e a d , in J . F. D a v i d s o n a n d D. H a r r i s o n (eds . ) , Flu id i za l ion , A c a d e m i c Press , L o n d o n , 1 9 7 1 , c h a p . 19 .

8 F. A. Zen z , Proe. o f Tr ipar t i t e C h e m . Eng. Conf . , 31ontreal, 1 9 6 8 , Ins t . C h e m . Eng . ( L o n d o n } , p_ 136 .

9 J . %V. Hiby , Ch em. Ing. Tech . , 3 6 ( 1 9 6 4 ) 2 2 8 . I 0 A. E. Q u e r e s h i a n d D. E. Creasy , P o w d e r T e c h n o L ,

2 2 ( 1 9 7 9 ) 113 . 11 D. K u n i i a n d O. Levensp ie l , F l u i d i z a t i o n Engi-

neering. Wiley, N e w Y o r k , 1 9 6 9 . 12 J . H. Pe r ry , C h e m i c a l Engineers" H a n d b o o k ,

M c G r a w - H i l l , N e w York , 3 rd edn . , 1 9 6 3 . 13 D. Ge lda r t , P o w d e r T e c h n o L , 6 ( 1 9 7 2 ) 2 0 1 . 14 R. Clif t , T h e C h e m i c a l Engineer , J a n . 29 , 1 9 8 3 . 15 J . F. D a v i d s o n a n d B. O. G. Schi l le r , Trans. Ins t .

C h e m . Engrs. . 38 ( 1 9 6 0 ) 3 3 5 .

16 J . R . G r a c e a n d H. L de Lasa , A I C h E J., 2 4 ( 1 9 7 8 ) 3 6 4 .

17 T . K n o w l t o n a n d I. H i r san , in G r a c e a n d M a t s e n (eds . ) , F l u i d i z a t i o n , P l e n u m Press , N e w Y o r k , 1 9 8 0 , p. 3 1 5 .

18 W. C. Y a n g a n d D. L. K e a i rn s , in J. F. D a v i d s o n a n d D. L. K e a i r n s (eds . ) , Flu id i za t i on , C a m b . Univ_ Press , 1 9 7 8 , p. 208 .

19 J . M. D. M e r r y , A I C h E J., 21 ( 1 9 7 5 ) 5 0 7 . 20 C. Y. %Ven, N. R. D e o l e a n d L. H. C h e n , P o w d e r

T e c h n o L , 31 ( 1 9 8 2 ) 175 . 21 W. C. Y a n g , Ind . Eng. C h e m . F u n d a m . , 2 0 ( 1 9 8 1 )

297 . 22 J . M. D. M e r r y , Trans. Ins t . C h e m . Engrs. ( L o n -

d o n ) , 4 9 ( 1 9 7 1 ) 189 . 23 J . B a e y e n s , Ph .D . Thes is , Univ . o f B r a d f o r d , U .K. ,

1 9 7 3 . 24 D. G e l d a r t , Gas F l u i d i z a t i o n , C o u r s e N o t e s , Univ .

o f B r a d f o r d / I n s t . C h e m . E., 1 9 7 7 , 25 D. G e l d a r t , P o w d e r T e c h n o l . , 7 ( 1 9 7 3 ) 2 8 5 . 26 C- Y. Wen , R. K r i s h n a n a n d R. K a l y a n a r a m n , in

G r a c e a n d M a t s e n (eds_), F l u i d i z a t i o n , P l e n u m , N e w Y o r k , 1 9 8 0 , p . 4 0 5 .

27 R . A . B r e k k e n , E. B. L a n c a s t e r a n d T. D. ~Vheelock, C h e m . Eng. Progr. Syrup- Ser . , 6 6 ( 1 9 7 0 ) 81 .

28 J . N o v o s a d a n d E. K o s t e l k o v a , i n J . F . D a v i d s o n a n d D. L. K e a i r n s (eds . ) , Flu id i za t i on , C a m b . Un iv . Press , 1 9 7 8 , p. 87_

29 U.S. Pat 4 0 6 8 3 8 9 , 1 9 7 0 , H. K. S t a f f i n . 30 S. F a k h i m i a n d D. H a r r i s o n , C h e m e c a Con f . ,

B u t t e r w o r t h ' s , A u s t r a l i a , 1 9 7 0 . 31 P_ L_ Y u e a n d J . A . K o l a c z k o w s k i , Trans. I.

C h e m . E., 60 ( 1 9 8 2 ) 1 6 4 . 32 A. B a r - C o h e n , L. G I i c k s m a n a n d R. W. H u g h e s ,

Proe. In t . Con f . F l u i d i z e d B e d C o m b u s t i o n , Wash ing ton , DC, 1978 , Vol . III, p. 4 5 8 .

33 J . %¥erther, Ger. C h e m . Eng. , 1 ( 1 9 7 8 ) 166 a n d 243 .

34 R. C. D a r t o n , R. D. La N a u z e , J . F . D a v i d s o n a n d D. H a r r i son , Trans. Ins t . C h e m . Eng. . 5 5 ( 1 9 7 7 ) 2 7 4 .

35 G. A. Se rv i an t , M. A. B e r g e g n o u , C. G. J . B a k e r a n d W. Bu lan i , Can. J. C h e m . Eng. , 48 ( 1 9 7 0 ) 4 9 6 .

36 C. L. Br iens , M. A. B e r g o u g n o u a n d C. G. J . B a k e r , in J . F . D a v i d s o n a n d D. L. K e a i r n s (eds.), F l u i d i z a t i o n , C a m b . Univ . Press , 1 9 7 8 , p . 38 .

37 J . C. Pe t r i e a n d D. E. B lack , C h e m . Eng. Progr. , 62 (3) ( 1 9 6 6 ) 82 .

38 F. A. Z e n z a n d J . Ke l l ehe r , P o w d e r a n d B u l k S o l i d s T e e h n o L , 4 ( 1 9 8 0 ) 13 .

39 W . G . V a u x a n d A. W. Fel le rs , A I C h E 7 2 n d A n n . Mee t ing , San Francisco . N o v . 2 5 - 29, 1 9 7 9 .

4 0 M. A. B e r g o u g n o u , C h e m . Eng. Progr. Sy rup . Se t . , 70 ( 1 9 7 4 ) 13 .

41 Belgian P a t e n t 7 7 7 6 9 3 , J a n . 5, 1 9 7 2 , M o n s a n t o . 4 2 R . J . De Vries , W. P. M. v a n Swaai j , C. M a n t o v a n i

a n d A. H e i j k o o p , Proc. Con f . C h e m . R e a c t . Eng. , A m s t e r d a m , 1972 , B 9 . 5 9 .

43 W. L. Davis a n d W. Glaz ier , C h e m . Eng. Progr. S u m p . Se t . , 70 ( 1 9 7 4 ) 1 4 1 .

4 4 U S P a t e n t 3 5 5 2 033 , J a n . 5, 1 9 7 1 , D o r r - O l i v e r . 4 5 F. D e c a m p s , G. D u m o n t a n d W. G o o s s e n s ,

P o w d e r T e c h n o L , 5 ( 1 9 7 1 ) 2 9 9 . 46 J . L. Ba xe r r e s , S. H a e w s u n g a n d H. Gi lbe r t ,

L e b e n s m . IViss. T e c h n o L , 1 ° ( 1 9 7 7 } 1 9 1 . 47 U S P a t e n t 3 4 6 2 2 4 6 , A ug . 19 , 1 9 6 9 , C o p e l a n d .