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RAMACHANDRAGUHA
GANDHI
BEFORE INDIA
Contents
Dedication
ListofIllustrations
Maps
Prologue:GandhifromAllAngles
1MiddleCaste,MiddleRank
2AmongtheVegetarians
3FromCoasttoCoast
4ABarristerinDurban
5TravellingActivist
6Lawyer-Loyalist
7WhiteAgainstBrown
8PluralistandPuritan
9TroubleintheTransvaal
10ALobbyistinLondon
11FromConciliationtoConfrontation
12ToJail
13ATolstoyaninJohannesburg
14PrisonerofConscience
15BigLittleChief
16TheContestofCivilizations
17SeekingaSettlement
18ASonDeparts,aMentorArrives
19APhysicianatPhoenix
20BreakingBoundaries
21FarewelltoAfrica
22HowtheMahatmaWasMade
Illustrations
Acknowledgements
ANoteonSources
Notes
FollowPenguin
CopyrightPage
forE.S.Reddy
Indianpatriot,SouthAfricandemocrat,friendandmentortoGandhischolarsofallnationalities
ListofIllustrations
1.ThehomeinPorbandarwhereMohandasGandhiwasborn.2.ThehomeinPorbandarwhereMohandasGandhiwasborn.3.TheschoolinRajkot.4.Mohandas'sfather,Karamchand(Kaba)Gandhi.5.Mohandas'smotherPutlibai.6.Mohandas,intraditionalKathiawaridress.7.TheJainscholarRaychandbhai.8.GandhiasasuccessfullawyerinDurban,c.1898.9.KasturbaGandhiandchildren,c.1899.10.AfrontpageofIndianOpinion.11.Gandhi'sclosestadviser:theJewishradicalHenryPolak.12.Gandhi'sclosestadviser:theGujaratipatriotPranjivanMehta.13.Gandhi'smostdevotedassistant:hissecretarySonjaSchlesin.14.Gandhi'smostdevotedassistant:HermannKallenbach.15.ThegreatEuropeanwholoomedlargeinGandhi'slifeinSouthAfrica:hisprincipaladversary,theBoergeneralJanChristianSmuts.16.AnothergreatEuropeanwholoomedlargeinGandhi'slifeinSouthAfrica:LeoTolstoy.17.Gandhiin1909.18.Gandhi'sstaunchestsupporter:theJohannesburgmerchantA.M.Cachalia.19.Gandhi'sstaunchestsupporter:theEnglishvegetarianAlbertWest.20.Gandhi'sstaunchestsupporter:theTamilradicalThambiNaidoo.21.Gandhi’sstaunchestsupporter:DurbanmerchantParseeRustomjee.22.MillieGrahamPolak.23.Gandhi’ssonHarilal.24.MaganlalGandhi.25.ChhaganlalGandhi.26.ContemporarycartoonofthesatyagrahaintheTransvaal.27.JosephDoke.28.LeungQuinn.29.GopalKrishnaGokhaleandRatanTata.30.ThambiNaidooin1913.31.Gandhi,early1914.
AllimagesarereproducedbykindpermissionoftheSabarmatiAshramArchives,Ahmedabad,apartfromthefollowing:Images1and2bykindpermissionoftheNehruMemorialMuseumandLibraryImage3bykindpermissionofIravatiGuhaImage17bykindpermissionofE.S.ReddyImage29bykindpermissionoftheTataCentralArchivesImage15reproducedbypermissionofGettyImagesImage16reproducedbypermissionofCorbisImages
IunderstandmoreclearlytodaywhatIreadlongagoabouttheinadequacyofautobiographyashistory.IknowthatIdonotsetdowninthisstoryallthatIremember.WhocansayhowmuchImustgiveandhowmuchomitintheinterestsoftruth?…Ifsomebusybodyweretocross-examinemeonthechaptersalreadywritten,hecouldprobablyshedmuchmorelightonthem,andifitwereahostilecritic’scross-examination,hemightevenflatterhimselfforhavingshownupthe‘hollownessofmanyofmypretensions’.
M.K.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,ortheStoryofMyExperimentswithTruth
Prologue:GandhifromAllAngles
ImightneverhavewrittenthisbookhadInotspentthespringtermof1998attheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley.Theuniversityhadaskedmetoteachacourseonthehistoryofenvironmentalism,tillthenthechieffocusofmyresearchandwriting.ButIwastiredwiththesubject;IsuggestedthatIinsteadrunaseminarcalled‘ArgumentswithGandhi’.Atthetime,Gandhi’svisionofaninclusive,tolerantIndiawasbeing
threatenedfrombothendsofthepoliticalspectrum.Fromtheright,acoalitionofHinduorganizations(knownastheSanghParivar)aggressivelypushedforatheocraticstate,aprojectGandhihadopposedallhislife.Ontheleft,agrowingMaoistinsurgencyrejectednon-violentmethodsofbringingaboutsocialchange.Toshowtheircontemptforthe‘FatheroftheNation’,MaoistsdemolishedstatuesofGandhiacrosseasternIndia.Despitetheseattacksfrompoliticalextremists,Gandhi’sideassurvived.They
weregivensymbolic–butonlysymbolic–supportbytheGovernmentofIndia,andmoreemphaticallyassertedbysocialworkersandactivists.ThecourseIwishedtoteachwouldfocusonGandhi’scontentiouslegacy.However,myhostsinBerkeleywereunhappywithmyproposal.TheyknewthatmycontributiontoGandhianstudieswasclosetonil,whereasacourseonenvironmentalismwouldalwaysbepopularinCalifornia,astatepopulatedbyenergyentrepreneursandtree-huggers.TheuniversityworriedthataseminaronGandhiwouldattractonlyafewstudentsofIndianorigininsearchoftheirroots,theso-called‘AmericaBornConfusedDesis’orABCDs.Finally,aftermanylettersbackandforth,Iwaspermittedtoteachthecourse
onGandhi.Butwithinmetherewasanaggingnervousness.Whatifmycounsellorswerecorrectandonlyahandfulofstudentsshowedup,allIndian-Americans?OnthelongflighttotheWestCoastIcouldthinkoflittleelse.IreachedSanFranciscoonaSaturday;myclasswasduetomeetforthefirsttime
thefollowingWednesday.OnSundayItookawalkdownBerkeley’scelebratedTelegraphAvenue.OnastreetcornerIwashandedafreecopyofalocalweekly.WhenIreturnedtomyapartmentIbegantoreadit.Turningthepages,Icameacrossanadvertisementforaphotostudio.Itsaid,inlargeletters:‘ONLYGANDHIKNOWSMORETHANUSABOUTFAST’.Below,insmallertype,theadexplainedthatthestudiocoulddeliverprintsintenminutes,inthosepre-digitaldaysnomeanachievement.Iwascharmed,andrelieved.ABayAreaweeklyexpecteditsaudienceto
knowenoughaboutGandhitopunontheword‘fast’.Myfearswereassuaged,tobecomprehensivelyputtorestlaterthatweek,whenafullclassroomturnedouttomeetme.Thirtystudentsstayedthedistance.AndonlyfourofthemwereIndianbybirthordescent.AmongmystudentswasaBurmesegirlwhohadfledintoexileafterthe
crushingofthedemocracymovement,aJewishgirlwhosetwinguidingstarswereGandhiandtheZionistphilosopherMartinBuber,andanAfrican-AmericanwhohopedthecoursewouldallowhimtofinallychoosebetweenMalcolmXandMartinLutherKingJr.TherewasalsoaJapaneseboy,andplentyofCaucasians.Intheclassandinthepaperstheywrote,thestudentstooktheargumentswithGandhiinallkindsofdirections,someofthemwhollyunanticipatedbytheinstructor.ThecourseturnedouttobethemostenjoyableIhaveevertaught.This,I
realized,wasalmostentirelyduetomychoiceofsubject.HowmanystudentsinBerkeleywouldhaveenrolledforacoursecalled‘ArgumentswithDeGaulle’?AndifanAmericanhistoriancametotheUniversityofDelhiandproposedacourseentitled‘ArgumentswithRoosevelt’,wouldtherehavebeenanytakersatall?Roosevelt,Churchill,DeGaulle–theseareallgreatnationalleaders,whoseappealsteadilydiminishesthefurtheronestraysfromtheirnations’boundaries.Ofallmodernpoliticiansandstatesmen,onlyGandhiisanauthenticallyglobalfigure.
WhataccountsforGandhi’suniquestatus?Heworkedinthreedifferentcountries(andcontinents):Britain,SouthAfricaandIndia.Anti-colonialagitator,socialreformer,religiousthinkerandprophet,hebroughttothemostviolentofcenturiesaformofprotestthatwasbasedonnon-violence.Inbetween
politicalcampaignsheexperimentedwiththeabolitionofuntouchabilityandtherevivalofhandicrafts.AdevoutHinduhimself,hehadastronginterestinotherreligioustraditions.Hiswarningsaboutindividualgreedandtheamoralityofmoderntechnology,seeminglyreactionaryatthetime,havecomebackintofashionasaresultoftheenvironmentaldebate.EducatedinVictorianEngland,makinghisnameinracialistSouthAfrica,
Gandhi’slifeandworkarewritlargeagainstthehistory(andgeography)ofhistime.TheyearsofhismostintensepoliticalactivitywitnessedtheriseofBolshevism,therise(andfall)offascism,thetwoWorldWars,andthegrowthofanti-colonialmovementsinAsiaandAfrica.WhileGandhiwasleadingamassmovementbasedonnon-violenceinIndia,MaoZedongwasinitiatingasuccessfulviolentrevolutioninChina.Tobothscholarandlayperson,Gandhiismadethemoreinterestingbyhis
apparentinconsistencies.Sometimeshebehavedlikeanunworldlysaint,atothertimeslikeaconsummatepolitician.AskedbyaBritishjournalistwhathethoughtofmoderncivilization,heanswered:‘Ithinkitwouldbeagoodidea.’YetthisfoeoftheWestacknowledgedthreewhitemen–HenrySalt,JohnRuskinandLeoTolstoy–amonghismentors.ThisrebelwhocalledtheBritishEmpire‘satanic’weptwhenLondon(acityheknewandloved)wasbombedduringtheSecondWorldWar.Andthiscelebratedpractitionerofnon-violenceactuallyrecruitedIndianstoserveintheFirstWorldWar.Gandhienjoyedalonglifeandisenjoyingavigorousafter-life.Hismessage
wascommunicated–ortravestied,dependingonone’spointofview–inafilmmadebyRichardAttenboroughin1982,afilmthatwonnineOscarsandwasabox-officehit.HisexamplehasinspiredrebelsandstatesmenofthecalibreofMartinLutherKing,NelsonMandela,theDalaiLamaandAungSanSuuKyi.Thetechniquesofnon-violencethathefashionedhaveendured.Astudyconductedofsomefivedozentransitionstodemocraticruleconcludedthatinover70percentofcases,authoritarianregimesfellnotbecauseofarmedresistancebutbecauseofboycotts,strikes,fastsandothermethodsofprotestpioneeredbythisIndianthinker.1Mostrecently,duringtheso-called‘ArabSpring’,activistsinEgypt,YemenandothercountriesdisplayedphotographsofGandhiandcloselystudiedhismethodsofstruggleandprotest.2
Morethansixdecadesafterhisdeath,Gandhi’slifeandlegacyarediscussed,andsometimesactedupon,incountrieshebarelyevenknewof.Andhecontinuestoloomlargeinthelifeofhisnativeland.Hisideasarepraisedaswellasattacked;dismissedbysomeasdangerousorirrelevant,yetcelebratedbyothersasthekeytoresolvingthetensionbetweenHindusandMuslims,lowcastesandhighcastes,humansandthenaturalenvironment.
TestimonytoGandhi’sglobalsignificanceisprovidedbythebooksabouthimthatrollofftheworld’spresses.ThesehavebeenenabledbythepublicationbytheIndianGovernmentoftheCollectedWorksofMahatmaGandhi.Theseriesrunstoahundredvolumes,acolossaleffortofeditingandcollationthatincludestensofthousandsofletters,speeches,essays,editorialsandinterviewsthatcanbereliablyattributedtoGandhi.Gandhiwrotewell,andhewroteagreatdeal.From1903to1914,andagain
from1919to1948,hepublishedweeklynewspapersinGujaratiandinEnglish.Whilehisprosewasdemoticanddirectinbothlanguages,hisGujaratiwritingsaremoreintimate,sincehesharedamoralandculturaluniversewiththereader.3
Becauseofthequantityofhisprose,andperhapsitsqualitytoo,onemightsaythattherewasactuallyafifthcallingthatGandhipractised–thatofeditorandwriter.Thiscomplementedandenhancedhisothercallings,withhisviewsonpoliticsandsociety(andmuchelse)beingarticulatedinperiodicalsownedoratleastcontrolledbyhimself.All(oralmostall)ofGandhi’swritingsarenowavailableinhisCollected
Works.PricedatRs4,000,orabout£50,theEnglisheditionhasrecentlybeenputonaCD-ROM.Thevolumesarealsoavailableonmultiplewebsites.TheyhavebeenindustriouslyminedbyGandhi’sbiographers,andbythosewhohavewrittenstudiesofhisreligiousthought,hiseconomicthought,hisphilosophyofnon-violence,hisattitudetowardswomen,andhisviewsondrink,drugsandgambling.4
AsaconsequenceoftheeasyavailabilityoftheCollectedWorks,Gandhi’sideas,campaigns,friendshipsandrivalrieshavecometobeseenverylargely–andsometimesexclusively–throughtheprismofhisownwritings.ThisrelianceonGandhi’swordscanoftennarrowthehistoricallandscapeagainstwhichhislifeandworkwereenacted.Sixty-fiveyearsafterhisdeath,the
generalpublicknowsagooddealmoreaboutwhatGandhithoughtoftheworld,butvirtuallynothingatallofwhattheworldthoughtofhim.Adecadeago,afterteachingthatcourseinBerkeley,IdecidedIwouldwritea
many-sidedportraitofGandhi,whichwouldexplorehiswordsandactionsinthecontextofthewordsandactionsofhisfamily,friends,followersandadversaries.TheCollectedWorksareindispensable,buttheyareonlyonesourceamongmany.SoIbeganvisitingarchivesthatheldtheprivatepapersofhiscontemporaries.IstudiedthepapersofhismajorSouthAfricanassociates.IexaminedtheletterstoGandhiandaboutGandhiwrittenbythemanyremarkablemenandwomenwhoworkedalongsidehimintheIndianfreedomstruggle.Iexaminedthewritings,publishedandunpublished,ofGandhi’sfourchildren.IalsostudiedtheperceptionsofthosewhoopposedGandhi.Theofficialsof
theBritishEmpirehadsuperbintelligence-gatheringskills,aswellasafifty-year-longinterestinGandhi.TheywereobsessedwithhiminSouthAfrica,wherehewasaconstantirritantintheirflesh,andstillmoreobsessedwithhiminIndia,whereheledmillionsofhiscompatriotsinprotestagainsttheiniquitiesofBritishrule.InnationalandprovincialarchivesinIndia,EnglandandSouthAfrica,Ireadtheletters,telegrams,reportsanddispatcheswherebythefunctionariesoftheEmpirecommentedupontheirmostdangerous(nottosaymostdistinguished)rebel.NotallthosewhoopposedGandhi,ofcourse,wereBritishorAfrikaners.
ManywereIndians,andsome,Indiansofgreatdistinction.TheseincludedtwobrilliantLondon-trainedlawyers,theMuslimleaderMuhammadAliJinnahandtheleaderofthelowcastes,B.R.Ambedkar;aswellasthewriterRabindranathTagore,thefirstAsiantowinaNobelPrize.Thesethreearedeservedlyfamous,butGandhihadothermajorcriticsinIndia,aswellaslesswell-knownopponentsofhisworkinSouthAfrica.Theirwritings(publishedandunpublished)arevitaltoafullerunderstandingofGandhi’sthoughtandpractice.WhatGandhisaidanddidmakessenseonlywhenweknowwhathewasrespondingto.Anothercrucialsetofsourcesarecontemporarynewspapers.Thefirst
referencetoMohandasK.GandhiinprintappearstobeintheKathiawarTimesin1888,reportinghisimminentdeparturetostudylawinLondon.Butitisfrom
histimeinSouthAfrica,andhisassumptionofapublicrole,thatwefindGandhiappearingregularlyinthenews,atfirstindecidedlylocalnewspaperssuchastheNatalMercuryandtheJohannesburgStar,andlaterinmoreinternationalandimportantperiodicalssuchasTheTimesofLondonandtheNewYorkTimes.IcannotclaimtohavereadthepressallthroughGandhi’slonglife.Still,I
haveconsultedthousandsofnewspaperreportsontheinterestandcontroversygeneratedbyhiscampaigns,bothinSouthAfricaandinIndia.Likethegovernmentintelligencereports,thesepresentaday-to-daynarrativeofGandhi,andlikethemagain,theydosofromalltheplacesvisitedbyamanalwaysonthemove.Theygivevoicetopeoplewhoareotherwiseunknown:thepeasants,workers,merchantsandclerkswhowerepowerfullyaffectedbyGandhi,andwhoseviewsarecapturedincorrespondents’reportsandletterstotheeditor.SearchingformaterialsonoraboutGandhithatarenotintheCollected
Works,Iconsultedarchivesinfivecountries(infourcontinents).Thesetravelsandresearcheswereprincipallyconductedtofindmaterialthatdidnotcarrymysubject’snameorsignature.YetIalsofound,tomypleasureandsurprise,dozensofletterswrittenbyGandhihimselfthat,foronereasonoranother,hadnotcometotheattentionofthecompilersoftheCollectedWorks.Thediversityanddepthofthisnew–oratleastsofarunused–materialis
explainedingreaterdetailin‘ANoteonSources’attheendofthisbook.Drawingonthisresearch,Iplantowritetwovolumesofbiography,inanattempttocreateafullersenseofGandhi’slife,workandcontexts.This,thefirstbook,examineshisupbringinginhisnativeGujarat,histwoyearsasastudentinLondonand,mostintensively,histwodecadesasalawyer,home-makerandcommunityorganizerinSouthAfrica.Thesecondbookwillcovertheperiodfromoursubject’sreturntoIndiainJanuary1915tohisdeathinJanuary1948.Itwillprovideasocialhistoryofhispoliticalcampaigns,ofhisreformmovements,andofeverydaylifeinhisashram.ThesestudiesoftheAfricanGandhiandtheIndianGandhieachcontainmany
differentcharactersandstories.Somearecharming,otherstragic,yetothersresonantwithsocialorpoliticalmeaning.ThegeographicalbreadthextendsoverAsia,AfricaandEurope,andeven,hereandthere,NorthAmerica.Thenarrativeflowsfromdeserttomountain,fromcitytovillage,fromrivertosea.The
historicalbreadthextendsfromthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcenturydowntothepresentday.Inreading(andtelling)thesestorieswemeetHindus,Muslims,Jews,
Christians,Buddhists,Parsis,Jains,Sikhs,andeventheoddatheist.Manycharacterscomefromthelabouringclasses–theyincludefarmers,crafts-people,shopkeepers,housewives,scavengersandmineworkers.Otherscomefromanelitebackground,beingprosperousbusinessmen,powerfulproconsuls,decoratedgeneralsandelectedheadsofstate.Thesediverselandscapesandhumanbeingsaregivenmeaningbytheir
relationtoMohandasK.Gandhi.Itishisjourneythatwefollow,fromGujarattoLondontoNatalandtheTransvaalandthenbacktoGujarat,andontoathousandplacesbeyond.Itisbytracinghisstepsandrecallinghisactionsthatweencounterthesemanylandscapesandthisrangeofremarkablepeople.Therearesomestrikingresemblancesbetweenthecentralcharacterinthis
storyandhiscounterpartinthegreatIndianepic,theRamayana.Theheroofthatstory,LordRam,alsotravelslongdistances,sometimeswillingly,atothertimesunwillingly.Hetoospendslongperiodsinexile,andhasaloyalandverysupportivewife,whom(likeGandhi)hedoesnotalwaystreatwiththerespectandunderstandingshedeserves.Heisalsoamanofhighmoralcharacter,whooccasionallyentertainsdarkanddangerousthoughts.BothGandhiandRamhavepowerfuladversaries,whoarenotwithoutacertainappealoftheirown.Bothmencouldnothavedonewhattheydid,oneinmythandtheotherinreality,withouttheself-effacingsupportofverymanyothers.Andbothhaveenjoyedavigorousandcontentiousafter-life.Butoneshouldnotpushtheparallelstoofar.ThemoralsthattheRamayana
seekstoestablishareculturalandfamilial–howtodealwithone’swife,forexample,orwithone’sfatherorstep-mother,orhowtoupholdthedharmaofcasteandcommunity.Inthecaseofourownepic,themoralsaremoreexplicitlysocialandpolitical.Weareaskedtochoosebetweenrulebyforeignersandself-rule,betweenviolenceandnon-violence,betweentheaggressiveproselytizingofone’sfaithandthelovingunderstandingofanother,betweenarespectfornaturalsystemsandanarrogantdisregardofthem.Sometimes,pacetheRamayana,the‘right’choicesmayinfactinvolveareversalofthetraditional
order,asintheabolitionofUntouchabilityorthegrantingofequalrightstowomen.Thatsaid,inbothepicsthemoralsaresecondary.Whatreallymattersarethe
stories,therichnessofthehumanexperiencetheycontain,thefascinationofthecentralcharacterandofthosewhoworkedwithorfoughtagainsthim.
ThenarrativeofthecurrentbookbeginswithGandhi’sbirth,inOctober1869,andendswithhisdeparturefromSouthAfricainJuly1914.MuchofthistimewasspentasalawyerandactivistinNatalandtheTransvaal.Gandhi’sbiographershavetendedtoskiphastilyoverthisphaseofhislife,treatingitasapreludetohislater,apparentlymoreimportant,workinIndia.Theyhavechosentoconsiderhislifeinteleologicalterms,withhisworkinSouthAfricapreparingthewayforhismoreimportantworkinhishomeland.5
Hasteandteleology–thesetwintemptations–doinjusticetobothmanandplace.Associalreformer,popularleader,politicalthinkerandfamilyman,GandhiwasfundamentallyshapedbyhisSouthAfricanexperience.Inturn,hehadaprofoundimpactonthehistoryofthatcontinent,withhisideasandattitudesinfluencinglaterstrugglesagainstracism.WhenGandhifirstlandedinDurbanin1893,SouthAfricawasverymucha
nation-in-the-making.Itsseparatecoloniesgovernedthemselves.Some,likeNatal,wereruledbyBritishexpatriates;others,liketheTransvaal,wereruledbyAfrikanersoflargelyDutchdescent(thenknownas‘Boers’).IntheonlypartofAfricawithaEuropeanclimate,thecolonistssetaboutcreatingahomelandforthemselves.Therewere,ofcourse,verymanyAfricanswhohadlivedherefromlongbeforethewhitemanarrived.Butthroughaseriesofwarsandconqueststheywerebeingthoroughlysubjugated.BetweenthedominantEuropeansandthesubordinatedAfricanslaythe
Indians.Theyhadcomeinaslabourers,importedtoworkintheminesandsugarplantations,andontherailways.TherewerealsoasignificantnumberofIndiantraders,andafewprofessionals.BythetimeofGandhi’sarrivaltherewereabout50,000Indiansinthispartoftheworld,amajorityoftheminNatal.GandhilivedforlongperiodsinbothNatalandtheTransvaal–roughlya
decadeineach.Natalwasonthecoast,dominatedbytheBritish,withaneconomyfoundedonsugarandcoal.Transvaalwasinland,ruledbytheBoers,
andgoingthroughamassiveboomduetothediscoveryofgold.Thematerialriches,relativeunderpopulationandgloriousclimateofbothcolonieswasattractingsettlersfromEuropeaswellasAsia.Gujaratis,TamilsandHindi-speakerscameacrosstheIndianOcean;Anglicans,Catholics,JewsandTheosophistsviatheAtlantic.Thesewereallpeopleinsearchofmore–farmore–materialprosperitythantheycouldeverfindathome.ThegreatrushtocolonizeandclaimSouthAfricatookplaceatroughlythe
sametimeasthewestwardexpansionoftheUnitedStates.Theattractionsofopenterritory,offabulousnaturalwealth(andnaturalbeauty),ofescapefromanover-populatedandclass-riddenOldWorld–thesewerewhatthetwoprocessesofeconomicmigrationhadincommon.ButwhereastheEuropeancolonistsofwesternAmericahadmerelytodealwiththenatives,theircounterpartsinsouthernAfricahadthisadditionalcomplicatingfactor–thepresenceofIndiansfromIndia,whowerenotindigenousbutemphaticallynotEuropeaneither.ItwasinthisstrangescenariothatGandhicametoacquire,andpractise,his
fourmajorcallings–thoseoffreedomfighter,socialreformer,religiouspluralistandprophet.Infact,anearly(andnowlargelyforgotten)associateofhisonceidentifiedasmanyasseventeenidentitiesthatGandhiboreintheyearshespentoutsideIndia.‘SouthAfricaisthegraveofmanyreputations,’wrotethisman,adding:‘Ithascertainlybeenthebirth-placeofafew,andonesuchisthatofMohandasKaramchandGandhi.Dewan’sson,barrister,stretcher-bearer,pamphleteer,culturedthinker,courteousgentleman,manuallabourer,nurse,teacher,agitator,propagandist,sterlingfriend,noman’senemy,ex-convict,sadhu,chosenleaderofhispeople,andarchpassive-resister.’6
Oftheseseventeenidentities,thelasthashadthegreatestimpactonthehistoryoftheworld.Gandhigavethename‘satyagraha’(ortruth-force)tothetechniquesofmasscivildisobedienceheinventedinSouthAfricaandlaterusedinIndia,andwhichhisfollowersoradmirersusedinothercountries.BeforeGandhi,thosediscontentedwiththeirsuperiorshadeitherpetitionedtheirrulersforjusticeorsoughttoattainjusticebymeansofarmedstruggle.ThedistinctivenessofGandhi’smethodlayinshamingtherulersbyvoluntarysuffering,withresistersseekingbeatingsandimprisonmentbybreakinglawsinanon-violentyetutterlydeterminedmanner.
In1916,notlongafterGandhileftSouthAfrica,apublisherinasmalltownincentralIndiabroughtoutahistoryinHindiofthesatyagrahasGandhihadled.Thebookwaspresentedas‘thestoryofthatheroicbattle,whichwasthefirstofitskindinthehistoryoftheworld’,abattlewhere‘therewerenogunsandbombsandcannons’(and‘noshellsthrownbyaeroplanes’either),abattlewhichshowedthat‘strengthofcharactercanconqueranyotherkindofstrength’.Thepublisherhopedthereaderwould‘swellwithpride’ashelearntofhow‘cooliesandlabourers’inthediasporahad‘shamedandshockededucatedelites[inIndia]withtheirresolutionandspirit.’7
Atthistime,GandhihadbeenbackbarelyayearinIndia.TheBritishweresolidlyincontrolofthesubcontinent.Still,whatmighthavesoundedhyperbolicin1916mayseemmorereasonableacenturylater.FortheIndianfreedomstruggle,thecivilrightsmovementintheUnitedStates,thecivicresistancetoCommunisminEasternEuropeandChina(includingTibet),theongoingprotestsagainstmilitarydictatorsinBurmaandtheMiddleEast,havealltakensomeormuchinspirationfromtechniquesofprotestfirstforgedbyGandhiintheTransvaal.ThecolossalandstillexpandinginfluenceofsatyagrahamandatesacloserattentiontotheprecociousprotestsofIndiansinSouthAfrica,toaidadeeperunderstandingofGandhiinhistime,andofhisstillunfoldinglegacyinours.RatherthanrelyonGandhi’sownrecollections(containedintwobooks
publishedadecade-and-a-halfafterheleftSouthAfrica),Ihavehereexaminedhisearlysatyagrahasthroughtheprismofcontemporarydocuments.Theseletters,speeches,newspaperaccounts,courtcasesandgovernmentreportsgiveamoreimmediatesenseofhowGandhiformulatedhisideasofcivildisobedience,ofhowhedesigneditsmethodsandtechniques,andhowhemobilizedpeopletocourtimprisonment.Fromthesevariedsourceswecantrackhowtheprotestsunfoldedandwhatformstheytook,whofollowedGandhi(andwhy)andwhoopposedhim(andwhy),andwherethefundsforsustainingtheresistanceheledwerecomingfrom.ThehistoricalreconstructionofthesefirstsatyagrahasalsothrowsasharplightonacrucialperiodofSouthAfricanhistory,asonceseparatecoloniescametogetherinaterritorialUnionthatconsolidatedwhitesentimentsandprejudicesagainstthehopesandaspirationsofthedarkerraces.
ThepoliticalGandhimaybeilluminatedfrommoreanglesthanhisown.SoalsothepersonalGandhi.Heretoo,theSouthAfricanexperiencewasfundamentalandformative.MostIndiansofGandhi’sgenerationworkedanddiedinthesametownorvillageinwhichtheywereborn.Intheireverydaylives,theymostlymetandspokewithpeoplewhohadthesamemothertongueandthesameancestralfaithasthey.BycomingtoSouthAfrica,Gandhiwastakenoutofthisconservative,staticworldintoacountrystillintheprocessofbeingmade.DurbanandJohannesburg,thetwocitieswherehelivedandworked,wereattractingmigrantsfromEuropeandAsia,andfromotherpartsofAfrica.Inthisheterogeneousandever-changingsociety,Gandhiforgedenduringfriendshipswithindividualsofethnicandreligiousbackgroundsverydifferentfromhisown.Strikingly,perhapseventragically,thefriendsandassociatesofGandhi’s
SouthAfricanyearsarelargelyabsentfromthehistoricalrecord.Thisisduetoacombinationoffactors–anexcessiverelianceontheCollectedWorks;thetendencytotreatthelifebeforeIndiaasapreludetotherealstoryratherashavinganintegrityofitsown;andthetendencyamongbiographersandhagiographerstomagnifytheroleandpersonalityoftheirmainsubject.MostIndians–and,followingAttenborough’sfilm,manynon-Indianstoo–aremoderatelywellacquaintedwiththecolleaguesandcriticsofthematureGandhi.YettheyknowverylittleaboutthosewhoworkedwithhiminSouthAfrica.Here,hisclosestfriendsoutsidehisfamilyweretwoHindus(adoctor-turned-jewellerandaliberalpoliticianrespectively);twoJews(oneajournalistfromEngland,theotheranarchitectoriginallyfromEasternEurope);andtwoChristianclergymen(oneaBaptist,theotheranAnglican).Thesesixmenwere,sotospeak,theSouthAfricananaloguesofGandhi’s
famouscolleaguesintheIndianfreedomstruggle–JawaharlalNehru,VallabhbhaiPatel,SubhasChandraBose,MadeleineSlade(MiraBehn),C.Rajagopalachari,MaulanaAzad,etal.Theyaremuchlessrecognized(insomecases,unrecognized),althoughtheirimpactonGandhi’scharacterandconductmayhavebeenevenmoredecisive,fortheycameintohislifewhenhewasnotyetagreatpublicfigureor‘Mahatma’–ashewasinIndia–butastruggling,searchingactivist.
TheletterstoandbythesefriendsofhisSouthAfricanperiodilluminateGandhi’sanxieties,strugglesandrelationshipsinrichandoftenunexpectedways.Yetthesematerialshave,remarkably,notbeenconsultedbypreviousbiographers.ThismayonlybebecausetheyarenotprintedintheCollectedWorks,butrestinarchivesinNewDelhiandAhmedabad,inPretoriaandJohannesburg,inLondonandOxford,andeven,inonecase,intheIsraeliporttownofHaifa.
In1890,in1900,in1910,themajorityofthosewholivedinSouthAfricawereAfricans.Sometimes,assharecroppersandlabourers,theyworkedfortheirwhitemasters.Inmoreremoteareas,theylivedawayfromthemasherdersandhunters.However,inbothcityandcountryside,theyrarelycameintodailycompetitionwiththeBritishortheBoers.TherewerefewAfricantraders,andstillfewerAfricandoctorsorlawyers.Becausetheywerebettereducatedandbetterorganized,someIndianscould
moreactivelychallengethefactsofwhitedomination.Therulersrespondedbychangingthelaws:bydisallowingIndiansfromlivinginoropeningshopsincertainlocations,frommovingfromoneprovincetoanother,fromseekingadmissiontothebestschools,fromimportingbridesfromIndiawithwhomtheycouldraisefamiliesandthusbringmoreIndiansintotheworkforce.InsofarastheserestrictionswerelaterextendedmorethoroughlytotheAfricans,theIndiansshouldreallybeconsideredtobeamongapartheid’sfirstvictims.AndinsofarasitwasGandhiwholedthefirstprotestsagainsttheraciallaws,heshouldreallybemoreseriouslyrecognizedasbeingamongapartheid’sfirstopponents.Gandhi’sstrugglesinNatalandtheTransvaalalsoshapednationalistpolitics
inIndia,aswellasimperialistagendasinGreatBritain.Fromonevantagepoint,Gandhiwasmerelyacommunityorganizer.However,sincehisworkhadanimpactonthepoliticsofthreecontinents,ithadmuchlargerconsequences.Inanagewheneventhetelephonehadnotcomeintocommonuse,whenthefaxandtheinternetlaymanydecadesinthefuture,Gandhi’sstrugglesthuscarriedconnotationsofwhatisnowknownasa‘globalsocialmovement’.Gandhi’sSouthAfricancampaignswereanearlyexampleof‘diasporic
nationalism’,anationalismlaterpractisedassiduouslyby(amongothers)
IrishmeninBoston,JewsinNewYork,PalestiniansinTunisandSikhsinVancouver,whohavelikewisestruggledbothforcivilrightsinthelandtheyhappenednowtoliveinandforfreedomfortheircompatriotsinthelandtheyhadleftbehind.ThepredicamentofIndiansinSouthAfricainGandhi’sdayalsoanticipated
thepredicamentofMuslimsinEuropeandofHispanicsandAsiansinNorthAmericatoday.Shouldimmigrantsbeallowedtopractisetheirownfaithandspeaktheirownlanguage?Howcantheycombatdiscriminationinschoolandintheworkplace?Whatformsofpoliticalorganizationarebestsuitedtotheirneedsandhopes?Whataretherightsandresponsibilitiesofthehostcommunityandthemigrantsrespectively,inmaintainingsocialpeaceanddemocracy?Thesequestionsareasurgentinourtimeastheywerebetween1893and
1914,theyearsthatMohandasGandhilivedinNatalandtheTransvaal.Gandhi’sAfricanyearsshowhowthefirstphaseofglobalization,withitswillingandsometimesunwillingmigrationofgroupsandcommunities,produceddifficultiesanddiscontentsnotdissimilartothoseproducedbyourown,evenmoreglobalizedworld.
1
MiddleCaste,MiddleRank
Gandhi’scaste,theBanias,occupiedanambiguousplaceintheHindusocialhierarchy.1AbovethemlaytheKshatriyasandtheBrahmins,traditionallyrulersandpriests.Thesewerethe‘upper’castes,socalledbecauseofthetemporalandspiritualpowertheyexercised.BelowtheBaniaslaytheSudrasandtheUntouchables,whoworkedasfarmlabourers,artisansandscavengers.Thesewerethe‘lower’castes,socalledbecauseofthestigmaattachedtotheirtraditionaloccupations,andbecauseoftheirdependence,forinstructionandoccasionallyforsuccour,onthoseabovethem.TheBaniaswereplacedinthethirdstratum.Theywere,inmoresensesthan
one,middlemen.Theirtraditionaloccupationwastradeandmoneylending.Theylentmoneytopeasantsandlabourers,butalsotokingsandpriests.Theyranshopsandstoresthatcateredtoallsectionsofsociety.Theservicestheyprovidedwereindispensable;perhapsforthisreason,theBaniaswerenottrustedverymuchbythosetheyserved.Inpopularfolklore,theywerecunningandavaricious.Theyweresaidtomaintaintwosetsofaccounts:onewritteninalegiblescriptandintendedforthetaxofficial;andasecond,representingtheirrealtransactions,writtenincode.AsoneHindiproverbhadit,evenGodhimselfcouldnotdeciphertheBanias’handwriting.TheBaniawasasurvivor,adeptandadaptable,possessingtheskillsand
instinctstoseehimthroughperiodsofadversityandpoliticalinstability.2TheBaniasofGujarat,writestheirmodernhistorian,were‘renownedfortheirsmoothtongue’(incontrasttothearroganceoftheBrahminandthebrashnessoftheKshatriya).Theycultivated‘asoftandpersuasivewayofspeech’whileextollingthequalityofthegoodstheysold.‘Theywouldalwaystrytoavoidaconfrontationwithcustomersandclients,backingdownwhennecessary’.Thecodeofthecastestressed‘hardworkandfrugalliving’.Thus‘Baniyaswere
taughtnevertobeidle,andtheyhadinconsequenceareputationforbeingarestlesspeople,irritatedwhentherewasnoworkathand’.3
InthepoliticaleconomyofmedievalandearlymodernIndia,Baniasplayedacrucialrole.Agriculture,themainstayofsubsistence,requiredthemtoprovidecredittopeasantsinperiodsofdistressandscarcity.Warfare,themainstayofpolitics,requiredthemtoadvancemoneyto,andhoardjewelsfor,chiefsseekingtoexpandordefendtheirterritories.4
Gandhi’snativeregion,Kathiawar(alsoknownsometimesas‘Saurashtra’),isanear-shapedpeninsulasome23,000squaremilesinarea,inthecentralpartofthewesternIndianstateofGujarat.Kathiawarhasacoastlinethatextendsover600miles,withmanydeepharbours.Ithasalonghistoryoftrade,bothupanddownthewestcoastofIndia,andwiththeMiddleEastandAfrica.Byoneestimate,thepeninsula’sseatradeinthelatesixteenthcenturywasoftheorderofRs30millionayear.Theitemsboughtandsoldincludedagriculturalcommodities,spices,jewels,armsand,sometimes,slaves.Thetransport,loadingandunloadingofthesematerialswasdonebylabourersoftheSudracastes.However,theirpurchase,storageandsalewasundertakenlargelybytheBanias.5
Thepeninsulawasoneofthefirstcentresofurbancivilizationinthesubcontinent.CitieshaveexistedherefromHarappantimes,morethan3,000yearsago.Throughthemedievalperiod,Kathiawarwasdividedintomanysmallprincipalities,eachrequiringacapitalcity.Dottedwithtownssmallandlarge,sitedonthecoastaswellasinland,Kathiawarinthelatenineteenthcenturyhadanurbanpopulationofwellover20percent.(Elsewhereinthesubcontinent,urbansettlementsaccountedforbarely10percentofthepopulation.)6
Theubiquityofagricultureandofwarfare,theimportanceofcoastaltrade,alargeurbanpopulation–thesemadeKathiawarmostattractivetotheBania.Withinthetowns,merchantswereorganizedinpowerfulguilds,whichpressuredkingstograntlandandtaxconcessionsforhomesandbusinesses.Heretheyworkedasmerchants,shopkeepersandmoneylenders.ButwhatmadetheBaniasofKathiawardistinctivewasthattheywerenotconfinedtotheirtraditionaloccupations.Theyalsoworkedforthestate,asrevenuecollectorsandcivilservants.7InHindustatesorkingdoms,thesecondmostimportantpersonwasthediwan,orchiefminister.Thiskeypostwasalmostalwaystakenbyamemberofthetwohighestcastes,BrahminandKshatriya.NotsoinKathiawar,where
membersofthemerchantcastecouldaspiretobecomechiefministers.AmongthemanyBaniadiwansinKathiawarwereMohandasGandhi’sownfatherandgrandfather.
Porbandar,Gandhi’sbirthplace,isonthesouth-westoftheKathiawarpeninsula.Ithasamoderateclimate,withsunnybutnotswelteringdays,andeveningscooledbytheseabreeze.AnEnglishvisitorobservedthatPorbandar‘hadreceivedfromNatureanunimaginablesplendourofseaandsky’.Builtentirelyofstoneandprotectedbygreathighgates,thecitylookedout‘fromajuttingheadlandintotheinfiniteexpanseofocean’.Itsairwas‘freshwiththesaltspray’ofthesea,whichwas‘drivenalongthebeachfromgreatcombingbreakersastheyburstintowhitefoam’.8Thetowngaveitsnametothestate,whichinthe1860scoveredabout600squaremiles,inabroadbandalongthecoast.Closertotheseathelandwasmarshy,butasonemovedinlanditbecamearable.Onthisdrierground,thepeasantsofPorbandargrewriceandlentils.Agoodquarterofthestate’scitizenslivedinPorbandartown,participatingin
thecommerceoftheport,whoseninety-footlighthousecouldbeseenfrommilesoutatsea.Therehadoncebeen‘abrisktradewiththeportsofSind,Baluchistan,thePersianGulf,Arabia,andtheeastcoastofAfrica’.However,theemergenceofBombayhadseriouslydiminishedthetrafficofshipsandgoodsinandoutofPorbandar.AtthetimeofMohandasGandhi’sbirthin1869,themainimportsweretimberfromMalabar,cottonandtobaccofromBombayandBroach,andgrainfromKarachi.9
TherulersofPorbandarwerefromtheJethwaclanofRajputs.TheyclaimedtobetheoldestrulingdynastyinKathiawar,datingbacktotheninthcentury.Theirfortuneshadebbedandfloweddowntheyears,astheyfoughtwiththeneighbouringstatesofNawanagarandJunagadh.Asaconsequenceofbattleslostorwon,theircapitalhadshiftedaroundconsiderably,butfromthelateeighteenthcenturytheyhadbeenbasedintheporttownofPorbandar.10
PorbandarwasoneofsomeseventychiefdomsinKathiawar.Somanystatesinsuchasmallterritoryencouragedaproliferationintitles.Manyrulerscalledthemselves‘Maharaja’iftheywereHindu,and‘Nawab’iftheywereMuslim.Othersusedmoreexotictitlessuchas‘Rao’and‘JamSaheb’.TherulerofPorbandarwasknownasthe‘Rana’.
ThepeninsulaofKathiawarhasastark,somewhatspecialbeauty.Apartfromthelongcoastline,ithasseverallowrangesofhills,onwhichareperchedtemplesholytoHindusaswellasJains.InGandhi’sboyhood,thecountrysideteemedwithwildlife:leopards,lionsanddeerabounded.Thebirdliferemainsspectacular:flamingosonthecoast,storksandcranesinthefields,dovesandwarblersandhornbillsinthewoods.Thefirstcensus,conductedin1872,estimatedthepeninsula’spopulationat
about2.3million.While86percentofKathiawariswereHindus,theybelongedtodifferentcastesandsub-castes,eachwiththeirdistinctiveritualsandwaysofliving.About13percentofthepopulationwereMuslim.ThebulkweredescendedfromHinduconverts,butsomeclaimedanArabianorAfricanlineage.EndogamousgroupsamongtheMuslimsincludedtheMemons,whobelongedtothemainstreamSunnitraditionofIslam,andtheKhojasandBohras,whowereconsideredmoreheterodoxbecausetheyfollowedalivingleader.TheMuslimsofKathiawarweretraders,farmersandartisans.However,
despitetheirvaryingoccupationsandorientations,theyallspokethelanguageoftheland,Gujarati,ratherthanPersianorUrdu,thelanguagesassociatedwithMuslimsinthenorthofIndia.11ThenthereweretheJainsandtheParsis,moreofwhomwerepresentherethaninotherpartsofthesubcontinent.TheJainswereasectthathadbrokenawayfromtheHindufoldinabouttheninthcenturyBC.TheParsis,alsoknownasZoroastrians,hadfledtoIndiafromPersiaaftertherisetopowerinthatlandoftheShiabranchofIslam.TheJainsandtheParsis,addingtotheheterogeneityofKathiawar,werebothadmiredfortheirscholarshipandbusinessacumen.TheJainswerefurtherrespectedfortheirausterepersonallives;theParsis,fortheireasyemulationofWesternmannersandmores.UnlikeineasternorsouthernIndia,theBritishdidnotchoosetoruleover
Kathiawardirectly.About80percentofthepeninsularemainedwithIndianrulers.Thesepotentatesweretolerated,solongastheyrecognizedthemilitaryandpoliticalsuperiorityoftheBritish,andallowedthemtomonitortradeandthemovementofpeople.TheBritishplacedthechiefsofKathiawarinsevencategories.ClassIrulers
hadfulljurisdictionovertheirsubjects:theycould,providedtheyfolloweddueprocess,convictcriminals,andevenhangthem.Thoseinlowercategorieswere
deniedthepowersofcapitalpunishmentandofextendedimprisonment.ClassVIIchiefs,forexample,hadtoobtainthepermissionoftheBritishtolevyfinesofmorethanRs15ortoimposesentenceslongerthanfifteendaysinjail.ThestatesofKathiawarweredividedintofourgeographicaldivisions,each
withaBritishagent,towhomthechiefsreported.SometownshadBritishgarrisons;others,BritishrailwayengineersorChristianmissionaries.Detachmentsoftroopsledbywhiteofficersvisitedportsandtownsatsubtleintervals.Sometimesahigherdignitarycamecalling–thegovernorofBombayperhaps,oreventheviceroy.Forthemlargedarbarswereheldandhuntingexpeditionsorganized.ThepompandthehospitalitywasasignofprincelydeferencetotheRaj;itmadecleartoeveryonewho,ultimately,wasincharge.12
Oftheseventy-fourchiefsinKathiawar,onlyfourteenwereplacedinClassI.TheRanaofPorbandarwasoneofthem.Thisfactwasbroadcasttohis70,000subjects,amongthemtheGandhis,afamilythatforseveralgenerationshadbeenintheserviceofthestate.ThefirstGandhiinpublicservice,namedLalji,migratedfromJunagadhStatetoworkinPorbandar.LaljiGandhiservedunderthediwan,asdidhissonandgrandson.OnlyinthefourthgenerationofservicedidaGandhiachievethecovetedpostofdiwan,orchiefminister.ThiswasUttamchandGandhi,alsoknownas‘OtaBapa’,‘Ota’beingadiminutiveofhisfirstname,and‘bapa’theGujaratiwordfor‘father’or‘respectedelder’.UttamchandGandhi’sfirstjobwasasCollectorofCustomsinPorbandarport.
HewasthenaskedtonegotiatethetransferofsliversoflandbetweenPorbandarandJunagadh,sothateachstatecouldconsolidateitsterritory.Proficiencyinbothjobswasrewardedwiththeprizepostoffirstministertotheking.AsDiwanofPorbandar,UttamchandGandhiputthestate’sfinancesinorder.
HealsosecuredthetrustandgoodfaithoftheBritishoverlord.WhentwoEnglishmenweremurderedbybanditsalongthePorbandar–Jamnagarborder,UttamchandGandhitoldhisrulertosaythattheplacewherethecrimewascommittedlayintheotherstate.Thehillswherethemurderstookplacewereremoteandvalueless;betternottoclaimthem,ifthatdisavowalhelpedbringPorbandarclosertotheRajanditsrulers.13
UttamchandGandhiseemedsetforalongtenureasdiwan,whentheRanaofPorbandarsuddenlydied.Themaleheirwastooyoungtoascendthethrone,sothepowerdevolvedintheinterimtohismother,theQueenRegent.Sheresented
theDiwan’sprestigeandinfluence;byoneaccount,sheevensentabodyoftroopstoattackhishouse.UttamchandGandhithenleftPorbandarandsettledinhisancestralvillageofKutiyanainJunagadhState.14
TheNawabofJunagadhsentforUttamchandGandhitoaskifheneededanythingfromthedarbar.Thevisitor,showingupatthepalace,salutedtheNawab‘withhislefthandinoutrageofallconvention’.Whenacourtierchastisedhim,Uttamchandrepliedthat‘inspiteofallthatIhavesufferedIkeepmyrighthandforPorbunderstill’.15
AfterthedeathoftheQueenMotherin1841,UttamchandGandhireturnedtoPorbandar.Hispropertywasrestored.Thefamilystorysaysthatthenewrana,Vikmatji,urgedhimtoresumetheofficeofdiwan,whichhedeclined.Therecordsinthearchivescomplicatethetale.TherewasaBritishgarrisoninPorbandar,paidforfromthestate’sfunds.Thetown’smerchantscomplainedthatthesoldierswereoftendrunkandharassedthemforcash.Vikmatjithoughtthatsincetherewaslittlethreatofpiracy,thesoldierscouldbesentbacktoBombay.UttamchandGandhidisagreed;theBritish,hesaidcharacteristically,hadstill(ifnotalways)tobehumoured.16
Vikmatjilistenedatthetime;butremainedunhappywiththeburdenthegarrisonputonhisfinances.In1847hechoseUttamchand’ssonKaramchand(knownasKaba)ashisdiwan,givinghimasilverink-standandinkpotasthesignofhisoffice.Thenewdiwanwasjusttwenty-five,closerinagetoVikmatji,andmoreamenabletotheruler’swishes(andwhims)thanhistoughandoverbearingfather.KabaGandhiwasshortandstocky,andworeamoustache.Hehadlittle
formaleducation;studyingbrieflyinaGujaratischoolbeforejoiningtheRanaasaletter-writerandclerk.Heenjoyedhisruler’strust,becamediwanatayoungage,andby1869hadgivenmorethantwodecadesofserviceinthatpost.Inthattimehehadalsomarriedthreetimes.Hisfirsttwowivesdiedearly,butnotbeforeproducingadaughterapiece.Thethirdmarriageprovedchildless.Withnoheirinsight,hesoughthiswife’spermissiontotakeanotherconsort(permittedundertraditionalHindulaw).Therequestgranted,KabaGandhichoseawomantwenty-twoyearsyounger
ashisfourthwife.NamedPutlibai,shecamefromavillageinJunagadhState.Theyweremarriedin1857,andinquicksuccessionsheborehimthreechildren.
Ason,Laxmidas,wasborninoraroundtheyear1860.AdaughternamedRaliatwasborntwoyearslater,followed,inabout1867,byasecondsonnamedKarsandas.17
Inthespringof1869Putlibaiwaspregnantoncemore.Assheawaitedthebirthofherfourthchild,thestateofPorbandarwasmiredincontroversy,causedbytheactionsofKabaGandhi’srulerandpay-master,RanaVikmatji.InApril,aslavenamedLuckmanaswellasanArabsoldierwerekilledontheordersoftheking.Theformerinparticularmetwithagruesomeend.Hisearsandnosewereslitandthenhewasthrownoffthetownwallstohisdeath.Toldofthekillings,theBritishagentaskedRanaVikmatjiforanexplanation.
TheRanarepliedthattheslaveLuckmanwasanattendanttohiseldestson,whomhehadmadea‘habitualdrunkard’.WhentheRanaandhiswifewereoutoftown,Luckmanpromotedhisprince’s‘indulgenceinardentspirits’,asaresultofwhichhe‘expiredinextremeagony’.TheRanahadtopunishthe‘murdererofourson’;headmittedtohavingorderedthecuttingofnoseandears,butclaimedthedeadlyfallwasanaccident.AsfortheArabsoldier,RanaVikmatjisaidhehadenteredthezenana,the
women’squartersofthepalace,wherehe‘tookholdofourlateson’swidow’andattemptedtomolesther.Thesoldiertoohadtobeputtodeath,forviolating‘thefidelityheowedtohismaster,andlikearobbersecretlyandatnightinvad[ing]thesanctityofthezenanasojealouslyguardedbyHindoos,especiallyRajputs’.TheBritishwereunpersuadedbytheRana’sexplanations.Inviewofthese
‘seriousinstancesofabuseofpower’,hisstatuswasdowngraded–previouslyaprinceoftheFirstClass,hewouldnowbeputintheThirdClass.Hewasdeprivedofthepowerofcapitalpunishmentoverhissubjects.Asamarkofgoodbehaviourhehadtoestablishcriminalcourtsrunonmodernprinciplesofjustice.18
ThearchivalrecordoftheseincidentsinPorbandardoesnotcontainanyhintofthefeelingsoftheRana’sDiwan.Inasmallstatewithasmallcourt,onesuspectsthatKabaGandhiknewofthecloserelationshipbetweentheprinceandhisslave.WhatadvicedidtheDiwangivehisruler?Didhecounselagainstthemutilationoftheslaveortheexecutionofthesoldier?DidhehelpindraftingVikmatji’sletterofexplanation?Tosuchquestionswehavenoanswer.Butof
thefactthatKabaGandhifelthisruler’sdemotionmostkeenlytherecanbenodoubt.Newsoftheking’stroubleswouldhavereachedtheservants,andKaba’spregnantwifePutlibaitoo.Itwason10September1869thattheBombayGovernmentformally
downgradedRanaVikmatjibymakinghimaRuleroftheThirdClass.Threeweekslater,amidstthisbackgroundofviolenceandhumiliation,thewifeoftheRana’slongservingDiwangavebirthtoherfourthchild.Hewasaboy,whowasnamedMohandasKaramchandGandhi.
Sincetheyear1777,theGandhifamilyhadlivedinathree-storeyhouseclosetooneoftheoldcitygatesofPorbandar.Therooms–twelveinall–werelargebutwithlittlelight.Onthesecondfloortherewasalargebalcony;thiswaswherethefamilyrepairedintheevenings,torefreshthemselveswiththeseabreeze.Belowthehousewasatanktostorewater.SincetheaquiferunderPorbandarwasbrackish,itwasnecessarytoharvestandhusbandrainwater.Beforethemonsoon,theroofoftheGandhihomewascleaned.Thenastherainrandownitwaspurifiedbysomelime,attachedtothemouthofapipewhichlinkedtherooftothewatertankbelow.19
Putlibai’syoungestson,Mohandas,wasborninaroomonthegroundfloor.Alatervisitorwrote,‘theroomisdark.Thecornerisdarkerstill.Nowindowopensout[to]theverandah.Asmalldooropensoutinanotherroomjustbehindthisoneat[the]oppositecorner.’20
AswascustomaryinIndianhouseholds,thebabyMohandaswaslookedafterbythewomenaroundhim.Apartfromhismotherandhisaunts,hisgirlcousinsandespeciallyhiseldersisterRaliattookturnsholdingandplayingwithhim.Thesisterrecalledthat,asalittleboy,Mohandaswas‘restlessasmercury’.Hecouldnot‘sitstillevenforalittlewhile.Hemustbeeitherplayingorroamingabout.Iusedtotakehimoutwithmetoshowhimthefamiliarsightsinthestreet–cows,buffaloesandhorses,catsanddogs…Oneofhisfavouritepastimeswastwistingdogs’ears’.21
Gandhi’smother,Putlibai,wasborninavillagenamedDantrana,setamidsthillsandonthebanksofariverthirtymilesinlandfromPorbandar.Herfatherwasashopkeeper.TheAmericanscholarStephenHaypointsoutthatMohandas’smother‘wouldhavehadtodevelopagooddealofpatienceand
forbearanceasayoungbride,forherhusband’sotherwife,whomshehadinasensedisplaced,wasbothillandbarren,andthetwolivedunderthesameroofforsomeyears’.22
ThehouseholdthatPutlibairaninRajkotwasvegetarian.Likeothermembersoftheircaste,theGandhisnevercookedmeatoreggs.Hobson-Jobson,thatcompendiumofcustomsandmannersprevalentinnineteenth-centuryIndia,notesoftheBaniasofGujaratthatthey‘profess[ed]anextravagantrespectforanimallife’.23TheirfastidiousnesshadmadetheBaniasanobjectofderision.Themeat-eatingcastesdisparagedthemas‘dhilidal’,softlikelentils.Inturn,themerchantcasteslookeddownon‘whattheysawasthedirtyanddegradingeatinghabitsofmostnon-Baniyas’.24
SomeBaniahouseholdsrefusedtoeatvegetablesgrown‘undertheground’,suchasonionandgarlic.Baniawomenwatchedvigilantlyovertheircookingfires,lestapassinginsectenterthepotandpollutethefood.Somewhatunusually,KabaGandhiwouldhelphiswifecutandcleanthevegetablesinpreparationfortheeveningmeal.TheRajputsofKathiawar(theranasofPorbandarincluded)likedhunting,
smokinganddrinking.Thepeasantsofthepeninsulaenjoyedthesamepleasures,albeitatlessregularintervals.BaniasliketheGandhisrigorouslyeschewedmeat,tobaccoandalcohol.Yettheirvegetariancuisinewassubtleandwide-ranging.Themaincerealsweremilletandrice.Therewerealsomanyvarietiesoflentils.Withthesestapleswentanassortmentofspecialsnacks,manydistinctivechutneysandpickles,severalveryfinedesserts,butalsoauniquemixingwithinthemealofspicyandsweetdishes.25
AnotherfeatureoftheGandhihouseholdwaspiety.Putlibaiwasawomanofself-sacrificingdisciplineandastoicreligiosity,who(ashersonremembered)would
notthinkoftakinghermealswithoutherdailyprayers.GoingtoHaveli–theVaishnavatemple–wasoneofherdailyduties…Shewouldtakethehardestvowsandkeepthemwithoutflinching.Illnesswasnoexcuseforrelaxingthem…Tokeeptwoorthreeconsecutivefastswasnothingtoher.LivingononemealadayduringChaturmaswasahabitwithher.NotcontentwiththatshefastedeveryalternatedayduringoneChaturmas.DuringanotherChaturmasshevowednottohavefoodwithoutseeingthesun.Wechildrenonthose[rainy]dayswouldstand,staringatthesky,waitingto
announcetheappearanceofthesuntoourmother.26
Thesub-castetheGandhisbelongedtowasknownasModhBania,theprefixapparentlyreferringtothetownofModhera,insouthernGujarat.Theirkuldevata,orfamilydeity,wasRam.TherewasaRamtempleinPorbandar.(Oneofthetemple’sfounderswasaGandhi.)TheregionwassteepedinthetraditionsofVaishnavism,theworshipofVishnuandespeciallyhisavatarsRamandKrishna.UpthecoastfromGandhi’splaceofbirthlaythetownofDwarka,whereKrishnaisbelievedtohavelivedinadulthood,andwhichsincetheninthcenturyad(atleast)hasbeenoneofthegreatpilgrimcentresoftheHindutradition.27
Mohandas’smotherintroducedhimtothemysteries–andbeauties–offaith.Putlibaiwasdevout,butnotdogmatic.BornandraisedaVaishnavite,shebecameattractedtoasectcalledthePranamis,whoincorporatedelementsofIslamintotheirworship.Thesect’sfounderwasaKshatriyanamedPranNathwholivedinKathiawarintheeighteenthcentury.Hewaswidelytravelled,andmayevenhavevisitedMecca.ThePranamitempleinPorbandarthatPutlibaipatronizedhadnoicons,noimages;onlywritingonthewall,derivingfromtheHinduscripturesandfromtheKoran.Putlibai’secumenismextendedevenfurther,foramongtheregularvisitorstoherhomewereJainmonks.28
In1874,whenMohandaswasfive,hisfathermovedfromPorbandartoRajkot,onbeingappointedanadvisertotheThakore,orking,ofthatstate.TwoyearslaterhewaspromotedtotheofficeofDiwan.KabaGandhinowhadtosupervisethestate’sfinances,theregistrationofallproperties,theworkingconditionsofpublicofficials,andRajkot’stradewithotherstates.AsDiwanofRajkot,KaramchandalsoservedontheRajasthanikCourt,abodyofelderssetuptomediatedisputesbetweendifferentchiefdomsinKathiawar.29
WedonotknowwhyKabaGandhimadethemovetoRajkot.PerhapsheleftPorbandarbecausehisrulerhadbeendemotedtoThirdClassstatus.Orperhapshecalculatedthenewassignmenthadmoreprestige.TheAgenttotheKathiawarStateslivedinRajkot.SincehehadtheBritishCrownandtheBritishArmybehindhim,theAgentwasthemostpowerfulmaninthepeninsula.MovingtoRajkotenhancedKabaGandhi’sconnectiontotheparamountpower.Notably,theGandhisretainedtheirlinkswithPorbandar.ShortlyafterKabashiftedto
Rajkot,hisyoungerbrotherTulsidaswasappointedbyRanaVikmatjiashisDiwan.AsthecentreoftheBritishpresenceinKathiawar,Rajkothadastudfarm,a
missionrunbyIrishPresbyterians,anAnglicanChurchandaBritishgarrison.Itwasanimportantrailwayjunction,withlineslinkingittoothertownsinthepeninsula.RajkotwasalsohometotheRajkumarCollege,modelledonaBritishpublicschool,wherethesonsoftheKathiawarichiefsweresenttoacquiretheelementsofanEnglisheducation.Establishedin1870,fouryearsbeforeKabaGandhimovedtothetown,theCollegehada‘finebuildingintheVenetianGothicstyle’,aswellasagymnasium,racquetcourts,ariflerangeandacricketpavilion.30
Asanimportantmaninthetown–andregion–KabaGandhimayoccasionallyhaveenteredtheportalsofRajkumarCollegeinRajkot.Buttheschoolitselfwasbarredtohischildren.ItwasrestrictedtothoseofauthenticallyRajputlineage,whomighttakeoverasRanasorMaharajasoftheirprincipalities.SomeMuslimboyswereallowedin–thesebeingthesonsornephewsofNawabs.However,therewasnoquestionofaBaniastudentbeingadmittedintotheCollege.KabaGandhimovedtoRajkotin1874;hisfamilyjoinedhimtwoyearslater,
onhisconfirmationasDiwan.TheboyMohandasmay(ormaynot)haveattendedaprimaryschoolinPorbandar.ButofhisschoolinginRajkotwehavesomeveryfirmandreliableevidence.Thisiscontainedintwobookswritteninthe1960sbyaretiredheadmasterwho,inaspring-cleaningoperation,stumbledupontherecordsofMohandas’syearsinschool.31
On21January1879,MohandasKaramchandGandhiwasadmittedintotheTalukSchool,ashortwalkfromhishomeinthedistrictofDarbargadh.ThesubjectstaughttoMohandaswereArithmetic,Gujarati,HistoryandGeography.Hewasexpectedtolearn‘easymentalarithmetic’,readandmemorizesnatchesofpoetry,takeaccuratedictation,andacquainthimselfwiththemainriversandtownsofwesternIndia.Tobeginwiththeboy’sattendancewasspotty:inthecalendaryear1879he
wenttoschoolforonly110daysoutof238.Thisshowedintheresultsofthefinalexamination,whereMohandaswasplacedinthelowerhalfoftheclass.Inonesetoftestshescored41.25percent(thehighestrankedstudentgot76.5per
cent,thelowest37.6percent).Inasecondsetofexamshedidslightlybetter–at53percenthisperformancewastwelvepercentagepointsabovethedullardoftheclass,butalsotwelvepointsbelowtheclassleader.InOctober1880,Mohandasappearedforanexaminationtogainadmissionto
KattywarHighSchool.32Establishedin1853,itwastheoldesthighschoolinthePeninsula.Mohandasdidwellintheentrancetest–scoring64percent–andwasenrolledinthegeneralregisteroftheschool.Now,forthefirsttime,hewouldlearnEnglishalongwiththeothersubjects.KattywarHighSchoolwashousedinahandsometwo-storeystructurebuilt
withagrantfromtheNawabofJunagadh.Classesranfrom11a.m.to5p.m.onweekdays(withanhour’srecessforlunch).OnSaturdays,theschoolclosedhalf-an-hourearly.Englishteachingwasgiventhemaximumtime–tenhoursaweek,devotedtoreading,spellingandcopying;thatistosay,tothenurturingofskillsessentialtoemploymentinthebureaucracy.In1881theGandhismovedfromrentedpremisestotheirownhome.Kaba
GandhihadboughtalargehousebuiltintheKathiawaristyle,anarchedentranceleadingintoacourtyardaroundwhichtheroomswerebuilt.ItwaslessthanamilefromtheHighSchool,soMohandaswalkedtohisclasses,wearingtraditionalKathiawaridress–long,loosepyjamas,abuttoned-uptunicandaclose-fittingcap.ThechroniclerofGandhi’sschooldaystellsusthathisperformanceinhisnew
schoolwas‘discouraging’.Inhisfirstyear,hepassedinArithmeticandGujarati,butwas‘oneofthethreepupilswhosecurednomarksatallinGeography’.Intheend-of-yearexamination,heranked32ndoutof34studentsinhisdivision.Thenextyear,1882,Mohandashardlyattendedschool,apparentlybecausehisfatherhadfallenill.Hecouldnotappearfortheannualexamination.However,in1883hebecamemorediligent.Hisattendancewasregular,andintestsheldattheendoftheyearheaveragedacreditable68percentinfoursubjects,thesebeingArithmetic,Gujarati,HistoryandGeography,andEnglish.IntheterminalexaminationheldinApril1884,heslippedslightly,endingwithanaverageof58percent.Decadeslater,afterGandhihadbecomefamous,anAmericanjournalistasked
hissisterRaliatwhetherherbrotherwas‘agoodpupilinschool’.Sheanswered:‘Hewasconsideredacleverstudentinhisschool.Healwayskeptfirstrank’.
Unfortunately,thehistoricalrecordisatvariancewiththerecollectionsofalovingsister.33
Athome,MohandasGandhimostlymetmembersofhisown,ModhBania,caste.AmonghisclassmatesatKattywarHighSchoolwereBaniaboysofothersub-castesaswellassomeBrahmins.Hewasalsobecomingacquainted,forthefirsttime,withChristiansandChristianity.Rajkothadseveralchurches(Porbandarhadnone),andsomeveryenergeticmissionaries.AnIrishPresbyterianbasedinRajkot,noticingthat‘theBrahmansandVaniyasareeverywherelookeduptoastheintellectualclass’,thoughttheconversionofupper-castemencouldsparkamassexodusfromtheHindufold.Theministerparkedhimselfatstreetcorners,acquaintingpassers-bywiththegreatnessofChristandthebenefitsofcomingunderHiscare.Mohandasheardthepreacheronhiswaytoschool,buthurriedon,displeasedbythecalumniescastonhisfamily’sgods.34
TherewerenoChristianboysinKattywarHighSchool,buttherewereseveralParsis,aswellasafewMuslims.ItwasaMuslimnamedSheikhMehtabwhobecameMohandas’sclosestfriend.ThesonofajailerinthenearbyGondalState,MehtabwasintroducedtoMohandasbyhiselderbrotherKarsandas.KarsandasGandhiandhisMuslimfriendwereseriouslyuninterestedintheirstudies.Bothfailedtheirexamsrepeatedly,sothattheycametobeinthesameclassasMohandas,whowasseveralyearsyoungerthanthem.35
AsMohandaslaterrecalled,Mehtab‘couldrunlongdistancesandextraordinarilyfast.Hewasanadeptinhighandlongjumping’.Theschool’sheadmaster,amodernizingParsinamedDorabjiGimi,wasverykeenonsportsandathletics.WhereasMohandaswasanunwillingandincompetentperformer,Mehtabwasreadytoplay,compete,andwin.Theirfriendshipwasfoundedonthisdifference,onthisverytypicaladmirationforthetall,strongsportsmanonthepartofaboywhowasbothshyandunathletic.Theybecameclose,sofriendlythatononeoccasiontheywenttoastudiotohaveajointportraittaken.Thephotograph,whichhassurvived,showsthetwoofthemsittingonadjacentchairs.Mohandas’srighthandslipsdiffidentlyoffanornatetable,whileMehtab’srestswithaconfidentauthority.Theolderboyisseveralinchestaller.Heiswearingaturban;Mohandas,acap.Fromtheirposturesitseemsquite
clearthatitwasnotMohandaswhowasthedominantpartnerintherelationship.36
Earlyintheirfriendship,MehtabsuggestedtoMohandasthathislackofstaturewasduetohisnoteatingmeat.Besides,therewasthisverse,attributedtotheGujaratipoetNarmad,whichintranslationran:
BeholdthemightyEnglishman,HerulestheIndiansmall,Becausebeingameat-eater,Heisfivecubitstall.
Mehtabcookedmeatforhisfriendbytheriver,inahousefarawayfromtheGandhihome.ThenewfooddidnotagreewithMohandas;besides,hefearedthedisapprovalofhismother.Whensheasked,assheoftendid,whathehadeatenthatdayatschool,whatanswerwouldhegiveher?HewasmademoreuncomfortablebyMehtabtakinghimonedaytoabrothel.Hisfriendhadpaidthebillbeforehand,butthenovicewas‘almoststruckblindanddumbinthisdenofvice’.Sincehedidnotmakeanymove,theprostitutebecameangryandshowedhimthedoor.Theexperiencewaschastening,andMohandasdrewawayfromthecompanyofSheikhMehtab.37
YoungMohandaswasalsodistractedfromhisstudiesbyanewcompanionathome,hiswifeKasturba.Theprecisedateoftheirmarriageisunknown.Eventheyearisdisputed–1883bymostaccounts(sinceGandhirememberedbeingmarriedattheageofthirteen),but1882or1881byothers.38ItwasthencommonforIndianstomarryveryearly.Infact,Mohandashadbeenbetrothedtwicealready;bothtimes,thegirlhaddiedbeforethemarriagecouldbefinalized.WhenthealliancewithKasturbawasconfirmed,thefamilychosetohaveatriplewedding–sothatMohandas’sbrotherKarsandasandacousinwouldgetmarriedatthesametimeashim.TheceremonywasheldintheGandhis’oldhometown,Porbandar.Allthat
thebridegroomrememberedofthemarriagewas‘theprospectofgoodclothestowear,drumbeating,marriageprocessions,richdinners,andastrangegirltoplaywith’.Someadditionalexcitementwasprovidedbyhisfatherappearingfortheceremonyswathedinbandages,asaresultofthecoachthatwasbringinghimtoPorbandartopplingover.39
KasturbawasfromaBaniafamilyinPorbandar.Herfather,MakanjiKapadia,wasaprosperousmerchant,whotradedinclothandcotton.40Thefamilylivedinahandsometwo-storeyhouse,whichhadtwentyroomsandalargewater-tankunderneath.Thehousehadwoodenstaircases,aswellaselegantlycarvedshelvesanddoorframes.ThewallsoftheGandhihomewerebare,butthoseoftheKapadiaresidencehadpaintingsdisplayedonthem.41
Somemonthsafterthemarriage,KasturbamovedtoMohandas’shomeinRajkot.Ourknowledgeofhowtheyoungcouplegotalong–ordidnotgetalong–isbasedentirelyontherecollectionsofthehusband.Hewas,hesays,‘passionatelyfond’ofhiswife.‘EvenatschoolIusedtothinkofher,andthethoughtofnightfallandoursubsequentmeetingwaseverhauntingme.’Fondnessshadedintopossessiveness;thusMohandaswas‘foreveronthelookoutregardinghermovements,andthereforeshecouldnotgoanywherewithoutmypermission’.Evenvisitstothetemplewithgirlfriendsattractedhisjealousy.Therewas,atleastonhispart,astrongsexualattraction.Kasturbawasilliterate;Mohandaswas‘veryanxioustoteachher’,but‘lustfullove’lefthimnotime.42
Inthelatterhalfof1885theheadoftheGandhihouseholdfellseriouslyill.Thechildrentookturnsnursinghim.AsMohandas’shandswere‘busymassaging’hisfather’slegs,his‘mindwashoveringaboutthebed-room’–thisdespitethefactthatKasturbawaspregnant,whichmeantthat‘religion,medicalscienceandcommonsensealikeforbadesexualintercourse’.Onenight,Mohandaswasmassagingtheoldmanwhenanuncleofferedtotakeoverhisduties.Thesixteen-year-oldseizedthechanceand‘wentstraighttothebed-room’.Hewokeuphissleepingwifeandpreparedforaboutoflove-making.Afewminuteslatertheyweredisturbedbyaknockonthedoor.Itwasaservant,cometoinformthemthatKabaGandhihadjustdied.Fortyyearslater,Mohandaswrote,withanenduringsenseofguiltandshame,
that‘ifanimalpassionhadnotblindedme,Ishouldhavebeensparedthetortureofseparationfrommyfatherduringhislastmoments’.WhenKasturbalosttheirbabytoamiscarriageafewweekslater,heblamedhimselfforthat,too.Itwashisinabilitytocontrolhisconsuming‘carnaldesire’thathadledtothis‘doubleshame’.43
Frompersonalhistoryremembered–ormisremembered–letusreturntothefirmgroundingprovidedbyMohandasGandhi’smarksinschool.Inthesummerof1885,heperformedcreditablyinhisfifthgradeexaminations,averaging55.75percentandcomingthirdinhisclass.HedidunexpectedlywellinMathematics(85percent),forwhichhewasawardedascholarshipendowedbytwoKathiawariprinces.ThenextyearhisacquaintancewiththeEnglishlanguagedeepened,whenhewassubjectedto200pagesfromAddison’sSpectatorandmadetomemorize750linesofMilton’sParadiseLost.Hecamefourthintheend-of-yearexamination–now,inthewordsofthemanwhodiscoveredhismark-sheets,Mohandas‘couldnolongerbedescribedasamediocrestudent’.InthelastweeksofDecember1886,MohandaswasadmittedtoGradeVII,
thehighestclassintheschool.Inpreparatorytestsconductedbyhisownschoolhescoredanaverageof31.8percentinfivesubjects.Thispoorperformancereflectednervousness,sincehewassoontotaketheschool-leavingexaminationknownasMatriculation,conductedbyBombayUniversity.InthethirdweekofNovember1887,MohandaswenttoAhmedabadtosittheMatricexam,travellingbytrain.Thiswashisfirstjourneybythatmodeoftransport,aswellashisfirstvisittothelargestcityintheGujarati-speakingworld.TheMatriculationof1887was,inpurelyintellectualterms,thesternesttestof
Mohandas’slife.Someofthequestionpapersheconfrontedhavesurvived.ForhisEnglishpaperhehadto‘writeanessayofabout40linesontheadvantageofacheerfuldisposition’.Amongthetermshehadtodefinewere‘pleonasm’and‘apposition’.FortheArithmeticexam,hehadtocalculatesomeverycomplicatedequations,runningintotensofdecimalpoints.TheNaturalSciencepaperobligedhimtoprovidethechemicalformulaeof,amongothersubstances,limeandsulphuricacid.TheHistoryandGeographytestaskedhimto‘writeashorthistoryofPuritanRuleinEngland’andtodrawamaptracingthecourseoftheRhine.TodisplayhisknowledgeofGujarati,hehadtotranslateintothatlanguageapassageinEnglishwhichsuggestedthatinsteadoferectingstatuesto(andof)QueenVictoria,theGoldenJubileeofherreignwouldbemoreappropriatelymarkedbyraisingafund‘devotedtoenablingIndiatotakeherplaceinthenewindustrialworld’.
InJanuary1888,theMatriculationresultswerepublishedintheKattywarGazette.Morethan3,000candidateshadsatthetest,ofwhomlessthan30percentweresuccessful.Mohandaswasoneofthem.HedidbestinEnglishandGujarati,averagingabout45percentineach,butlesswellinMathematicsandHistory/Geography.Hisoverallpercentagewasamodest40percent.Hewasranked404thintheProvince,outof823studentswhohadqualifiedintheexamination.44
Outsideschool,Mohandas’seducationwasenrichedbyhisgrowingexposuretoGujaratiliterature.Inthenineteenthcentury,theadventoftheprintingpressandtheappearanceofthefirstnewspapersgaveanenormousboosttothelanguagesofIndia.Gandhi’smothertonguewasnoexception.ThefirstGujaratinovelappearedin1866,threeyearsbeforehisbirth.InthesamedecademajorworksofproseandpoetrywerepublishedbyNarmadasankarLalshankar(1833–66),‘Narmad’,themanwho,atoneremove,hadinspiredtheyoungMohandastoexperimentwitheatingmeat.Thewritingsofmedievalpoetsappearedforthefirsttimeinprintededitions–amongthemtheworksofNarsingMehta,aVaishnavapreachermuchbelovedinGujarat,whocomposedmanyodesinpraiseofKrishna,andwhoobservedthatGodappearsonlytothosewhocouldfeelthepainofothers.ThesenovelsandpoemswerecirculatinginhouseholdssuchasGandhi’s,beingreadbyyoungmenofhisagewhohadhisfamiliaritywiththeprintedword.45
ThewriterswhomMohandasreadmostcloselywereNarmadandthenovelistGovardhanramTripathi(1855–1907).BothwereimprovingreformerswhosawBritishruleasachallengetotheGujaratis,alertingthemtotheirownfaultsandweaknesses.Narmadwasagainstcaste,againstreligiousdogmatism,andfortheremarriageofwidows.HewasalsosharplycriticalofthecorruptandnepotisticwaysofIndianrulers.GovardhanramTripathisimilarlydeploredthetribalismofcasteandtheoppressionofwomen;likeNarmad,hethoughtBritishrulewouldshameIndiansintodiscardingoutmodedsocialpracticesandinstitutions.46
NarmadandGovardhanramwereamongthewriterstheyoungGandhireadinRajkot,theirworksandwordsmergingorclashingwiththewordshereadinschool,exchangedwithhisfriends,orlistenedtoathome.
Gandhi’sfatherandgrandfatherhadbecomediwansofPorbandarwithoutanyformaleducation.Bythe1880s,however,systemsofgovernanceandadministrationweremorestructured.Nolongerwouldaquickifuntrainedintelligencesuffice.AnEnglisheducationandanacquaintancewithmodernideaswereobligatoryforyoungIndiansseekinghighofficeinBritishIndia,orindeedinthenativestates.BythestandardsoftheBombayMatriculation,MohandasGandhi’s
performancewasundistinguished.Withinhisownfamilyhisscholasticrecordshonemorebrightly.Hiseldestbrother,Laxmidas,haddroppedoutofschoolandbecomeaminorofficialinPorbandarState.HisotherbrotherKarsandashadnotbeensentuptosittheBombayUniversityexamination.AsasuccessfulMatriculate,Mohandaswastheexception–hisfamilyexpectedhimnowtoacquiremorecertificates.InJanuary1888,MohandasK.GandhienrolledforaBAdegreeinSamaldas
CollegeinBhavnagar.Namedforthestate’sdiwan,theCollegewasthefirstdegree-grantinginstitutioninKathiawar.MohandastravelledtoBhavnagarwithaschoolfriend,undertakingthefirstpartofthejourneybycamelcart,thesecondbyrailway.HerentedaroominaVaishnavitelocality.Herehewouldstayalone,andcookhisownfood.Therewerethirty-ninestudentsinMohandas’sclass–fourwereParsis,the
restHindusofeitheraBrahminorBaniabackground.47ThesubjectsofferedfortheBAwereEnglish,Mathematics,Physics,LogicandHistory.Therewerefivehoursoflectureseveryday.Thenewcomerhadparticulardifficultywithalgebra.Once,whenthemathematicsteacheraskedhimtocometotheblackboardandsolveasum,Mohandaspretendednottohear.InBhavnagar,Mohandaswashomesick(forhiswife,andalsoforhis
mother’sfood)andsufferedfromfrequentheadaches.Whenthefirstend-of-termexaminationwasheldinApril1888heappearedforonlyfourpapersoutofseven.Eventhesehedidnotdowell:inEnglish,forexample,hegotabare34percent.48
Mohandasreturnedhomeforthesummervacation.Afamilyfriendcamevisiting,a‘shrewdandlearned’BrahminnamedMavjiDave.HeadvisedPutlibaitowithdrawhersonfromtheSamaldasCollegeandsendhimtoLondontoqualifyasabarristerinstead.TheBAtookfourorfiveyears,whereasone
couldqualifyasalawyerinhalfthattime.Withabarrister’scertificatefromLondon,saidMavjiDavetoMohandas’smother,‘hecouldgettheDiwanship[ofPorbandar]fortheasking’.49
TheideadidnotatfirstappealtoPutlibai,whowantedtokeephersonclosertohome.ButMohandasfoundtheideacompelling.Hewastowritethat‘thedesiretogotoEngland…completelypossessedme’.Onedoesnotknowwhyhetooksoquicklytotheproposal–perhapshehadbeenreadingGujaratitraveloguesofjourneystoEuropeandAmerica,whichwerethengainingwidecurrency.50
HadGandhi’sfatherstillbeenalivetheideaofgoingtoLondonmightneverhaveoccurredtohim,forhissuccessfulconquestoftheBombayMatriculationhadalreadymadeMohandasoneofthebesteducatedyoungmeninthePeninsula.‘Inpointofeducation,’wroteoneBritishofficialindisgust,‘Kathiawarranksverylow.Fewofthechiefscanreadorwrite;andthepersonswhomanagetheiraffairsknowlittleornothingbeyondtheirimmediatesphere.Booksarerareandarenotappreciated.’51OnceMohandasshowedreluctancetocarryonwithhisBAinBhavnagar,hisfatherwouldhavefoundhimajobinstead,usinghiscontactstoplacehis(bylocalstandards)extremelylearnedyoungestsonintheserviceofaMaharajakeentoimpresstheBritishbymodernizinghisadministration.SoMohandaswouldscarcelyhavethoughtofgoingonforfurtherstudiesabroad.Evenifhehad,hisfatherwouldhavedismissedtheideaoutofhand.Thereexisted,amongorthodoxHindus,ahorroroftravelabroad,oflosingcastebycrossingthepollutingocean,thekalapani.AmongBaniastheprejudicewasevenmoreintense,sinceoutsideIndiatheyfoundithardtomaintainthestrictfoodtaboosthatregulatedtheirlives.Atthistime,theIndiansmostreadytotravelabroadwereParsis,instinctive
WesternizerswhowerenotHindusatall.SomebraveBrahminsandKshatriyashadalsoventuredoverseas.Thefirstvaluedtextuallearning(asphereinwhichtheWestwasclearlyinthelead);thesecondwerekeentoacquireBritishmannersandthusingratiatethemselveswiththeoverlord.Ontheotherhand,thecautionandconservatismoftheBaniasmadethemtheleastlikelycandidatesforforeigntravelandWesterneducation.Mohandas’suncle,Tulsidas,hearingofhisdesiretotravelabroad,soughtto
dissuadehim.BarristerswhocamebackfromEngland,hesaid,‘knowno
scruplesregardingfood.Cigarsareneveroutoftheirmouths.TheydressasshamelesslyasEnglishmen.’Mohandas’sfatherhadsimilarviews;hadhebeenalive,hewouldhaveimposedthemmorevigorously.ButwithKabaGandhidead,itwashiswifePutlibaiwhowouldhavethefinalsay.Mohandaspressedhertoagree.Sheconsultedaholymanshetrusted:aModhBania-turned-JainmonknamedBecharjiSwami.TheSwamisaidtheboycouldproceedtoLondon,solongashepromisedthathewouldnoteatmeatordrinkwine,orbeunfaithfultohiswife.Afteranoathtothiseffectwasadministered,themothergaveherconsent.52
Therewas,however,afurtherproblem–thefactthateducationinLondonwasexpensive.MohandasthoughtofaskingtheStateofPorbandarforfinancialassistance.Thepreviousyear(1887),thedisgracedRanahadhisstatusrestored,onconditionthathestayedoutsidethestate.Hewasa‘hopelesslybadruler’;butitwasthoughtthatmakinghimaprinceofthe‘FirstClass’would‘reconciletheRanatoresidenceinBritishIndia’.WhiletherulerlivedinBombay,theadministrationofPorbandarpassedintothehandsofaBritishofficial,FrederickLely.53
MohandastravelledtoPorbandartoasktheAdministratortofundhiseducationinLondon.Lelyflatlyrefusedtohelp,despitethelongconnectionthattheGandhishadwiththekingdomofPorbandar.Mohandas’selderbrother,Laxmidas,thenofferedtohelpraisethemoney.Theshortfallwouldbemadeupbypawningthefamilyjewellery.Sowiththemoneyinhandandhismother’sblessing,Mohandaspreparedto
gotoLondon.On9August1888,hisoldhighschoolinRajkotorganizedafarewellforhim.Thefunctionwasreportedinalocalnewspaper,whichnotedthat‘MrGandhiisthefirstBaniafromKathiawarwhoproceedstoEnglandtoprosecutehisstudyfortheBarrister’sExamination.’Hisclassmateshopedthat‘youwillmakeitanobjectofyourspecialcareandattentiontopromotetheinterestsofIndiainEnglandatthesametimethatyoucompeteformedalsandprizes’.Inreply,Mohandassaidhetrustedthat‘otherswouldsoonfollowhisexampleandonreturnfromEnglandwoulddevotethemselves…tothenobleworkofregeneratingIndia’.Thespeechesmade,thegoodwishesofferedandreceived,the‘partybrokeupwiththecustomarydistributionofbetelleaves,nosegays,etc.’.54
Inthatsame,headysummerinwhichthedecisionwastakentosendMohandasGandhitoLondon,hiswifeKasturbagavebirthtoababyboy.Wedonotknowtheexactdateofbirth;itappearstohavebeensometimeinthemonthofJuly.TheinfantwasnamedHarilal.On10August1888,thedayafterhehadtakenleaveofhisoldschool,Mohandasbidfarewelltohiswifeandmother(andson),andproceededtoBombay.55
AshewaitedforaberthonashiptoLondon,MohandasfoundhehadattractedtheireoftheModhBaniasofBombay.TheheadofthecommunityinBombay,whohadknownKabaGandhi,warnedthesonthathewouldbeexcommunicatedifhetravelledtoEngland.Wordofthewarninggotaround,sothatMohandaswas,ashewroteshortlyafterwards,‘hemmedinbyallsides.Icouldnotgooutwithoutbeingpointedandstaredatbysomeoneorother.Atonetime,whileIwaswalkingneartheTownHall,Iwassurroundedandhooted[at]bythem,andmypoorbrotherhadtolookatthesceneinsilence’.56
Tosettlethematter,a‘hugemeeting’oftheModhBaniaswascalled.Mohandaswasseatedinthemiddle,whilecommunityleaders‘remonstratedwithmeverystronglyandremindedmeoftheirconnectionwithmyfather’.Theboyansweredthathewasgoingoverseastostudy,andthathehadpromisedhismothernottotouchastrangewoman,ordrinkwine,oreatmeat.Theelderswereunmoved.Forhistransgression,theboywouldbetreatedasanoutcaste;anyonewhospoketohimorwenttoseehimoffwouldbefined.But,asthetransgressorrecalled,‘theorderhadnoeffectonme’.On4September1888,amonthshortofhistwentiethbirthday,MohandasKaramchandGandhisailedforLondon.57
2
AmongtheVegetarians
AsaboyinPorbandar,MohandasGandhioftensawboatssailinginandoutoftheport.ButthefirstshipheactuallysteppedontowastheonethattookhimtoLondon.Theexperiencewasexcitingenoughfortheyoungmantomaintain–alsoforthefirsttime–adiary,twentypagesofwhichweredevotedtothepassageacrosstheocean.1
Theship’snamewastheSSClyde.ItleftBombayatfiveo’clockontheeveningof4September1888.Anhourlaterthedinnerbellrang.MohandaswasaccompaniedtohistablebyTriambakraiMazumdar,aboyfromJunagadh(andaBrahminfromthesoundofhisname)whowasalsoproceedingtoLondontostudy.TheyoungGandhiworeablackcoatandcarriedhisownfood–Gujaratisweetsandsavouriesthathisfamilyhadpackedforhim.Hisfriendwasdressedmorecasually,andwascontenttoeattheship’sfare.Thisarrangementcontinuedforthefirstforty-eighthours.Fortunately,
Mohandasthenfoundanativesailorwhowaswillingtocookhimriceanddal.Thesailoralsoprovidedrotis,butsincetheman’shandsweredirty,thestudent–afastidiousBania–preferredtousetheEnglishbreadfordippinginstead.2
Duringtheday,Mohandaswatchedthesailorsatwork(their‘dexterity’,hefound,was‘admirable’),playedaroundwiththepiano(again,forthefirsttime–thereseemstohavebeennomusicintheGandhihouseholdinRajkot),andtooktheaironthedeckabove.Onedayhestayedonpastsunsetandsawhow,onaccountofthewavesandwhattheyreflected,‘themoonappearedasifshewasmovinghereandthere’.Thenthestarsappeared;theirreflectioninthewatergavehim‘theideaoffireworks’.WhentheyberthedatAden,thepassengersrentedaboattotakethemashore.
MohandaswasimpressedbytheProtectorate’sbuildings,butlesssobythelandscape.InawholedayinAden,he‘sawnotasingletreeoragreenplant’.ThateveningtheSSClydeenteredtheRedSea.Likemanyothersbeforeand
since,MohandasmarvelledattheSuezCanalandthe‘geniusofamanwhoinventedit’.WhentheyanchoredatPortSaid,hediscoveredthathehaddefinitivelylefthishomelandbehindhim.For‘nowthecurrencywasEnglish.Indianmoneyisquiteuselesshere’.AfellowpassengertoldMohandasthatoncetheylefttheSuezCanal,the
weatherwouldchange:astheygotclosertoEurope,theonlywaytobeatthecoldwouldbetoeatmeatanddrinkalcohol.Mohandasstucktohisdietofriceandlentils.ThreedayslatertheyreachedBrindisi.Itwasevening,andasthepassengerscameashorethegaslampswerebeinglit.EveryonewasspeakingItalian.Mohandaswasunimpressedbytherailwaystation–itwasnotas‘beautiful’asthosebuiltbackhomebytheBombayBerarandCentralIndianRailway.However,therailwaycarriageswerebiggerandbetterappointed.AtBrindisi,addingtothelistofnovelexperiences,Mohandaswasaccosted
byalocalwho(presumablyspeakinginEnglish)said:‘Sir,thereisabeautifulgirloffourteen,followme,sir,andIwilltakeyouthere,thechargeisnothigh,sir.’TheIndianavoidedhim.ThenextstopwasMalta.HereMazumdarandMohandashiredacarriagetotakethemaround.Theysawanoldchurchandthelocalmuseum,whichdisplayedweaponsofwarandachariotthathadoncecarriedNapoleonBonaparte.Threedayslatertheyarrivedatanothercolonialoutpost,Gibraltar,wheretheywereimpressedbythequalityoftheroads.MohandasGandhi’sdiaryofhisvoyagetoLondonisunusuallyattentiveto
thelandscape.Roads,buildingsandvegetationaredescribedwithcare.NaturehaddistributeditsgiftsverydifferentlythaninhisnativeKathiawar.Inthetownshehadseenenroutethehandofmanappearedtoworkverydifferentlytoo.WhentheshipreachedtheportofPlymouth,Mohandassuddenlyfeltcold.Itwaselevenatnight,andwinterwasapproaching.Hereflectedthat,despitethewarningandinducementsalongtheway,hehadreachedEnglandwithoutbetrayingthethreepromises–nottoeatmeat,drinkalcoholorhavesexwithstrangers–thathehadmadetohismotherinRajkot.FromPlymouth,theshipproceededtoitsfinaldestination.On29September,
threeweeksafterithadleftBombay,theSSClydeberthedatthenewlybuiltTilburyDocks.MohandasandMazumdardisembarked,andboardedatraintotravelthetwentymilestoLondon.TheirfirstnightinthecitywasspentintheVictoriaHotelonNorthumberlandStreet,nexttoTrafalgarSquare.3
Londonin1888wasagreatimperialcity.QueenVictoriahadlatelyobservedtheGoldenJubileeofherreign.Theempireshepresidedoverhadplanteditsflaginthefourcornersoftheworld.EvensomecountriesnotruledbyGreatBritainrecognizedhersuperiority.NotlongafterMohandasGandhiarrivedinLondon,theShahofPersiacamevisiting.ThecoverofapopularmagazineshowedtheforeignmonarchcallingontheQueeninWindsorCastle.Victoriawassketchedassmall,stoutandplain;infact,asunprepossessingasshereallywas.Withhislissomframeandhisstylishclothes,theShahlookedrathergrandincomparison.Whatgavethegameawaywastheirrespectivepostures–Victoriasatonherthrone,whiletheforeignerbowedlowtokissherhand.4
Londonin1888wasalsoagreatindustrialcity.Itsfactoriesmadelampsandchocolates,shoesandclothes,andathousandotherthingsbesides.TheproductsmanufacturedinLondonandtheproductsconsumedbyLondonerscameinandoutoftheport.TheSSClydewasoneofastaggering79,000vesselsthatdockedinthecityintheyearGandhiarrived.Apartfromthepassengersonboard,theseshipscarried20milliontonnesofcargo,valuedat£200million.5
Finally,Londonin1888wasagreatinternationalcity.Nocityintheworldhadmorepeople–about6millioninall,twicethenumberinParis–ormorenationalitiesrepresentedinthem.TherewasalargeandgrowingpopulationofIrishCatholics;Germans,CzechsandItalianscamelookingforwork;Ukrainians,PolesandRussianscamefleeingpersecution.Themetropoliswas‘perhapsthemostcosmopolitancityinEurope’,andinitscrowdedstreets,onecouldhear‘thetwanginginflectionsofAustralians,NewZealanders,Canadians…[and]theunfamiliarenunciationsofAsiansandAfricans’.6
AmongtheseforeignersinLondonwereabout1,000Indians.Throughtheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies,theIndianswhocametoorsettledinEnglandweremostlyofworking-classorigin.Theyweresailorsanddockhands,domesticservantsandsepoys.Therewasa‘tom-tomman’namedRamSinghwhoplayedthedruminthestreets.However,therewerealsoafewaristocrats,drawnfromtheclassofMaharajasandNawabs.Then,fromthe1850s,anincreasingnumberofIndianscameseekingaprofessionalqualificationinmedicineor,moreoften,thelaw.ThetwomostinfluentialIndiansinLondonatthetimeofMohandasGandhi’s
arrivalwereDadabhaiNaorojiandAbdulKarim.Naoroji,aParsi,movedto
Londonin1855,astheagentofatradingcompany.Overtime,hisinterestsinbusinessweresupersededbyhisworkinpoliticsandsocialreform.In1888,hesetupaforumtorepresentIndiansintheUnitedKingdom,which,thenextyear,wasnamedtheBritishCommitteeoftheIndianNationalCongress(whichhadbeenfoundedinBombayin1885).AnIndianwhoseinfluencewasmorediscreetwasAbdulKarim,aMuslimfromAgrawhoworkedonQueenVictoria’sstaff.Tallandlight-skinned,hetaughttheQueenHindustani,withdigressionsintoIndianreligion.TheQueenthoughtherteacher‘reallyexemplaryandexcellent’;underhisdirection,shehadbegungreetingIndianvisitorsintheirownlanguage.7
ThedailyroundofactivitiesinLondonreflectedthecity’scapaciousinternationalism.AnAsianpotentatewouldcomecalling;thezoowouldacquireitsfirsthippopotamus.OnemonththerewasanexhibitionontheabolitionoftheAfricanslavetrade;thenextmonthadifferentgallerydisplayedaJavanesevillage.Thelocalpresstookaglobalviewofpolitics–carryingstoriesonaninsurrectioninCreteandarevolutioninBrazil–andofeconomics,asinaccountsofwine-makinginChileoroftheCaliforniagold-rush.8
EnroutetoLondon,Mohandashadwiredanacquaintancewiththedateofhisarrival.ThiswasPranjivanMehta,adoctorfromMorbi,atownclosetoRajkot,nowstudyingtobeabarristerinEngland.TheeveningafterGandhireachedLondon,DrMehtacametoseehimattheVictoriaHotel.Astheyspoke,Mohandaspickedupthevisitor’shatandstartedfeelingitsfelt.AlookfromDrMehtastoppedhim,andgaveMohandashisfirstlessoninEnglishetiquette.‘Donottouchotherpeople’sthings,’DrMehtatoldhim.‘DonotaskquestionsasweusuallydoinIndiaonfirstacquaintance;donottalkloudly;neveraddresspeopleas“sir”whilstspeakingtothemaswedoinIndia;onlyservantsandsubordinatesaddresstheirmastersthatway.’9
Thehotelwasexpensive,soGandhiandMazumdarshiftedtothehomeofanothermanfromMorbi,oneDalpatramShukla.ShuklalivedinthesuburbofRichmond,elevenmilesuptheThames.TheyboardedwithShuklaforafewweeks,beforeMohandasfoundlodgingsinWestKensingtonwithawidowwhosehusbandhadservedinIndia.ShelivedinaVictorianterracedhouse,four
storeyshigh,witharailwaylinerunningbehindit.Thesteamtrainsweredistinctlyaudiblefromwithinthehome.TheBanialodgerfoundthefoodhardtostomach–howlongcanonesurvive
onbreadandmilk?Fortunately,whilewalkingaroundthecity,hefoundsomevegetarianrestaurants–oneonFarringdonStreet,anotherinHighHolborn.Healsoinvestedinaportablestove,tocookwithinhisroom.Oatmealboiledinwaterandeatenwithmilkorfruitservedasahandybreakfast;lunchwaseatenout;whileforsupperMohandasmadehimselfsoupandrice.10
On6November1888,MohandasGandhiregisteredhimselfattheInnerTemple,oneoffourInnsofCourtinLondon,locatedjustwestoftheCityandclosetotheriver,in‘ratheranill-defineddistrictinwhichgracefulbutdingybuildingsofdiversepatternandofvariousdegreesofantiquity,arecloselygroupedtogetherandthrough[which]windcrookedlanes,mostlyclosedtotraffic,butavailableforpedestrians’.11ThreedaysafterjoiningtheInnerTemple,MohandaswrotetohisbrotherLaxmidasthat‘inspiteofthecoldIhavenoneedofmeatorliqour.Thisfillsmyheartwithjoyandthankfulness.’ThisisoneofonlythreeletterswrittenbyGandhifromLondonthathave
survived.Theothertwo,writtenshortlyafterwards,weresenttoBritishadministratorsinPorbandar,askingthemagaintofinancehiseducation.HisbrotherLaxmidashadbudgeted£666forhistimeinLondon;now,afterlivingtherefortwomonths,hethoughtheneeded£400more.‘Englishlife,’wroteMohandastotheAdministratorinPorbandar,‘isveryexpensive.’TheRanashadshownscantinterestinmodernlearning,but‘wecannaturallyexpectthateducationmustbeencouragedundertheEnglishAdministration.Iamonewhocantakeadvantageofsuchencouragement.’12
Thelettersweredisregarded.Mohandas,andLaxmidas,wouldhavetofindthemoneythemselves.
Toqualifyasabarrister,Mohandashadtopasstwoexaminations,thefirsttobetakenafterhehadkeptfour‘terms’,thelatterafterhehadkeptnine.ThetermswereheldinthemonthsofJanuary,April,JuneandNovember–theshortestlastingtwentydays,thelongestthirty-one.Mohandashadtoattendaminimumofsixdinnerseachterm,andatotalofseventy-twodinnersinall.Thispracticeallowedapprenticelawyerstomeetandspeakwiththeircolleaguesand
superiors.Italsomadeupforaninstitutionaldeficiency:thefactthat,unlikeOxfordandCambridgeuniversities,theInnswerenotresidential.TheInnerTemplewassocalledbecause,aloneamongtheInnsofCourt,itlay
justinsidetheoldCitywalls.ItwasveryEnglishanddominatedbypublicschoolanduniversitymen.MohandasmighthavebeenbetteroffifhehadenrolledattheMiddleTemple,which(asalawyerwhowasthereinthe1890srecalled),‘hadalsoEnglish,Scottish,Irish,Welsh,Colonialandothers,withhundredsfromIndia’scoralstrandsandAfrica’ssunnyfountains’.13
Admittedly,theInnerTemplehadthemorebeautifulgarden,‘spaciousandsunnyandwell-turfed’,whichplayedhosteveryyeartotheLondonHorticulturalSociety’sflowershow.14ThiswasnousetoMohandas,forasastudenthehadnochambersintheTemple.Hewassupposedtospendhisdaysstudying,athome.Tillhecametosithisexams,hehadonlytoappearattheInnerTemplefordinner,onceeverytendaysorso.Acertainamountofceremonyaccompaniedthemeal.ThemembersandstudentsoftheInn,dressedingowns,enteredthehallinprocession,standinginsilencewhilethegoverningbody(composedofmemberswhowerenowQueen’sCounsels)satatthehightablelocatedatoneendoftheroom.Afterthegovernorswereseated,thememberstooktheirplacesonthelowbenchesassignedtothem.15
Gandhi’sfellowdinerswerealientohiminclassandculture.Sowasthefood.Ajointofbeeformuttonwassetdownbeforeatableoffour,alongwithtwobottlesofwine.TheIndianappliedforavegetarianmeal,whichwasusuallyamessofboiledpotatoandcabbage.Hemadeupforthisbyexchanginghisshareofwineforhistable-mates’fruit.16
TheInnerTemplefollowedaverystrictdresscode.Asearlyas1546,aninternalmemorandumhadorderedthat‘thegentelmenofthecompanyschallreformethemselffes,intheircuttordisguysedapparell,andshallnothavelongberdes…’17Inthelatenineteenthcentury,thiswasinterpretedtomeanthatlawyerscametochambersortocourtinadarksuit,adressshirt,andasilkhat.Mohandastookthecodeveryseriously.HedressedwellforthedinnersattheTemple,andonotherdaystoo.Afellowstudent,bumpingintohimnearPiccadillyCircus,wasgreatlyimpressedbythe‘fashion,cutandstyleofMrGandhi’.Theaspiringlawyer,herecalledyearslater,waswearinga‘highsilktop-hat,brushed,“burnishedbright”’,a‘stiffandstarchedcollar(knownat
thattimeasaGladstone)’,a‘finestripedsilkshirt’,anddarktrouserswithacoattomatch.Onhisfeetwere‘patentleatherboots’.18
YoungMohandasGandhimayhavewornaGladstonecollar,buthedidnottakemuchinterestinthemanafterwhomitwasnamed.In1889WilliamEwartGladstonewasoneofthetoweringfiguresofBritishand(byextension)worldpolitics.WiththedeathofBenjaminDisraeli,Gladstone’smainrivalwasthenewleaderoftheConservativeParty,LordSalisbury.They(andtheirparties)alternatedinoffice,withtheLiberalsfollowingonesetofpoliciesathomeandabroad,andtheToriesanother.Theelitepoliticsofthetimewasopposedbyagrowingbodyofradicalson
theleft.KarlMarxhaddiedin1883,buthisfollowerswereactiveinLondon,planningforworldrevolution.In1884theFabianSocietycameintobeing.Thistoosoughttousherinsocialism,albeitbyBritish–thatistosaygradualist–methods.IntheLondonchaptersofhisautobiography,GandhidoesnotmentiontheLiberalsortheTories,theCommunistsortheSocialists.HisinterestwastakenupinsteadwithacultofEnglishdissenterspossiblyevenmoreradical,andcertainlyverymuchmoreobscure.ThesewerethevegetariansofLondon.Inthewindowofthatrestaurantin
FarringdonStreetGandhicameacrossacopyofHenrySalt’sPleaforVegetarianism.Hereaditfromcovertocover(itwasaslimbook).Tillthen,hehadbeenvegetarianbycustomandtradition,butfromthemomenthereadSalthebecame‘avegetarianbychoice’.HefoundthattherewasaLondonVegetarianSociety,whosemeetingshebegantoattend.HewassostruckbyhisnewcreedthatheevenformedabranchoftheSocietyinthelocalitywherehelived.19
ThevegetarianswhomGandhidiscoveredinEnglandhadoriginallytakentheirinspirationfromIndia.FromtheGreeksonwards,EuropeantravellersinthesubcontinentwerefascinatedbythedietoftheHindus.Thatalargesectionsubsistedentirelywithouteatingmeatrepelledsomevisitors(suchasthePortugueseexplorerVascoDaGama),anddeeplyimpressedothers.TheseIndophileswereparticularlystruckbythetendercareshowntosickordyinganimals.WhoinEuropecouldeverconceiveofaspecialhospitalforbirds?It
alsocameasasurprisethatwhereaswhitesoldierscouldnotsurvivewithoutbeerorbeef,Indiansseemedtofightperfectlywellonadietofriceandlentils.Throughtheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies,aseriesoftractswere
publishedinEnglandandFranceextollingthevirtuesof‘Hindu’vegetarianism.Overthedecades,however,theOrientalnotebecamemoremutedandeventuallydisappeared.When,inthenineteenthcentury,thefirstvegetariananthologieswerepublishedinEngland,andthefirstvegetariansocietiescameintoexistence,theargumentsforthisveryuntypicaldietwereusuallymadeonthegroundsofhealthand,lessfrequently,onthebasisofrespectforallofGod’screation.20
TheIndianoriginsofEnglishvegetarianismwereunknownbothtoMohandasGandhiandtothemanwhosetractsopowerfullyinfluencedhim.HenrySaltwasthesonofanarmyofficerwhohadservedinIndia.Salthimselfwasborninthesubcontinent,butbroughtbacktoEnglandasababy.HewassenttostudyatEtonandCambridge,beinglessthanhappyineitherplace.Drifting,hereturnedtoEtontoteach,andmarriedthedaughterofoneofhisformerteachers.Themarriagelasted,butnotthecareer.InspiredbytheideasofHenryDavidThoreau,thecouplemovedtoavillagewheretheylivedwithoutservants,whileSaltearnedmoneythroughfreelancewriting.21
InhislifetimeSaltpublishedmorethanfortybooks.TheseincludedlivesofThoreauandShelley(afellowvegetarian).Byfarhismostinfluentialworksdealtwiththereformofdietandtherightsofanimals.Thelogicofvegetarianism,heoncewrote,‘isnotchemical,butmoral,social,hygienic’.Herejectedthecommonequationofameat-freedietwithasceticism;tobecomevegetarian,heargued,wasnottodenyoneselfanything,butsimplytosharethejoyofkinshipwiththenon-humanworld.Theraisond’êtreofvegetarianismwas‘thegrowingsensethatflesh-eatingisacruel,disgusting,unwholesome,andwastefulpractice’.AcriticchargedSaltwithinconsistency:milkandeggsalsocamefrom
animals–ifoneconsumedthem,thenwhynotmeat?Saltansweredbyavowingthemeritsofgradualism.Milkandeggswouldintimebeabjuredbythevegetarians,asmeathadalreadybeen.But‘surelyitisrationaltodealwiththeworstabusesfirst.Toinsistonanall-or-nothingpolicywouldbefataltoanyreformwhatsoever.Improvementsnevercomeinthemass,butalwaysby
instalment;anditisonlyreactionarieswhodenythathalfaloafisbetterthannobread’.22
ForSalt,vegetarianswerethemoralvanguardofthehumanrace.Heallowedthat‘reformofdietwilldoubtlessbeslow’.Itwouldencounter‘difficultiesanddrawbacks’.Yetas‘thequestionismoreandmorediscussed,theresultwillbemoreandmoredecisive’.Hadnotslaveryoncebeenpractisedanddefendedtoo?Thesuccessofvegetarianismwouldresultinadeepeningofdemocracy.Asheeloquentlyputit,‘itisnothumanlifeonlythatislovableandsacred,butallinnocentandbeautifullife:thegreatrepublicofthefuturewillnotconfineitsbeneficencetoman.’The‘emancipationofmanwillbringwithitanotherandstillwideremancipation–ofanimals’.23
Theregular,beef-eatingEnglishmansawvegetariansasasmallandperhapsevensillycult–theirrestaurantstobepatronized,ifatall,whenthepursewasrunningempty.ThepublisherGrantRichards,writingoftheLondonofthe1890s,theLondonofMohandasGandhiandHenrySaltandtheirSociety,mentions‘severalvegetarianrestaurantsdottedaboutbetweenLiverpoolStreetandSt.Paul’s.OneinparticularIcanrememberinKingStreet,Cheapside.Onecouldgetaveryfillingandveryhorridmealforsixpence–orwasitninepence?Vegetarianismseemstohavemadenoprogresssincethosedays.’24
ForourvisitingIndian,however,theVegetarianSocietywasashelterthatsavedhim.TheyoungGandhihadlittleinterestinthetwogreatpopularpassionsoflatenineteenth-centuryLondon,thetheatreandsport.25Imperialandsocialistpoliticslefthimcold.However,intheweeklymeetingsofthevegetariansofLondonhefoundacause,andhisfirstEnglishfriends.Atsometime–wedonotknowexactlywhen,butitmustcertainlyhavebeen
intohissecondyearinLondon–GandhicametoshareroomswithamannamedJosiahOldfield.AnOxfordgraduateandbarrister,nowstudyingtobeadoctor,OldfieldwasanactivememberoftheLondonVegetarianSociety.HeeditedtheSociety’sjournal,where(likeSalt)hewrotebothondietandonpolitics,andwhere(likeSaltagain),heexudedaheroicoptimism,asinanessaywhereheclaimedthat‘theonetendencythathaspervadedhumanity…[is]thespiritofprogressfrombondagetowardsLiberty.’26
OldfieldandGandhi,theEnglishmanandtheIndian,livedtogetherat52St.Stephen’sGardens,Bayswater,inahouseoverlookingashadypark.27Thisfriendshipacrosstheracialdividewassingularaswellasbrave.GandhiandOldfieldthrewpartieswhereguestswereservedlentilsoup,boiledriceandlargeraisins.Onothereveningstheysalliedtogetherintotheworld,‘lecturingatclubsandanyotherpublicmeetingswherewecouldobtainahearingforourgospelofpeaceandhealth’.Oneevening,GandhireturnedhomeandtoldOldfieldofanencounterearlier
intheday.AnEnglishdoctor,onhearingthatthelawstudentwasavegetarian,insistedthathemakeanexceptionforbeef-tea,since,unlikeinthetropics,whereadietbasedongrainandvegetableswoulddo,‘inthecoldclimateofEnglandtheadditionofbeeformuttonisessential’.Theyargued,backandforth,tillthedoctor,inexasperation,exclaimed:‘Youmusteithertakebeef-teaordie!’Gandhiansweredthat‘ifitwereGod’swillthatIshoulddieImustdie,butIwassureitcouldnotbeGod’swillthatIshouldbreaktheoaththatImadeonmymother’skneebeforeIleftIndia’.28
Meanwhile,twootherfriends,anuncleandnephewrespectively,askedGandhitointerprettheBhagavad-Gitaforthem.Hereadtheworkwiththetwomen,inthethenquiterecenttranslationbyEdwinArnoldcarryingthepoetictitleTheSongCelestial.TheEnglishmen,inturn,introducedhimtotheworkofMadameBlavatskywho,afteralifespentwanderingaroundtheworld(includingaspellinIndia),hadsettleddowninLondon.ThefounderofTheosophysoughttoreconcilereligionwithscience,andChristianitywithHinduism.ThathercultwassomanifestlysympathetictoIndiantraditionsimpressedyoungGandhi.HemetBlavatskyaswellasAnnieBesant,afirebrandsocialistandsuffragettewhohadrecentlyabandonedthosecreedstoembraceTheosophy.29
MovingfurtheroutwardsfromhisnativeHinduism,GandhibeganreadingChristiantexts,suppliedtohimbyavegetarianfromManchester.TheBookofGenesissenthimtosleep,buttheNewTestamenthefoundcompelling.TheSermonontheMountinparticular‘wentstraighttomyheart’.Thelinesaboutofferingone’scloaktothemanwhohadtakenawayone’scoattouchedhimgreatly.ComparingittotheGita,heconcludedthatbothtaughtthat‘renunciationwasthehighestformofreligion’.30
Earlyinhisstay,afriendsuggestedtoMohandasthat,apartfromqualifyingasabarrister,hecouldalsotaketheLondonMatriculationexam.Noextrafeeswerepayable,andIndianslikedaccumulatingforeigncertificates.AfterregisteringfortheMatric,GandhifoundthathehadtolearnLatin–alanguageutterlyforeigntohim–andalsototakeatleastonescience.ThefirsttimehesattheLatinexamhefailed.Fortunatelyhepassedthesecondtimearound.Asforscience,hetriedChemistry,but,afterfindingtheexperimentstoocomplicated,optedforHeatandLightinstead.31
Meanwhile,attheInnerTemple,Gandhihadtopassexaminationsin(amongothersubjects)RomanLaw,PropertyLawandCommonLaw.ForthefirsttopichereadanEnglishtranslationoftheJustiniancodeaswellasalargerworkofinterpretationandanalysis,WilliamA.Hunter’sIntroductiontoRomanLaw(thirdedition,1885).ForthesecondsubjecthereadJoshuaWilliams’PrinciplesoftheLawofProperty(sixteenthedition,1887),aswellasseveralcompendiaofcases.Tounderstandcommonlawhereadtwotextbooks,neweditionsofwhichhadappearedin1888–JohnIndermaur’sPrinciplesoftheCommonLawandHerbertBrown’sCommentariesontheCommonLaw.TherewasalsoaspecialsectiononEquity,forwhichheconsultedthe1887editionofabookonthesubjectbyEdmundH.T.Snell.32
Whenhewasnotreading,orre-reading,thesebooks,Gandhitooklongwalksthroughthecity.Hecalculatedthathewalkedanaverageofeightmilesaday.AshetoldtheIndianstudentswhocametoLondonafterhim,walkingwas‘apleasureinthecoldclimateofEngland’;besides,forreasonsofeconomy,‘abriskwalkshouldbepreferredtoarideinatrainorabus’.Afterawalk,Gandhifeltobligedtowashawaythesweatandthedirt.Sometimeshewenttoapublicbath(whichcostfivepence);atothertimes,hepersuadedhislandladytoprovidehimwithalittlehotwater,intowhichhedippedatowelorspongethathethenranoverhisbody.33
TherewereexcursionsinLondonandsomefurtherafield,withGandhioncetravellingtoPortsmouthtoattendaVegetarianConference.Speechesduringthedaywerefollowedbyarelaxinggameofbridgeintheevenings.Gandhiwaspartneredbythelandladyoftheinnwheretheywerestaying.Shejokedandflirtedwithhim.Hewasattractedbythebanter–itwas‘thefirstoccasiononwhichawoman,otherthanmywife,movedmetolust’.Then,astheflirtation
gotmoreintense,theexcitementconfusedandshamedhim.Rememberinghisvowtohismother,hegotupfromthecardtable,rushingtohisroom‘quaking,trembling,andwithbeatingheart,likeaquarryescapedfromitspursuer’.Althoughtheconferencestillhadsometimetorun,GandhireturnedthenextdaytoLondon.GandhialsospentsomedaysinBrighton,andwenttwicetoVentnor,onthe
IsleofWight.In1890hecrossedtheChanneltovisittheParisExhibition,wherehesawthenewlybuiltEiffelTower,butwasmovedfarmorebyNotreDamecathedral,withitsexquisitesculpturesanddecorations.34
LivinginBritaintowardstheendoftheVictorianage,didyoungMohandasGandhiexperiencediscriminationonaccountofhisraceorethnicity?Itappearsnot.ThecirclesGandhimovedin–thoseofthevegetariansandtheTheosophists–soughtaffinityofideasandlifestyles,notskincolour.Inanycase,theEnglishmaninEnglandwaslessprejudicedthantheEnglishmanabroad.InIndia,anEnglishmanwasmarkedoutasamemberoftherulingrace.Whereverhewent,therewerea‘largenumberofdark-skinnedmenreadyandwillingtoservehiminnumerousways’.Athome,however,theEnglishmanhadtoposthisownlettersandcarryhisownbags.ATamiljournalistvisitingLondoninthe1890snoticedthat‘theEnglisharegenerousbynatureandareanxioustopleaseforeigners.IappreciatetheirhospitalityallthemorewhenIfindthatcolourdoesnotinfluencethemabitintheirtreatmentofIndians.’35
InthelastweekofMarch,1890–ayearandahalfafterhehadleftIndiaforEngland–Mohandassathisfirstsetoflawexaminations.WhentheresultswereannouncedhefoundhehaddoneratherbetterthanintheBombayMatriculation,coming6thinasetof46.Hisnameappeared(forthefirsttime)inTheTimes,placedalongsideothersuccessfulcandidates,amongthemaParsinamedColahandaBengalinamedSarbadhicary,theIndiansyllablessounding(andsitting)oddlyalongideimpeccablyAnglo-SaxonnamessuchasAtkin,Barrett,Clark,Maxwell,Murray,RoseandSmith.36
InDecemberofthesameyearGandhisatthefinalexaminations.Amonthlater,on12January1891,hewastoldthathehadpassedsuccessfully,coming34thoutof109.37
Hehadnowclearedhisexams,buthewasstillsomedinnersshortoftheTemple’sprescribedtotalofseventy-two.HecouldnotreturntoIndiauntilhehadattended(albeitnotenjoyed)thoseremainingdinners.Hisfriendandflatmate,JosiahOldfield,nowpersuadedhimtospendhislastdaysinLondonwritingforTheVegetarian.Itisnotuncommonforawriter’sfirstworktoappearinalow-circulation
nichemagazine.Buthowmanycanclaimthattheirdebutinprinttooktheformofasix-partseries?ThroughFebruaryandMarch1890,TheVegetariancarriedthebylineofM.K.Gandhi,undertheheading,‘IndianVegetarians–I,II…’etc.Anintroductiontothecastesysteminauguratedtheseries.AlateressayexplainedhowAsianvegetarianismdifferedfromitsEuropeancounterpart.‘UnliketheEnglish,theIndiansdonottakeeachdishseparately,buttheymixmanythingstogether.’Moreover,‘eachdishiselaboratelyprepared.Infact,theydon’tbelieveinplainboiledvegetables,butmusthavethemflavouredwithplentyofcondiments,e.g.,pepper,salt,cloves,turmeric,mustardseed,andvariousotherthingsforwhichitwouldbedifficulttofindEnglishnamesunlesstheybethoseusedinmedicine.’TheIndiandietwasricherandmorevaried,exceptinonerespect–for‘thefruit,yes,theall-importantfruit,issadlyconspicuousbyitsabsenceintheabove-mentionedspecimendishes’.Gandhi’sessaystookapartsomecommonmythsandmisconceptions.If
Hindus‘asarulearenotoriouslyweak’,thiswasnotbecauseoftheabsenceofmeatintheirdiet.Thefaultwasthatofthe‘wretchedcustomofinfantmarriage’,whichbymakinggirlsoftwelvehavechildrenbyboysofsixteen,tendedto‘tellonthestrongestconstitutions’.Thewriteralsohadchoicewordstosayaboutalcohol,whichhetermedan‘enemyofmankind’anda‘curseofcivilization’,andincidentallyalso‘oneofthemostgreatly-feltevilsoftheBritishRule’inIndia.Havingcriticizedchildmarriage–throughpersonalexperience–and
alcohol–byseeingitseffectonotherIndians–thewriterthenturnedtoalyricalappreciationoftheshepherd,inhisviewtheperfectspecimenofHomoIndicus.Hisvegetariandiet,andhisdailyroutineinthefieldsandforests,madetheshepherd’s‘anidealmodeoflife.Heisperforceregularinhishabits,isoutofdoors[withhisflocks]duringthegreaterpartofhistime,whileouthebreathesthepurestair,hashisdueamountofexercise,hasgoodandnourishingfoodand
lastbutnotleast,isfreefrommanycareswhicharefrequentlyproductiveofweakconstitutions.’Gandhiallowedthattheshepherdhadaflaw–one,notmore.For‘whilea
Brahminwouldhavehisbathtwiceaday,andaVaisyaonceaday,ashepherdwouldhaveonlyonebathaweek’.Otherwise,itwas‘veryraretoseeanydeformityinhim…Withoutbeingfierceasatiger,heisyetstrongandbraveandasdocileasalamb.Withoutbeingawe-inspiring,hisstatureiscommanding.Altogether,theIndianshepherdisaveryfinespecimenofavegetarian,andwillcompareveryfavourablywithanymeat-eatersofarasbodilystrengthgoes’.38
ForsomeonewhoneverheardEnglishathome,whobeganlearningthelanguageonlyattheageofeleven,andwhoseMatriculationmarksweresomediocre,Gandhi’sprosewassurprisinglyclearanddirect.Noteworthyishispassingchastisementofcolonialrule(forpromotingthesaleandconsumptionofalcohol)andhispraiseofthewayoflifeoftheshepherd.TherewerecommunitiesofpastoralistsinKathiawar,whocameaftereverymonsoontograzetheirflocksinthelargegau-char,orpastureland,thatlayoutsidemosttownsintheregion.39Gandhiwouldhaveseenthemhere,andalsometthemduringfairsandfestivals,whenshepherdscamepeddlingtheirwares.Itmayalsobethathewasinfluencedbythecurrentofromanticanti-industrialismpresentinthethoughtofHenrySalt,andoffriendsofSaltlikeEdwardCarpenter,who,likeWilliamWordsworthandJohnRuskinbeforethem,believedthatthefarmerandshepherdrepresentedapurer,morenaturalwayoflifeascomparedtothebusinessmanorfactoryworker.40
Nowthathewasinprint,thenovicewriterwantedmore.TheseriesonIndianvegetarianswasfollowedbythreearticlesonIndianfestivals.41Thefirstserieswasthenreprisedforadifferentjournal,inalongessayon‘TheFoodsofIndia’whichendedwiththehopethat‘thetimewillcomewhenthegreatdifferencenowexistingbetweenthefoodhabitsofmeat-eatinginEnglandandgrain-eatinginIndiawilldisappear,andwithitsomeotherdifferenceswhich,insomequarters,martheunityofsympathythatoughttoexistbetweenthetwocountries’.‘Inthefuture,’thoughtthisIndianvisitortoEngland,‘weshalltendtowardsunityofcustom,andalsounityofhearts’.42
Gandhi’sinvolvementwiththevegetariansofLondonwasfarmoreimportanttohimthaniscommonlyrecognized.HadhenotjoinedtheirSociety,hewould
havekepttohiscompatriots,asIndianstudentsabroadwerewonttodoatthetime(andsometimesstillare).Thesefirst,closefriendshipswithEnglishpeopleexpandedhismindandhispersonality.Helearnttorelatetopeopleofdifferentracesandreligiousbeliefs,tomix,mingleandeatwiththem,andeventoshareahomewiththem.TheLondonvegetariansprovidedMohandasGandhiwithhisfirstexposureto
collectivesocialactionandwithhisfirstpublicplatform.Gandhi’spublishedoeuvrecoversdozensofvolumesandrangesacrossmanydifferentsubjects.Itisastrikingiflittlenoticedfactthathiswritingcareerbeganwiththeselucid,informativeandsurprisinglyconfidentseriesofessaysonthefoodsandfestivalsofIndia.ForhisBombayMatricandhisInnerTemplebarrister’scertificate,Gandhihadtocramamassoffactsandbringthemoutintheorderrequiredbytheexaminers.ButincraftingthesearticlesforTheVegetarian,hehadtoapplyhismindmoreintelligently;thefactswithinhimhadtobeshepherdedintoacoherent,persuasiveargumentforanaudiencewithbackgroundsverydifferentfromhisown.Gandhithecultivatoroffriendshipsacrossracialandreligiousboundaries;
Gandhitheorganizerandmobilizer;Gandhithewriter,thinkerandpropagandist–alltheseGandhiswerefirstdisplayedinandthroughhismembershipofthatfamouslyobscurebody,theVegetarianSocietyofLondon.
AsthereadersofTheVegetarianwerebeingintroducedtothefoodsofIndia,amorewidelyreadweeklywaspresentingaverydifferentpictureofthesubcontinent.ThiswastheIllustratedLondonNews,whichregularlyranitemsonIndia,onsuchtopicsasshikar(polo),andthepacificationofhilltribes.Theissueof28February1891printedasketchofaturbanedmaharajainapalanquin,passingsupplicantsonthestreetholdingouttheirpalmsforalms.Theportraitcarriedtheheadline:‘RichesandPoverty:ASketchinanIndianBazaar’.Intruth,thecityinwhichtheweeklywasprintedalsohaditsextremesof
richesanddestitution.This‘metropolisofwealthandgrandeur,cultureandsophisticationwasalsoahellofstarving,degradingandheart-rendingpoverty’.Londoninthenineteenthcenturywasmarkedbya‘vastextentofmiseryanddistress’,whichtoacontemporaryobserverwas‘evidenceoftherotten
foundationonwhichthewholefabricofthisgorgeoussocietyrests,forIcallthatrottenwhichexhibitsthousandsuponthousandsofhumanbeingsreducedtotheloweststageofmoralandphysicalsegregation…’TherewasalsoanothersidetoLondon,representedmostvividlyinthepartiesoftheelite,whichweredistinguishedby‘thefactthatsomeofthemenandpracticallyallthewomen[had]madethepursuitofpleasuretheirmainoccupationinlife’.Intheseparties,asthenovelistWilliamMakepeaceThackerayacidlyobserved,mothersbrought‘theirvirgindaughtersuptobatteredoldrakes…readytosacrificetheirinnocenceforafortuneoratitle’.43
MohandasGandhihadnoentréeintohighsociety,intotheballsandsalonsofthegreathousesinStJames’sorGrosvenorSquare.Nordidherubshoulderswiththelabouringpoor,whetherintheirhomesintheEastEnd,orinthefactoriesandsweatshopswheretheyworked.Gandhi’sencounterswithEnglishsocietywerewiththepeopleinthemiddle.Thethreeaddressesheisknowntohavestayedin–StoreStreet,TavistockStreetandStStephen’sGardens–wereallmarkedonCharlesBooth’s1889‘mapofLondonpoverty’asbeingareasof‘middle-class,well-to-do’housing.Herehemet,perforce,withlandladiesandshopkeepers,andonamorevoluntarybasiswiththedissentersandradicalswhocamelikewisefromthemiddleclasses.44
Inreligiousterms,Gandhi’sLondonexperiencewasquitevaried.HesocializedwithHindusandwithTheosophists,sawtheoddatheist,andevenattendedserviceataCongregationalChurchinHolborn.Hissociallifewasmoreconstrained.TheonlyrichmanhemetwasArnoldF.Hills,owneroftheThamesIronWorks,andfounderandfunderofTheVegetarian.45Meanwhile,theclosestthislawstudentgottotheworkingpoorwastolistentotheirgreatspokesmanintheHouseofCommons,CharlesBradlaugh.WhenhecametoLondon,Gandhiwascarryingaletterofintroductionto
DadabhaiNaoroji,theParsiliberalwhowasthe‘undisputedleader’oftheIndiancommunityintheUnitedKingdom.46Itseemshewastooshytoseekaprivateaudience,butheoftenheardNaorojispeakatpublicmeetings.AtthesemeetingshealsoheardBradlaugh,afriendofIndiaandIndians,oneofthe‘moststrenuousandpicturesquefigures’ofBritishpolitics,a‘self-assertivepropagandistofSecularismandRepublicanism’,aman‘whocamefromthepeopleandretainedtothelastsomehabitsofspeechwhichmarkedhimoutasa
Londonerofthehumblerclasses’.47‘EveryIndian[inLondon]knewBradlaugh’sname’,rememberedGandhiinhisautobiography.WhentheradicaldiedinthefirstweekofFebruary1891,GandhitookadayofffromhisstudiestoattendthefuneralatWoking.Bradlaughwasactivelyirreligious;andmanyatheistshadturnedoutforthefuneral.TheIndianwasstruckmorebythefactthat‘afewclergymenwerealsopresenttodohimthelasthonours’.48
OnthatjourneytoBradlaugh’sfuneral,GandhipassedthefirstmosqueeverbuiltinEngland.ModelledontheMotiMasjidinAgra,thishadsomefinewood-carvingsandabodyofworshipperswhoincludedQueenVictoria’sHindustaniteacher.Openingitsdoorsintheautumnof1889,themosquelayjustoutsideWokingandwasclearlyvisibletotravellersonthetrainfromLondon.49
OntheshiptoLondon,andinhisfirstfewmonthsinthecity,Gandhiwasmuchtakenbytheneedtodresswell.Heworehismorningcoatonvisitstofriends,brushingandironingitbeforehand.Thecollarsofhisshirtswerealwaysproperlystarched.Hisshoeswereimmaculatelypolished.ThelongerhestayedinLondon,however,themoreGandhicametoseethe
needtolivemoresimply.TheaustereaestheticoftheVegetarianSocietywasonereason;asecond,theobligationnottobeaburdenonhisfamily.Whiletherupee(orpound)valueoftheirassetshasnotcomedowntous,weknowthatbyIndianstandardstheGandhiswereuppermiddle-class.KabaGandhiwassurelypaidahandsomesalaryasDiwanofPorbandarandRajkot.Overthegenerations,thefamilyhadacquiredpropertyandjewelsaswell.However,Kaba’searlydeathmadetheGandhislesssecure.Mohandas’sbrothershadfailedeventomatriculate.Thefamily’shopeswerenowinvestedintheyoungestson;hencethetakingofaloanandthepawningofjewellerytosendhimtoqualifyasabarristerinLondon.InGandhi’sfirstyearinEngland,hislivingexpensesamountedtoabout£12a
month.Inhissecondyearhebroughtthisdownto£4amonth.Hestoppedstarchinghisshirts,inspiredby‘someunconventionalgentlemeninEnglandwhohaveceasedadoringthefashionasagoddess’.Hestoppedwearingdrawersinsummer,thussavingonhiswasherman’sbill.Hewalkedeverywhereratherthanrelyonpublictransport.Tosaveonstamps,hebegansendingpostcardshomeratherthanplacinglettersinenvelopes.Heshavedhimselfratherthango
toabarber.Hestoppedbuyingnewspapers,andreadtheminthepubliclibraryinstead.Toaidhisexperimentinsimpleliving,GandhiboughtabookbyaDrNichol,
calledHowtoLiveonSixPenceaDay.Hesethimselfaslightlylessdauntingtarget:‘togetgood,nutritious,healthyandpalatable[vegetarian]foodfor9s[hillings]perweek’.Tomeetit,hestoppeddrinkingteaandcoffee,andresolvedonlytobuyfruitsandvegetablesthatwereinseason.HewasencouragedbytheexampleofsomegreatEnglishmenwhohad
radicallycutdownontheirlivingcosts.CharlesBradlaughhadexchangedalargehousefortwosmallrooms,beforedenyinghimselffurther,bylodgingaboveamusicshop.OfCardinalManningitwassaidthat‘hisordinarymeal,inpublicorprivate,isabiscuitorabitofbreadandaglassofwater’.Despitetheirfrugality,notedGandhiadmiringly,theworldknewbothmentobe‘cleverintellectually’aswellas‘stronginbody’.50
On10June1891,withthoseseventy-twodinnerseaten–orhalf-eaten–MohandasK.Gandhiwasformallycalledtothebar.ThenextdayheenrolledattheHighCourt.Thesamenighthegaveafarewelldinnertohisfellowvegetarians,bookingaroomfortwentyinarestaurantinHolborn.Here,astheSociety’sjournalreported,‘MrGandhi,inaverygracefulthoughsomewhatnervousspeech,welcomedallpresent,spokeofthepleasureitgavehimtoseethehabitofabstinencefromfleshprogressinginEngland,relatedthemannerinwhichhisconnectionwiththeLondonVegetarianSocietyarose,andindoingsotookoccasiontospeakinatouchingwayofwhatheowedtoMrOldfield.’Later,inaninterviewhegavetothejournal,Gandhiadmittedthathehad‘leftmanythingsundone’inhisyearsinLondon.Butashereturnedhome,hecarriedthe‘greatconsolationwithmethatIshallgobackwithouthavingtakenmeatorwine,andthatIknowfrompersonalexperiencethattherearesomanyvegetariansinEngland’.51
ThefollowingmorningGandhitookatrainfromLiverpoolStreetStationtotheLondondocks.TheshipthatwastocarryhimbacktoIndiawasanAustraliansteamer,theOceana,a‘vastfloatingisland’weighing6,000tons.ThistookhimtoAden,wherehetransferredtotheSSAssam,whichwasboundforBombay.
GandhiwroteaboutthereturnjourneyforTheVegetarian.Sincehewasseeingthesamethingsagain,theaccountlackstheenchantmentandsenseofwonderthatcharacterizedhisnarrativeofthevoyageoutofIndia.HenotedthatwhilethestaffontheOceanawerepoliteandneat,thePortuguesewaitersontheAssam‘murderedtheQueen’sEnglish’,andwere‘alsosulkyandslow’.Hewasoneofonlytwovegetariansonboard;betweenthem,theypressedthestewardtoprovide‘somevegetablecurry,rice,stewedandfreshfruitfromthefirst[-class]saloon…’TheeagerIndianconvincedthesecretaryoftheship’scommitteetoallothim‘aquarterofanhourforashortspeechonvegetarianism’.Therequestwasgranted,andthetalkscheduledtoprefacethenextmusicalevening.Inpreparation,Gandhi‘thoughtoutandthenwroteoutandre-wrote’atextaimedatwhatheanticipatedwouldbeahostileaudience.Intheendtheconcertwascancelled,and‘sothespeechwasneverdelivered,tomygreatmortification’.TheSSAssamcarrying,amongotherthingsandpersons,M.K.Gandhi,
Barrister-at-Law,arrivedinBombayon5July1891.Themonsoonhadjustbroken.Thepassengersdisembarkedamidsttherainandthewind,soakedtotheskin.52
3
FromCoasttoCoast
WhenMohandasGandhilandedatBombayonhisreturnfromEngland,hewasmetatthedocksbyhiselderbrother,Laxmidas.TheyproceededtothehomeofDrPranjivanMehta,hisfellowstudentinLondon.Mehtawasfromaprosperousfamilyofjewellers,wholivedinthecentralBombaydistrictofGamdevi,inalargetwo-storeyhousewithlongbalconiesandcarvedwoodenpillars.1
EnroutetoDrMehta’shouse,Gandhi’sbrothertoldhimthattheirmotherPutlibaihaddiedafewmonthspreviously.ThefamilyhadnotwiredhiminLondon,lestthenewsshoulddistracthimfromhisstudies.Hearingthenewsnowwasa‘severeshock’toMohandas.2Putlibaihadbeenreluctanttoallowhimtogoabroad,andworriedhewouldtransgressinmattersofmoralsanddiet.Hehadreturned,lawdegreeinhand,andwithouteverhavinghadmeat,alcoholorsexinLondon.Nowhecouldnottellhismotheroftheseachievements.InBombay,athandtoconsoleMohandas,wasarelativeofDrMehta’s,then
residentinthefamilyhome.KnownasRaychandorRajchandra,hehadhadamysticalexperiencewhenyoung,andhadacquiredareputationasapoetandastudentoftheJainscriptures.3
AsaJainteacher,Raychandledasimple,evenaustere,life,althoughhisrenunciationwasdifferentfromandpossiblydeeperthanthenorm.WhileallJainswerevegetarian,themoredevoutdidnoteveneatonionsorgarlic,andtookgreatpainsnottoinjurelivingbeings,coveringtheirmouthwithahandkerchieflestaninsectpoppedin.TherewereJainhospitalsforinjuredbirds.Renunciationcouldtakeostentatiousforms;aswhenawealthymerchantgaveawayhispropertyinfrontofanadmiringcrowdofcommunitymembers.Raychand,however,dismissedorthodoxJainismasthe‘religionofthemouth-
covering(muhpatti)ratherthanthesoul’.Theobsessionwithformalvowsdistressedhim.Hearguedthatevenahouseholdercouldpractiserenunciation,
providingforhiswifeandchildrenwhilehimselfcultivatinganinnerdetachmentfromworldlypleasures.4
Raychandwastheson-in-lawofPranjivanMehta’sbrother.Hewasajewellerbyprofession,combiningrunningashopwiththereadingofscripturesandthewritingofpoetry.AlthoughbutayearolderthanMohandasGandhi,heinspiredadmirationandawe.HewasintroducedtoGandhiasashatavadhani,onewhocouldrememberahundredthings.Therewasatimewhenhewoulddemonstratethisskillinpublic.Lately,however,hehaddevotedhimselftoreligiouspursuits.HeknewtheJainandHinduscripturesintimately,andhadalsoreadmanytextsinGujarationIslamandChristianity.5
ForhisfirstfewdaysinBombay,GandhistayedindoorswithRaychand.Toamusehimanddistracthimfromhisbereavement,Raychandputonaprivateexhibitionofhisprowess.ThevisitorfromLondonwasaskedtowritedownparagraphsinseverallanguagesandreadthemout.Raychandreproducedtheparagraphsandsentencesinexactlythesameorder.Gandhiwasgreatlyimpressed.Morethanthirtyyearslater,herecalledtheimpacttheJainscholarmadeonhim:
Hisgaitwasslow,andtheobservercouldmarkthatevenwhilewalking,hewasengrossedinthinking.Therewasamagicinhiseyes.Theywereverysharp;therewasnoconfusioninthem.Concentrationwasengravedinthem.Hisfacewasround,lipsthin,noseneithersharpnorflat,constitutionlean,staturemedium,complexionnotquitefair.Hisappearancewasthatofacalmandquietperson.Hisvoicewassosweetthatnoonewouldgettiredoflisteningtohim.Hewasalwayssmilingandgay.Innerjoywaspicturedonhisface.HehadsuchathoroughcommandoverlanguagethatIdonotrememberhehadevertosearchforwordswhileexpressinghisopinion.
Speakingwith(andlisteningto)RaychandmadeGandhi‘realisethatschoolisnottheonlyplacewherememorycanbecultivated,thatknowledgealsocouldbehadoutsideschoolsifonehasadesire,anintensedesire,togainit…’6
AfteraweekspentwithRaychand,MohandasproceededwithhisbrothertothetownofNasik.HisfellowModhBaniashadstillnotforgivenhimfortravellingtoLondon.ToplacatethemhetookapurificatoryswimintheriverGodavariandthenproceededtoRajkot,wherehehostedadinnerfortheleadingBaniasofthetown.ItwasalsoinRajkotthathewasreunitedwithhiswifeandson,whomhehadnotseenforthreeyears.PhotographsofMohandasGandhiasayoungmanarescarce;and
photographsofhiswifeasayoungladyarepracticallynon-existent.Later
pictures,takenwhenshewasinherthirtiesandforties,showaround-facedwomanofundistinguishedappearance.Onebiographer,however,comesupwiththeenjoyablefantasythatwhenMohandasmetKasturbaafterhisreturnfromLondonhe‘wascaptivatedbyhiswife’sbeauty’.Apparently,shewas
enchanting…tobehold.Hersmoothskin,herlargeeyesframedbythicklashes,hertinyfigure,shapelyandsuppleaseverunderthesoftfoldsofherbright-colouredsari!Howbeguilingitwastowatchhercombherlong,gleaming,blackhair;tostudythesimplegraceofhermovements;tohear,
ateverystep,themusicaltinkleofthetinysilverbellsthatencircledherslenderbareankles.7
Thisisaninspiredpieceofmind-reading,forwhichnosourceisorcouldbegiven.Gandhi’saccountinhisautobiographyisaltogethermoreprosaic.Hewritesoftheirreunionthat‘myrelationswithmywifewerestillnotasIdesired.EvenmystayinEnglandhadnotcuredmeofjealousy.Icontinuedmysqueamishnessandsuspiciousnessinrespectofeverylittlething…’Otherevidence(thefactthatKasturbawassoonpregnant)suggeststhattheydidatleastresumesexualrelations.Meanwhile,encouragedbyhisexperiencesinEngland,Gandhiintroducedchangesinthehousehold’scuisine,introducingcocoaandoatmealintothedailydiet.8
AmonthafterGandhi’sreturn,hisbrotherLaxmidaswasdrawnintoacontroversyintheirhometown,Porbandar.Laxmidashadattachedhimselftotheheirtothethrone,KumarBhavsinghji.TheKumarwasthesonoftheprincewho,intheyearofGandhi’sbirth(1869),had‘expiredinextremeagony’,causingRanaVikmatjitohavetheprince’sadvisermurderedandconsequentlyhavehisownstatusreducedtothatofaThirdClassruler,andthensentintoexile.TheRana’spowershadnotbeenfullyrestoredby1891.HehadbeenallowedbackintoPorbandar,butheruledunderthesupervisionofanAdministratorappointedbytheBritish.TheRana’sgrandson,Bhavsinghji,wasbeinggroomedforthethrone.ABritishtutortaughthimEnglish,Historyandothersubjects;aBritishengineertookhimforexcursionsintothecountryside,identifyingsitesforbridgestobebuilt;theAdministratorhadhiminhisofficetwoorthreetimesaweek,sothathecouldlearntosettledisputesamongsthissubjectsandlaydownstatepolicyhimself.Gandhiwritesinhisautobiographythat‘mybrother[Laxmidas]hadbeen
secretaryandadvisertothelateRanasahebofPorbandarbeforehewasinstalled
onhisgaddi[throne]andhangingoverhisheadatthistimewasthechargeofhavinggivenwrongadviceinthatoffice.’9Behindthatsentenceliesarathercomplicatedstory,whichhadlostitssignificanceinthe1920s–whenGandhiwrotehismemoirs–butwhichmayinfacthavehadadeterminingimpactonhislifeandcareer.Fortunately,alargefileofcorrespondenceinthearchivesallowsustoflesh
outthetale.WeknowthereforethatinAugust1891LaxmidaswasonthestaffoftheThakorofShapur,azamindarinKathiawar.However,hewasofteninPorbandar,where(astheAdministratoroftheStateremarked)he‘hasbeenhangingaboutinsomeunknownandundefinedcapacitywithBhavsinghjiforthelastnineortenmonths’.10Byhangingabouttheyoungprince,LaxmidasGandhimayhavehopedthatwhenBhavsinghjibecametheRanaofPorbandar,hewouldgetasuitablepositioninhisadministration.Orperhapshehopedtoexerciseinfluenceindirectly,throughhisbrotherMohandas,who,asaLondon-trainedlawyer,wasextremelywellqualifiedtobediwanofPorbandaratatimewhentheBritishweremodernizingindigenoussystemsoflawandauthority.Inhismemoirs,Gandhiwritesthat‘myelderbrotherhadbuilthighhopesonme.Thedesireforwealthandnameandfamewasgreatinhim.’11Thisdescriptionallowsforeitherpossibility–thatLaxmidashopedhewouldbecomediwanofPorbandar,or(whichseemsmorelikely)thathisbetter-qualifiedyoungerbrotherwouldgetthejobinstead.LaxmidasGandhi’spatron,youngKumarBhavsinghji,enjoyedthepleasures
ofthefleshmorethantheobligationsofkingship.Althoughmarriedhemaintainedaharem.AtthetimeofGandhi’sreturnfromEngland,theKumarhadjustacquiredanewmistress.Toindulgeherheemployednewservants,toaddtoahouseholdstaffalreadyinexcessoffiftypersons.Theexpensesmounted,andsoalsothedebts.TheAdministratorwrotedespairinglythat‘theyoungKumarhassurroundedhimselfbysomeoftheworstcharactersinthestate.’12
TheKumarandhisgrandfatherhadacontentiousrelationship,theyoungmanchoosingtostayinahouseawayfromthepalace.Onthenightof7/8August1891,Bhavsinghjibrokeintoaroomonthethirdfloorofthepalace.Ablacksmithfromthetownhad,athiscommand,openedthelocktothedooraswellasthelockstoseveralboxesofjewelsthattheroomcontained.
Fromtheseboxes,Bhavsinghjihelpedhimselftoearrings,nose-ringsandbraceletsmadeofgold,rubiesandotherpreciousjewels.Healsotooksomeexpensivedinnerservicesbacktohishouse.However,theblacksmithwasstoppedandquestionedbythepalaceguards.Whenheexplainedwhy,andunderwhoseinstructions,hehadintrudedintothepalace,theRanaalertedtheAdministratoroftheState.Porbandar’sAdministrator,amannamedS.P.Pundit,nowcalledin
Bhavsinghji,whoinsistedthatthejewelsbelongedtohislateparents.Worriedthathisgrandfatherwouldillegallydisposeofthem,hewaspre-emptivelyclaiminghisbirthright.RanaVikmatjideniedthis–hetoldtheAdministratorthatthejewelswerethepatrimonyoftheState,accumulatedbyseveralgenerationsofrulers.SolongashewasRanahewasinchargeofthem;whenBhavsinghjiascendedthethrone,butonlythen,wouldtheresponsibilitypassontohim.13
Thatnightatthepalace,Bhavsinghjiandtheblacksmithhadtwoothercompanions.OnewasthesonofaRajkotmerchanttowhomtheKumarowedmoney.TheotherwasGandhi’sambitiousbrotherLaxmidas.InhistestimonytotheAdministrator,Laxmidasdeniedhewaspresentatthebreak-in,claiminghewascalledinaftertheblacksmithwasdetainedbytheguards.Bhavsinghji,hesaid,was‘verymuchperplexed’atbeingcalledintoexplainthetheft.HeaskedLaxmidaswhetherheshouldcallinalawyerfromRajkottohelphim.Laxmidasansweredthatsincethesewerehisjewels,thatwouldbeanadmissionofguilt.Theprincesaid,‘Allright,’whereuponGandhi’sbrotherleft.Seekingtodistancehimselffromthecontroversy,Laxmidastoldtheadministratorthathewasinthepalace‘forfiveminutesonly’beforereturninghome.14
TheBritishPoliticalAgentinRajkotwascalledintosettlethedispute.Thejewelswerereturnedtothetreasury,andKumarBhavsinghjiwarnedthatunlesshisconductdramaticallyimproved,hewouldnotbeallowedtobecomeRanawhenhisgrandfatherpassedon.LaxmidasGandhiwastoldhecouldnotvisitPorbandarwithouttheexpresspermissionofthePoliticalAgentinRajkot.15
Barredfromhishometown,andindisgracewiththeauthorities,LaxmidasturnedtohisbrotherMohandasforhelp.GandhihadbrieflymetthePoliticalAgentinLondon.CouldhenottalktothemanandrestoreLaxmidastofavour?
Gandhiwashesitant,ashesawit,to‘trytotakeadvantageofatriflingacquaintanceinEngland’.Hisbrotherpersisted.‘YoudonotknowKathiawar,’hesaid,‘andyouhaveyettoknowtheworld.Onlyinfluencecountshere.Itisnotproperforyou,abrother,toshirkyourduty,whenyoucanclearlyputinagoodwordaboutmetoanofficeryouknow.’Laxmidaswasanelderbrother;besides,hehadcometoMohandas’srescue
whenheneededmoneytostudylawinLondon.Againsthisbetterjudgement,GandhiwenttomeetthePoliticalAgent.ButracialboundarieswerefarmoresharplydrawninBritishIndia:inthecolony,acasualfriendshipbetweenanEnglishmanandanIndianinthemetropoliscountedfornothing.WhenMohandaswenttopleadhisbrother’scase,theAgenthadhimthrownoutoftheoffice.16
Byhisactions,LaxmidasGandhihadruinedanychanceMohandashadofearlyprefermentinPorbandar.Afterthefiascointhepalacethechancesofajudgeshipordiwanshiphadreceded,ifnotaltogetherdisappeared.17ThebestoptionnowwasforMohandastoworkasalawyerinBritishIndia.InearlyNovember1891hereturnedtoBombay,withaviewtoenrollingintheHighCourt.HewasgrantedalicenceonthebasisofacertificatefromtheInnerTempleandaletterofrecommendationfromaBritishbarrister.18
Bombayinthe1890shadapopulationofjustunder1million.ABritishresidentcalledit‘AllIndiainMiniature’:anyonewalkingthroughitsstreetscouldhearfortylanguagesbeingspoken,whiletheirnostrilswereassailedwiththe‘blendingofincensesandspicesandgarlic,andsugarandgoatsanddung’.19
Onceaclusteroffishingvillages,bythelatenineteenthcenturyBombaywasathrivingindustrialandcommercialcentre.Thereweresomefiftycottonmills,employingmorethan50,000people.Therewasabuzzofeconomicactivity:landreclaimedfromthesea,newrailwaylineslaidtolinkthesuburbstothecity,newdocksconstructedtocopewiththeincreaseinshipping.Schoolsandcollegeswerebeingopenedallthetime.ThecitywashometoallthereligionsofIndia(andtheworld).Itwasalsoverydiverseinclassterms,withalargeproletariat,asubstantialbusinesscommunity,andasmallbutgrowingclassofEnglish-speakinglawyers,doctors,clerksandteachers.20Asthecityexpanded,wroteonehistorian,‘alltribesinWesternIndiaseemedtohaveflockedto
Bombay,liketheAdriatictribeswhotookrefugeinthecityoftheLagoons.’21
Gandhi’sfellowGujaratiswereakeypartofthismigration,movingdownthecoasttotakeadvantageofthenewopportunitiesintradeandtheprofessions.OnreachingBombay,GandhirentedasetofroomsinGirgaum,notfarfrom
thehousewherehehadfirstmettheJainsavantRaychandbhai.TheHighCourtlaysomethreemilestothesouth,intheFortarea.Oneofaseriesofimpressiveneo-Gothicbuildings,theCourtwasfamedforitsgabledroofs,itsturretsanditssize.Theinteriorareawasacolossal80,000squarefeet.22
EverymorningtheyoungLondon-trainedlawyerwalkedtotheHighCourt,climbeditslong,curvingstaircase,andwentinandoutofitsrooms.Asherecalled,withdisarmingfrankness,‘oftenIcouldnotfollowthecasesanddozedoff’.ThestudyofIndianlawwas‘atediousbusiness’;hefounditespeciallyhardtocometogripswiththeCivilProcedureCode.Nobriefscamehisway,perhapsbecausehewasanindifferentspeaker,aswellasanoutsidertothecity.However,hedidfightacaseinthelowercourts,andalsomadesomemoneydraftingamemorialforafarmerwhoselandhadbeenconfiscated.23
MohandasGandhiwasinBombay,offandon,fromNovember1891toaboutSeptember1892.(HisstaywasinterruptedbyregulartripstoRajkot,whichwasanovernightjourneybytrain.)Ofhisimpressionsofthecityheleftnorecord.DidhemixonlywithhisfellowModhBanias,ordidhesampletheemergingcosmopolitancultureofBombaymorewidely?TherewasaveryactiveParsiandGujaratitheatre–didhegotoanyofitsshows?OnhiswaytotheHighCourthewouldhaveseencricketbeingplayedontheBombaymaidans–didheeverstoptowatchagame?OnlyoneletterfromGandhi’stimeinBombayhassurvived.Writtentoa
friend,itcomplainsofthelackofwork,andalsoofthefactthat‘thecasteoppositionisasgreatasever’.AsectionoftheModhBaniaswasholdingout,stillcrosswithGandhiforcrossingthekalapanitoeducatehimselfinLondon.‘Everythingdepends’,saidMohandas,
upononemanwhowilltryhisbestnevertoallowmetoenterthecaste.IamnotsoverysorryformyselfasIamforthecastefellowswhofollowtheauthorityofonemanlikesheep.Theyhavebeenpassingsomemeaninglessresolutionsandbetrayingtheirmaliceclearlyinoverdoingtheirpart.Religion,ofcourse,findsnoplaceintheirarguments.IsitnotalmostbetternottohaveanythingtodowithsuchfellowsthantofawnuponthemandwheedletheirfamesothatImightbeconsidered
oneofthem?24
Unsuccessfulincourt,stillspurnedbyhiscaste,GandhifoundsuccourinconversationswithhisnewfriendRaychandbhai.Hevisitedhiminhisshop,wherehewasimpressedwiththeeasewithwhichthepoetsatcross-leggedonacushion–sodifferentfromtheWesternwayofsittingonachairorsofathatGandhiwashimselfnowaccustomedto.HewasalsostruckbyhowindifferentRaychandwastohisappearance.Themenhemetincourtpaidgreatattentiontoeveryaspectoftheirdress,yetthisjeweller-thinkerworeasimpledhotiandkurta,moreoftenthannotunironed.Once,theirconversationturnedtothesubjectofcompassiontowardsotherbeings.Raychandsaidthatwhileonecouldnotdowithoutleather,onemustuseitsparingly.Gandhinoticedaleatherstripholdingupthejeweller’scap.Whenthiswaspointedout,Raychandtookthepieceoff.Thegestureimpressedthedisciple–herewasateacher,hethought,opentocorrectionandevenrefutation.RaychandtoldGandhithathemustlookbeyondtheconventionsofhiscaste.
Baniaswere‘everpunctilious’insmallmatters,suchasnotharminginsectsandnoteatingcertainfoods.Yettheircompassionwascircumscribed.Andtheyweretotallylackingincourage.AlthoughtheBania’sspherewasbusiness,saidRaychand,hemustalso‘possessthequalitiesofothercastes’,learninghardworkfromtheSudra,fearlessnessfromtheKshatriya,aloveoflearningfromtheBrahmin.25
FailingtofindregularworkinBombay,GandhireturnedhometoRajkot.Hecouldn’t,itseems,yetargueincourt,butasawell-publishedwriter(inthejournaloftheVegetarianSocietyofLondon)hehadtheskilltodraftmemorials.GandhisetupanofficeinRajkot,whichbegantoattractasteadystreamofclients.Hedraftedpetitionsontheirbehalf,chieflytodowithlanddisputes.ThisbroughthimanincomeofRs300amonth,adequatetomaintainhisfamily,whichhadnowbeenaugmentedbythearrivalofasecondson,whowasbornon28October1892andnamedManilal.26
Todofreelanceworkinasmalltownratherthan(ashisLondontraininghadledhimtoexpect)buildapracticeinthegreatcityofBombaywasgalling.That,forthefirsttimeinhislife,hedidnothavetodependonloansfromfriendsorfamilywassmallconsolation.Fortunately,asthedoorswereclosinginKathiawar,anopportunitybeckonedinSouthAfrica.AfamilyofMuslimtraders
fromtheGandhis’hometownofPorbandarhadestablishedasuccessfulbusinessthere.KnownasDadaAbdullaandSons,theyhadbranchesinNatal,theTransvaalandPortugueseEastAfrica,tradinginawiderangeofcommodities.Thefirm’ssevenshopsintheTransvaalweremanagedbyDadaAbdulla’scousinTayobHajiKhanMahomed.InJuly1890,Tayob’sfamilyhadpurchasedtheseshopsforthesumof£42,500,payableininstalments.Earlyin1892,theinstalmentsstoppedcoming.Abdullawasnowsuinghiscousinforthemoneystillowedhim,withinterestaddedon.Thesumaskedforwasabout£24,700.27
BritishlawyerswereappearingforDadaAbdullaincourt,buttherewasaproblem–themechant’sownrecordswereinGujarati.Abdullawasinneedofalawyerwhoknewbothhislanguageandthelanguageofthecourts,andwrotetoLaxmidasGandhiaskingwhetherhisbrother,theLondon-trainedbarrister,waspreparedtocomeoutandassisthim.Thefirmwouldprovidefirst-classreturnfarebyboat,boardandlodgings,andpayafeeof£105besides.LaxmidasdiscussedtheproposalwithMohandas,towhomitgreatly
appealed.He‘wantedsomehowtoleaveIndia’,andherewas‘atemptingopportunityofseeinganewcountry,andofhavingnewexperience’.28Thisstatement,fromGandhi’sautobiography,mayberephrasedinlesseuphemisticterms.TheinvitationfromSouthAfricaallowedhimanescapefromthepoliticalintriguesathome,andtoearnadecentsumofmoney.DadaAbdulla’sinvitationtoMohandasGandhiwaspossible,andfeasible,
onlyinthelatenineteenthcentury.AGujaratitraderhadfollowedtheBritishFlagintoSouthAfrica,wherethereweremoderncourtsrunonmodernlines.Atthesametime,anotherGujaratihadfollowedtheFlagtoitssource,qualifyingasabarristerinLondon.Inthe1790stherewouldhavebeennoIndiantradersinSouthAfrica;inthe1990sthesetraderswouldhavebeenassimilatedEnglish-speakers.Inthe1890s,however,thetwinprocessesofglobalizationandimperialismbroughttogetheraHindulawyerfromPorbandarandaMuslimmerchantfromthesametowntoworktogetherinSouthAfrica.Leavinghiswifeandfamilyforthesecondtimeinlessthanfiveyears,MohandasGandhisailedfromBombayforDurbanon24April1893.
ThefirstIndianshadsailedforNatalthirty-threeyearsbeforeGandhidid.Theywereagroupofindenturedlabourersbroughtintoworkonthesugar
plantations.When,on16November1860,theSSTruroreachedDurban,areporterfromtheNatalMercurywasathandtorecorditsarrival.Thepassengerswhocameashorewere
aqueercomical,foreign-looking,veryOriental-likecrowd.Themenwiththeirhugemuslimturbans,barescraggyshinbones,andcolouredgarments;thewomenwiththeirflashingeyes,longdishevelledpitchyhair,withtheirhalf-covered,wellformedfigures,andtheirkeen,inquisitiveglances;thechildrenwiththeirmeagre,intelligent,cuteandhumorouscountenancemountedonbodiesofunconscionablefragility,wereallevidently…ofadifferentraceandkindtoanywehave
yetseeneitherinAfricaorEngland.29
ThecolonyofNatal,onthesouth-eastcoastofAfrica,wascontrolledbypeopleofBritishdescent.Inthe1840stheyhadestablisheddominanceovertheBoers;peopleofDutchoriginwhothenretreatedtotheinterior.TheclimateandsoilofNatalwereidealforgrowingsugar;theproblem,however,wasthatAfricanswereunwillingtosparetimefromtheirfieldstoworkaslabourers.ApublicmeetingofwhitesinOctober1851concludedthat‘itisimpossibletorelyuponthekafirpopulationofthisColonyforapermanenteffectivesupplyoflabour’.So,fromthelate1850s,theNatalGovernmentsoughttoimportlabourfromIndia.RecruitingagentsweresenttotheportsofBombay,CalcuttaandMadras;they,inturn,hiredsub-agentstoscourthecountryside.ThemenpickedupwereferriedtotheportsandputonshipssailingforDurban.ThecoolieswhocametoNatalwereindenturedforfiveyears.Theycouldre-
indentureforafurtherfiveyears,andthenclaimareturnvoyagehomeorstayoninNatalas(nominally)freemen.Ontheplantationtheyweregivenhousing,rations,amodestwage(tenshillingsamonth)andmedicalassistance.‘Coolieimmigration…isdeemedmoreessentialtoourprosperitythanever.Itisthevitalisingprinciple,’wrotetheNatalMercuryin1865.Soitturnedout:whereastheaverageannualproductionofsugarinthecolonywaslessthan500tonsinthe1850s,inthe1870sitwascloseto10,000tons,andinthe1890sinexcessof20,000tons.SugarexportsroseexponentiallyasaresultoftheimportofIndianlabour,increasingfifty-foldinthefirstdecadeoftheirintroduction.AlargeproportionofthemigrantswereTamilandTeluguspeakersfromsouth
India.WomenlabourerswerealsoshippedfromIndia,intheratiooffortywomentoahundredmen.BrahminsandMuslimswerediscouraged,becausetheyforbadetheirwomenfromworkingoutsidethehouse.Therecruitscamemostlyfromtheloworintermediatecastes;athome,theyhadbeenagricultural
labourersandsmallpeasants.Othershadworkedaspotters,barbers,carpentersandcobblers.IndianlabourersalsofoundworkontheNatalGovernmentRailwaysandin
thecoalmines.Whileasteadystreamreturnedhomeaftertheexpiryoftheirindenture,otherschosetostayon,toworkasfarmers,marketgardeners,fishermenandhouseholdservants.BythetimeofGandhi’sarrival,therewereIndiansinallpartsofNatal,alongthecoastandinland,intownsandonplantations.Fromthe1870s,aratherdifferentclassofIndiansstartedenteringthecolony.
Theseweretradersratherthanlabourers,andcamevoluntarily.Sincetheypaidtheirwaytheycametobeknownas‘passengerIndians’.Theycamechieflyfromthewestcoast,andfromGujaratinparticular.ManywereMuslims;variouslyoftheBohra,KhojaandMemoncastes.SometraderswereHindu,andtherewerealsoafewParsis.ThefirstIndianmerchantinNatalwasfromGandhi’shometown,Porbandar.
AMemonnamedAboobakerAmodJhaveri,hehadworkedinCalcuttaandMauritiusbeforemovingtoSouthAfrica.In1877hebecamethefirstnon-whitetraderlistedintheBusinessandResidentialDirectoryoftheNatalAlmanac.HeranstoresinDurban,TongatandVerulam,andcharteredshipstotransportcommoditiestoandfromIndia.Jhaveri’ssuccessencouragedseveralofhiscousins–amongthemGandhi’sfutureemployerDadaAbdulla–tocometoNatalandopenbusinessesthere.ThesepassengerIndianscametobeknownbytheNataliansas‘Arabs’,an
inaccuratedescriptiontheynonethelessavowed,forithelpeddistinguishthemfromtheirworking-classcompatriots.SometraderswerebasedinNatal’smaincity,Durban;othersmovedintosmallertownsinthehinterland,servicingworkersintheminesandplantations.IndianmerchantsworkedlongerhoursandweregenerallymoreabstemiousthantheirEuropeancounterparts.Theyalsoemployedtheirownkinsfolk,cuttingdownfurtheroncosts.Overtheyears,theycametocommandanincreasingshareoftheretailtradeinthetownsofNatalandbeyond.In1870,forexample,therewereonlytwoshopsownedbyIndiansinDurban;by1889therewereasmanyaseighty-five.Thesemerchantsalsoinvestedinrealestate,buyinglandandbuildingswhichtheythenleasedtotenants.
Some340labourershadarrivedontheSSTruroin1860.By1876,therewereanestimated10,626IndiansinNatal.Thefigurefor1886was29,589;for1891,35,763.Bynow,theywerealmostasnumerousastheEuropeans,whoin1891numbered46,788(therewereanestimated455,983Africans).TheIndiansinthispartofAfricawereveryheavilyconcentratedinNatal.However,asprinklingoflabourersandmerchantshadalsomovedsouth,totheCapeColony;andwest,totheBoer-controlledregionoftheTransvaal,wherethetownofJohannesburgwasexperiencingaboombasedonthediscoveryofgold.30
TheNatalGovernmenthadappointedaProtectorofIndianImmigrants,whosejobwastomonitortheirworkandlivingconditions,andtakeaccountofcomplaintsregardingtheirtreatment.Thereportfor1892–3notedthat,asinearlieryears,alargenumberoflabourershadturnedtofarmingandmarket-gardeningoncompletionoftheirindenture.TheIndians,wrotetheProtector,‘have,byindustryandsobriety,succeededincreatingaveryfairpositionforthemselvesinthisColony’.Theyformeda‘prosperous,orderly,andlaw-abidingsectionofthepopulationoftheColony’.Some150Indianswereontheburgessrollsastaxpayers,andcouldvoteinlocalelections.31
MohandasGandhiarrivedinDurbanon24May1893,exactlyamonthafterhehadleftBombay.HisshiphadcalledenrouteatLamu,MombasaandZanzibar.HewasmetatthequaysidebyDadaAbdulla,theleadingpartnerinthefirmthathadhiredhim,andtakentothemerchant’shouse.AbdullalivedinasmalllaneoffGreyStreetinwest-centralDurban,intheheartofwhatwasanIndian,andmorespecificallyaGujarati,ghetto.GreyStreetrannorthwardsfromtheVictoriaEmbankmentandtheharbour;whiteslivedonthestretchclosertothewater,givingwaytoIndiansfurtheralongthestreet.ThelanesoffGreyStreet,oneitherside,harbouredshopsonthegroundfloor,withofficesandhomesabovethem.Thenamesonthebuildings–Jhaveri,Moosa,Mehta,Abdulla,Rustomji–indicatedtheirowners’originsinWesternIndia.32
InLondon,GandhihadlivedwiththeChristianJosiahOldfield,inabreachofcasteruleskepthiddenfromtheModhBaniasinBombayandRajkot.HissharingahomewithaMuslimfamilyinSouthAfricawaslikewiseatransgressionofHinduorthodoxy,madeeasierbytheoceanthatlaybetween
wherehenowwasandwherethosewhowouldpassjudgementonhimremained.OnthedayGandhilanded,24May,Durban’sleadingnewspaperreportedthe
swearingin,forthethirdtime,ofPaulKrugerasPresidentoftheneighbouringSouthAfricanRepublic(SAR).Thepaperreproducedhisinauguraladdress,whereKrugersaiditwouldbehis‘specialduty’toseethat
nothingisdonebywhichourindependencecanbedamagedorbebroughtindanger;thatnorightsareconcededbywhichourindependencewillinanywaybeendangered,foreventheheathenmust
acknowledgethehandofGodinourhistory,andthatitwasGodthatgrantedusourliberty.33
TheSAR,alsoknownastheTransvaal,wasruledbytheBoers.Theywereafarmingpeople,devoutanddogmatic,convincedthatthosewhowerenotwhiteandChristianhadnoclaimstocitizenshipintheirland.TheBritishinNatalwereinterestedrathermoreintradeandcommerce,andwerelesscommittedtotheBook.Buttheywerenotwithoutprejudicesoftheirown.InhisfirstweekinDurban,GandhiwastakenbyDadaAbdullatothemagistrates’court,ashortwalkfromGreyStreet.ThetwomenwerewearingturbansintheKathiawaristyle.Theirappearanceoccasionedsomecomment,withareportintheNatalAdvertiserclaimingthata‘welldressed’Indianwhowasan‘Englishbarrister’hadentered‘theCourtwithoutremovinghishead-coveringorsalaaming,andtheMagistratelookedathimwithdisapproval’.Gandhiimmediatelywrotetoclarifythat‘justasitisamarkofrespect
amongsttheEuropeanstotakeofftheirhats,inlikemanneritisinIndiatoretainone’shead-dress.Toappearuncoveredbeforeagentlemanisnottorespecthim.’IntheBombayHighCourtitwasnotthecustomtobowbeforethemagistrate.Still,hewould‘begHisWorship’spardonifhewasoffendedatwhatheconsideredtobemyrudeness,whichwastheresultofignoranceandquiteunintentional’.34
TheclaimscaseofDadaAbdullaandCompanywasbeingheardinPretoria,thecapitaloftheBoer-controlledSouthAfricanRepublic.AfteraweekinDurban,GandhiproceededtoPretoria,bytrain.Hewasbookedonafirst-classcoach.Twohourslater,whenthetrainwasatPietermaritzburgstation,arailwayofficialaskedhimtomovetoathird-classcompartment.WhenGandhiprotestedthathehadavalidticket,aconstablewassummonedtotakehimandhisluggageoffthetrain.Fromthestationhesenttwotelegrams,onetotherailway
authorities,theothertoDadaAbdulla.ThelattersentwordtotheIndianmerchantsinPietermaritzburg,whocametothestationtocomfortGandhiwiththeirownstoriesofbeingdiscriminatedagainstinthepast.Thenextevening,Gandhiresumedhisjourneywestwards.Hereachedtheend
ofthelineatCharlestown,andtookastagecoachontoJohannesburg.Thewhitecoachmanrefusedtolethimsitinside,onthepaddedseatsreservedforpayingpassengers.Whenheprotested–forhehad,again,avalidticket–themanboxedhisears.Gandhihungondangerouslytotherails,beforegettingoff,voluntarily,atthefirststop,Standerton,wherehewas–oncemore–metandconsoledbythetown’sIndianmerchants.HereachedJohannesburgthefollowingevening,wherehehadsomedifficultygettingahotelroombecauseofhiscolour.Thetroublescontinued–onthelastlegofhisjourney,bytrainfromJohannesburgtoPretoria,hewasaskedbytheguardtoshiftfromthefirst-classtothethird-classcompartment.However,afellowpassenger,himselfEnglish,saidhewashappytosharethecabinwithanIndian.ThistripwasrecountedbyGandhiinhisautobiography,writtenmanyyears
aftertheeventsitdescribes.Beingaretrospectiveaccount,ithasacertainmoralclarity–aswhenhewritesthatevenashewasbeingejectedfromonecoachtoanother,hecametotheconclusionthat‘thehardshiptowhichIwassubjectedwassuperficial–onlyasymptomofthedeeperdiseaseofcolourprejudice.Ishouldtry,ifpossible,torootoutthediseaseandsufferhardshipsintheprocess’.Butitmusthavebeenaharrowingexperiencenevertheless.35
ThemorningafterhereachedPretoria,GandhicalledonthelawyerinchargeofDadaAbdulla’scase.Thisman,A.W.Baker,turnedouttobeanactivelaypreacher.ThroughhimGandhimetotherChristians,withwhomhebeganalivelydebateontheirrespectivefaiths.Gandhiworeanecklaceofbeadsgiftedhimbyhismother;aChristianfrienddismissedthisasmeresuperstition.TheIndiangaveasgoodashegot,sayingthathecouldnotacceptthatJesuswastheonlysonofGod,for‘ifGodcouldhavesons,allofuswerehissons’.36
A.W.Bakerwasacolourfulcharacter,whohadbeenacarpenterbeforehebecamealawyer.Hisrealpassion,however,wastakingtheWordtotheNative.Hepublishedamagazine,Africa’sGoldenHarvest,whichpromoted‘scriptural
andmissionaryenterprise’.Preachinginmines,prisonsandhospitals,BakerconvertedsomeAfricans,whothenwentoutintothenorth,furtherspreadingtheWord.BeforeacceptingAfricansintohischurch,Bakerinsistedtheyrenouncetheamuletsusedtowardoffevilspirits.Hevigorouslypromotedtemperanceandaskedhisfollowerstogiveupsnuffandtobacco.37
Bakersentnativepreachersintothebush,andsometimestravelledintothecountryhimself.OnonetriphetookGandhi.TheymetaDutchSalvationist,whodisapprovedofawhitemanandabrownmantravellingtogether.Bakerwasundeterred:hewascompletelyfreeofracialprejudice,ifnotofreligiouscertitude.HishopeforhisHindufriendwasthathewouldsoonemerge‘intothefulllightofthegloryofGodwhichisradiantonthefaceofChrist!’38
GandhiresistedtheWordandtheLight;atthesametime,hecouldnolongeracceptthatHinduismwasperfecteither.ForiftheVedasweretheinspiredWordofGod,whycouldnottheBibleandtheKoranclaimtobelikewise?HebegantoreadChristianandIslamictexts,furtheringhisknowledge,andperhapsalsohisconfusion.Inbetweenhisreligiousstudies,Gandhiworkedonthelegalcasethathad
broughthimtoSouthAfrica.DadaAbdullawassuinghiscousin,KhanMohammadTayob,fordefaultingonpaymentspreviouslyagreedupon.GandhihadtotranslatemanylettersfromGujaratiintoEnglish,ashewentthroughthecorrespondencebetweenthedisputants,preparingbriefsfortheattorneystopresentincourt.39
LivinginSouthAfrica,andreadingthenewspapers,Gandhicouldseethattheboundariesbetweendifferentsocialgroupswereveryclearlymarked.InJohannesburg,whitetradersresentfulofcompetitionwereseekingtomoveIndianmerchantstolocationsoutsidethecity.40WhenonenewspaperwroteofhowEuropeanmerchantswerebeingdrivenoutofbusinessby‘wilywretchedAsiatictraders’,Gandhiwroteintodefendhiscompatriots.‘Ifoneeditoreditedhispapermoreablythanhisrival,andconsequently,drivesthelatteroutofthefield,’arguedthelawyer,‘howwouldtheformerliketobetoldthatheshouldgiveplacetohiscrest-fallenrivalbecausehe(thesuccessfulone)wasable?’ShouldnottheEuropeantrader,askedGandhi,‘takealeafoutofthebookoftheIndiantrader,ifthatbenotbelowhisdignity,andlearnhowtotradecheaply,howtolivesimply?’41
InNatal,theColonistswouldsoonhave‘responsiblegovernment’,withtheirownlegislatureandministerselectedonthebasisofalimitedfranchise.InSeptember1893anAnti-AsiaticLeaguewasformedtodisallowIndiansfromvoting.Therewere,atthistime,amere10,729eligiblevotersinNatal.AllbutahandfulwereEuropean.Tomaintainwhitedominance,thevotehadtoberestrictedtotherulingrace.Asonenewspaperwrote:‘Itispreposterousthatasemi-barbaroushordeshouldbeallowedtocomehereandtoclaimthefranchiseonthesametermsasitcanbeclaimedbyEuropeans.’AfewIndianmerchantswereontheelectoralrolls,byvirtueoftheproperty
theyowned.ThewhiteLeagueaskedjudgestodisenfranchisethem,since‘theAsiaticpopulationofNatalisalreadylargerthantheEuropeanandiftheformeraretohaveaccesstothefranchise,thenitwillonlybeafewyearsuntilthelatterarecompletelyout-voted.Thenourchildrenwillhavecausetocurseusforourenormousfolly’.42
WhenthesenewspapersreachedGandhiinPretoria,hewasmovedtoreply.HeremindedwhiteNataliansthatIndianswereHighCourtjudgesinIndia;andthatanIndian,DadabhaiNaoroji,hadrecentlybeenelectedaMemberoftheBritishParliament.IndiansinNatalweresurely‘civilized’enoughforthevote.Nonetheless,heassuredtheColonists,hiscountrymenwere‘toomuchtakenupwiththeirspiritualwell-beingtothinkoftakinganactivepartinpolitics…Theycomenottobepoliticians,buttoearnanhonestbread…’43
Throughthelatterhalfof1893,asheworkedduringthedayforDadaAbdulla,Gandhispentmosteveningswritingabookhehopedtopublish.Itwasa‘howto’guide,aimedatstudentswhowishedtogotoLondon.Amanwhohadsuccessfullyandsmoothlyacquiredabarrister’scertificatefromtheInnerTemplewouldhelpthem‘discoverthemysteryandlaybarethemovementsofIndiansinEngland’.Thebook’sfirstchapterasked:‘WhoShouldGotoEngland?’Notthosewhohad‘aweakchestoratendencytoconsumption’;northosewhowereolderthantwenty-five.ForIndiansyoungenoughandfitenough,wroteGandhi,‘Englandisthebestplaceforgettinganinsightintodifferenttrades’.ToentertheCivilService,toqualifyasabarrister,tostudymedicineorengineering,aman–anyman–would‘learnmoreduringthesametimeinEnglandasinIndia’.Thequalityofeducationwas‘farsuperior’;and
therewerelessdistractionstoo.Drawingonhisownexperience,GandhiwroteoftheIndianstudentthat
whileinEngland,heisalone,nowifetoteaseorflatterhim,noparentstoindulge,nochildrentolookafter,nocompanytodisturb.Heisthemasterofhistime.So,ifhehasthewill,hecandomore.Moreover,theinvigoratingclimateinEnglandisbyitselfastimulanttowork,theenervatingclimateofIndiaisastimulantnottowork.
Laterchaptersdescribed,inmeticulousandalmostwearyingdetail,theclothesanIndianstudentinEnglandwouldneed,thefurnitureandstationeryhewouldhavetobuy,thefoodhecouldorshouldeat.Againsteveryitemitspricewaslisted(thus,forexample,mother-of-pearlstudscostamereeightannas,butamorningcoat,alsoindispensable,costRs20).SeveralpagesofGandhi’sGuideoutlinedthebestwaytogetwholesomeand
nutritiousfoodatareasonableprice.ThoselookingforEnglishfriendswerehelpfullytoldthat‘thepeopleoftheLondonVegetarianSocietyarealwayskindandhospitabletowardsIndiansandamoregenialmanthantheeditorofTheVegetarianitwouldbedifficulttofind’.Thosewithmoreorthodox,lessexperimental,tastesweretoldthatcontrarytotheimpressionthatEnglishmenrarelywashed,mostmodernhomeshadbathrooms–otherwise,too,‘thereisnothingtopreventyoufromleadingapurelyHindulife’.Onechapterwasaddressedtothe‘would-bebarristers’.Thestrengthsof
differentInnswereitemized.Thebookstheywouldreadweredescribed,asalsotheclothestheywouldwear,thedinnerstheywouldattendandthefeestheymustpay.Amonthlyvisittothetheatrewasrecommended,asawindowinto‘themodernhabitsandcustomsofEngland’.44
ThiswasGandhi’sfirstreallysubstantialpieceofwriting,unpublishedinhislifetime,butcoveringsomefifty-fivepagesofthefirstvolumeofhisCollectedWorks.Hismotivationswereseveral.AbookunderhisbeltwouldmakehimbetterknowninBombay,wherehestillhopedtoestablishhimselfasalawyer.Thebookmayalsohavebeenanexerciseinself-justification,aimedattheModhBaniaswhotriedtopreventhimfromgoingtoLondon.Hedefiedthemandwent,andnowhewouldencourageotherstogotheretoo.Fromthecarewithwhichthebookwasconstructed,andtheeasewithwhichtheproseflowed,itwasevidenttheyounglawyerlikedwriting,andlikedwritinginanexhortativeveinevenmore.
Inthespringof1894,thecasebetweenDadaAbdullaandhiscousinTayobKhancameupforarbitration.ThejudgeruledinfavourofGandhi’sclient.TayobKhanhadnowtopayDadaAbdulla£37,000,withcosts.Bankruptcyandsocialhumiliationbeckoned,untilGandhisuggestedacompromise–thathepaytheamountonafreshinstalmentsystem.InthethirdweekofMay,GandhileftPretoriaforDurban.Thereturnjourney
seemstohavebeenrelativelypainless,foritisnotmentionedintheAutobiography.(Perhapsheprudentlychosenottotravelfirst-class.)Hiscasesuccessfullyconcluded,hepreparedtoreturntoIndia.DadaAbdullathrewafarewelldinner,atwhichthediscussionturnedtoabillbeforetheNatalAssembly,thatwouldprohibitIndiansfromenrollingasvoters.Abdulla’sguestswantedthelegislationtobefought,andGandhi,thelawyerandEnglish-speaker,tostayonandassistthem.The‘farewellpartywasturnedintoaworkingcommittee’toplantheresistancetothebill.SolongasGandhistayedinDurban,saidthemerchants,theywouldpayhimanannualretainer.Thechapteronthedinner-party-turned-campaign-committeeinGandhi’s
autobiographyendswiththissentence:‘ThusGodlaidthefoundationsofmylifeinSouthAfricaandsowedtheseedofthefightfornationalself-respect’.45Thebiographer,however,istemptedtoinvoketheworkingsof(white)menratherthewaysof(atransracial)God.Forsometime,IndiansinNatalhadbeenirkedbyactsofdiscrimination.In1884,theyaskedtheGovernortorepealalawwherebyallexceptEuropeanshadtocarryapasswhenoutinthestreetsatnight.TraderscomplainedtheywerenotpermittedtosellgoodsonSunday–thedaytheirmainclients,theindenturedlabourers,wereoffwork–andnotallowedtoopenshopsinthecitycentre.BeforeGandhiarrived,Indianprotestsagainstharshlawswereledbya
merchantnamedHajeeMohammedHajeeDada,hisnamedenotingamultiplevisitortotheholycityofMecca.In1890and1891,DadaconvenedmeetingsurgingamoregeneroustreatmentofhisfellowsbytheGovernmentofNatal.DadawantedtheProtectorofIndianImmigrantstoknowTamilandHindustani,andideallybeanIndianhimself.Heaskedforabanontheterm‘coolies’,andforIndianstobeallowedtoownfreeholdpropertyandtousetheTownHallinDurbanfortheirgatherings.46
InMarch1893,monthsbeforeGandhileftBombay,atradernamedH.M.H.WadawrotetotheSecretaryofStatefortheColoniesprotestingagainstthehandicapsimposedonIndiansinNatal.Hedemandedthatthey‘betreateduponafootingofequalitywithallherMajesty’ssubjects’.Asamarkofhisirritation–oranger–Wadaenclosedtwodefacedrupeenoteswithhisletterofprotest.47
ThefirstelectionsinNatal,heldlatein1893,hadseenIndiansontherollsexercisingtheirfranchise,alongsidethemorenumerouswhitevoters.TheelectionsbroughttopoweragovernmentheadedbyJohnRobinson,whocamefromafamilywellestablishedinthecolony;hisfatherhadfoundeditsleadingnewspaper,theMercury,whichthesonnowownedandran.ThepresenceofIndiansinNatal,claimedRobinson,was‘perniciousonsocialgrounds,commercial,financial,politicalandespeciallyonsanitarygrounds’.48Heallowedthatin‘asubtropicalclimateindenturedlabourisindispensable’,butthoughtthatIndianswhostrayedawayfromtheplantationswereathreattothecolonists.Forthe‘frugalandirrepressible“coolie”…afterhistermofserviceisover,settlesonthesoil,squatsinasmall,kennel-likeshanty,andlivesatacostwhichtoanEnglishmanwouldspellstarvation’.TheentryofIndiansintomarketgardeningandshop-keepingmeantthat‘theprospectsofNatalasahomeforwhitemenarebeinggraduallyrestricted.’Robinsonnowcalledfor‘asteadfastoppositiontoanindiscriminate“Asiaticinvasion”’.49
Robinson’sviewswereechoedbyhisfellowlegislators,hisfellowcolonists,andtherestofthewhite-ownedpress.‘Thesafetyandwell-beingoftheColony,’saidonenewspaper,‘dependsuponitsgovernmentbeingexclusivelyretainedforgenerationsyettocomeinthehandsoftheEuropeans.’‘Ramasamy[apejorativetermforanIndian]inorneartownisallverywellasagrowerorpurveyorofvegetables,’saidanother,‘butheisaninsanitarynuisance,andinnowaycanbeconsideredasadesirablecitizen’.50
InNatal,thefranchisewasrestrictedtomenovertwenty-oneyearsofagewhopossessedimmovablepropertyworth£50orpaidannualrentinexcessof£10.Therewerethenlessthan200Indianswhometthesecriteria.Somewhites,however,worriedthatwiththeeconomicadvancementofthecommunity,Indianvoterswouldsoonbecountedinthethousands;even,intime,inthetensofthousands.TheIndians,warnedoneNatalofficialin1893,were‘becominga
veryseriouselementamongus’;theywere‘aboutasprolificasrabbits,andalmostasdestructivetothewelfareofEuropeans.’51
Itwasthissentiment,andprejudice,thatlaybehindthenewbilldiscussedfirstintheNatalLegislatureandtheninDadaAbdulla’shouse.TheentrepreneurialskillsoftheIndians,andtheirdesireforself-improvement,posedaproblemfortheneatracialordertherulerswishedtoimposeonNatal.
NothinginMohandasGandhi’spreviousexperiencehadpreparedhimfortheintensityofracialprejudiceinSouthAfrica.InPorbandarandRajkot,itwasknownthatthestate’srulerwas,insomeultimatesense,subordinatetoawhiteman’sRaj,butinthosetownsandchiefdomsitwasIndianswhoheldsway.TheBritishpresencewasmoremarkedinBombay,buthere,too,inasocialanddemographicsensethecitywasessentiallyIndian.London,whereGandhihadlivedasastudent,wasagreatcosmopolitancity,hometopeopleofallracesandnationalities.TheretheIndiansweretoofewtoposeathreattotherulers.Neitherhisfellowvegetariansnorhisfellowlawstudentshadeverpointedlydrawnattentiontothecolourofhisskin.InLondon,GandhicouldshareaflatwithanEnglishman,butinSouthAfrica
hecouldnotmakeatrainjourneyinthecompanyofwhites.ThenewspapershewasreadingweremakingmanifestthedepthofwhiteanimositytowardstheIndians.GandhihadcometoSouthAfricaoncommercialwork;withinmonthsofhisarrivalhehad,willy-nilly,beendrawnintothemaelstromofracialpolitics.InJune1894,apetitiondraftedbyhimwassenttotheNatalLegislature.ItquotedvariousBritishwriters(amongthemthejuristandpoliticaltheoristHenryMaine)toshowthatthereexistedtraditionsofself-governmentinIndia,fromtraditionalvillagepanchayatstoamodernlegislatureinthestateofMysore.IndenyingAsiaticstheirrights,arguedGandhi,thenewbillwouldintensifyracialfeelinginNatal.Ifpassed,itwould‘haveatendencytoretard,insteadofhastening,theprocessofunificationthefloweroftheBritishandtheIndiannationsareearnestlystrivingfor’.52
TheclaimthatIndianpanchayatswereanexampleofrepresentativedemocracywasrejectedbytherulers.ParliamentarydemocracyinBritainwastheproductofathousandyearsofevolution,whereaspanchayatswerefrozenintime–atbest,theycouldbecomparedtovillagecouncilsoftheRomanera.
‘Thereisnottheslightestjustification,’wrotetheNatalMercury,‘forthecontentionputforwardintheIndianpetitionthattheyhavetherighttobeplacedonapoliticalequalitywiththewhitecolonists’.53
Throughthesecondhalfof1894,Gandhiwasbusydraftingpetitionsonbehalfofthesoon-to-be-disenfranchisedIndiansofNatal.TheGujaratimerchantswhopaidforthesememorials–andwhowereoftentheirfirstsignatories–usuallydidnotknowawordofEnglishthemselves.TherewasnoIndianinDurbantowhomGandhicouldshowhisdraftsbeforedispatchingthem;butitappearsheranthembyF.A.Laughlin,aEuropeanlawyerwhooccasionallyappearedforDadaAbdulla,andwhomhehadbefriended.54
Gandhialsosent,underhisownname,an‘OpenLetter’toalllegislatorsinNatal,pointingoutthatitwasthehardworkofIndiansthathadmadethis‘theGardenColonyofSouthAfrica’.TheletterquotedSchopenhauer,Maine,BishopHeber,MaxMullerandotherWesternauthoritiesinpraiseofIndiancultureandintellectualtraditions.Individuallegislatorswereaskedwhetherthey‘reallybelieve[d]thatnoIndianBritishsubjectcaneveracquiresufficientattainmentsforthepurposeofbecomingafullcitizenoftheColonyorofvoting’.Asubmissionofthirty-sixparagraphswasalsodispatchedtoLordRipon,a
former(andmoderatelyliberal)ViceroyofIndia,nowtheSecretaryofStatefortheColoniesandthusresponsibleforoverseeingaffairsinNatal.Thistrulywasamonsterpetition,thelengthofitstextmatchedbythenumberofpeoplewhosignedit,morethan8,000inall.55Itdescribedthelegislationas‘aninsulttothewholeIndiannation,inasmuchas,ifthemostdistinguishedsonofIndiacametoNatalandsettled,hewouldnotbeabletohavetherighttovotebecause,presumably,accordingtotheColonialview,heisunfitfortheprivilege’.Gandhi’sOpenLettertoNatalLegislatorsnoticedthe‘factofanEnglish
constituencyreturninganIndiantotheBritishHouseofCommons’.ThiswasDadabhaiNaoroji,whoinJune1892hadbeenelectedtoParliamentforFinsburyinnorthLondon,standingasaLiberal.ThatanIndianwasnowanMPinEnglandmustsurelyhaveemboldenedtheprotestersinNatal.Atthesametime,itactedasawarningtothewhites,whoweredeterminednottoallowasimilarsituationintheircolony.ForifIndianswereallowedtovote,howsoonwoulditbebeforeoneorevenseveralIndianssatintheLegislature?
GandhihadbegunacorrespondencewithDadabhaiNaoroji,whowasapartyandparliamentarycolleagueofLordRipon.Heenclosedcopiesofhispetitions,urgingNaorojitointercedeontheIndians’behalf.Thepoliticians,hewrote,weremerelyscaremongering,for‘thereisnottheslightestprobabilityofthegovernmentoftheNatives[ofNatal]passingfromtheEuropeanstotheIndians.’Whattheproponentsofthebilldidnotwantwasfor‘Indianstoelectwhitemembers–2or3–whomaylookaftertheirinterestsinthe[Natal]Parliament’.Notyettwenty-five,aGujaratieducatedinLondonwhohadbeenbutayear
inSouthAfrica,GandhihadnowbecometheleaderoftheNatalIndians.‘Theresponsibilityundertakenisquiteoutofproportiontomyability,’hewrotetoNaoroji.Hewas‘inexperiencedandyoungandtherefore,quiteliabletomakemistakes’.HeaskedtheParsistalwartforguidance,sayinganyadvicewould‘bereceivedasfromafathertohischild’.56
InthesecondweekofJuly1894,theFranchiseAmendmentBillwasdiscussedintheNatalLegislature.Thesupportforitwasoverwhelming.ThehandfulofAsiaticswhowereontheVoters’Listwouldremain,butnonon-whiteswouldinfuturebeallowedtojointhem.For,astheministersoftheNatalGovernmentnoted,ifthe8,889Indianswhopurportedtohavesignedthesepetitionshadallclaimedtherighttovote,theywouldhaveformednearlyhalftheelectorate.FromtheEuropeanpointofview,if‘theIndianvotegrewinnumberandinstrength’a‘conditionofchronicracialdissensionwouldbeunavoidable’,asNatalianswhowerenotwhitesoughtagreatershareofpoliticalandadministrativepower.57
TheviewsofhisMinisterswereconveyedbytheGovernorofNataltotheSecretaryofStatefortheColonies.LordRiponwastoldthatifAsiaticswerenotpreventedfromvoting,theywould‘soonobtainacontrollingvoice’.Whereaswhiteopinionwasunanimous,‘ontheotherhand,thereareprobablynotadozenAsiaticsinNatalwhoreallyobjecttothebill.TheagitationhasbeengotupbyayoungParsee[sic]lawyer,aMrGandhi,whoarrivedhereafewmonthsago.Haditnotbeenforhim,thewholethingwouldprobablyhavepassedsubsilentio.’TheGovernorthusurgedtheSecretaryofStatetoadviseHerMajestytoapprovethebill.58
LordRipon,inreply,askedforasofteningofthelegislation.Thedraftasitstoodexcluded‘allAsiaticssolelyuponthegroundsofrace’:thiswas‘likelyto
causediscontent’inIndia,wherethefirststirringsofanationalmovementwerebeingheard;aswellasinEngland,wherepeopleofcolourhadtherighttovote(providedtheymetapropertycriterion)and,asNaoroji’scaseshowed,eventositinParliament.‘Thegreatthingistoavoidthenakedexclusionintermsofrace,’remarkedRipon.CouldnottheNatalGovernmentthinkofanalternatesolution,suchasahigherpropertyqualificationoralongerlengthofresidence?TheGovernorofNatalconsultedhisMinisters,who,hefound,were
committedtothebillasitcurrentlystood.Apparently,thefeelingoftheEuropeanswas‘sostrongonthematterthatnoMinistrycouldexistinNatalforasingleweekwhichwasnotresolutelyopposedtotheexerciseoftheelectoralfranchisebytheIndianandotherAsiaticimmigrants’.IfHerMajestydeclinedtosignitintolaw,theColonistssaidtheywouldhavethebill‘passedagainandagaintillitmeetswithassent’.59
ThestruggleagainstthenewActpromptedthecreationoftheNatalIndianCongress,foundedinAugust1894byagroupofmerchantslivinginandaroundDurban.AbdullaHajiAdam–whowasamanagerinDadaAbdulla’sfirm–servedaspresident,andtherewereasmanyastwenty-twovice-presidents.AmajoritywereGujaratiMuslims,buttherewerealsoafewTamil-speakingHindus,aswellasaParsitraderinDurbannamedRustomjee.Gandhiservedassecretary.Theorganizationlistedsevenobjectives,amongthemtheremovalofthehardshipsofIndiansinNatal,thepromotionofIndianliterature,andthepromotionof‘concordandharmonyamongtheIndiansandtheEuropeansresidingintheColony’.60
TheNatalCongresstookitsnamefromtheIndianNationalCongress,whoseworkGandhiknewoffromDadabhaiNaorojiandcompany.Likethatolder(andbigger)grouping,itadvocatedgreaterrightsforIndians,throughwordsratherthanaction.Neitherbodywasopposedtoimperialruleperse;theyhopedrathertomakeitmoresympathetictotherightsofBritishsubjectswhowerenotwhite.InhelpingfoundthisnewCongress,Gandhiwassurelyinspiredbyhis
experienceswithvegetariansinLondon.Abodythatmetregularly,thatraisedfinancesandkeptminutes,thatenrollednewmembersthroughconsciouscampaigning,would,hethought,havemoreeffectthanindividualletterssentonamoreorlessadhocbasis.
ApictureoftheNatalIndianCongresstakensoonafteritsfoundationisrevealing.Sixmenareseated:bearded,cladinlongflowingrobes,wearingturbansandcarryingumbrellasorwalkingsticks,allareevidentlyGujaratiMuslims.Sevenmenarestanding:threearebearded,whiletheothersonlyhavemoustaches.AmongthelattergroupisGandhi,cladinanEnglishsuit,butwithaclose-fittingIndiancap.Themerchantsinthefrontrowpaidthebills,whereasthebarristeratthebackdidthework.InSeptember1894,Gandhi’sapplicationtotheNatalBarcameupfor
consideration.Hehadsubmittedcopiesofhiscertificates,sincetheoriginalslaywiththeBombayHighCourt.TheNatalBarAssociationsoughttobarhiscandidatureonracialgrounds.Fortunately,theNatalSupremeCourtwasunmoved,andGandhiwasgrantedhislawyer’slicence.Whenhewenttocourttotakeanoath,theChiefJusticeaskedhimtoremovehisheadgear.Gandhicomplied.WhenDadaAbdullacomplainedthathehadabandonedhisprinciples,Gandhisaidheneeded‘toreservemystrengthforfightingbiggerbattles’.61
TheFranchisecontroversyhadmadeGandhiapublicfigureinNatal.ApaperinDurbannotedthathe‘alreadyexercisesconsiderableinfluenceamonghiscompatriots’.62TheStarofJohannesburgpraisedthelucidityofGandhi’sstyleandthe‘conspicuousmoderation’ofhisapproach.Hiswritingsdisplayed‘ameasureofabilitywhichwouldassuredlysurprisemanycomplacentgentlemenwhobelievethatthepossessionofawhiteskinisinseparablefromahigheraverageofgeneralintelligencethancanbepossessedbyanyonewithadarkerskin.’ThepapernonethelessadvisedGandhinottopushtheIndiancaseforthefranchise,for‘itmaybedoubtedwhetherthereisawhitemanonthisContinentwhowouldbepreparedtoseetheaffairsofanyresponsiblygovernedcommunityadministeredbyanyotherthanwhitemen’.Ratherthanseekto‘achievetheimpossible’,namely,equalpoliticalrights,Gandhishouldworkforthe‘justandhumanetreatment’ofIndiansthroughoutAfrica.63
Otherwhitesweremorecritical,accusingGandhiofa‘lawyer-like’approachwhichpresentedonlythe‘pretty’sideofIndianlifewhileleavingoutthe‘pathetic’side.WhileGandhihadfocusedonthe‘characterandattainmentsoftheexceptionalIndianinIndia’,theaverageIndianinSouthAfricawas–itwashereclaimed–acreatureof‘bestialhabits,giventomalingeringanddishonestpractices’.64
Onenewspaperdismissedthelawyer’spetitionsintwosharp,shortparagraphs:
ItisquestionablewhetherMrGhandi[sic]hasdonemuchgoodtotheIndiancommunitybyhisadvocacy.Thereissuchathingasoverprovingacase,andwheneveryvirtueundertheheavenisclaimedforthemildHindoo,theclaimantonlyraisesasmilefromthosewhoknowthefacts…Asforthesanitaryquestion,MrGhandicannotpersuadeusagainstthetestimonyofourowneyes
andnoses.Asforthefranchise,despitequibblesastoIndianVillageMunicipalities,hehasnotgotitinhisowncountry,wheretheGovernmentispurelyautocratic,andnooneinhiswildestdreamsofnegrophilismhaseverurgedthatheisfittedforanythingelse.Hisclaimtovotehere,inacountryheknowsnothingabout,andunderaconstitutionhecannotunderstand,isnothinglessthansheerimpudence.ButifMrGhandireallybelievestheIndiantobepersecutedandoppressedinNatal,hislineofdutyisveryclearandsimple.Lethimtryandpersuadehiscountrymennottocometothis
accursedcountryandeverytrueNatalianwilldohisutmosttosecondhisefforts.65
Otherattackswereevenmoreintemperate.TheTimesofNatalhadwrittenaneditorialdismissingIndianclaims;inreply,Gandhisaidthatthetitleoftheeditorial,‘Rammysammy’,itselfdisplayeda‘studiedcontempttowardsthepoorIndian’.Hechargedthepaperwithjudgingpeoplemerelybythecolouroftheirskin–‘solongastheskiniswhiteitwouldnotmattertoyouwhether[what]itconcealsbeneathitispoisonornectar’.Articulatedbyself-proclaimedChristians,thisattitude,saidGandhi,was‘notChrist’s’.Tobechargedwithbetrayingthefounderoftheirfaithwastoomuchforthe
TimesofNataltobear.Therewasnoracistconnotationintheepithet‘Rammysammy’,saidthepaper;itoftenusedtheterm‘Hodge’todescribeEnglishmenofthelabouringclasses.Asforthecritic,
MrGandhidoesnotmeetanyofourargumentsfairly;hemisrepresentstheviewsweexpressed,hemakeswithoutanycall,aparadeofChristianity,andsofarasliesinhispowerhedoeshisbesttobeoffensive.Hisaim,however,istransparent;itisthatofintroducinghimselfasachampionofhisfellow-countrymen.Shouldthelearnedgentlemandesiretoaddressusagaininasimilarstrain,withtheobjectofpublicityinview,hewillsavetimebycommunicatingdirectlywiththeadvertisingdepartmentofthisjournal.66
GandhihadcometoSouthAfricatohelpsettleacommercialdispute.Hehad,withoutexpectingoranticipatingit,becomeanactivistforapoliticalcauseinstead.ManyIndiansinthecolonynowknewofhim;asdidmanyEuropeans.Howdidherespondtothispublicacclaimandpublicdisparagement?Hisautobiographyissilentonthisscore.Butthathediligentlyfollowedthepressforeverytraceofhisnameseemsclear.Inasteelalmirahinanarchivein
AhmedabadliemanyvolumesofnewspaperclippingsfromtheNatalofthe1890s,doubtlesscollectedbyGandhihimself.
InOctober1894,MohandasGandhiturnedtwenty-five.NoGandhibeforehimhadtravelledoutsideIndia.FewhadevenleftKathiawar.HadhisfatherKaramchandGandhinotdiedin1886,Mohandasmightnothaveleftthepeninsulaeither.Hewould,soonafterleavingschool,havefollowedhisbrotherLaxmidas,workingfor(andintriguingwith)apettyprinceinthepeninsula.Instead,hetravelledtoLondon,wherehemetJosiahOldfield,HenrySalt,theVegetariansandtheTheosophists.Thenhereturnedhome,wherehewasdeeplyinfluencedbytheJainsavantRaychandbhai.Thebreak-inatthePorbandarPalaceforcedhimawaytoSouthAfrica,wherehisspiritualandpoliticaleducationwascontinuedbyA.W.BakerandDadaAbdullah.InKathiawaritself,MohandasGandhicouldneverhavemetorbefriended
thesemen,whobecame,asitwere,unwittingagentsofatransformativeprocesswherebyhemovedfromorthodoxytoheterodoxyinreligion,fromlawyeringtoactivisminprofessionallifeandfromaconservativeinlandIndiantown(Rajkot)toagrowing,bustlingSouthAfricanport(Durban).LeavingBombayin1888asmall-townBaniawiththehabits,mannersandprejudicesofhiscaste,sixyearslaterGandhihadbecomeaHinduwhobefriendedChristiansandworkedforMuslimswhileorganizingpoliticalcampaignsin–ofallplaces–Natal.
4
ABarristerinDurban
AsaLondon-trainedlawyer,MohandasGandhiwastheonlyIndianinDurbanwhobridgedthegapbetweentheraces.Alone,withouthisfamily,hekeptadiary,whichtellshowhepassedthetime.Duringtheweek,hedraftedcontractsandpartnershipagreementsforhisIndianclients,andlobbiedfortheirrights.Alawyer-legislatorhecametoknowwellwasamannamedHarryEscombe.Escombe‘admittedthejustice’oftheirclaimforthefranchisebutsaidhe‘couldnothelp’.Bywayofcompensation,andconsolation,hesponsoredGandhiforadmittancetotheNatalBar.GandhialsobefriendedacouplenamedtheAskews,Methodistsbyfaith,a
‘verykindgentleman’marriedto‘anextremelykindlady’.Thefriendshipprospered,tilltheHindu’searnestnessgratedonhishosts.AdiaryentryforSunday,16September1894saysitall:
SawAskewsattheirhouse.MrsA.didnotlikemetochatonvegetarianismorBuddhism[for]fearthatherchildrenmaybecomecontaminated.Shequestionedmysincerity.SaidIshouldnotgototheirhouseifIwasinsincereandnotseekingthetruth.IsaiditwasnotwithinmypowertomakeherbelievethatIwassincereandthatIhad[no]wishtothrustmyselfonherasacompanion.Itoldher
alsothatIdidnotgoto[her]placeasaspytoconvertherchildren.1
ThatGandhiplacedtheBuddhaonaparwithChristirritatedMrsAskew.Hisvegetarianismwasanevengreaterproblem.Thehostess’syoungson,seeingthatGandhipreferredanappletoahunkofanimalflesh,askedwhy.TheIndianlawyerreproducedtheethicalargumentshehadfirstlearntatthefeetofHenrySalt.Thenextdaytheboybeggedhismothernottoservehimmeat.Convinced(likeallgoodChristians)thateatingmeatmadechildrenstrong,shetoldGandhitohenceforthspeakonlytoherhusband.Gandhisaidinthatcaseitwasbesthestoppedvisitingthemaltogether.2
Incourtandoutofit,GandhiwasmeetingEuropeanswhowerealsoChristians.Theydiscussedtheirrespectivecreeds.Gandhitoldafriendhe
wishedtoattendserviceathischurch.Thefriendpassedontherequesttohisvicar.ToallowGandhitositalongsidewhiteworshipperswasimpossible.Thevicar’swife,outofsolidarityandsympathy,offeredtositwithhiminthechurch’svestibule,fromwheretheyheardtheservice.3
Gandhi’sreligiouspluralismwasprecocious.Thelatenineteenthcenturysawtherise,ontheoneside,ofatheisticsentimentsamongintellectuals,andontheother,ofanaggressiveproselytizingbymissionaries.EvenasGandhiwasmeetingChristiansinDurban,hisfellowKathiawariDayanandaSaraswatiwastravellingthroughnorthIndia,warningHindusagainsttheseductionsofChristianity.4
Likehismother,Gandhicareddeeplyabouthisfaithwithoutbeingdogmaticaboutit.PranNath,thefounderofPutlibai’ssect,quotedfromtheKoran;sheherselfentertainedJainmonks.Inhisopen-mindedness,Mohandaswasfollowinghismother;yet,asaman,withafreedomtotraveldeniedher,hecouldtakethisecumenismfurtheranddeeper,throughmeetingpeopleofdifferentfaiths,andbyreadingtheirtextsaswell.InhisearlyyearsinSouthAfrica,Gandhireadtwobooksbyheterodox
Christiansthatmadeagreatimpressiononhim.OnewasThePerfectWay,byAnnaKingsfordandEdwardMaitland.KingsfordwasthefirstEnglishwomantogetamedicaldegree,studyinginParis,whereshepersuadedherteachersthatshecouldqualifytobeadoctorwithoutcuttingupasingleanimal.Onreturninghome,shebecameactiveintheVegetarianSociety.Maitlandwasareligiousdissenter:thesonofapriest,himselftrainedtotakeholyorders,heinsteadbecameaTheosophist.AmongKingsford’sotherbookswasThePerfectWayinDiet,whichargued
thattheshapeofthehumanfaceandjaw,andthestructureandfunctioningofthestomach,showedthatmanwasmeanttobeaherbivoreandfrugivore,notameat-eater.ShenotedthattheHindus,amongwhom‘apurevegetariandietisregardedasthefirstessentialofsanctity’,wereamong‘thefirstcivilisedcommunities’,possessing‘acultus,aliterature,andareligioussystemwhichmanyauthorsdeemtobeofhigherantiquitythanthoseevenofEgypt’.Thevegetariandoctorthoughtthatcarnivoroustendenciesproducedmany
illnessesanddisorders.Tuberculosis,goutandepilepsywereaproductofeatingtoomuchmeat.‘Inhishighestdevelopment,’shewrote,‘manisnotahunter,but
agardener.ThespiritoftheGardenisincompatiblewiththatoftheChase,andtheinevitabletendencyofmoral,intellectual,andaestheticprogressistoeradicateinmanthedesiretokillandtotorment’.5
AfterKingsforddiedin1886,Maitlanddevotedhimselftopromotinghermemoryandfurtheringherideas.In1891heformedanEsotericChristianUnion,whichaskedhumanstorenewthemselvesaccordingtotheirinnerurgesratherthanfollowpriestsorcreeds.Theapproachwasecumenical.ThePerfectWay,whichwassubtitled‘OrtheFindingofChrist’,spokeappreciativelyofHindu,Buddhist,SufiandGreekthought.ScorningofficialsoftheChurchandauthorized(orself-appointed)interpreters,itinsistedthat‘inthemomentousdramaofthesoul’,therewereonlytwopeopleinvolved,‘theindividualhimselfandGod’.6
TheKingsford–MaitlandviewofChristianityappealedtoGandhibecauseitaskednotforexaltationofapersonalSaviour,butfidelitytoone’sconscience.Thattheprincipalauthorwasaconvincedvegetarian,andthatithadnicethingstosayabouthisancestralfaith,addedtoitsappeal.Thesecondbookthatimpressedhim,LeoTolstoy’sTheKingdomofGodisWithinYou(1893),likewiseputsalvationinthehandsoftheindividualbeliever–ratherthanbishopsorChurches–whileemphasizingsufferingandthesimplelife.Fromthe1880s,Tolstoyhadincreasinglyturnedhisbackonfiction,seeking
toexpresshimselfviapamphletsandreligioustracts.Thechangeinemphasismirroredachangeinlifestyle,wherebyalandlordturnedtoworkingwithhishands,awarmongerconvertedtopacifism,andaonce-devoutmemberoftheRussianOrthodoxChurchbeganleaningtowardsotherreligions.7Gandhiwasattractedtothemoralistratherthanthenovelist.HedoesnotseemtohavereadAnnaKareninaorWarandPeace,butheread–andreread–TheKingdomofGodisWithinYou.Itisarambling,repetitivebook,withonecentral,powerfulmessage–thatagoodChristianfollowshisconscienceratherthanthelawsimposedbytsars,bishopsandgenerals.Thebook’stitlecomesfromaremarkmadebyJesus,who,whenaskedhowonewouldrecognizetheKingdomofGodwhenitarrived,saidthatthisKingdomwasnotsomethingoutwardandvisible,butlaywithinyou.TolstoycontrastedtheteachingsofChristwiththepracticesoftheestablished
Church.Christabhorredviolence,whiletheChurchpromotedwarandcapital
punishment.Christ’sessencewastobefoundintheSermonontheMount,whichexaltedthepoor,themeek,therighteousandthepeace-makers,mandatedthat‘thoushaltnotkill’,andurgedonetoloveone’senemiesandprayforthem.Thebishops,ontheotherhand,followedtheNiceneCreed,whichrepresentedChristasjudgementalandmadetheChurchinfallible,insistingonabsoluteobediencefromitsmembers.TolstoyhadlittletimefortheChurch,orindeedforsecularintellectualswho
exaltedviolence.HequotedÉmileZola,‘themostpopularnovelistinEurope’,whohadwrittenthat‘onlyanarmednationispowerfulandgreat’,that‘thewarlikenationshavealwaysbeenstrongandflourishing’,that‘ageneraldisarmamentthroughouttheworld[would]involvesomethinglikeamoraldecadencewhichwouldshowitselfingeneraldebilityandwouldhindertheprogressofhumanity’.Tolstoy,ontheotherhand,salutedtheconscientiousobjector,whoseeks‘thepreservationofhishumandignity,therespectofgoodmenandaboveallthecertaintythatheisdoingGod’swork’.Towardstheendofthebook,Tolstoysawhopeintheredemptionofthose
whoheldpower,intheconscience-strickenofficialwhorefusedtocollecttaxesandwhoreleasedprisoners,intherichmanwhobuilthospitals,schoolsandhomesforthepoor.Buttrueliberationwouldcomeonlywhen‘eachmanaccordingtothestrengththatisinhim[will]professthetruthheknowsandpractise[it]inhisownlife’.8
WhenhefirstreadTheKingdomofGodisWithinYou,recalledGandhiyearslater,hewas‘overwhelmed’bythe‘independentthinking,profoundmoralityandthetruthfulnessofthisbook’.9Tolstoy’sbookreinforcedhisownheterodoxy,hisstubborninsistenceonforgingaspiritualpathforhimselfregardlessofChurchesandCreedswhetherHinduorChristian.Meanwhile,GandhiwasalsorereadingtheGita,whichhesawlessasacelebrationofa‘justwar’andmoreasamanifestoforethicalconduct,advocatingindifferencetoloveandhate,attachmentandpossession.10
InNovember1894,MohandasGandhiplacedanadvertisementintheNatalnewspapers,statingthathewasanagentforboththe‘EsotericChristianUnion’andthe‘LondonVegetarianSociety’,whoseliteraturehestockedandsold.Theadpromptedareadertocomment:
‘Whencecomewe,whatarewe,whithergowe?’ThisisnotpartofanadvertisementofEno’sFruitSalt;theyarethethreesupremequestionswhich,wearetold,humanityhasaskeditself,andwhich,MrGandhiassuresus,findananswercompleteandsatisfactoryinoneortwolittlephilosophical
worksinwhichheisinterested.11
MeetingorthodoxChristiansliketheAskewsandreadingheterodoxChristianssuchasKingsfordandTolstoyinvigoratedGandhibutalsoperplexedhim.Sometimeinthelatesummerof1894hewroteaseriesofletterstohisfriendandmentorRaychandbhaiinIndia,outlininghisconfusions.Heposedmorethantwodozenquestions,asking,amongotherthings,aboutthefunctionsofthesoul,theexistenceofGod,theantiquityoftheVedas,thedivinityofChristandthetreatmentofanimals.Raychandbhaiansweredwithpatienceandatlength.Spiritualequanimitywas
theessenceofself-realization.Anger,conceit,deceitandgreedwereitsadversaries.Godwasnotaphysicalbeing,he‘hadnoabodeoutsidetheself’.Godwasemphatically‘notthecreatoroftheuniverse.Alltheelementsofnaturesuchasatom,space,etc.,areeternalanduncreated.Theycannotbecreatedfromsubstancesotherthanthemselves.’Raychandbhaialsobelievedthat‘wemaymakethousandsofcombinationsandpermutationsofmaterialobjects,butitisimpossibletocreateconsciousness.’TheJainscholarrefusedtoaccepttheclaimofHindudogmatiststhatall
religionsoriginatedfromtheVedas.True,thesewereveryold,olderthanBuddhistorJaintexts.However,‘thereisnologicinsayingthatwhateverisantiqueisperfectandwhateverisnewisimperfectandtrue.’LiketheVedas,theBiblecouldnotbesaidtocontainaperfectorsingulartruth.‘Allegorically,ofcourse,JesuscanbetakentobeasonofGod,butrationallysuchabeliefisimpossible.’AquestionGandhiasked,emanatingfromhisexperiencesinNatal,was:‘Will
thereeverdevelopanequitableorderoutoftheinequitiesoftoday?’TheJain’sanswerupheldareformistanti-Utopianism.Itwas‘mostdesirablethatweshouldtrytoadoptequityandgiveupimmoralandunjustwaysoflife’.Atthesametime,itwas‘inconceivablethatalllivingbeingswillgiveuptheirinequitiesonedayandequitywillprevaileverywhere’.Raychandbhaisaidthe‘bestthing’wouldhavebeenforthetwoofthemto
‘meettogetherandhaveapersonaltalkaboutthesequestions’.Since–withoneinIndiaandtheotherinSouthAfrica–theycouldnotmeet,heinstructed
Gandhitocultivate‘adetachedmindandifyouhaveanydoubtsplease[writeagain]tome.ItisthedetachedmindwhichgivesstrengthforabstinenceandcontrolandultimatelyleadsthesoultoNirvana’.12
Gandhi’stheologicalexplorationscontinued.InApril1895,hevisitedaTrappistmonasteryintheNatalhighlands,writingabouthistripforTheVegetarian.Themonksatenofish,fleshorfowl,althoughanexceptionwasmadeforthesistersintheirmidst,whowereallowedmeatfourdaysaweekbecausetheywere‘moredelicatethanthebrothers’.Themonasteryhummedwithartisanalactivity,itsinmatesmakingshoes,tablesandkitchenutensils.WhatreallyimpressedtheIndianvisitorwasthelackofracialfeeling.WhereaselsewhereinNatal,therewas‘averystrongprejudiceagainsttheIndianpopulation’,theTrappists‘believeinnocolourdistinctions.TheNativesareaccordedthesametreatmentasthewhites….Theygetthesamefoodasthebrothers,andaredressedaswellastheythemselvesare.’ThecontrastwithotherwhiteChristianswasstark.‘Itprovesconclusively,’wroteGandhi,‘thatareligionappearsdivineordevilish,accordingasitsprofessorschoosetomakeitappear.’13
InJune1895,thenon-monasticChristiansofNatalbroughtinanewbillaimedatGandhi’scompatriots.Thisproposedthatlabourerswhostayedonaftertheexpiryoftheircontractpayanannualtaxof£3,thenasubstantialsum.ThesupportersofthetaxhopeditwouldforceIndianstore-indenture,orelsegobacktoIndia.Overthenextfewweeks,threememorialsweredraftedanddispatchedby
Gandhi.OnewastotheNatalLegislativeCouncil;asecondtotheSecretaryofStatefortheColonies;thethirdtotheViceroyofIndia.TheNatalianswereaskedwhyitwasnecessary‘tomakeamanpayheavilyforbeingallowedtoremainfreeintheColonyafterhehasalreadylivedunderbondagefor10years’.TheSecretaryofStatewasremindedthatitwas‘againstthespiritoftheBritishConstitutiontocountenancemeasuresthattendtokeepmenunderperpetualbondage’.TheViceroywastoldthatthe‘special,obnoxiouspoll-tax’wasdesignedtoensurethattheIndianinNatal
mustforeverremainwithoutfreedom,withoutanyprospectofeverbetteringhiscondition,withoutevereventhinkingofchanginghishut,hismeagreallowanceandhisraggedclothes,forabetter
house,enjoyablefoodandrespectableclothing.Hemustnoteventhinkofeducatinghischildren
accordingtohisowntasteorcomfortinghiswifewithanypleasureorrecreation.14
Acoalitionknownasthe‘Unionists’wasinpowerintheUnitedKingdom,whichbroughttogethertheConservativeswithLiberalswhohadlefttheirpartyoverthequestionofHomeRuleforIreland.Intheelectionsof1895,DadabhaiNaorojihadfailedtowinre-election,butanIndianstandingasaUnionist,MancherjeeBhownaggree,wassuccessfulinhisbidtobecomeanMP.TheBirminghambusinessmanandformerLiberal,JosephChamberlain,wasnowSecretaryofStatefortheColonies.InSeptember1895,ChamberlainwrotetotheNatalGovernmentabouttheFranchiseBillstillawaitingapproval.Thebill,hesaid,didnotdistinguishbetweenthe‘mostignorantandthemostenlightenedoftheNativesofIndia’.The‘positionandattainments’ofthelatterclass,hethought,‘fullyqualifythemforallthedutiesandprivilegesofcitizenship’.TheNataliansweresurely‘awarethatintwocaseswithinthelastfewyearstheelectorsofimportantconstituenciesinthiscountryhaveconsideredIndiangentlemenworthynotmerelytoexercisethefranchise,buttorepresentthemintheHouseofCommons’.Chamberlainacceptedthatthe‘destiniesoftheColonyofNatalshallcontinue
tobeshapedbytheAnglo-Saxonrace,andthatthepossibilityofanypreponderantinfluxofAsiaticvotersshouldbeavoided’.Still,likehispredecessor,LordRipon,heworriedaboutovertlyracistlegislation.LikeRipon,hesatonthegovernmentbencheswithanIndiancolleague–yetinacolonyforwhichhewasresponsible,Indianswerebeingdeniedthevotealtogether.Abillwhich‘involvesinacommondisabilityallnativesofIndiawithoutanyexception,’heargued,andwhich‘providesnomachinerybywhichanIndiancanfreehimselffromthisdisability,whateverhisintelligence,hiseducation,orhisstakeinthecountry…wouldbeanaffrontuponthepeopleofIndiasuchasnoBritishGovernmentcouldbeapartyto’.InBritainitwasassumedthat,withguidanceandpatronage,aselectgroupof
Indianscouldcometokeepthecompanyofwhitemen.TheriseofNaorojiandBhownaggreewasproofofthesuccessofthiskindofliberalpaternalism.SuchmobilitywashardertoimagineorachieveintheColonies.EspeciallyinSouthAfrica,whereitwasassumedbytherulingracethatallColouredpeoplewouldforalltimebefixedinapositionofculturalandpoliticalinferiority.
SeekingamiddlewaybetweenthehardlinersinthecolonyandtheliberalsinLondon,theGovernorofNatalhadaclauseintroducedstatingthatonlythosewhohadrepresentativeinstitutionsintheirowncountrywouldbeeligibleforthefranchise.ThisruledoutIndians,whileenfranchisingEnglishmenandotherEuropeansfromcountrieswiththeirownparliaments.Thuswasaracialbillformallysavedfrom‘thenakeddisenfranchisement’fromwhichithadpreviouslybeenmarked.TheamendeddraftwassenttoChamberlaininNovember1895,andheindicatedthatiflegislationbasedonthisprinciplewaspassedbytheNatalLegislature,hewouldadviseHerMajestytoassenttoit.15
Whileseekingspiritualtruthsinprivate,andpursuingracialparityinpublic,Gandhihadnotforgottenhismainprofessionalduty,whichwastoestablishalegalpractice.HerehisclientswereallIndians.ThejudgesheappearedbeforeandthelawyershearguedagainstwereallEuropeans.Sociallyorprofessionally,GandhihadnodealingswiththeAfricanswhoconstitutedthevastmajorityofthepopulationofNatal.Gandhicontinuedtorepresenthisfirstpatron,DadaAbdulla,onwhosebehalf
hesuedaship’scaptainwho,withouthisemployer’sknowledge,hadtransferredpassengersfromsecondtofirstclassandpocketedthedifference.16Inanothercase,herepresented‘twowell-dressedrespectable-lookingyoungIndians,oneaclerkandtheotherateacher’,chargedwith‘vagrancy’forbeingoutatnightwithoutpasses.‘MrGandhicontendedthatthemenhadaperfectrighttobeout,becausetheygaveagoodaccountofthemselves.Theywerethoroughlyrespectablelads.’Thejudgeagreed,anddismissedthecaseagainstthem.17
Gandhidefendedtherich,themiddle-classandtheworkingpoor.Anindenturedlabourerwastriedforattackingapoliceman;theIndianlawyersaidhisclienthadbeenprovokedandhumiliated.AnewspapernowaccusedGandhiofviolatingthecodesoftheInnsofCourt–‘theideaofhishavinganythingtodowithdefyingjustice,’itwrote,‘eveninthemostremotefashion,issimplyintolerable.’The‘soonerthisgentlemangetsthemoneyhewantsfromtheIndiancommunity,’saidthepaper,‘andclearsforhisnativecountry,GuamorBritain,thebetteritwillbeforhimselfandtheColony.’18
Theaccusationswereunfair.MakingmoneywasscarcelyGandhi’ssoleaim.ConsiderthecaseofBalasundaram,anindenturedworkerbeatenupbyhis
master.Hespentseveraldaysinhospitalrecoveringfromhisinjuries,andthenwenttoGandhiseekingredress.Thelocalmagistratehadissuedasummonsagainsttheemployer.Gandhi,characteristicallyseekingacompromise,didnotpressthecharges,butarrangedforBalasundaramtobetransferredtoalessbrutalemployer.19
Through1895and1896,Gandhifoughtcasesonbehalfofmerchantsseekingtorecoverdues,familiesseekingashareofadeadancestor’sproperty,individualsharassedbyconstablesorbyplantationowners.Onecasewasparticularlyresonant:hedefendedaMuslimwhorefusedtoremovehiscapwhenorderedtodosoincourtbythemagistrate.AsabarristerGandhiwasobligedtogobare-headed,buthewouldstillupholdtherightofanordinarycitizentodressaccordingtothearticlesofhisfaith.20
Onanotheroccasion,GandhiwascalledinbyaEuropeancolleaguetoadviseonthedisposalofthepropertyofaMuslimmerchantwhohaddiedintestate.Thejudgehearingthecase,WalterWragg,hadpreviouslyopposedGandhi’sapplicationtotheNatalBar–ostensiblybecauseGandhihadproducedaself-attestedcopyratherthananoriginalcertificatefromtheInnerTemple,butmorelikelybecausehecouldnotabidetheideaofacolouredlawyer.JusticeWraggnowinsistedthatGandhiwas‘asgreatastrangertoMohammedanlawasaFrenchman…MrGhandi[sic]isaHinduandknowshisownfaith,ofcourse,butheknowsnothingofMohammedanlaw’.Gandhianswered,spiritedly,that‘wereIaMohammedan,IshouldbeverysorrytobejudgedbyaMohammedanwhosesolequalificationisthatheisbornaMohammedan.Itisarevelationthat…anon-MohammedanneverdaregiveanopiniononapointofMohammedanlaw’.21
AreporterwhooftencoveredGandhi’scourtappearancesremarkedthatwhilehedidhisworkwell,his
mannerwasnotaggressivebutpleading.Hewasnoorator.Whenaddressingthecourthewasnoteloquent,butratherotherwise;andinhissubmissionshedidnotactuallystammer,butprefacedhisspeechesandcommentsbyrepeatedsibilants,forinstance:‘Ess-ess-essyourworship,ess-ess-essthispoorwomanwasattendinganinvalidsisterandwasonherwayhomeafterthecurfewbellhadgonewhenshewasarrested.Iaskess-ess-essthatsheshouldnotbesenttogaol,butcautionedess-
ess-ess.’22
Hisspeakingdeficienciesnotwithstanding,GandhiwassoonaprominentmemberoftheNatalBar.Thathehadacaptiveclientelehelped:hewasthe
lawyerofalltheIndiansofNatal,regardlessofcaste,class,religionorprofession.ThelawyerwhofailedinBombayandRajkothadspectacularlysucceededinDurban.Gandhiwelcomedthefinancialsecurity,butitappearsthathewelcomedthesocialacclaimevenmore.HewashappytobethelawyeroftheIndians,andtheirspokesmanandrepresentative,too.
Durban,Gandhi’sfourthportcity,wasfarnewerthanPorbandarorLondonorBombay.Inthe1850sithadjusttwotwo-storeybuildings.Astheportgrewandthesugarplantationsinthehinterlandprospered,thecitybegantoexpand.Aseriesofimpressivestonebuildingswereconstructedbetweenthe1860sand1880s,amongthemacourthouse,atownhallandaRoyalTheatre,aswellasbanks,hotels,churches,andawhites-onlyclub.Transportwithinthecitywasbyhorse-drawntramsandhand-pulledrickshaws.23
ThewhitesinDurbanwere,inproportionateterms,morenumerousthaninBombay,yetmoreinsecureintheirposition.EuropeansinIndiaknewtheywereatinyminorityinawell-populatedland.Theyhadcometorulebutnottosettle.Ontheotherhand,likeCanada,AustraliaandNewZealand,Natalwasa‘neo-Europe’,whoseclimate,ecologyandsparsepopulationallowedthewhitestorecreatetheconditionsoflifeinthemothercountry.Sensingthatthiswasacountrytheycouldmaketheirown,theBritishsetaboutensuringtheirpermanentascendancy.24
AsGandhiwasmakinghiscareerinDurban,theGovernorofNataladdressedaLondonaudienceontheattractionsoflifeinthenewcolony.Natalhadfinesceneryandapleasantclimate(‘thereisnosuchthingasmalaria’,notedtheGovernor),abundantnaturalresources,andathrivingplantationindustry.AsforDurbanitself,
itsstreetsarestraight,hard,smoothandwide;itpossessesagoodseriesoftramways;itislightedthroughoutwithelectriclight;ithasanamplewatersupply…Itpossessesabeautifulandwell-keptlittlepark;aTownHallwhichwouldbeacredittoatownofsixtimesthesizeandinthatTownHallanorganwhichcosts£3,000.(Cheers.)Ithasanagriculturalshowground,cricketandathleticground,race-course,golf-links,publicbaths,museum,publiclibrary,theatre,anexcellentclub,andsoforth.Andanesplanadeisbeingconstructed,andisnownearingcompletion,atacost,Ibelieve,ofabout£80,000,alongtheseafrontintheinnerharbour,whichwilladdmuchtotheattractiveness
ofthetown.25
Bythisaccount,Natalwasnotsomuchaneo-EuropeasaLittleEnglandand–happily–withoutthefog,thesmogandthesnow.Thefacilitiesitprovidedwere,unlikethoseinEngland,opentoallclassesofwhites.ThesettlersinNatalcameoverwhelminglyfromotherthanaristocraticbackgrounds.Asmissionaries,soldiers,lawyers,mineowners,farmers,sailorsandteachers,theymadetheirnameinthecolony,acquiringaprosperityandsocialstatusbeyondtheirreachhadtheystayedathome.26
TheAfricansinNatalwereuneducatedanddispersedthroughthecountryside.Therewas,however,anincipientthreattothepoliticalandeconomicdominanceoftheEuropeans.ThiscamefromtheIndians,andmoreparticularlythe‘passenger’Indians.Indeed,haditnotbeenfortheIndianmerchants–theirnumber,theirwealthandtheirvisibility–DurbancouldhavepassedforaEuropeancityonanAfricancoastline.Unlikeplantationlabourers,Indiantraderstendedtobebasedinthetowns,wheretheyconductedtheirbusinessand,increasingly,boughtlandandbuilthouses.In1870therewere665IndiansinDurban,whobetweenthemrantwoshopsandownedpropertyworth£500.Bytheendofthecentury,therewere15,000IndiansinDurban,whoranmorethan400shopsandownedpropertyworthmorethan£600,000.TheBritishwereallegedtobeanationofshopkeepers,butinthisplaceatthistimetheywerebeinggivenarunfortheirmoney.27
Thedemographicchallengewasasrealastheeconomicone:whereasin1870therewerefiveEuropeanstoeveryIndianlivinginDurban,by1890theratiowasclosertotwotoone.ThepatternwassimilarinothertownsofNatal,where,again,Europeansconstitutedabout40percentofthepopulationandtheIndiansathreatening20percent.AsRobertHuttenbackhaswritten,this‘increasingurbanconcentrationofIndiansparticularlyfrightenedandoffendedmanyEuropeansettlerstowhomitconnotedbothdomesticpropinquityandincreasedcommercialcompetition’.28
Tosocialproximityandeconomicrivalrywasnowaddedathirdchallenge–politicalcompetition.In1891,followingthedecisiontogrant‘responsiblegovernment’,theGovernorofNatalhadespiedaverydistantthreatfromtheunenfranchisedAfricans.‘Thedangerinthefuture,’hewrotetotheSecretaryofStatefortheColonies,‘wouldarisefromtheawakeningoftheNativemind–guidedasitonlytooprobablymightbebyunscrupulouspoliticalagitators–to
thefactthatitsinterestsarenotdirectlyrepresentedintheColony:butthis,Ithink,isacontingencythatmayfairlybelefttobegrappledwithwhenitarises’.29TheGovernorcouldscarcelyhaveanticipatedthatitwouldbeIndianmindsthatwouldbeawakenedfirst,theiraspirationsstokedandarticulatedbyapolitical‘agitator’who–atthetimethispredictionwasmade–wasashyanddiet-obsessedlawstudentinLondon.ThisstudentwasnowtheSecretaryoftheNatalIndianCongress(NIC).In
August1895,theNICcelebrateditsfirstanniversary.Presentingareportonthefirstyearoftheorganization,Gandhinoteditsspreadtoothertowns:apartfromDurban,brancheshadbeenopenedinPietermaritzburg,Verulam,NewcastleandCharlestown.Subscriptionsof£500hadbeencollected;Gandhithoughtatleast£2,000wereneededto‘puttheCongressonasurefooting’.Cashwassupplementedbygiftsinkind,with‘ParseeRustomjeestand[ing]foremostinthisrespect’.RustomjeewasaspiceanddrygoodstraderinDurban,whohadsuppliedtheCongresswithlamps,paper,pens,aclock,andlabourtocleanthehallwhereitmet.OtherGujaratiswerealsoactiveindonations;however,astheSecretarynoted,‘theTamilmembershavenotshownmuchzealintheCongresswork’.30
TheenergeticRustomjeewasborninBombayin1861.HecametoNatalinhisearlytwenties,andatfirstworkedinanIndianstoreinVerulam.Hethensetuphisownbusiness,whichexpandedrapidly–by1893(whenGandhiarrived)hewasoneofDurban’slargestmerchants.HisfullnamewasJivanjiGorcoodooRustomjee.AlthoughaZoroastrianbyfaith,heworshippedoftenattheshrineinDurbanofDattaPeer,aTamilMuslimwhohadarrivedinthecolonyasanindenturedlabourerbeforebecomingaSufimystic.AstorycurrentinIndiancirclesclaimedthatParseeRustomjeewasoncechargedwiththeimportofsaffron,thenawhitemonopoly.HeprayedattheshrineofDattaPeer,whereuponthesaffroninhiswarehousemiraculouslyturnedtocardamom,confoundingthecustomsinspectors.31
AfterMohandasGandhiestablishedhimselfinDurban,ParseeRustomjeebecameadevoteeoftheHindulawyer,andhenceasteadfastsupporteroftheNatalIndianCongress.CongressmeetingswereoftenheldinhisshopinFieldStreet,theaudiencestandingorsittingamidstthesacksofgrainandbottlesofpickle.OnsuccessiveSundaysinSeptember1895,Gandhi–thenjustshortof
histwenty-sixthbirthday–spoketoamixedaudienceofHindusandMuslims,outlininghisplansfortheirfuture.Agovernmentspy,takingnotes,reportedGandhiassaying:
Imaygo[toIndia]forawhile,infiveorsixmonths,butthentherewillbefourorfiveadvocateslikeme,whowillcomeheretowatchoveryourinterests…andtheywillseethatIndiansaretreatedonthesamefootingasEuropeans.Ifyouuniteandweworktogetherweshallbeverystrong…IamsorrythattheIndiansinJohannesburghavenotsomeonenowwiththemasIamwithyou,butthat
willcomebeforelong.32
SeekingtowidentheCongress’scircleofpatrons,GandhitouredNatalinthecompanyofotherNICworkers.Thepoliceaskedaplantationownertomonitorhismovements.WeknowthusthatinthefirstweekofNovember,GandhiandcompanycrossedtheUmgeniRiver,visitedacoupleofestates,andstoppedatVerulamforthenight.Herethecollectionsweregood–intherangeof£50–butthenextdaytheymetstiffresistance,whentheIndiansinthevillageofVictoriarefused–perhapsoutoffearoftheirwhitemasters–topartwithanymoney.Gandhitookouthisturbanandplaceditattheirfeet.Heandhiscolleaguesrefusedtoeatthedinnerbroughtforthem.Theprotestsworked:onebyone,theIndiansreachedintotheirpockets.Gandhi’sfinalstopwastheTongatplantation,whereheaddressedthe
indenturedlabourers.Theverdictoftheplanter/policeinformantonthelawyerwaslessthancomplimentary.Gandhi‘willcausesometroubleIhavenodoubt,’hewrote:‘Butheisnotthemantoleadabigmovement.Hehasaweakface.Hewillcertainlytamperwithanyfundshehasthehandlingof.Suchatanyrateismyimpressionoftheman–judginghimbyhisface.’33
Withaweakface,hesitantincourt,politeinprintandcourteousinconversation,MohandasGandhiyetrepresentedthefirstchallengetoEuropeandominationinNatal.Bythe1890s,AfricansintheCapehaddiscoveredmodernformsofpoliticalexpression.ANativeEducationalAssociationwasformedin1879,itsmemberseducatedbymissionariesandproficientinEnglish.ASouthAfricanNativeAssociationandtheTranskeiMutualImprovementSocietywerestartedsoonafterwards.TherewereinfluentialAfricanreformersintheCape,suchastheteacherJ.T.Jabavu,whoeditedanewspaperdetailingactsofdiscriminationwhileurgingcloserbondsbetweenblacksandwhites.
TheCapealsohadsomeprecociouslyliberalwhites,whoallowedpeopleofcolourontotheelectoralrolls,solongastheypassedapropertyandliteracytest.InNatal,however,thewhitesweremorereactionary,andtheAfricanslesseducated.WhentheNatalIndianCongresswasformed,therewasnocomparableNativeAssociationinthecolony.In1894and1895,therewasnoAfricanGandhiinNatal,noblacklawyerwhoappearedincourtorwroteregularlyforthenewspapers.34
Despitetheirmildnessandtheirmoderation,GandhiandhiscolleaguesthusrepresentedsomethingquiteradicalinNatal’smodernhistory.Thereactiontheyprovokedisproofofthis.AcolumnistintheNatalMercury,signinghimselfas‘H’,publishedperiodicattacksonGandhiandhiswork.InOctober1895hesaidGandhiwas‘apaidagitator’fortheIndianmerchants.‘H’calledupontheEuropeanstostandupand‘capsizethelittleapplecartMessrs.GandhiandCo.arewheelingalong’.TheattackpromptedarejoinderfromJosephRoyeppen,ayoungclerkinGandhi’soffice.‘Notapenny,’saidRoyeppen,was‘givenMrGandhiinreturnforhisvaluableservicestothe[NatalIndian]Congress’.‘H’wasunabashed.Hehadbeentoldthat‘alistwasmadeoutandsignedbycertainIndianmerchantsandbusinessmen,wherebyMrGandhiwasguaranteed£300(payableinadvance)toremainthere’.NotingthatRoyeppenwaslessthantwentyyearsofage,thecolumnistsaidhe‘mustdecline,infuture,toreplytoalltheIndianboysMrGandhimayselecttowrite,thefraternitybeingtoolarge,andmytimetoolimited.’35
InOctoberandNovember1895,thewhitecolonistsinNatalheldmanymeetingsinsupportoftheGovernment’sFranchiseBill.ThefeelingagainsttheIndianswasparticularlyintenseintheplantationandminingdistricts.AtameetinginStanger,onespeakersaidthat
theIndianswereofalowcaste,andnotfitforthevote…Theydidnotbenefitthecountry,theydidnotlaytheirmoneyouthere,buttheygotasmuchoutofthecountryaspossible,andthenleftit.Hewouldmakeadifferencebetweenblackandwhite.Hewouldnotallowthevotetoevensuchaman
asMrGandhi.36
SomeNatalianslookedenviouslyacrosstotheBoer-dominatedTransvaal,whichhad‘setitsfootdownfromthefirst,andmadethepositionoftheIndianthatventuredwithinitsterritoriesanythingbutanenviableone’.There,apartfrombeingdeniedthefranchise,Indianswerealsoforbiddentoownproperty
andtradeintheirownnames.IntheTransvaal,the‘steadyanduncompromisingfirmness’oftheBoershad‘overcometheobstinatefussinessofBritishnegrophilists’.Ontheotherhand,the‘shilly-shallyhalf-heartedaction’oftheNatalcolonistshadgenerated‘strengthforthesentimentalBritishfaddist,andfortheunscrupulousIndianagitator’.37
Angrywhitesnowcalledforthe‘completedisenfranchisementofthewholeofourIndianpopulation’.Ifthiswasnotdone,theywarned,andifthe‘monstrousandunjustpolicyoftheHomeGovernment’wasforceduponthem,thentheearlypartof1900wouldprobably,nayundoubtedly,seeuswithaMinistrycomposedsomewhatafterthisfashion:–
PrimeMinister–AliBenghareeColonialSecretary–DostMahomedAttorney-General–SaidMahomedTreasurer–Ramasamy.
InourSupremeandothercourtswewouldhaveChiefJusticeGhandi[sic]andtheotherlongandwhiterobedgentryheisabouttobringfromIndia,andsoon,inallpublicdepartments…Whatanattractive,pleasingpicture!WhatanimpetustoourEuropeanprestigeandpatriotism!Whatarewardforourstrugglesandambitions!Why,akafirMinistrywouldbeinfinitelymorepreferablethananIndian.Thenativeisagentlemancomparedtohim.Heismanly,brave,andstraightforward,while
theIndianisotherwise.38
Bytheendof1895,MohandasGandhihadbeenresidentinDurbanformorethanayear.Hewaslivinginahouseofhisown,inthecentrallocalityofBeachGrove.Thehousewasquitespacious,extendingovertwostoreys,withaverandahandalsoalittlegarden.Thefurnitureinthelivingroomwassparse:asofaandafewchairs,andabookcasewithpamphletsonvegetarianismmixedwiththeKoran,theBible,Hindutexts,andtheworksofTolstoy.LivingwithGandhiinhishousewereaGujarati-speakingcook–whosename
hasnotcomedowntous–andVincentLawrence,aTamilfromMadraswhoservedashisclerk.Everymorning,GandhiandLawrencewalkedfromBeachGrovetothelawyer’soffice,whichwasatthecornerofWestandFieldStreets.ThestreetstheypassedthroughhadshopsownedbybothIndiansandEuropeans–theformerhawkingfruits,vegetablesandgroceries;thelattersellinglessessentialcommoditiessuchasmedicinesandchocolates.BelowGandhi’schamberswasashopsellingcigars,ownedbyaformerdeputymayorofDurban.39
Forawhile,Gandhi’shomewasalsosharedbyhisoldschoolfriendSheikhMehtab,arecentmigrantfromRajkottoDurban.Gandhi’strustinMehtabwas,asbefore,misplaced;once,whenhecamehomeforlunch,hefoundhisfriendinbedwithaprostitute.Angrywordsensued;whenGandhithreatenedtocallthepolice,Mehtabquietlyleftthepremises.40
Theclerkandcook,ontheotherhand,gavenotrouble.VincentLawrencetookdictation,typedlettersand,whenrequired,translatedmaterialsintoTamil(themothertongueofmanyIndianlabourersinNatal).Asforthecook,bypreparinghismealsandgenerallykeepingthehouseinorder,helefthisemployertimetoreadandwrite.Inthelastweeksof1895,Gandhipublishedalongpamphleton‘TheIndian
Franchise’,framedas‘anappealtoeveryBritoninSouthAfrica’.Extendingoverfiftyprintedpages,itprovidedacomprehensiveoverviewoftheIndianquestioninNatal.Gandhiarguedthatthe‘Indian’sfitnessforanequalitywiththecivilizedraces’wasdemonstratedbythefactthat,inBritishIndia,theyhadservedasseniorcivilservants,HighCourtjudgesandvice-chancellorsofuniversities.Indiansoldiershadshedtheirbloodforthedefenceoftherealm.Hiscountrymenwereloyalandlaw-abiding;itwasunfairtorelegatethemtosecond-classstatusinanypartoftheBritishEmpire.Gandhidismissedthefear,widespreadamongwhites,thatiftheIndianwere
allowedtovotehewouldsoondominatetheEuropean.Ofnearly10,000registeredvotersinNatal,only251wereIndians,mostlymerchants.Gandhibelievedthat‘thenumberoftradingIndiansintheColonywillremainalmostthesameforalongtime.For,whilemanycomeeverymonth,anequalnumberleavesforIndia,’IftheGovernmentwished,theycouldintroduceamorestringentpropertyqualification.But‘whattheIndiansdoandwouldprotestagainstiscolourdistinction–disqualificationbasedonaccountofracialdifference.’ThepamphletconsolidatedargumentsandevidencepresentedbyGandhiin
otherforumsandotherwritings.Therewas,however,onepointthathewasmakingforthefirsttime.IthadbeensaidoftheagitationledbytheNatalIndianCongressthat‘afewIndianswantpoliticalpowerandthatthesefewareMahomedanagitatorsandthattheHindusshouldlearnfrompastexperiencethattheMahomedanrulewillberuinousforthem.’Gandhisaidinresponsethat‘the
firststatementiswithoutfoundationandthelaststatementismostunfortunateandpainful.’Thiswasa‘mostmischievous’attempt‘tosettheHindusagainsttheMahomedans’inNatal,‘wherethetwosectsarelivingmostamicably’.41
GandhisenthispamphlettoafriendinEngland,thecivilservantandauthorW.W.Hunter.Hunter,inturn,soughtaninterviewwiththeSecretaryofStateforIndia.TheclaimsoftheNatalIndians,reportedHuntertoGandhi,had‘unfortunatelygotmixedupinEnglishopinionwiththemonotoneofcomplaintmadebytheIndianCongressparty.’TheCongress,foundedin1885,hadbeencanvassingforthegreaterrepresentationofIndiansatalllevelsofgovernment.ThecauseofGandhiandhisfellows,foundHunter,‘suffersinEnglandfrombeingtooprominentlyconnectedwiththeCongressplatform’.42
Asithappened,GandhihadalsopostedcopiesofhispamphlettoCongressleadersinIndia.AcopysenttothePoonaradicalBalGangadharTilakfounditswayinsteadtotheofficeofS.M.TilakandCompanyinBombay.Thepacketwasopenedbythefirm’smanager,whonotingitscontents,wrotebacktotheauthorinadmiration.‘Ihavebeenwatchingwiththegreatestzealyourmovementsintheforeignland,’theparcel’saccidentalrecipienttoldGandhi.Salutinghiswork‘fromheartandsoulevenatthecostof[your]preciouslifetowardsthewelfareof[our]countrymen,’hehopedthat‘theAlmighty[would]crownyouwithsuccess’.ThemanagergaveGandhithecorrectaddressofB.G.Tilak(‘Editor,KesariandMaratha,PoonaCity’),beforeendingwiththisapology:‘Pleaseexcusemefromplyingintrade’(ratherthannationalservice).43
WhethertheoriginalmistakewasGandhi’sorthepostman’sonedoesn’tknow.Butoneshouldbegratefulfortheerror.Foritgaveusthischarmingletter,writtenbyanunknownIndian,thefirstunsolicitedfanmailthatweknowGandhitohavereceived.
Gandhi’spamphleton‘TheIndianFranchise’waswidelydistributedinNatal,where–amongthewhites–itattractedscepticismand,attimes,outrighthostility.Onenewspaperadmittedthatthelawyer’stonehadatleast‘thegreatmeritofmoderation’.Butitworriedthatitwouldleadtogreaterdemandsforrepresentation–forIndianstobejudges,civilservantsandnewspapereditorsinSouthAfrica,astheywereinIndia.Anotherpaperdismissedthepamphletas‘specious’.‘MrGhandi[sic]maypleadhisbest,’itsaid,‘buthewillnever
succeedinconvincingSouthAfricansthattheimmigrantAsiaticisadesirablefellow-citizen…Hemaymendhiswaysintimeitistrue,butheusuallytakesthetaskofamendmentveryleisurely.’44
Athirdpaper,theNatalAdvertiser,chosetoexpressitsreservationsinverse.Theversifierwasnotparticularlyskilled.However,insofarasthiswasverylikelythefirstpoemaboutGandhieverwritten,andonewhichkeenlycapturestheanimosityagainsthimamongtheEuropeansofNatal,IthinkImustreproduceitinfull:
Goosie,Goosie,Gandhi,Oh!(Anoldsong,re-sungwithapologies.)
Oh,Iamamanofhighdegree,Andseekaproudposition,
ForImustbecome,whatseemstomeAproudpolitician.
FormyconstituentsImuststandInparliamentarytraffic;
SoIsailedawayfromIndia’sstrandInthepayoftheAsiatic.
Chorus:I’maregulargoosieGandhi,ohWithatalentthat’squitehandy,Andapamphletbash,that’sfull
Forthissunny-landy,oh!I’veatempersweetascandy,ohAndabookandpencilhandy,ohYouneversawsuchasocialboreAsGoosie,Goosie,Gandhi,oh!
WhenthePressandpeopleoutofpiqueBehavelikeasetofninnies,
Iwriteabooktoshowthey’reweakAndgatherintheguineas.
I’mheretofightforthecoolieman,AsIsaidinmyearliestletter.
Theymusthavelibertyonanovelplan,AndImusthavesomethingbetter.
Chorus:I’maregulargoosieGandhi,ohWithatalentthat’squitehandy,Andapamphletbash,that’sfull
Forthissunny-landy,oh!I’veatempersweetascandy,ohAndabookandpencilhandy,ohYouneversawsuchasocialboreAsGoosie,Goosie,Gandhi,oh!45
Gandhi’searlypoliticalwritingsareintheCollectedWorks.ThedetailsofhisearlylegalcareerrestintheNatalarchivesandinoldnewspaperrecords.WhatwedonothaveaccesstoareletterswrittenfromDurbantohisfamily.HowoftendidhewritetohiswifeinRajkot,andtohisbrothers?Howoftendidtheywriteback?Wecannotsay.WhatwedoknowisthatinMay1896,GandhidecidedtoreturntoIndiaforafewmonths.Hecouldseethathewas‘inforalongstay’inSouthAfrica,where‘peoplefelttheneedofmypresence’.So‘Imadeupmymindtogohome,fetchmywifeandchildren,andthenreturnandsettleoutthere.’46
‘There’wasSouthAfrica,or,morespecifically,Natal.UnabletoestablishatoeholdineitherhisnativeKathiawarorinBombay,GandhiwasnowthemostimportantandinfluentialIndianinthiscolony.GujaratisandTamils,HindusandMuslims,alllookedtohimforlegalandpoliticaladvice.Tomerchantandlaboureralikehewas‘Gandhibhai’,BrotherGandhi,atermusedwithaffectionandrespect.HehadmadeanameinNatal,andnowhewouldmakehishomeheretoo.Likesomanyothermigrantsbeforeandsince,hehadfirstcomealone,sotosayexperimentally.Hiscareerestablished,andacausefound,hewentbacktoIndiatobringKasturbaandthechildrentolivewithhiminDurban.
5
TravellingActivist
On4June1896‘theMadrasiandGujaratiIndiansofDurban’threwafarewellpartyforMohandasGandhi.Thelawyerwaspresentedwithashawlandmedal,andthankedforhisworkforthecommunity.Inabriefspeech,Gandhisaidthegathering‘showedthatwhatevercastestheIndiansinNatalrepresentedtheywereallinfavourofbeingcementedincloserunion’.HistalkwastranslatedintoTamilbyhisclerk,VincentLawrence.‘Severalsongsandspeechesfollowedthepresentation,andtheproceedingsthroughoutwereofalivelyandenthusiasticcharacter.’1
Thenextday,GandhisailedforIndiaontheClanMcleod.Some500Indiansaccompaniedhimtotheport,cheeringhimashewalkedonboard.2Theiraffectionfollowedhimacrosstheocean.WhentheshipstoppedatLourençoMarques,theprincipalportofPortugueseEastAfrica,theIndianstheregavehimawarmreception.TheyhadbeensentatelegrambyParsiRustomjeewhichread:‘BarristerGandhileftforIndiaviaDelagoaBay.Pleasegoonboardandrespecthim.’3
Thelawyerwasbynowanexperiencedtraveller.This,hisfourthintercontinentalvoyageineightyears,wasspentchieflyinself-improvement.Heplayedchess,tookUrdulessonsfromafellowpassenger,andtriedtoteachhimselfTamilfromabook.4
AfterthreeweekstheClanMcleodreachedCalcutta.GandhitookatrainwestwardstojoinhisfamilyinRajkot.HehadnotseenthemsinceMay1893.HissonsHarilalandManilalwerenoweightandthreerespectively.Hisimpressionsofthemareunrecorded.Wedonotknowhowherespondedtotheirgrowingup,orwhatrelationsheresumedwiththeirmother,hiswife.HewaspreoccupiedwithprintingapamphletforanIndianaudienceonthegrievancesoftheircountrymeninSouthAfrica.Thisdrewonhispreviouspetitions,but
addedsomefreshevidencebasedonpersonalexperience.‘Justpictureacountry,’hetoldhiscompatriots,‘whereyouneverknowyouaresafefromassaults,nomatterwhoyouare,whereyouhaveanervousfearastowhatwouldhappentoyouwheneveraccommodatedinahotelevenforanightandyouhaveapictureofthestatewearelivinginNatal.’GandhicomplainedthatalawinDurbanspecifiedthatnativesandindentured
labourersrequiredpassestogoaboutatnight.This,saidGandhi,‘presupposesthattheIndianisabarbarian.Thereisaverygoodreasonforrequiringregistrationofanativeinthatheisyetbeingtaughtthedignityandnecessityoflabour.TheIndianknowsitandheisimportedbecauseheknowsit’.Addinginsulttoinjury,‘lavatoriesaremarked“nativesandAsiatics”attherailwaystations’.Gandhi’sstruggleinNatalwasbasedonaTolstoyaninterpretationofthe
Christiancredo.‘OurmethodinSouthAfricaistoconquerthishatredbylove,’hesaid.‘Wedonotattempttohaveindividualspunishedbutasarule,patientlysufferwrongsattheirhands.Generally,ourprayersarenottodemandcompensationforpastinjuries,buttorenderarepetitionofthoseinjuriesimpossibleandtoremovethecauses.’5
Gandhiprinted10,000copiesofwhatquicklybecameknownasthe‘GreenPamphlet’(onaccountofthecolourofitscover).Hepostedthemtonewspapereditorsacrossthecountry,andcarriedcopieswithhimtoBombay,wherehespentmuchofAugustandSeptember1896,lobbyingtheleadingpublicmenofIndia.HemetaHindureformer,M.G.Ranade,aMuslimreformer,BadruddinTyabji,andaParsireformer,PherozeshahMehta.6RanadeandTyabjiwerejudges;Mehta,alawyerandlegislator.Buthemetmanylesserknownpeopletoo,pressinghiscaseandhispamphletuponthem.AnentryfromtheaccountbookhemaintainedfortheNatalIndianCongressisproofofhishecticschedule.Dated20August,itreads:‘Carriage–HousetoFort;ForttoB.K.Road;HousetoAppolobunder[sic];ApollobundertoMarket;MarkettoHouse’.Thesefivejourneyscosthimabouttworupees.Thereafterhetookthemoreprudentstepofrentingthesamecarriageanddriverforthewholeday.7
Thelobbyinghadaneffect,theTimesofIndiacarryingalongleaderbasedon‘MrGandhi’sableandstrikingpamphlet’.Thepaperprovidedsomeexamplesofthe‘gratuitousoppressionandpersecution’asdocumentedbyGandhi:the
exclusionofIndiansfromtrams,theconsignmentofIndianstothird-classrailwaycarriages,theharassmentofeven‘respectableIndians’underaharshvagrancylaw.8
On26September,apublicmeetingwasconvenedattheFramjiCowasjiInstitutetodiscusstheIndianquestioninSouthAfrica.PherozeshahMehtapresided.Gandhiwastoonervoustospeak.HistextwasreadoutforhimbytheParsipoliticianD.E.Wacha.Gandhi,inWacha’svoice,contrastedthesituationinIndia,wherethe‘representativeinstitutions…areslowly,butsurely,beingliberalized’,withthatinNatal,where‘suchinstitutionsarebeinggraduallyclosedagainstus’.TheBritishinIndianowpermittedtheirsubjects–admittedly,selectively–tobecomejudgesandmunicipalcouncillors;inNatal,however,they‘desiretodegradeustotheleveloftherawKaffirwhoseoccupationishunting,andwhosesoleambitionistocollectacertainnumberofcattletobuyawifewith,andthen,passhislifeinindolenceandnakedness…WearehemmedinonallsidesinSouthAfrica.’InNataltheywereunderthe‘yokeofoppression’.‘Itisforyou,ourelderandfreerbrother,toremoveit.’9
Gandhi’stalkcreatedastir;manypeoplewereheardexpressingthemselves‘inindignanttermsaboutthetreatmentwhichourcountrymenwerereceivinginSouthAfrica’.TheirindignationwastemperedandputincontextbythesocialreformerM.G.Ranade,whowasalsopresentattheCowasjiInstitutethatday.Inatalkhedeliveredsoonafterwards,RanadeaskedHindusto‘turnthesearchlightinwards’.Unlikesomeothernationalists,RanadewaskeenlyawareofthehumiliationsthatIndianswerepreparedtoheapontheirownkind.‘Wasthissympathywiththeoppressedanddown-troddenIndians,’hewondered,‘tobeconfinedtothoseofourcountrymenonlywhohadgoneoutofIndia?’OrwoulditbeextendedtoacondemnationoftheshamefulmannerinwhichlowcastesweretreatedwithinIndia?Ranadeasked‘whetheritwasforthosewhotoleratedsuchdisgracefuloppressionandinjusticeintheirowncountrytoindulgeinallthatdenunciationofthepeopleofSouthAfrica’.10
FromBombay,GandhiproceededtoPoona.Herehemetthetworisingstarsofnationalistpolitics,theliberalGopalKrishnaGokhaleandtheradicalBalGangadharTilak.Gokhale,aprotégéofRanade’s,thoughtsocialreformwasasimportantaspoliticalemancipation;mindfulofthesentimentsofMuslims,he
stayedawayfromaHinduidiominhisspeeches.Tilak,ontheotherhand,militantlyopposedBritishrule;healsopromotedfestivalsincelebrationoftheHindugodGaneshandthemedievalHinduwarriorShivaji.11Gandhimetbothmen;bothpromisedtohelpsetupapublicmeeting.12
FromPoona,Gandhitookatrainfurthersouth,tothecityofMadras.HewasnowcorrespondingwithaBombaylawyerhewantedtocomeouttoSouthAfrica.ThepreviousSeptember,hehadpromisedtheIndiansofNatalhewouldbringsomebarristerstohelpthem.HisfirstchoicewasF.S.Taleyarkhan,whohadtravelledwithhimontheboatbackfromLondontoBombayin1891.GandhitoldTaleyarkhanthatifhecametoNataltheycouldsetupapartnershipanddividetheprofits.Hethoughtthattheycouldearnasmuchas£150amonth.However,hewarnedTaleyarkhanthatanIndianshouldnot‘gotoSouthAfricawithaviewtopilemoney.Youshouldgotherewithaspiritofself-sacrifice.Youshouldkeeprichesatanarm’slength.Theymaythenwooyou.Ifyoubestowyourglancesonthem,theyaresuchacoquettethatyouaresuretobeslighted.ThatismyexperienceinSouthAfrica.’TaleyarkhanwasaParsiwholikedmeatandfish.Gandhisaidthatifthey
livedtogetherinDurban,hecouldofferhim‘mostpalatable’vegetarianfood,‘cookedbothintheEnglishaswellastheIndianstyle’.IftheParsiinsistedonbeingcarnivorous,hecouldengageaseparatecook.GandhihopedTaleyarkhanwould‘notallowpecuniaryconsiderationstocomeinyourway.IamsureyouwillbeabletodomuchinSouthAfrica–moreindeedthanImayhavebeeninstrumentalindoing.’13
GandhiarrivedinMadrason14October.Thiswashisfirstvisittothecity,thecapitaloftheMadrasPresidency,andthecommercialandpoliticalcentreofaregiontowhichmanyoftheindenturedlabourersinNatalbelonged.HestayedtwoweeksinMadras,attheBuckinghamHotel,wherehisbillcametosomeRs74.Hisotherexpensesincludedthesendingoftelegrams,carriageandtramfares,andthepurchaseofpaper,pen,ink,envelopes,stamps,and‘sulphurointment’(weknownotwhatfor).14
FromMadras,GandhiwrotetoGokhaleaboutthestruggleinSouthAfrica.Hewasencouragedthattheoldermanhadtakena‘verywarminterestinhimwhentheymetinPoona.Theynow‘verybadlyneed[ed]acommitteeofactive,prominentworkersinIndiaforourcause’.Unless‘ourgreatmen…without
delaytakeupthisquestion,’insistedGandhi,theSouthAfricanexamplewouldbefollowedbyotherBritishcolonies,whowouldlikewisedisenfranchiseIndiansanddenythemtheirrights.Ifthathappened,‘withinashorttimetherewillbeanendtoIndianenterpriseoutsideIndia’.15
ThehighlightofGandhi’sstayinMadraswasapublicmeetingheldatthePachiappa’sHallontheeveningof26October.Thepostersadvertisingthemeetinghadthesignaturesofforty-onemen,amongthemsomeofthecity’sbest-knownlawyers,editorsandbusinessmen.ThoseendorsingGandhi’scauseincludedafairsprinklingofBrahmins,butalsosomeChettiarmerchants,ahandfulofTeluguspeakers,twoMuslims,andatleastoneChristian.TherewasalsooneKnightoftheRealm,SirS.RamaswamyMudaliar.16
AsinBombay,Gandhi’sspeechrehearsedthethemesofthe‘GreenPamphlet’.Hetailoredittotheaudience,speakingofhowa‘veryrespectablefirmofMadrastraders’inDurbanweredisparaginglyreferredtoas‘coolie’shopkeepers,andhow‘aMadrasgentleman,spotlesslydressed,alwaysavoidsthefootpathsofprominentstreetsinDurbanforfearheshouldbeinsultedorpushedoff’.17Initsreport,theMadrasMailobservedthatthespeaker‘describedaccuratelyandwithoutexaggerationthepositionofhisfellowcountrymeninthatpartoftheworld’.Wishing‘speedysuccesstoMrGandhiandhisfriendsinbringingtheColonialstoabetterunderstandingofIndia’,thepapersaidthe‘BritishGovernmentwillbefailinginitsdutyifitallowsthestrongracialfeelingprevailingintheColoniestobeembodiedinanyActofLegislaturewhichconcernsaBritishsubject’.18
Therewassucharushatthemeetingtobuypamphletsthattheauthor’sstockwasexhausted.Notthatheminded;asheobservedsoonafterwards,whileorderingareprint,theclamourforcopiesinMadraswas‘ascenenevertobeforgotten’.19
InthelastweekofOctober,GandhitravelleduptheCoromandelcoasttoCalcutta,thishisthirdlongtrainjourneyinasmanymonths.HewasbeingexposedtotheecologicalandsocialdiversityofIndia.Hepassedbydesertandfarmland,coastandplateau,seeingavarietyofarchitecturalstyles,hearingavarietyoflanguages,andsamplingdifferentcuisines.Fromthetrainwindow,hewouldhaveseenpeasantsworkinginthefields.However,hisconversationsin
thetownsandcitieshestoppedinwerewithlawyers,editorsandothermembersofagrowingmiddleclass.GandhihadbeenwellreceivedinthePresidencycapitalsofBombayand
Madras.CalcuttawasthecapitaloftheBengalPresidency,thecapitalofBritain’sIndianEmpire,andin1896themostactivecentreofIndiannationalism.Thecallforgreaterrepresentationwasheardloudesthere.AsonewhoaskedforgreaterrightsforIndiansoverseas,Gandhiexpectedasympathetichearing;instead,hewasgiventhecoldshoulder.TheeditorofaprominentIndiannewspapertookhimtobe‘awanderingJew’.Anotherkepthimwaitingforanhour;whenhewasfinallycalledin,Gandhiwastoldthat‘thereisnoendtothenumberofvisitorslikeyou.Youhadbettergo.Iamnotdisposedtolistentoyou.’20
ThislackofenthusiasmmayhavebeenbecausetherewerefewerBengalisinSouthAfrica.Oritmayhavebeenamanifestationofarrogance.GandhispenttwoweeksinCalcutta,stayingattheGreatEasternHotelintheheartofthecity,acrossthestreetfromtheViceroy’sresidence.Judgingbyhisaccountbook,hewaslessbusythaninMadrasorBombay.Hehadhishaircut,hisclotheswashed,andsentplentyoflettersandtelegrams.Healsowentoneeveningtothetheatre,wherehewatchedaBengalimusical.Buthewasunabletoarrangeapublicmeeting.21
On5November,GandhiwrotetoF.S.Taleyarkhan,askingwhetherhewouldbereadytocomebacktoNatalwithhim(theParsiaskedformoretime).HeplannedtosailfromBombaybeforetheendofthemonth.TheNatalLegislaturewasduetoreconveneinJanuary,whenitwoulddiscusstheamendedfranchise,the£3tax,andothermattersofinterest–orconcern–toIndians.Gandhiwentbacknowtothewestcoast,whereheattendedapublicmeeting
inPoona,lobbiedfurtherinBombay,andpreparedhisfamilyforthejourneytoSouthAfrica.Hewasparticularlyconcernedaboutthedresshiswifeandchildrenwouldwear.HedecideditwasbesttheyemulatetheParsis,thenregardedasthemostprogressivepeopleinIndia.Theboyswerethusfittedoutintrousersandalongcoat,whileKasturbawasmadetowearhersaritheParsiway,withanembroideredborder,andhersleevesfullycovered.22
Mohandas,Kasturba,HarilalandManilalGandhileftBombayforDurbanon30NovemberbytheSSCourland.WiththemwasGandhi’ssister’sson
Gokuldas,whohadbeenplacedinhiscare.Theirpassageswerefree,sincetheshipwasownedbythepatriarch’sfriend,clientandfellowcommunityactivist,DadaAbdulla.
WhileGandhiwasaway,thewhitesofNatalhadbecomefurtheragitatedabouttheIndianquestion.InAugust1896,theTongatSugarCompanyaskedtheGovernment’shelpinimportingsomethirtybricklayers,carpenters,fittersandblacksmithsfromIndia.Thecompanysaidtheywouldpaythreetimesthewageofanindenturedlabourer.‘WearenotparticularastowhethertheyareMadrasorCalcuttamen,’saidthecompany,‘but,ofcourse,wewantgoodmen.’Privateentrepreneurs,motivatedbyproductionandcostefficencies,wishedto
importskilledlabourfromwherevertheycouldfindit.Thisrational,capitalistimpulsehoweverfellfoulofracialandnationalprejudices.HowdareaNatalentrepreneurtransportAsianstodojobsthatwhitescouldaswellundertake?AndsotheTongatSugarCompany’sapplicationwasleakedtothepress,prompting‘anindignationmeetingofEuropeanartisans’inDurban,worriedthatIndianswouldtakeovertradespreviouslyinwhitehands.The‘roomwaspackedtooverflowing,theentireaudiencestandingwedgedinclosecontact’.Aspeakerjokedthat‘perhapsaftertherecentravagesofthelocuststhey[theplantationowners]weregoingtoemploycooliehousepainterstotipthecaneswithemeraldgreen(laughter)’.Shoutsof‘Blackvermin!’,‘Wewon’thavethecooliehere!’and‘Putapolltaxof£100onthem;thatwillstopthem!’wereheard.ThemeetingaskedtheGovernmenttoimmediatelystoptheimportofIndianartisansintothecolony.Unnervedbytheprotest,thecompanywithdrewtheirapplication.Writingto
theSecretaryofStatefortheColonies,theGovernorofNatalsaidtheincidentwas‘ofinterestasexemplifyingthejealousywithwhichthecompetitionofAsiatics,except,perhapsinthematterofunskilledlabour,isregardedinNatal’.23
SuchwasthemoodinAugust.InSeptember,theNatalMercurypublishedacablesentbythenewsagency,Reuters,thatsummarizedGandhi’s‘GreenPamphlet’,thenjustoffthepressinRajkot,inthissinglesentence:‘ApamphletpublishedinIndiadeclaresthattheIndiansinNatalarerobbedandassaulted,andtreatedlikebeasts,andareunabletoobtainredress’.Thenewspaper
commentedthatbyutteringthese‘infamousfalsehoods’Gandhihad‘donehiscountrymenabadturn’.24
Thisbareandnotentirelyaccuratesummaryofaforty-pagebookletpromptedaseriesofverbalattacksonIndiansingeneralandGandhiinparticular.The‘onegreatpointthattheIndiansindividuallyandcollectivelyseemtoforget,’wrotetheNatalMercury,‘isthatSouthAfricawascapturedfromthenativeinhabitantsafterlongyearsoffighting,andtheexpenditureofbloodandtreasure,notonepennyofwhichwasbornebytheIndians,noronedropofIndianbloodspiltvoluntarily.’25Aneditorialwriterwroteangrilyof‘theagitatorGandhi,whoseslanderousstatementsmadebeforehisfellow-countrymeninBombayhavejustlyrousedtheresentmentoftheEuropeancolonist.’26TheattacksonGandhiintheDurbanpresspromptedhisestrangedfriend,SheikhMehtab,todefendhim.Havingbeenthrownoutofthelawyer’shouse,MehtabnowlivedbyhimselfinalocalitynamedStamfordHill.FromtherehewrotealetterpointingoutthatGandhi’s‘GreenPamphlet’,thesubjectofoutrageinNatal,wasmerelyarepriseofhis‘OpenLetter’and‘Appeal’,previouslypublishedandcirculatedintheColony.‘IfallIndiansinNatalarerobbed,andassaulted,andtreatedlikebeasts,andareunabletoobtainredress,’remarkedMehtabtothereadersoftheNatalAdvertiser,‘youshouldnotbesurprised.’HeurgedafreshreadingofGandhi’searlierpamphlets.‘Ifyoureadthosetwobooksagain,’saidMehtabtotheEuropeansinNatal,‘youwillbeabletounderstandafewsubjectsverywell.Ifyouconcedethatthosetwobooksareright,youshouldnotbesurprisedthatIndiansare“shamefullytreated”.’27
InAugustandSeptember,severalshipsfromIndiaarrivedinDurban.Theycarriedindenturedlabourerscontractedforbyplantationowners,residentsofthecolonyreturningfromavisittotheirhomeland,andsomenewimmigrants.Theshipsintensifiedtheparanoiaandthepanic.Theselandingsappearedtobepartofan‘organizedeffort’,one‘ofthosegreatwavesofemigrationwhichsometimesoccur,whichrelieveonecountryatthetimethatothercountriesarepeopled’.On15OctoberthemembersoftheNatalGovernmentsentanurgenttelegramtotheirPrimeMinister,SirJohnRobinson,whowastheninEngland:‘FivehundredfreeIndiansarrivedlastweek.Inrushmustbestopped,oralllowerbranchesoftradeandfarmingwillpassintoIndianhands.Explainto
MrChamberlainwemustfollowNewSouthWales’(theAustraliancolonythathadbannedimmigrationofcolouredpeoples).28
TheMinisterswerereflectingthesentimentsoftheirelectorate.On26NovemberalargemeetingwasheldatDurban’sTownHall,whichurgedtheGovernmenttopreserveNatalasanEnglishcolonyand‘tomaintaintheracepureandundefiled’byputtinganendtoIndianimmigration.Thehallwaspacked,withmanyladiesalsoinattendance.Onespeaker,aMrO’Hea,said
Itwassadtoseetheflood-gatesopenedfortheentrancetothisColonyofthesedarkanddismalpeople,whowereabsolutelyuselesstothecommunity.Theywereuselesstothebutcher,fortheydidnoteatmeat(laughter);theywereuselesstothebaker,fortheyonlyaterice(laughter)–theprofitsonthegrowthofwhichwenttoIndia,andtheprofitsontheintroductionwenttothe[Indianship-owners]DadaAbdoolasandMoosas(loudlaughter).Theywereuselesstotheshoemaker,fortheywentbare-footed,andtheywereuselesstothetailorbecause(savingthepresenceoftheladies)they
didnotrequireanyofthenicetiesofthesartorialart(laughter)toproducetheirunmentionables.29
Inthenextfortnight,threefurthermeetingswereheldtoopposeIndianimmigration.ThechairmanoftheSocietyofCarpentersandJoinerssaidthatatthetimeofthenextelection,members‘shouldvotestraightforthecandidatewhowoulddohisutmosttostoptheinvasionoftheAsiatics’.TotheargumentthatIndianswereBritishsubjects,thespeakersaid
heshouldliketoknowhowlongthesentimentofBritishsubjectswouldstandsupposingtheseAsiaticswerebroughtintoLancashiretoweavecotton,orintoYorkshiretoweavecloth.ThesentimentofBritishsubjectwouldbegonein24hours–(applause)–andtheGovernmentwouldverysoonbecompelledtofindamethodtoexcludetheseAsiaticsfromEngland,andiftheyhadto
findaway,surelytheColonyofNatalcouldalsofindawaytoexcludethem.30
InthethirdweekofDecember1896,theSSCourlandarrivedoffthecoastofDurban.Withitwasanothership,theSSNaderi,alsocomingfromIndia.Betweenthem,thevesselshadsome600Indiansonboard,MohandasGandhiandhisfamilyamongthem.Theshipswereaskedtowaitoutatseawhilethepassengerswereexaminedbydoctors.TherehadbeenanoutbreakofplagueintheBombayPresidency,andtheauthoritieswereconcernedthemigrantsmightbeinfectedwiththedisease.Theetiologyofplaguewasimperfectlyunderstood;itwasnotyetestablishedthatratsandfleaswerethedisease’smaincarriers.Somedoctors,andmoreordinaryfolk,fearedthatitcouldspreadthroughhumancontact.31
AstheshipslaymooredofftheNatalcoast,thetwelfthannualmeetingoftheIndianNationalCongressconvenedinCalcutta.Gandhiwasanabsentpresence,withhisrecentlobbyinginIndiainformingitsdeliberations.Amongthetwenty-fourresolutionspassedbytheCongresswasonerecordinga‘mostsolemnprotestagainstthedisabilitiesimposedonIndiansinSouthAfrica,andtheinvidiousandhumiliatingdistinctionsmadebetweenthemandEuropeansettlers’.Movingtheresolution,G.ParameshvaramPillaiofMadrasobservedthatwhileinIndia,IndianscouldbecomemembersoftheLegislativeCouncil,andinEnglandtheycouldwinelectiontotheHouseofCommons,inNatal
wearedrivenoutoftramcars,wearepushedofffootpaths,wearekeptoutofhotels,wearerefusedthebenefitofthepublicbaths,wearespatupon,wearehissed,wearecursed,weareabused,andwe
aresubjectedtoavarietyofotherindignitieswhichnohumanbeingcanpatientlyendure.32
OntheothersideoftheIndianOcean,themoodwasverydifferent.Gandhihadbecomeahate-figureamongthewhitesofNatal,onaccountofwhathewassupposedtohavesaidinhistravelsinIndia.On23December,theNatalAdvertiserprintedapleaurgingswiftactionagainstthe‘greatGandhi[who]hasarrivedattheheadoftheadvancedguardoftheIndianarmyofinvasion–thearmythatistodispossessusofourcountryandourhomes…Wemustbeupanddoing,andmakeourarrangementssoastobeabletogivetheinvadersafittingreception.’33
Aweeklater,thesamenewspaperrevealedtheplanofactiondecideduponbythehostilewhitesofDurban.OnthedaytheIndiansdisembarked,theywouldbemetattheportbyamassofEuropeans,formedin‘humanlinesthreeorfourdeep’which,‘withlockedhandsandarms’,would‘offeracompletebartotheimmigrants’.34
TheangeragainstGandhiandcompanywascompoundedbyaparanoiaaboutthegermstheyallegedlycarried.Thedoctorswhocameaboardthetwoshipssaidtheycouldnotyetallowthemtoland;intheirview,plaguegermstookthreeweekstoincubate,anditwasbettertowaitandwatch.Theships’captainswereinstructedtohavethedeckswashedandcleaneddailywithamixtureofwaterandcarbolicacid.Sulphurfireswerekeptburningdayandnighttocleansethepassengersandtheirpossessionsofanyremnantsofthedreadedgerms.35
ArumourreachedDurbanthattheIndiansonboardwouldsuetheGovernmentofNatalforillegaldetention.Swallowingtherumourwhole,alocal
newspaperconcludedthatGandhi’skeenlegalinstinctshavescentedasplendidbrieftooccupyhimselfimmediatelyonhisreleasefromthe‘durancevile’ofthequarantineandpurifyingeffectsofthecarbolicbath.ThelargesumofmoneysaidtohavebeensubscribedforthepurposewouldnaturallygotoMrGandhiwhetherthecasewaswonorlost,andnothinginfactcouldsuitthegentlemanbetterthansuchaninterestingcase
todevotehisattentiontoimmediatelyhegotonshore.36
ThisrepresentationofGandhiasamalevolent,money-grubbinglawyerfurtherconsolidatedtheanti-Indiansentimentsonshore.On4January1897,some1,500whitesgatheredforameetinginDurban’sMarketSquare.Asthechairman,acertainHarrySparks–theownerofabutcher’sshop–movedintohischair,itbegantorain.HedecidedtoshiftthemeetingtotheTownHallnearby.Thereupon
aunanimousandspontaneousmovewasmadeinthedirectionofthemunicipalhall,theverandahsandspaceimmediatelyaroundthemainentrancebeingquicklythrongedwithasurgingcrowdofinterestedandenthusiasticburgesses.Somelittletimeelapsedbeforethegateswereopened,butinthemeantimethelightswereswitchedon,andinafewminutesafterthegateswerethrownopenthecentralhallwasthrongedfromfloortoceiling.TheaudiencewhenMrSparksresumedthechair
musthavenumbered2,000…37
ThemeetingcalledupontheGovernmenttosendthetwoshipsbacktoIndia,andtodisallowallIndiansotherthanindenturedlabourersfromenteringNatal.Avoiceinthecrowdshouted:‘LetthemtakeGandhiwiththem!’Themainspeaker,aDrMcKenzie,
relievedhimselffreelyofhisopinionaboutthemischievousMrGandhi…[H]esaidMrGandhihadgoneawaytodragourreputationintheguttersofIndia,andhehadpaintedNatalasblackandfilthyashisownskin…MrGandhihadcometothecolonytotakeeverythingthatwasfairandgood,andhehadgoneoutofittoblackguardthehospitalitywithwhichhehadbeenindulged.TheywouldteachMrGandhithattheyreadfromhisactionsthathewasnotsatisfiedwithwhattheyhadgivenhimandwantedsomethingmore.Theywouldgivehimsomethingmore.
TheshipscarryingIndianstoDurban,allegedDrMcKenzie,werepartofalargerconspiracytooverturntheracialorderinNatal.
Itwastheintentionofthesefacileanddelicatecreaturestomakethemselvesproprietorsoftheonlythingthattherulersofthiscountryhadwithheldfromthem–thefranchise.ItwastheirintentiontoputthemselvesinparliamentandlegislatefortheEuropeans;totakeoverthehousehold
management,andputtheEuropeansinthekitchen.38
ThreedayslaterthewhitesofDurbanheldanothermeeting.DrMcKenziewasoncemoretheleadspeaker.‘TheIndianOceanwastheproperplacefor
theseIndians(applause),’hebegan.Thewhites‘werenotgoingtodisputetheirrighttothewaterthere;buttheymustbecarefulthattheydidnotgivethemtherighttothelandadjoiningthatocean(applause).’39Thismeeting,evenbiggerandmorepassionatethanthelast,demonstrated(accordingtotheNatalMercury)that
MrGandhihasmadeabigmistakeinimaginingthattheEuropeansofNatalwouldsitstillwhileheorganisedanindependentemigrationagencyinIndiatolandhiscountrymenhereattherateoffrom1,000to2,000permonth…Despitehiscleverness,[Gandhi]hasmadeasorrymistake…Ourforefatherswonthiscountryatthepointofthesword,andleftusthecountryasourbirthrightand
heritage.Thatbirthrightwehavetohanddownasitwashandeddowntous.’40
Aphrase,andheadline,muchfavouredbytheNatalpapersinthelastweeksof1896was‘Asiaticinvasion’.Thecolonistsfearedthatthefewhundredpassengerswaitingoffthecoastwerethebeginningsoflarge-scaleimmigrationthatwoulddecisivelyalterthedemographicprofileofNatal.Onemanwaspresumedtobeattheheadofthehorde:thelawyer,MohandasKaramchandGandhi.GandhiwasreadingtheNatalnewspapers,whichcameaboarddaily,courtesy
ofthesupplyboats.Healsogotnewsofthemoodonshorefromletterssentbyfriends.AnEnglishlawyerwrotetoGandhion8Januarythatifhedecidedtocomeofftheboathewould‘beroughlyhandled’.Infact‘thepublicfeelingagainstyourself,andthelandingofthefreeIndians…issogreatthatIbegintodoubtifyouwillmakeitashore.’InGandhi’sabsence,theEnglishmanwasassistinghisclients,andaskedhimtosendachequenowtocoverhisfees.ForitseemedquitelikelythattheNaderiandtheCourlandwouldbeforcedtoreturntoBombaywiththeirpassengers,whoweresounwelcomeinNatal.41
Theshipshadbeenmooredoffshoreforsometwentydays.InDurban,a‘EuropeanProtectionAssociation’wasformedtoresisttheAsiaticinvasion.TheAssociation’sfirstmeetingwasheldon10January.Whenonespeakersaidthatthe‘mouthpiece’oftheIndians‘wasagentlemanofthenameofGhandhi[sic]’,avoicefromthecrowdinterjected:‘Don’tsayagentleman’.ArumourspreadthatGandhiwascowedbytheprotests;onenewspaperevenclaimingthat‘someoftheofficialswhovisitedthevesselsthismorningreportthatMrGandhiandtheIndiansonboardareinastateof“funk”,andseveralwerepleadingtobetakenbacktoIndiadirect.’
On11January,areporteroftheNatalAdvertiserwentonboardtheSSNaderitointerviewthecaptain.Therewere,hefound,356passengersonboard,including‘infantsinarms’;andcontrarytothefearsonshore,therewerenoartisansamongthem.Tothequestion,‘HowdothepassengerslookuponGandhi?’thecaptainanswered:‘ThereisnotamanonboardtheseshipswhoknewGandhiuntiltheylandedhere.Ineverheardofhimeither,andonlyreadhispamphletduringmyquarantine.’42
ThenextdaythereporterobtainedaninterviewwithGandhihimself.Thelawyerrefutedtherumoursthattherewereblacksmithsandcarpentersonboard,andthathewasimportingaprintingpress.MostofthepassengerswereNatalresidents,returningafteraholidayinIndia.Thenewcomersweretraders,shopkeeper’sassistants,andhawkers.Andhehad‘absolutelynothingwhatevertodo’withbringingtheseotherpassengerstoNatal.GandhidrewattentiontothewiderImperialdimensionsofthecontroversy.
‘EveryBritisherisagreed,’heremarked,thatthegloryoftheBritishEmpiredependsontheretentionoftheIndianEmpireandonthefaceofthis,itlooksveryunpatrioticoftheColonistsofNatal,whoseprosperitydependsnotalittleontheintroductionoftheIndians,tosovigorouslyprotestagainsttheintroductionoffreeIndians.Thepolicyofexclusionisobsolete,andColonistsshouldadmitIndianstothefranchiseand,atthesametime,inpointsinwhichtheyarenotfullycivilized,Colonistsshouldhelpthemtobecomemorecivilized.That,Icertainlythink,shouldbethepolicyfollowedthroughouttheColonies,ifallthepartsoftheBritishEmpirearetoremaininharmony.
‘Whatisyourobjectincomingback?’,thereporterasked.Gandhireplied,Idonotreturnherewiththeintentionofmakingmoney,butofactingasahumbleinterpreterbetweenthetwocommunities[ofEuropeansandIndians].Thereisagreatmisunderstandingbetweenthetwocommunities,andIshallendeavourtofulfilltheofficeofinterpretersolongasboth
thecommunitiesdonotobjecttomypresence.’43
Durbanhasasuperbnaturalharbour,astretchofshelteredwaternestlingbetweenastripoflandknownasthe‘Point’andawoodedhillknownasthe‘Bluff’.Therewasabarofmovingsandattheharbour’sentrance;thiswasanimpedimenttobigships,butinotherwayscontributedtothesafetyoftheharbour.Whentheportwasfirstestablished,thedepthofwateroverthesandbarwasonlyfourfeetatlowtide.Overthedecades,dredginghadincreasedthedepth,butin1897itwasstillimpossibleforoceanlinerstoenterwithease.So
theydroppedanchoroutatsea,transferringtheirpassengersandcargoontosmallervesselsthatthennegotiatedthebartoentertheharbourwithin.44
On12January1897,theauthoritiesfinallyallowedtheshipsfromIndiatosendtheirpassengersashore.ThecaptainsoftheNaderiandCourlandwereaskedtocommencelandingoperationsthenextmorning.ThedecisionwaspromptedbyappealsbytheViceroyinIndiaandtheSecretaryofStatefortheColoniesinLondon,whowarnedthattheagitationinNatalhadputaquestionmarkonimperialharmonyintheDiamondJubileeofQueenVictoria’sreign.45
Wordofthecompromise–orcapitulation–reachedthewhiteprotestersinDurban.Onthemorningofthe13th,theybeganstreamingdownfromthetowntothePoint,marchingingroupsdefinedbytrade–therailwaymentogether,thentheblacksmiths,thecarpenters,themechanics,theshopassistants,thetailors,thebricklayers,andfinallyanumberofunaffiliatedwhitesreferredtointhenewspaperreportsasthe‘generalpublic’.Morethan5,000Europeanshadrespondedtothecall.Therewasalsoa‘nativesection’ofabout500Africans;adwarfwasappointedtoleadthem,who(tothewhites’delight)‘marchedupanddowninfrontoftheirranksofficeringthem,whiletheywentthroughanumberofexerciseswiththeirsticks,anddancedandwhooped.’46
Hearingofthedemonstration,theAttorney-GeneralofNatal,HarryEscombe,rusheddowntothePoint.Escombewasalittleman;tomakehimselfheard,heclimbedontopofaheapoflogsandsoughttopacifyanincreasinglyangrycrowd.Thepassengersonthetwoships,hesaid,wereinnocentmen(andwomenandchildren)whodidnotknowofthestrongfeelingsinNatal.Heurgedthecrowdtobe‘quiet,manlyandresolute’,toabjure‘hasteandhysterics’,andtohavetrustintheirGovernment.Natalwasandwouldremainawhitecolony.AnearlysessionofParliamentwouldbeconvened,topasslegislationkeepingoutAsiatics.Escombe’spleaswereansweredwithshoutsof‘SendtheIndiansback!’and‘BringGandhiashore,lethimcomehereforallthetarandfeathers!’Escombeagainurgedthecrowdtodispersepeacefully.Thiswasthesixtieth
yearofQueenVictoria’sreignand‘intheautumnofherlifeitshouldneverbesaidthatanythingwhichtookplaceinNatalcausedtheleastsorroworsadnessintheheartofthatgreatSovereign.’TheappealtoImperialhonourhadsomeeffect,forthecrowdbegantoquietendown,andslowly,tomeltaway.47
Throughtheday,boatscarryingpassengersfromtheNaderiandCourlandcameoverthesandbarintotheharbour.Asagestureofappeasement,theownershadruntheUnionJackupattheheadoftheships.ThepassengersquietlydisembarkedandmadetheirwayintotheIndianareasofthecity.Kasturbaandthechildrenwerenowsafelyashore,butGandhiwasstillontheNaderi,wherehehadbeenjoinedbyhisfriend,theDurbansolicitorF.A.Laughton.TheAttorney-GeneralhadsentwordthatitmightbebetterforGandhitocomeashoreafterdusk,butLaughtondidnotliketheideaofhis‘enteringthecitylikeathiefinthenight’.Inanycase,thingsappearedtohavequieteneddownonthePoint;thewhitesweresaidtohavedispersed,anditseemedsafeforthemtoland.48
TheboatcarryingGandhiandLaughtoncameashoreshortlybeforefiveintheafternoon.Asitcrossedthesandbar,thepassengerswouldhaveseen,ontheright,thecityofDurban;andontheleft,thelong,low,woodedhillknownastheBluff.Behindthemlaythemightyocean.Thiswasastrikinglandscape,whichatothertimesmighthavebeensavouredforpleasure.Butnow,withtheBluffononesideandahostilecityontheother,andtheoceanandhishomelandrecedingfurtherintothedistance,Gandhimaywellhavehadthefeelingofbeinghemmedin.Astheirboatwaslanding,somewhiteboysloiteringaboutrecognizedthe
Indianbarrister.Theysentwordtotheremnantsoftheretreatingcrowd,whohurriedbacktothePoint.LaughtonandGandhihailedarickshawandwereabouttostepintoit,whentheboyslaidholdofthewheels.Thebarristerstriedtogetintoanotherrickshaw,but,sensingthemood,thedriverwasunwillingtotakethem.GandhiandLaughtondecidedtowalkonwiththeirluggage.FromtheVictoriaEmbankmenttheywalkednorthwardsonStangerStreet,withacrowdofevergreaternumbersfollowingthem,hissingandjeering.ThentheytookaturntowardsWestStreet.WhentheynearedtheShip’sHotel–asitsnamesuggests,aplacefavouredbyseamen–GandhiandLaughtonweresurrounded,andtheformersetupon.TheIndianbecame‘theobjectofkicksandcuffs,whilemudandstalefishwerethrownathim.Onepersonalsoproducedariding-whip,andgavehimastroke,whileanotherpluckedawayathispeculiarhat.’Gandhiwasbeaten,butnotbowed.Bloodwasflowingdownhisneck,but
‘eye-witnessesstatethatheborehimselfstolidlyandpluckilythroughthetrying
ordeal.’Hewasrescuedfromthemobbyawhitelady,whousedherparasoltokeepawaytheattackers.Shewasthewifeofthelong-servingSuperintendentofPolice,R.C.Alexander.AlertedbysomeIndians,aposseofconstablesarrivedtorelieveGandhi–andMrsAlexander.SuperintendentAlexanderhimselffollowedsoonafter.ThepolicemensafelyconveyedGandhitoParseeRustomjee’sstoreinField
Street,lockingthedoorsfromtheinsideastheyentered.Outside,thecrowdcontinuedtobayfor(moreof)Gandhi’sblood.SuperintendentAlexander,nowjoinedbythedeputymayor,urgedthemtodisperse.Butmoreandmorewhitesbegantogatheraroundthestore;theyconstituted‘acompactmassofanti-Gandhites’.Accordingtoareporteronthespot,thecrowd‘toldtheSuperintendentwhata
finefellowhewas,andalsoexactlytheirmodusoperandiofdealingwithGandhi.Theyhadabarreloftreaclequiteclose,andiftheSuperintendentwouldonlyconfideGandhitotheircare,theywouldundertakethatheshouldbehandedbacksafeandsound,iftreacledandsticky.’Thentheybegantosingasongbeginningwiththewords,‘We’llhangoldGandhionasourappletree.’Alexander,thinkingonhisfeet,devisedaplantospiritGandhitosafety.He
wentintothestoreandmadeGandhiexchangehisclothesfortheuniformofagovernmentpeon.Gandhi’sfacewasblackenedandcoveredwithamuffler.Then,escortedbytwodetectives,Gandhitookasidedooroutofthehouse,whichledintoParseeRustomjee’sgodown,fromwhichthetrioescapedintothestreetandhoppedintoacarriagethatconveyedthemtothepolicestation.Alittlelater,Alexanderhimselfemerged,totellthecrowdthatGandhiwas
notinside.Heinvitedadeputationtogoinandcheck.ThreemembersofthemobwentintoRustomjee’sstore,and‘reappearedwiththeintelligencethatwhereverGandhiwashecouldnotbefoundinthatbuilding.’Bynowitwaslateevening.Ithadbeguntorain.Astheshowerintensified,
‘theardentdesireofthecrowdtoseeMrGandhibegantowane,andinitsplaceadesirearosetofindamorecomfortableplacetodiscussthesituationthaninthemiddleofasomewhatsloppyroadinfrontofanIndianstoreintherain.’Sothecrowdfinallydispersed.Wheretheywentthereportsdonottellus.Itwasprobablyaplacewhichservedrefreshmentsotherthantea.49
On15January,theNatalMercurycarriedaneditorialentitled‘AftertheDemonstration’.ThisacceptedthattheattackonGandhiwas‘anundignifiedandunmanlyact’.Itthenproceededtolaytheblameonthevictim:
MrGandhihashimselfbeenverylargelyatfault.Hehasraisedthepassionsofthepeople,andknowingthisheoughttohavebeenbetteradvisedthantoattempttocomethroughtheverycentreof
thetownimmediatelyintherearofademonstrationhehadbeenlargelyinstrumentalincreating.50
ThiseditorialbroughtforthalongdefenceofGandhiandhismotivesbyF.A.Laughton.WhentheNaderiandtheCourlandlaymaroonedatsea,notedthebarrister,thewhitepressandpublicofNatalhadaccusedGandhiofmanyhorriblethings.Theyclaimedthat‘hehaddraggedourreputationsthroughtheguttersofIndia,andhadpaintedthemasblackandfilthyashisownface’.Theyclaimed‘hewasengaginghimselfonboardthequarantinedshipsingettingbriefsfrompassengersagainsttheGovernment’.Itwasallegedthathewasinafunk,tooafraidtocomeashore;accordingtoonerumour,hewas‘sittingonthedeckoftheCourlandinamostdejectedmood’;accordingtoanother,‘hewasstowedawayinthelowesthold.’InthetimehehadknownGandhi,Laughtonhad‘formedaveryhighopinion
ofhim’.HefoundGandhitobe‘bothinlegalmattersandontheAsiaticquestion,afairandhonourableopponent’.Hewaswellqualifiedto‘holdthepositionofleaderinagreatpoliticalquestioninwhichhiscountrymentakeasmuchinterestaswedo,andwhoareasmuchentitledtoventilatetheirpoliticalviewsasweare’.Now,whenhehadbeenrepeatedlyrepresentedasa‘cowardlycalumniator’,Gandhidecidedtocomeashore,soasto‘vindicatehimselfbeforethepublic’,sothat‘heshouldnotgivehisenemiesanopportunityofsayingthathewas“funkingit”.’Insteadofwaitingtillnightfall,Gandhichoseto‘facethemusiclikeamanandlikeapoliticalleader,and–givemeleavetosay–rightnoblydidhedoit’.Asafellowbarrister,LaughtondecidedtoaccompanytheIndian,and‘totestifybydoingsothatMrGandhiwasahonourablememberofahonourableprofession’.Laughtonactedashedid‘inprotestagainstthewayinwhichhe[Gandhi]hadbeentreated,andinthehopethatmypresencemightsavehimfrominsult’.Laughtonendedhisremarkableletterbyaskinghiscityandracetotenderan
apology.‘Durbanhasgrosslyinsultedthisman,’heinsisted:
IsayDurban,becauseDurbanraisedthestormandisanswerablefortheresult.Weareallhumiliatedatthetreatment[ofGandhi].Ourtraditionsconcerningfairplayappeartobeinthedust.Letusact,likegentlemen,and,howevermuchagainstthegrainitmaybe,expressregrethandsomelyand
generously.’51
LaughtonwasamongthefewEuropeansinDurbanwhosesympathieslaywithGandhiratherthanwiththemobthatsoughttolynchhim.OthersincludedtheSuperintendentofPolice,R.C.Alexander,andhiswife,Jane.Aweekafterthecouplehadsavedhisskin,Gandhisentthemanoteofthanks,withapresent.Theletterisnotavailable,nordoweknowwhatGandhi’sgiftwas.Whatsurvivesarethecouple’sreplies.MrsAlexandersaidthatherpreventingfurtherinjurywithherparasol‘innowayatone[s]forthegrossinjusticedoneyoubymycountrymen’.Shewouldhavelikedtoreturnthegift,butfeltthat‘wouldbebutaddinganotherinsult,tothemanyyouhavehadtoenduresinceyourreturn’.Asforthepolicechief,hethoughtthathehadnotdoneenoughtoprotect
Gandhi.‘Iamverysorryindeed,’hewrote,‘thatIhadnotsufficientforceatmyback,todothatdutywithoutinflictinguponyouandyours,furtherdegradation,bycompellingyoutoescapethemob,inthedisguiseofonesoveryfarbeneathyou.’HetrustedthatGandhi,‘likeourownProphet,whenplacedunderasimilartrial,willforgiveyouraccusers,fortheyknownotwhattheydid’.52
GandhiwasdeeplytouchedbythesupportofLaughtonandtheAlexanders.Meanwhile,anotherEuropeanresidentofDurban,whomweknowonlybyhisinitials(‘D.B.’),wrotesympatheticallyofGandhi’spredicamentinanessayfortheradicalNewYorkweekly,TheNation.ThisusedthemobrageinDurbantoprobethequestion–whoweremorereactionaryinracialmatters,theBritishortheAmericans?Inthemiddleofthenineteenthcentury,said‘D.B.’,theBritishwereseenas
progressiveimperialists,whohadabolishedslaveryandpromotedfreetrade.Theirempirewas‘freetoeverynationality,andwithinitsconfineswasknownnodistinction,GreeknorJew,circumcisionnoruncircumcision,Barbarian,Scythian,bondnorfree’.Butsoonthingschanged.‘UnderthestressoftheIndianmutiny[of1857]andtheJamaicanrebellion[of1865],wedevelopedabrutalityasgreataswasevershownbyacivilizedpeople,andwhichmenofthehighestculturetriedtojustify’.Colonyaftercolonyadoptedprotectionistpolicies,suppressingnativepeoplesandkeepingoutColouredimmigrants,erectingracialbarriersassharpasintheAmericanSouth.
BritishhypocrisywasmanifestmoststronglyinSouthAfrica,wherethetreatmentofIndianswas‘flagrantlyincontraventionofthetheoryofanempireguaranteeingequalrightsandimmunitiestoallsubjects’.‘D.B.’summarizedthepamphletswrittenby‘M.K.Gandhi,aHindubarrister’,whichhad‘strikinglyforceduponpublicattention’thedisabilitiesofIndiansubjectsoftheEmpire.Gandhiwasrewardedwithmobfuryandanattemptonhislife.Theattackanditswiderimplicationswereoutlinedby‘D.B.’intworesonantparagraphs:
Inthetreatmentmetedoutto[Gandhi]onhisreturntoNatal,atthehandsofthepeoplewhoseconducttowardshiscountrymenhehadexposed,weareremindedofearlyabolitiondaysintheUnitedStates.Whenhissteamerwassignaledacrowdofindignantwhitescollected,whomobbedhim,uponhislanding,withstonesandbeating.Atlength,rescuedandtakentoafriend’shouse,stonesandmissileswerethrownagainstit,whileseveralstumpspeechesweremade.NeithergreatbranchoftheEnglish-speakingfamilycan,intruth,plumeitselfuponitspeculiar
innatevirtuesorimmunityfromfailings.Atthesametime,theConstitutionoftheUnitedStates,withequallaws(brokenoroutraged,itistrue,bysectionalprejudices)wouldappearlikelymorerapidlytotendtowardsequallibertyandequalrightsthantheConstitutionoftheBritishEmpire,underwhichimperialprejudicesanddifferencesofrightsandimmunitiesaresanctionedbyunequallaws.
ThiswasalmostcertainlythefirstmentionofGandhiintheAmericanpress,presagingtheextensivecoverageofhisactivitiesasaniconicnationalistleaderinthe1920sand1930s.GandhiwasaccustomedtohavinghisnamesmearedandmuddiedinthenewspapersofNatal.TheoccasionalpositivereferencesintheIndianpressprovidedsomeconsolation.HadheseenthispieceinTheNationhewouldsurelyhavebeenmorecheeredstill.53
F.A.Laughton,theAlexandersand‘D.B.’werevoicesatoncelonelyandbrave.MorecharacteristicofthewhitemoodwasacommentintheTimesofNatal,whichthoughtGandhi‘showedimmensefollyinlandingduringdaylightwhilethetownwasstillboilingwithexcitement’.ThenewspaperwasoftheviewthatthecityofDurban,insteadofbeingchastisedorcondemned,wasrather‘tobecongratulated.HercitizenshavemosteffectivelydemonstratedthattheyareaversetothebiginfluxofIndians…Durban,byheragitationagainsttheinvasion,hasdrawnspecialattentiontothesubject,andfordoingsodeservesthethanksofallcolonists.’54
On17February1897,fourweeksafterGandhifinallylandedinDurban,thebutcherHarrySparks(theprimeinstigatorofthemobthatattackedthelawyer)
convenedafreshmeetingofhostileEuropeansintheTownHall.ThispressedforabillprohibitingtheimmigrationofIndiansnotunderindenture.Sparkssaid‘hewasperfectlywillingtolaydownhislifeforhishome’.AnotherspeakerdemandedtheImperialGovernmentnottreatNatalas‘adumpinggroundfortherefuseofIndia’.Athirdspeakersaid
agreatdealhasbeenmadeofMrGandhiinthematter.TheywouldfindthatGandhiwassupportedbyonly50or60peopleinDurban,andtherehadbeennomeetingofmorethan150AsiaticsinDurban.ForMrGandhiandhiscommitteetosaytheyrepresentedthe50,000IndiansintheColony
wasutterbosh.55
ThreeandahalfyearsbeforetheattackonhimatthePointinDurban,MohandasGandhihadbeenthrownoutofafirst-classcarriageatPietermaritzburgRailwayStation.Thelatterepisodeiswellknown–perhapstoowellknown.IfthereisonethinganyoneanywhereknowsaboutGandhiinSouthAfrica,itisthisincident.Onebookandonefilmlargelyaccountforthis.In1951,LouisFischerpublishedTheLifeofMahatmaGandhi,whichdrewontheauthor’sacquaintancewithhissubjectinthelastdecadeofhislife.Thispersonalintimacyandtheevocativeprosemakeforacompellingnarrative,andthebookhasalwaysbeeninprintsinceitsfirstpublication.FischertermedGandhi’sejectionfromthefirst-classcarriagethemost
‘creative’experienceinhislife;‘thatbitternightinMaritzburg,’heclaimed,‘thegermofsocialprotestwasborninGandhi.’Gandhi’saccount,inhisownautobiography,wasembellishedinoneintenselychargedparagraph,where,imaginativelyputtinghimselfintheshoesofthevictim,Fischerwrites:
ShouldhereturntoIndia?Thisepisodereflectedamuchlargersituation.Shouldheaddresshimselftoitormerelyseekredressofhispersonalgrievance,finishthecase,andgohometoIndia?Hehadencounteredthedreaddiseaseofcolourprejudice.Toflee,leavinghiscountrymenintheirpredicament,wouldbecowardice.ThefraillawyerbegantoseehimselfintheroleofaDavid
assailingtheGoliathofracialdiscrimination.56
ThisaccountwasthendramatizedforasecondtimeinRichardAtttenborough’sblockbusterfilmGandhi,which(forthisandotherepisodes)tookFischer’sbookasitsmainsource.ThefilmbeginswithGandhi’sassassinationin1948andthengoesstraightbacktohisejectionfromthetrainin1893,makingitthefirstmajormomentintheMahatma’slifeandcareer.Based,therefore,onapopularbookandanevenmorepopularfilm,thestandardnarrativeofGandhi’slifedrawsa
straight,clearlinefromtheincidentatthetrainstationontothemassmovementshelaterledinSouthAfricaandinIndia.ThefactsabouttheDurbanattackanditsprelude(tillnowlargelyunknown)
makethelinemorejagged,morecontingent,andmoretrue.WhenhewasthrownoutofthecompartmentinPietermaritzburg,Gandhisufferednophysicalharm.Hesoonproceededonhisjourney.InDurbanhewasbeatenblackandblue.Thecrucialdifference,however,isthis:inthetrain,Gandhiwasthevictimofoneperson’sracism,expressedatonetimealone.OffthecoastandwhenhelandedinDurban,hewasthetargetofthecollectiveangerof(virtually)allthewhitesinNatal,expressedcontinuouslyforseveralweeksatastretch.TheattackinDurbanwasfarmoreimportantthantheinsultin
Pietermaritzburg;morerevealingoftheracialpoliticsofSouthAfricaandofthechallengesfacedbyMohandasGandhihimself.
6
Lawyer-Loyalist
InMarch1897HarryEscombewaselectedPrimeMinisterofNatal,theculminationofalongcareerintheserviceofthecolony.BorninLondonin1838,EscombearrivedinDurbanasayoungmanandsoonbecametheleadinglightofitslegalfraternity.Healsomadesignificantcontributionsoutsidethelaw;forinstance,aschairmanoftheNatalHarbourBoard,hesupervisedtheremovalofthesandbarthatimpededtheentryofshipsintoDurbanharbour.1
Asapractisinglawyer,EscombehadrepresentedIndiansbothinNatalandtheTransvaal.HehadeventakenbriefsforDadaAbdullaandCompany.ItwashewhorecommendedGandhitotheNatalBar.Thetwomenmetincourtandonthestreet,forEscombelivedastone’sthrowawayfromGandhi’shomeinBeachGrove.Whilefriendlyenoughonanindividuallevel,asapoliticianrepresentinga
whiteelectorateEscombehadambivalentfeelingsaboutIndians.In1890,justafterhehadenteredParliament,hewaswalkinghomewhenawhitemechanicstoppedandwarnedhimthat‘ifyoudonotvotefortheexclusionoftheIndian,outyouwillgo.’Theencountermadehimmoreproactive;thus,supportingthe£3taxinMay1895,hesaidinParliamentthatitwasnecessaryto‘putanIndianonhisguard’.ThetaxmetthewishofwhiteNatalians‘thattheIndiansaretocomehereappreciatedaslabourers,butnotwelcomedassettlersandcompetitors’.2
Theanti-Indianandanti-Gandhidemonstrationsof1896–7consolidatedEscombe’sviews.Whenhebecameprimeminister,hisgovernmentproposedthreenewActs.Thefirstallowedthecolonytodeportpassengerscomingfromplaceswhereplagueorotherepidemicscurrentlyraged.Theseconddeclaredasa‘prohibitedimmigrant’anyonewhocouldnotsignhisnameinaEuropeanlanguage.Thethirdgavetownboardsthelibertytodenyorrefusetorenew
tradinglicencestothosewhodidnotkeeptheirbooksinEnglish,orwhosepremiseswere‘unprovidedwithproperandsufficientsanitaryarrangements’.3
Thewords‘Indian’or‘Asiatic’didnotappearintheActs.Buttherewasnomistakingwhomtheywereaimedat.Introducingthenewlegislation,thePrimeMinistersaiditwasrequiredtomaintainNatal,‘asfarasitispossible,asaBritishColony’,andsaveitfrombeing‘submergedunderanAsiaticwaveofimmigration’.Escombecontinued:
WeourselveshavebroughtintothisColony50,000Indians,andotherIndiansto-dayfollowintheirtrainbecauseofthestorieswhichgofromheretotheirnativevillagestotheeffectthatNatalisaparadiseforIndians.Anditis.AndifyouaretoallowthemtomakeitaparadiseforIndians,you
willfindthat,asfarasEuropeansareconcerned,itisanexactantipodesofparadise.4
Inthefirstmonthsof1897,theParsilawyerF.S.TaleyarkhanwroteseveralletterstoGandhiaskingwhenheshouldcomeouttoDurban.InearlyMarch,Gandhiwrotebackwondering‘whetheritwouldbeadvisable,inthepresentstateofpublicfeeling,foryoutolandinNatalasapublicman.Suchaman’slifeinNatalis,atpresent,indanger.Iamcertainlygladyoudidnotaccompanyme.’5Havingjustexperiencedanattackonhislife,herefusedtoexposehisfriendtotheriskofmovingtoNatal.Twoweekslater,GandhiwrotealonglettertotheNatalMercury,hisfirst
publicstatementafterhisreturn.HedeniedthatinIndiahehad‘blackenedthecharacteroftheColonists’,deniedthathewishedtoswampthecolonywithIndians,deniedthathehadanypoliticalambitionwhatsoever.HewasinNatal
nottosowdissensionsbetweenthetwocommunities[ofIndiansandEuropeans],buttoendeavourtobringaboutahonourablereconciliationbetweenthem…IhavebeentaughttobelievethatBritainandIndiacanremaintogetherforanylengthoftimeonlyifthereisacommonfellowfeelingbetweenthetwopeoples.ThegreatestmindsintheBritishIslesandIndiaarestrivingtomeetthatideal.Iambuthumblyfollowingintheirfootsteps,andfeelthatthepresentactionoftheEuropeansinNataliscalculatedtoretard,ifnotaltogethertofrustrate,itsrealization.
HewentontodeploretherecentintroductionofBillsintheNatalParliament‘prejudicallyaffectingtheinterestsoftheIndians’.6
ThislettertothepresswasaccompaniedbyaformalpetitiontotheNatalLegislativeAssembly(thelowerhouseofthecolony’sparliament).Despitetheirapparentneutralityintermsofrace,saidGandhi,thenewActsweredesigned‘tooperateagainsttheIndiancommunityalone’.Thoserefusedlicenceswere
deniedtherighttoappealincourt.This‘wouldbedeemedanarbitrarymeasureinanypartofthecivilizedworld’.7
Whenthecolonistswereunmoved,theNatalIndianCongresswrotetotheColonialSecretaryJosephChamberlain,protestingagainsttheBillsdraftedtokeepouttheircompatriots.ItpointedoutthatamanlearnedinIndianlanguageswouldnotbeallowedtolandinthecolony,merelybecausehecouldnotwritehisnameinEnglish.8
Chamberlaindoesnotappeartohaverepliedtotheletter.HewasinclinedtorecommendtoHerMajestythatshegrantassenttothebill.SpeakingtoagatheringofcolonialprimeministersinLondon,Chamberlainsaidhe‘quitesympathize[d]withthedeterminationofthewhiteinhabitantsoftheseColonieswhichareincomparativelycloseproximitytomillionsandhundredsofmillionsofAsiaticsthatthereshallnotbeaninfluxofpeoplealienincivilization,alieninreligion,alienincustoms’.WhenthisspeechwasreproducedintheNatalpapers,Gandhiwroteto
DadabhaiNaorojiinalarm.TheColonialSecretaryhad‘completelygivenuptheIndiancauseandyieldedtotheclamourofthedifferentColonies’.‘Wearepowerless,’wroteGandhitotheacknowledgedleaderoftheIndiancommunityintheUK:‘Weleavethecaseinyourhands.Ouronlyhopeliesinyouragainbestirringyourselfwithredoubledvigourinourfavour.’9
NaorojisoughtanappoinmentwithChamberlainbutwasdeniedone.Hethenwrotetohimwithacertainresignation.‘AllIask,’hesaid,‘isthatwearerepeatedlytoldthatweareBritishsubjects,justasmuchastheQueen’ssubjectsinthiscountryarenotslaves,andIalwayslookforwardwithhopetoafulfilmentofthesepledgesandProclamations.’10Pre-eminentamongthesepledgeswasonemadebyQueenVictoriawhentheBritishGovernmentdirectlyassumedchargeofIndiain1858.ThissaidtheCrownandtheEmpirewere
boundtothenativesofourIndianterritoriesbythesameobligationsofdutywhichbindustoallourothersubjects,andthoseobligations,bytheblessingsofAlmightyGod,weshallfaithfullyandconscientiouslyfulfil…Anditisourfurtherwillthat,sofarasmaybe,oursubjects,ofwhateverraceorcreed,befreelyandimpartiallyadmittedtoofficesinourservice,thedutiesofwhichthey
maybequalified,bytheireducation,ability,andintegrity,dulytodischarge.11
TheNatalActswere,asNaorojinowremindedChamberlain,inclearviolationofthisproclamation.
InSeptember1897,ariftinhispartyledtoHarryEscomberesigningasprimeminister.Beforeleavingoffice,hewrotetoGandhiaskinghim‘toconveytotheIndiansthevalueIsetontheirgoodopinion’.Thenheaddedapersonaltouch:‘Ithankyou,’heremarked,‘forinbringingmeintoclosertouchwiththem,youhaveallowedustounderstandoneanotherandthisinitselfisagreatgain.’12
InviewofthediscriminatorylegislationthatEscombehad,justafewmonthspreviously,passedthroughtheNatalParliament,thiswasmorethanatrifledisingenuous.CoulditbethatevenifhecouldnotabideIndiansasfellowcitizens,hemightyetneedthemasclientsincourt?Onecannotsayforcertain,forbeforetheyearwasout,Escombewasdead.
ThehouseinBeachGrovewhereGandhioncelivedalonewasnowalsohometohiswifeandchildren.ThiswasthefirsttimeinthefifteenyearsoftheirmarriagethatKasturbaandhewererunningahousetogether.InRajkottheyhadlivedinatraditionaljointfamilyset-up,inatwo-storeybuildingknownas‘KabaGandhinoDelo’.Thepatriarchafterwhomitwasnameddiedin1885,buthischildrenhadlivedonthere,nowwiththeirchildren.Thehousehadmanyroomsbutasinglekitchen.HarilalandManilalplayedwiththeircousinsinthecourtyardandinthestreets,andregardedthem,aswasthecustom,asbrothers.Atmealtimesandatbedtime,theywerelookedafterbytheirauntsaswellastheirmother.Now,inDurban,theGandhiswerelearningtoliveasanuclearfamily,withKasturbainsolechargeofthekitchenandofherboystoo.Everymorning,Gandhilefthiswifeandchildrentogotohislawoffice,
whichwasinacolumnedarcadeknownasMercuryLane.Hischamberswereoppositetheofficeofthecity’smajornewspaper,theNatalMercury.13SomedetailsofMohandasGandhi’slawpracticearecontainedinasetoffileskeptinthepublicarchivesinthecapitalofNatal,Pietermaritzburg.14Muchofhisworkhadtodowithgettingpassesandpermits.ThetravelandresidencyrequirementsforIndiansinNatalwereincreasinglyonerous;Gandhi’sjobwastoeffectatemporary,case-by-case,relaxation.AmerchantfromtheCapewantedtovisithispartnerinDurban;Gandhiwroteonhisbehalfaskingforaone-monthpass.PassengersenroutetoIndiaweremaroonedintheharbour;Gandhiaskedthattheybeallowedtoseethecityandreturntotheirshipatnight.Atraderwished
toreturntoIndiaforaspell;Gandhiaskedforapassforhisbrother,whowouldstandinforhiminthebusiness.ThenamesofGandhi’sclients–Dadabhai,Mutale,Munisamy,Hassanjee,
Rustomjee,Appasamy,Naidoo,EdwardNundy,Thakarsi–revealtheirvaryingaffiliations.TheycamefromParsi,Hindu,MuslimandChristianhomes,andspokeGujarati,Urdu,Hindi,TeluguandTamil.Therangeofcaseswaslikewiseimpressive.AnIndianwhowasagoodtypistwishedtoentertheCivilService;Gandhiaskedthathebeaccommodatedwhenavacancyarose.AqualifiedIndiandoctorasked,viaGandhi,toberegisteredasamedicalpractitionerinNatal.AnIndianmerchanthadbeenattackedandrobbedbyEuropeans;hisassailantswerearrestedandthenjumpedbail.Gandhiaskedthathisclientbecompensatedfromtheamountforfeited.AparticularlyinterestingcasewasofMahomedHoosen,thebrotherofan
IndianmerchantinLadysmith.Hoosenwasbornwithonlyonearmandoneleg.HelivedinGujarat,whilehisfamilyprosperedinNatal.InSeptember1899,GandhirequestedpermissionforHoosentojointhemoncompassionategrounds.Thefamily,hesaid,wantedto‘havehimbytheirsidesoasnotonlytosaveexpensebutalsotoaffordwhatconsolationMahomedHoosencanderivefrombeingwiththem.’Hetellinglyadded:‘Thewishinmyhumbleopinionisnaturalandreasonable.ItdoesnotcomeintoconflictwiththeintentionofthelegislaturenamelytorestricttheinfluxofAsiaticcompetitors.’(Unfortunately,therecordsdon’ttelluswhetherMahomedHoosenwasallowedtojoinhisfamily.)TherangeofGandhi’sprofessionalcontactsisalsorevealedinalogbookof
letterssentandreceivedbyhisoffice.HisEuropeancorrespondentsincludedaForbes,aFairfieldandaFraser,probablyalllawyers,aswerehisoldfriendsA.W.BakerandF.A.Laughton(alsolistedhere).Otherswereplanters,aW.R.HindsonandaD.Vindenamongthem.AmongthelettersfromoverseaswereseveralfromDadabhaiNaoroji.ThenamesofGujaratimerchantsinDurbanarenotasplentifulasonemightexpect–thismaybebecauseonlylettersinEnglisharelisted,andGandhi’sdealingswithhiscompatriotswerelargelyintheirownlanguage.ThereisalsosomecorrespondencewiththeProtectorofImmigrants,most
likelyaboutthetreatmentofindenturedlabourers.AnAnglo-Indiansupervisor
attheEsperanzasugarestatehadwrittentoGandhiaboutthecrueltreatmentofthecooliesthere.Theyweremadetoworkverylonghours,inthecoldandinthepouringrain.Iftheycomplainedtheywerebeatenup.Thesupervisorhad‘neverseenanimalstreatedastheseunfortunatecreaturesare’.HeaskedGandhitoraisethematterwiththeProtector,withoutmentioninghisinformant’sname.15
ThelogbookrunsfromJanuary1895toMarch1898.ThemostintriguingentriesaretwolettersarefromacertainM.A.Jinnah.Thisistheman,alsoaGujaratilawyertrainedinLondon,who,inthe1930sand1940s,becameGandhi’smostimplacableIndianadversary.HistorianshavedemonstratedthatJinnahknewofGandhi’spublicworkinSouthAfricafromabout1908.Butinfact,asthislogbook(discreetlytuckedaway,withallofGandhi’sincomingcorrespondence,inacupboardattheSabarmatiAshraminAhmedabad)reveals,theyhadfirstbeenincontactafulldecadeearlier.16
Theselettersaredated21Januaryand24July1897.Thecontentsareunknown,but,fromwhatweotherwiseknowofthetwomen’slives,somespeculationmaybeinorder.CouldJinnah’sfirstletterhavebeenamessageofsupportonhearingofthebrutalattackonGandhiatthePointinDurban?OrmightbothlettershavebeenexplorationsofinterestinapossiblecareerinSouthAfrica?In1896,JinnahreturnedfromLondontohishometown,Karachi.Soon
afterwards,hemovedtoBombay.There,likeGandhisomeyearspreviously,hefoundithardtoestablishanindependentlawpractice.WeknowthatGandhiwaskeentobringsomebarristerstoNataltohelphim,hencehisinvitationtotheParsilawyertrainedinLondon,F.S.Taleyarkhan.JinnahmayverywellhaveknownTaleyarkhaninLondonandBombay,andthushaveknownoftheopportunitiesacrosstheocean.DidheapproachGandhitofindouthowtoproceed?OrdidGandhiaskhiminthefirstplace?JinnahwasaGujaratiMuslim,intermsofpersonalandprofessionalbackgroundextremelywellqualifiedtoworkasalawyeramongtheIndiansofNatal.ThatJinnahwrotetoGandhitocommiserateonhisinjuriesisplausible;that
hewrotetoaskwhethertheycouldforgealegalpartnershiptogetherinSouthAfricaisnotentirelyimpossible.Butwemustspeculatenomore.Allwenowknowisthat,afullfiftyyearsbeforePartitionandtheindependenceofIndiaandPakistan,therespective‘Fathers’ofthosenationswereincorrespondence.
Gandhi’sskillsincourtwereadmiredbytheEuropeanswhoopposedhim.Inacaseofbankruptcy,herepresentedonecreditor,whileawhitelawyernamedR.H.Tathamrepresentedanother.WhenGandhi’sproposaltosellthedebtor’sbusinesswasacceptedoveranalternateproposalofferedbyTatham,thelatterjokinglyremarked:‘Gandhi’ssupreme.Thetriumphofblackoverwhiteagain.’17
Theyounglawyer’sworkmadeanimpressionontwovisitorsfromoverseas.InMarch1897,thetravellerandsoldierFrancisYounghusbandcametoNatal.HemetGandhi,whomhedescribedas‘thespokesmanoftheIndiancommunityandthebuttofthe[white]agitators’.Hefoundhima‘particularlyintelligentandwell-educatedman’.Gandhiinvitedthetravellerfordinnerathis‘well-furnishedEnglishvilla’,whereagroupofIndianmerchantsfurtherimpressedhimbytalkingfluently‘onallthecurrenteventsofthetime.Suchmenasthesenaturallyresenttheuseoftheterm“coolie”…ButwhiletheycomplainofbeingclassedseparatelyfromEuropeanstheyaremuchoffendedatKaffirsbeingclassedwiththem.’18
Thefollowingyear,whentheGandhiswerewellestablishedinDurban,theywerevisitedbyPranjivanMehta.ThetwohadbeenclosefromtheirstudentdaysinLondon,thebondmademoresolidbythefactthatitwasinMehta’shomeinBombaythatGandhimettheJainseerRaychandbhai.MehtawasnowbasedinRangoon,runningajewellerybusiness.Inthesummerof1898hevisitedEurope,andonhiswaybackstoppedinSouthAfricatoseeGandhi.DisembarkingatCapeTown,hefoundatoncethathe‘wasinaplacewherethecolouroftheskincountedforeverythingand[the]mannothing’.Hewasdeniedroomsinseveralhotels,andalsotreateddiscourteouslyonthelongtrainjourneyfromtheCapeeastwardstoDurban.19
OncehereachedNatal,Mehtawasmuchhappier–nourishedbythecompanyofhisfriend,andimpressedbywhathewasdoingthere.Mehtawasstruckbyhow,underGandhi’sleadership,‘diversecommunities[ofIndians]remainunitedandvigilantaboutprotectingtherightsofoneanother.’Hewasmovedbythediaspora’sconnectiontothemotherland,manifestinthe£1,200sentfromNatalafterthegreatfamineandplagueof1896–7.The‘peopleofIndia’,MehtatoldanaudienceofGujaratisinDurban,‘cantakegreatprideinthekindofconcern
youhaveshowntowardsthem,eventhoughyouarethousandsofmilesawayfromIndia.’20
WhilebasedinNatal,GandhiwasalsodrawnintotheIndianquestionintheTransvaal.Here,therulingraceweretheBoers,whospokeAfrikaansandwerelargelyofDutchextraction.When,inthefirstdecadesofthenineteenthcentury,theBritishtookfirmcontroloftheCape,theBoerscommencedtheir‘greattrek’inland.TheyestablishedthemselvesbeyondtheVaalandOrangerivers,displacingtheAfricansandtakingcontrolofvastareasoffertileland.Theireconomy,andtheirsenseofself,wasfoundedonfarming,herdingandhunting.WhiletheBritishcovetedthecoast–whichprovidedaccesstotheirjewelintheeast,India–theBoershadpossessionoftheseinlandterritories.Inthe1850stheyformedtwo,semi-autonomous,republics,theOrangeFreeStateandtheTransvaal(thelatteralsoknown,fromthe1880s,astheSouthAfricanRepublic).21
RacialpoliticsintheTransvaalweremorecomplicatedthaninNatal.TheBoershadcomeheretocarveaspaceseparateandindependentfromtheBritish.FormanydecadestheirUtopialaysafe,untilthediscoveryofgoldnearJohannesburgin1886promptedamassiveandmadrushofimmigrants.BythetimeGandhifirstvisitedthecityin1893,English-speakingmigrantsoutnumberedtheAfrikaans-speakingBoersbytwotoone.TheworkersintheminesweremostlyAfrican,butthemanagers,supervisorsandownerswerelargelyEnglish.AndasJohannesburgboomed,itwastheEnglish,ratherthantheBoers,whoranthenewhotels,restaurants,hospitals,clubs,theatresandotheraccoutrementsofabustlingmoderncity.KnownasUitlanders(Afrikaansfor‘outsider’)theEnglishhadthenumbers;
theyhadthemoney;whattheywantedwasashareofpoliticalpower.TheBoers,however,claimedthattheTransvaalwastheirhomeland,whereastheUitlandersweregreedyforeigners.ThefranchisewasthereforerestrictedtothoseresidentintheRepublicformorethanfourteenyears.ThiswasresentedbytheUitlanders,whoalsohadothercomplaints;forinstance,thatthestateenjoyedamonopolyovertheproductionandsaleofdynamite,acommodityofvitalimportancetotheminingindustry.
Inthe1890s,themainquestionofTransvaalpoliticswastheconflictbetweenBoerandBriton.Buttherewasasecondaryproblem,namelythecontaminationoftheBoerdreamlandbyanevenlesswantedgroupofimmigrants,theIndians.WiththeminingboomintheRandtheirnumbersrapidlyincreased.Theysetupshopsinthemaintowns,andalsoopenedstoresinthecountryside.Hawkerswithlesscapitalattheirdisposalsoldgoodsonthestreets.WhenGandhifirstvisitedJohannesburg,therewerealreadymorethana
hundredGujaratitradersintown.Somefirmswereverylarge–withassetsinthetensofthousandsofpoundsandbranchesinDurban,theCapeandBombay.TherewasalsoanemergingIndianworkingclass,composedoflabourers,domesticservantsandhawkers.InJohannesburg’sleadinghotels,Indianswere‘muchpreferred[bytheiremployers]towhitewaiters,owingtotheircivility,sobriety,andtotheirbeingmoreamenabletodiscipline.’22
AfewIndiansenteredtheOrangeFreeStateaswell.Beforetheirnumberscouldincrease,theVolksraad,orparliament,expelledthemfromtheprovince.Withspecialpermission,IndianscouldworkintheFreeStateinstrictlymenialjobs,suchasservantsonfarms.Butmorerespectableandprofitabletradeswereclosedtothem.EncouragedbytheFreeStaters,in1885theTransvaal’sVolksraadpasseda
lawmakingitimpossiblefor‘so-calledCoolies,Arabs,MalaysandMohammedansubjectsoftheTurkishEmpire’tobuyproperty.ThelawalsoempoweredtheGovernmenttospecifyparticularstreetsandlocalitieswhereAsianswouldliveandtrade.Foradecadeafterthelawwaspasseditlaysleepingonthestatutebooks.But
in1894Boerpoliticians,worriedthatthenumbersofIndianswerenowinthethousandsratherthandozens,soughttoimplementit.Noticeswereissuedthattraderswhowerenotwhitewouldbesenttodesignatedareasknownas‘Locations’,withinwhichtheyhadtoconducttheirbusinesses.23
Indesperation,theIndianssoughtaninterviewwiththePresidentoftheTransvaal,thecrustyanddogmaticoldgeneral,PaulKruger.KrugercameouttomeetthemwithaBibleinhand.TheIndianssetouttheirgrievances.TheChristianwarrior,consultinghisBook,answeredthattheyweredescendantsofEsauandIshmael,andhenceboundbyGodtoslavery.KrugerandhisBiblewentbacktotheirhouse,whiletheIndiansretreated,bewildered.24
TheIndiansnowapproachedtheBritishtointervene.AnagreementsignedinLondonin1884guaranteedtherightsofHerMajesty’ssubjectstotradeandlivewheretheypleasedintheSouthAfricanRepublic.Indiantradersaskedonlythatthisclausebehonoured.In1895,pressedbytheBritish,theSARappointedanarbitrator,aformerChiefJusticeoftheFreeState.HeheardthetwosidesandcameoutstronglyinfavourofhisfellowBoers,notingthat
theconstitutionoftheSouthAfricanRepublic,thetermsofwhichcouldnothavebeenunknowntotheBritishGovernment,laysdownthatnoequalitybetweenthewhiteandcolouredracesshallbetolerated…everyEuropeannationornationofEuropeanoriginhasanabsoluteandindefeasiblerighttoexcludealienelementswhichitconsiderstobedangeroustoitsdevelopmentandexistence,
andmoreespeciallyAsiaticelements,fromsettlingwithinitsterritory.’25
Thearbitratorhadleftawindowopen–theIndians,hesaid,could‘test’theircaseintheHighCourtinPretoria.AGujaratimerchantnowappealedagainstthelawunderwhichhewastobesenttoaLocation.(ThiswasTayobKhan,whosedisputewithDadaAbdullahadbroughtGandhitoSouthAfricainthefirstplace.)Broughtinonthecase,GandhiarguedthatIndianswereof‘Indo-Germanic’stock,andhenceexemptfromtheraciallawsoftheTransvaalVolksraad.OnejudgeonthebenchwaspersuadedbyGandhi’sarguments;theothertwo
werenot.InAugust1898,theCourtfinallyruledagainstTayobKhan.Thethreatofevictionloomedlarge.On31December1898,agroupofthirtymerchantswrotetotheSecretaryofStatefortheColoniesinalarm.Ifimplemented,thecourt’sjudgment‘wouldmeanpracticalruintotheIndiantradersintheTransvaal’.Theyfaceda‘constantdreadofhavingtheirstoresshutupatanymoment,andbeingremovedonsufferancetenuretolocationsunfitforcomfortablehabitation,devoidofsanitaryarrangement,situatedinalocalityunsuitablefortrade,andallthisfornofaultoftheirs’.26
By1898,morethanaquarteroftheworld’ssupplyofgoldcamefromtheTransvaal.Uitlandermine-ownersmadeextraordinaryprofits.ButtheBoer-controlledstatedidnotdotoobadlyeither.In1886,staterevenuewas£196,000;tenyearslater,ithadjumpedto£400,000.Thecapitalistswhosefirmshadcontributedtothegrowingcofferswantedagreatersayinhowtospendthegovernment’srevenue.Ontheotherhand,thoseinchargeofthestatewereloathtocedecontrol.27
EggedonbytheimperialadventurerCecilRhodes–whohadvastbusinessinterestsinSouthAfrica–agroupofconspiratorsplannedtooverthrowKruger’sregimebyforce.AnofficernamedJamesonwastocrosstheborderintoTransvaalwithaforceof1,000men;meanwhile,theEnglishresidentsinJohannesburgwouldstartaninsurrection.Intheevent,Jameson’sforcewassurroundedandmadetosurrenderbytheBoers;andtheuprisingwithinneverhappened.Thecollapseofthe‘JamesonRaid’of1895intensifiedtheriftbetweenBoer
andBriton.Thepro-imperialpartywasledbytheSecretaryofStatefortheColonies,JosephChamberlain,andtheHighCommissionerinCapeTown,LordMilner.BothbelievedthatcontroloftheTransvaalwascentraltoGreatBritain’smissioninAfricaandtheworld.InFebruary1898,MilnerwrotetoChamberlainthat‘thereisnowayoutofthepoliticaltroublesofSouthAfricaexceptreformintheTransvaalorwar.AndatpresentthechancesofreformintheTransvaalareworsethanever.’Eighteenmonthslater,ChamberlainwroteamemototheBritishCabinetcomplainingthattheBoerswere‘floutingsuccessfullyBritishcontrolandinterference’,andthatwhathappenednextdependedon‘whetherthesupremacywhichwehavesolongclaimedandsoseldomexerted,istobefinallyestablishedandrecognisedorforeverabandoned’.28
Bythistime,theBritishwereshippinglargenumbersoftroopstoSouthAfrica.TenthousandsoldierscamefromIndiaandtheMediterranean;severalthousandmorefromEnglanditself.Thebellicositywasunmistakable.InOctober1899theBoersaskedthattroopssentsinceJulyofthatyearbewithdrawn.WhentheBritishrefused,theycrossedintoNatal,andthewarhadbegun.
OneconsequenceofthewarbetweenBoerandBritonwastheflightofIndiansfromtheSouthAfricanRepublic.AsBritishsubjects,theywereidentifiedwiththeenemy.TheIndiansstreamedintoNatal,seekingrefugeamongtheircompatriotsinthecolony.GandhiandtheNatalIndianCongresshelpedraisemoneyandfindhomesforthem.TheIndiansinNatalweremerchantsandlabourers.Fewhadanymilitary
experience.However,GandhithoughtthatassubjectsoftheBritishEmpiretheyshouldshowsupportfortheirside.Hehadbeenvolunteeringwithahospitalin
Durban,runbyaReverendDrBooth.Now,withDrBooth’sencouragement,heofferedtoraiseacorpsofIndianambulanceworkerstocareforthesickandthewounded.On17October1899,daysafterthebeginningofhostilities,Gandhiconvened
ameetinginDurbantodiscusshisproposal.SomeIndianswereopposedtohelpingtheBritish.DidtheynotoppressthemasmuchastheBoers?Andwhatiftheothersidewon?WouldnottheBoersthenwreakvengeanceonthem?GandhiansweredthattheylivedinSouthAfricaassubjectsoftheBritishEmpire.TohelptherulersnowwouldrefutethechargethatIndianswereinterestedonlyin‘money-grubbingandweremerelyadeadweightupontheBritish’.Herewasa‘goldenopportunity’toprovethesechargeswerebaseless.29
Gandhi’sargumentsprevailed.ThenextdayhewrotetotheNatalGovernment,‘unreservedlyandunconditionally’offeringassistance.TheIndiansdidnotknowhowtohandlearms,buttheystill‘mightrendersomeserviceinconnectionwiththefieldhospitalsorthecommissariat’,thusshowingthat,incommonwithothersubjectsoftheQueen,theywere‘readytododutyfortheirSovereignonthebattlefield’.30
BythefirstweekofJanuary,1900,500Indianshadagreedtoserveintheambulancecorps.AlistofvolunteersrevealsthattheGujaratimerchantshadprudentlystayedaway.AlargenumberofIndianChristianshadcomeforwardtoservetheirSovereign.Otherswhojoinedincludedworking-classHindus,mostlyofTamilextraction.31
TheIndiansweresentintothefield,wheretheyfollowedthesoldiersfromcamptocamp,takingcareofthestragglers.Theconditionswerehard;theyhadtomarchuptotwenty-fivemilesaday,gomanyhourswithoutfoodandwater,andsleepoutintheopen.Theyweredangerouslyclosetotheaction,carryingthewoundedtosafetyasshellsfellaroundthem.SomevolunteerswereaskedtodismantleBoertelegraphlines.Othersweretoldtogatherupriflesandcartridgesabandonedbytheenemy.32
AnEnglishjournalistleftavividaccountoftheambulancecorpsatwork.FollowingthereversalsatSpionKop,hesaw‘theIndianmule-trainmoveuptheslopesoftheKopcarryingwatertothedistressedsoldierswhohadlainpowerlessontheplain’.Afteranight’sworkwhichwouldhave‘shatteredmenwithmuchbiggerframes’,thereporter‘cameacrossGandhiintheearly
morningsittingbytheroadside–eatingaregulationarmybiscuit’.WhiletheBritishsoldierswere‘dullanddepressed’,Gandhi‘wasstoicalinhisbearing,cheerfulandconfidentinhisconversation,andhadakindlyeye’.33
GandhihadaskedanEnglishfriend,HerbertKitchin,anelectricianwithaninterestinIndianphilosophy,tohelpwiththeraisingoftheambulancecorps.Gandhimanagedoneunit,Kitchinanother.WhilethelawyerwasinSpionKop,theEnglishmanwasatElandslaagte,fromwherehesentthisaccountoftheir‘busyandexcitingtime’atthefront:
IwasawaywithapartyofeightIndians,acorporalandasapper,takingdownaportionoftheBoertelegraphlinearoundLadysmith.WepassedthreeoftheBoerlaagers.Allofthemarefilthy,andarenoticeablefor…thequantityofcartridgesscatteredabout,andthenumberofbottlesandEnglishbiscuittins.Wecouldhavepickedupasackfulofcartridges.Apartyofourmen…droppedacrossapartyofBoerswhoputashellonthemidstofthem.Luckilynoonewashurt.Icameacrossastrayhorse,whichIsupposewasleftbehindbytheBoers,butitwastoowildandIcouldnotcatchit.Had
Ibeenableto,Icouldhavesolditforadecentsum.34
Evenasanon-combatant,theEnglishmanwasenjoyingthebattle,takingpleasureinthediscomfitureofthehatedBoersandthescatteringoftheirpossessions.GandhihadjoinedtheBritishintheirfightoutofloyaltyandduty.Hisreactionstothisletterareunrecorded.ButonethinksthevegetarianBaniacouldscarcelyhaveseenthefightashisEnglishfrienddid,asathrillingandutterlypleasurablechaseafteraquarryinflight.AtthestartofthewartheBritishsufferedseriousreverses.TheBoerswere
agilefighters,whoknewtheterrainwell.However,overtimethegreaternumbersandsuperiorfirepoweroftheBritishbegantoprevail.Bythesummerof1900thewarhadbeenlargelywon,althoughbandsofBoerguerrillafighterscontinuedtoresistcaptureformanymonthsafterwards.TheIndianambulanceworkershadplayedamodestpartintheBritishvictory.
Tomarkthis,ameetingwasheldintheCongressHallinDurban.This,wroteaNatalnewspaper,was‘thefirstoccasionuponwhichEuropeansandIndiansinthisColonyhavemetonacommonplatformforacommonpurpose’.35InthechairwastheformerprimeministerofNatal,SirJohnRobinson.Inthe‘struggleforsupremacybetweenBoerandBriton,’saidRobinson,theIndianshaddone‘excellentwork’.‘Icannottoowarmlycomplimentyourablecountryman,MrGandhi,’theNatalleadertoldtheIndians,‘uponhistimely,unselfish,and
mostusefulactioninvoluntarilyorganisingacorpsofbearersforambulancework.’36
ThevolunteerscameoutofregardforGandhi,andhesolicitedthemoutofregardfortheBritishEmpire,ofwhichhewasaloyalsubject,hiscriticismsoftheNatalGovernmentnotwithstanding.Indeed,thosecriticismsoftenmadethecasethatdiscriminatorylawswereatoddswithBritishtradition.His‘OpenLetter’ofDecember1894contrastedthecolonistswiththeircompatriotsathome–‘Ihave…toremindyou,’saidGandhi,‘thattheEnglishinEnglandhaveshownbytheirwritings,speechesanddeedsthattheymeantounifytheheartsofthetwopeoples,thattheydonotbelieveincolourdistinctions,andthattheywillraiseIndiawiththemratherthanriseuponitsruins.’Apetitionprotestingagainstthe£3taxindefaultofre-indentureinsisteditwas‘indirectoppositiontothefundamentalprinciplesuponwhichtheBritishConstitutionisbased’.Amemorialof1895totheSecretaryofStatefortheColoniessaidthepoliciesinNatalwere‘entirelyrepugnanttotheBritishnotionsofjustice’.TheGovernorofNatalwastoldinJuly1899thattheDealers’LicenceActwas‘reallybadandun-British’.37
Thattellingterm,‘un-British’,wastobemadefamousinabookpublishedbyDadabhaiNaorojiin1901,PovertyandUn-BritishRuleinIndia.Thisarguedthatthespreadoffamine,thedrainofwealthandthestiflingofIndianmanufacturesweretheresultofpoliciesthatdepartedfromtheidealsoftherulers.GandhiknewandrespectedNaoroji;liketheParsiveteran,hewasanadmireroftheBritishliberaltraditionanditspowers,realorfictive,ofself-criticismandameliorativeaction.AnotherIndianleaderGandhiadmired,GopalKrishnaGokhale,distinguished
betweena‘narrowerimperialism’whichregarded‘theworldasthoughitwasmadeforoneraceonly’,anda‘noblerimperialism’thatenabled‘allwhoareincludedintheEmpiretoshareequallyinallitsblessings’.38Gandhi’sworkduringtheWarwasdonetoevokeorre-activatethese‘nobler’instinctsoftherulers.Ashelaterwrote,‘Ifeltthat,ifIdemandedrightsasaBritishcitizen,itwasalsomyduty,assuch,toparticipateinthedefenceoftheBritishEmpire.IheldthenthatIndiacouldachievehercompleteemancipationonlywithinandthroughtheBritishEmpire.’39
TheAnglo-BoerWarof1899–1902isusuallyseenasa‘whiteman’swar’.Thisisnotstrictlytrue.Ineverymajorbattleofthewar,non-Europeansplayedapart.WhileahandfulofIndiansservedasambulanceworkers,manyblackAfricans–Zulus,Xhosasandothers–participatedasarmedcombatants.Onehistorianestimatesthatperhapsasmanyas30,000blacksfoughtontheBritishside.Othersworkedasscouts,spies,servantsandmessengers.LikeGandhi,theseAfricanvolunteersbelieved–orhoped–that‘aBritishvictorywouldbringaboutanextensionofpolitical,educationalandcommercialopportunitiesforblackpeople’.40
WhatGandhiwroteintheseyearsisprintedinhisCollectedWorks;samplesofwhatwaswrittentohimlieincupboardsintheGandhiMuseuminDelhiandtheGandhiAshraminSabarmati.Thesewritingsfocusverylargelyonhiscareerasalawyerandcommunityorganizer.Whatthebiographerlacksarecontemporaryaccountsofhispersonal,familialsituation.Weknowthatin1898Kasturbagavebirthtoathirdson,Ramdas;andtwoyearslatertoafourth,Devadas.ButtosensewhatlifewaslikeintheGandhihousehold,wehavetorelylargelyonthepatriarch’srecollectionsandourownspeculations.Manyyearslater,whilewritingoftheirlifeinDurban,Gandhisaidthecentral
challengehefacedwaswhereandhowtoeducatehischildren.Therewereafewschoolsforchildrenofindenturedlabourers,runbymissionaries.ForreasonsofclassGandhiwouldnothavewantedhissonsadmittedthere.‘IcouldhavesentthemtotheschoolsforEuropeanchildren,’heremarks,‘butonlyasamatteroffavourandexception.NootherIndianchildrenwereallowedtoattendthem.’41
ThisisconfirmedbydocumentsintheNatalarchives,whichtellusthatinthelastweekofFebruary1897,GandhisentapetitionrequestingthatJamesGodfrey,thesonofoneofhis(TamilChristian)clients,beadmittedtothewhites-onlyDurbanHighSchool.Therequestwasdenied,theSuperintendentofSchoolsclaimingthatiftheGodfreychildwasallowedin,‘amajorityoftheparentswouldremovetheirboys,andtheboyswhowereleftwouldmaketheIndian’slifeunsupportablebypracticaljoking.’42
IfaChristianboywassubjecttoracisttaunts,aHinduboywouldfinditevenharder.SoGandhiwouldhavereasoned,whichiswhyhechosetoeducatehissonsHarilalandManilalandhisnephewGokuldasathome.Hetaughtthemthe
alphabetoftheirmothertongue,Gujarati,himself.AnEnglishgovernesswasengagedtoteachothersubjects.Meanwhile,theirmotheracquaintedthemwiththemythsandmoralsoftheirnativeHinduism.43
Theboyscouldplaywithoneanother,butitishardtoseehoworwithwhomKasturbafoundcompanionship.Therewerenootherwomeninthehousehold.Theshoppingwasinthehandsofamanservant;bothsocialcustomandpersonalinhibitionpreventedGandhi’swifefromgoingoutaloneonthestreetsofDurban.Mostofherhusband’sclientswereGujaratiMuslims.Despiteacommonlanguage,divergentfaithsmadeithardforKasturbatobreakbreadwiththeirwives.Evenhadshesoughtfriendshipwiththem,shewouldnot–withfoursons,anephewandahusbandtolookafter–havehadthetime.Asasuccessfulbarrister,GandhihadchosentolivenotintheIndianghettoin
centralDurbanbutinBeachGrove,onthecity’soutskirts.His‘well-furnishedEnglishvilla’(touseYounghusband’sphrase)wasoneofseveralinthelocality,theothersoccupiedbymenwhowereEnglishbybloodaswellasinspirit.Gandhi’sdesiretomarkhissocialstatusbyacquiringahouseawayfromwherehiscompatriotslivedposedseriousproblemsforhiswife.ShedidnotknowEnglish,andtraditionforbadeherfromtalkingtowhitepeopleanyway.Thesocialdistanceseparatingherfromherneighbourswasevengreaterthanthephysicaldistancebetweenthesuburbsandthecity.ShecouldnotgotomeettheGujaratiwomeninGreyStreetunescorted.Herhusbandwasunavailable(andperhapsalsounwilling)totakeherthere.Sosheretreatedfurtherintoherhome,whereherchildrenprovidedherwithbothcompanyandconsolation.ItwasinthishouseinBeachGrovethatGandhiandKasturbahada
disagreementthathewroteaboutinhisautobiography.LivingwiththeGandhiswereaGujaraticookandaTamil-speakingclerk,VincentLawrence.BeforetheirconversiontoChristianity,Lawrence’sfamilywereregardedasPanchammas,aterm,translatingasthe‘fifth’caste,denotingtheirUntouchablestatus.Kasturbarefusedtocleantheclerk’schamberpot,andthoughtherhusbandshouldalsonotpollutehimselfbydoingso.Gandhiwasenraged.‘Iwillnotstandthisnonsenseinmyhouse,’herememberstellingKasturbainhisautobiography,addingthefurtherrecollectionthat,inhisfury,hedraggedherdowntothegate.Hiswife,weeping,askedifhehadnoshame,topushherout
inaforeigncountry,withnoparentsorrelativestotakeherin.Gandhipulledhimselfbackintime,andreturnedwithhiswifetothehouse.44
InMay1901,GandhilearntthathispreceptorRaychandbhaihaddied,atjustthirty-three.GandhireadaboutRaychandbhai’spassinginhisoffice,fromanewspaperthatarrivedinthepost.Hesetthepaperasideandresumedhiswork,but,ashewrotetoafriend,‘Ican’tputitoutofmymind…[W]heneverthereisalittleleisure,themindrevertstoit.Rightlyorwrongly,IwasgreatlyattractedtohimandIlovedhimdeeplytoo.Allthatisovernow.’45
FromthatfirstmeetinginJuly1891,GandhihadacceptedRaychandbhaiashismentor.Gandhi’sfatherdiedwhenhewasinhisteens.Hiselderbrotherswereincapableofgivinghimmoral(orintellectual)instruction.Itwasintothisvacuumthatthejeweller-thinkerstepped.HehadhelpedGandhicomethroughthelossofhisbelovedmother.WhenhewasabrieflessbarristerinBombayin1892,GandhiwouldleavethecourttogotoRaychand’sshopandspeakwithhim.InSouthAfricasomeyearslater,tornbetweenreligions,Raychandoncemorehelpedsortouthisconfusions.WhatdidRaychandbhaimeantoGandhi?Whatdidhelearnfromhim?
Contemporaryaccountsorlettersarescarce,sowemustanswerthesequestionswiththeaidoflaterreflections.SpeakingatRaychand’sbirthanniversaryin1915,Gandhisaid‘hefollowednonarrowcreed.Hewasauniversalistandhadnoquarrelwithanyreligionintheworld.’46
Nineyearslater,GandhiwrotealongprefacetoaGujaratibookonhisteacher.ThisrecalledthatevenwhenRaychandwasinhisshop,
somebookonareligioussubjectwouldalwaysbelyingbyhisside,and,assoonashehadfinisheddealingwithacustomer,hewouldopenit,orwouldopenthenote-bookinwhichheusedtonotedownthethoughtswhichoccurredtohim.Everydayhehadmenlikeme,insearchofknowledge,comingtohim.Hewouldnothesitatetodiscussreligiousmatterswiththem.ThePoetdidnotfollowthegeneral…ruleofdoingbusinessanddiscussingdharmaeachatitspropertime,ofattendingtoonethingatatime.
Gandhitookheartfromthispluralityofvocations,becomingbothahardworkinglawyerandacuriousseekerhimself.WhileRaychandcouldteachGandhilittleaboutthelaw,heencouragedhimtoseehisfaithinbroaderterms.Dharma,saidtheseer,didnot‘meanreadingorlearningbyrotebooksknownasShastrasorevenbelievingallthattheysay’.Itwasacombinationoftheoretical
learningandpracticalknowledge.Afteracertainlevelofreligiousinstruction,thescripturescouldhelpnofurther;butone’sownexperiencecertainlycould.Therewere,arguedRaychand,parallelsintheteachingsofallgreatreligions.
Allpreachedagainstfalsehoodandagainstviolence.Humanbeings,followingthetextsoftheirfaithsdogmatically,had‘erectedveritableprison-houses’inwhichtheywere,inaspiritualsense,confined.Gandhi,followingRaychand,cametotheconclusionthat‘everyreligionisperfectfromthepointofitsfollowersandimperfectfromthatofthefollowersofotherfaiths.Examinedfromanindependentpointofview,everyreligionisbothperfectandimperfect’.WhenhisChristianfriendsinJohannesburgandDurbanwerepressingGandhi
toconvert,RaychandadvisedhimtostaywithintheHindufold,yetremainopentotheteachingsofotherreligions.Theseerlikedtosaythat‘thedifferentfaithswerelikesomanywalledenclosuresinwhichmenandwomenwereconfined’.Gandhi,followingRaychand,livedintheenclosurehewasborninto,butbreacheditswallsbyfrequentlytravellingintoothersimilarlywelldemarcatedterrains.Heneverpermanentlyabandonedhiscompartmentforanother,yetbyvisitingothercompartmentscametoseemoreclearlywhatunitedaswellasdividedthemall.47
AfewmonthsafterRaychand’sdeath,GandhidecidedtoreturnhometoIndia.This,onthefaceofit,wasapuzzlingmove:hislegalpracticewaswellestablished,andhewasafigureofsomerenowninNatal.Inhisautobiographyhewritesthathewishedto‘beofmoreserviceinIndia’,wherethemovementforpoliticalrightswasgatheringground.48Butsurelytherewereotherreasons,amongthemthedesiretogivehischildrenadecenteducation.Theeldestchild,Harilal,wasnowenteringhisteens.TherewasnosuitableschoolforhimorhisbrothersinDurban.InRajkot,however,theycouldattendtheirfather’soldschool,followhimintakingtheBombayMatriculation,andintimebuildupprofessionsandcareersoftheirown.ThattherewasnowasecondIndianlawyerinNatalmadeiteasierforGandhi
tothinkofgoingback.ThiswasRahimKarimKhan,abarristerfromLincoln’sInnwhohadcomeouttoSouthAfricain1899.HejoinedGandhi’sofficeandlaterestablishedhisownnetworkofclients.AsaMuslimhimself,hewastrustedbythemainlyMuslimmerchantsinDurban.WithKhan’sarrival,Gandhiwas
freetotraveltotheTransvaal,tomoreactivelypursuehisreligiousinterests,andnow,in1901,toreturnforgoodtoIndia.49
Kasturbamayhavebeenevenkeenerthanherhusbandtoreturn.WhenshemarriedMohandasin1883shehadhoped,likehermotherandgrandmotherbeforeher,toraiseafamilysomewhereinhernativeKathiawar.ShemovedtojoinherhusbandinRajkot;afewyearslater,heleftherandtheirinfantsontogotoLondon.Hecameback,tomakeherpregnantoncemore.InMay1893heleftagain,thistimeforSouthAfrica.Threeyearslaterthefamilywasreunited.Kasturba’sfirstexposuretoSouthAfricawasbywayofthemobthatattacked(inwordanddeed)herhusband.Afterthisshecouldscarcelytrustthewhites;but,confinedtoherhomeinDurban,shehadfewIndianfriendseither.InRajkot,thelanguagethatKasturbaspokeathomewasalsothelanguageof
thebazaar.Thereshehadfriendsandrelatives,whowouldbeherchildren’sfriendsandrelativestoo.InDurban,ontheotherhand,sheandtheyhadspentfourandahalfyearsfeelingalienandoutofplaceinalandtheycouldnevercalltheirown.AndsotheGandhisdecidedtoreturntotheirhomeland.On12October,
ParseeRustomjeethrewafarewellpartyfor‘thechampionoftheIndiancauseinNatal’.Thepartywas‘thegrandesteverattemptedorachievedbyanyIndian’:tapestryonthewalls,electriclightsspeciallyinstalled,aprofusionofflowersandabandofmusicians.Thesubstancematchedtheshow;thus,asonegratefuljournalistwrote,‘theguestswereregaledwiththemostdelicatepreparationsofanEasternculinarydepartment.’Afterthefoodhadbeeneaten,Rustomjee‘placedathickgoldchainroundMrGandhi’sneck,andpresentedhimwithavaluablegoldlocketandalargegoldmedalsuitablyinscribed.Hewasalsogivenabouquetofwhiteroses,andwasgarlandedamiddeafeningcheers.’Thelawyer’schildrenwerethengivengoldmedals.50
Thenextweek,theGandhiswerechiefguestsatapartyhostedbytheNatalIndianCongressattheirhallinGreyStreet.Thiswaslikewiseagayoccasion,withthestaircasefestoonedwithgarlands,andChineselanternseverywhere.ThemerchantAbdulCadirgavethefirstspeech,sayingofGandhithat‘ineverysphereofourlife,political,socialandmoral,hehasbeenourguidingstar,andhisnamewillbeeverenshrinedineveryIndianheart.’TheEnglishlawyerF.A.Laughton,speakingnext,saidthat‘itwasamatterofwondermenttohimthat
MrGandhiwasgoingatthistime,ashehadaprominentpositionattheBar,andagreatinfluenceovertheIndiancommunity.HewouldalwaysbereadytowelcomeMrGandhi’sreturn.’Atthismeeting,too,Gandhiwasgivenanarrayofjewels.Theseincludeda
diamondringpresentedonbehalfofthecommunityasawhole,agoldnecklacesubscribedforbyGujaratiHindus,adiamondpinfromAbdulCadir,andagoldwatchofferedbyDadaAbdullaandCompany.51Gandhiacceptedthepresents(andthecompliments),butthreedayslaterhewrotetoParseeRustomjeesayinghewasreturningthegifts.HewishedtomakethemovertotheNatalIndianCongress,toformanemergencyfundfortimesofcrisis.52
ThedecisiontoreturnthepresentscausedaterrificrowintheGandhihousehold.‘Youmaynotneedthe[jewels]’,saidKasturba.‘Yourchildrenmaynotneedthem.Cajoled,theywilldancetoyourtune.Icanunderstandyournotpermittingmetowearthem.Butwhataboutmydaughters-in-law?Theywillbesuretoneedthem.Andwhoknowswhatwillhappentomorrow?Iwouldbethelastpersontopartwithgiftslovinglygiven.’Gandhiansweredthatitwasnotforhertodecidewhattodowithgifts
presentedtohim.Kasturbaofferedthistellingrebuke:‘Butservicerenderedbyyouisasgoodasrenderedbyme.Ihavetoiledandmoiledforyoudayandnight.Isthatnoservice?’Hiswife’soppositionwasneutralizedbythesupportofhistwoeldersons.
Harilal,agedthirteen,andManilal,agednine,agreedthatthepresentsmustbereturned.Withtheassistanceofhissons,Gandhi‘somehowsucceededinextortingaconsent’fromhiswife.53
NowParseeRustomjeebeggedGandhitoreconsiderhisdecision.Thepresentsconveyedthecommunity’slovefortheir‘greatandhonoured’leader.Gandhi’simpulsivegesturemightnowleadtothe‘disorganizationofagreatachievement’–thebuildingoftheNatalIndianCongress–‘thecreditofwhichachievementisprimarilyduetoyourself’.Thereturnofthegifts,saidRustomjee,wouldleadtothe‘misconstructionofmotivesinthedonorasintherecipient’.54
Gandhiwasunyielding.ThepresentsweresentbacktotheCongress,whiletheirleaderpreparedtosetsailforhishomeland.
TheGandhisleftDurbaninthethirdweekofOctober1901.TheytookashipthatwentviaMauritius;thismayhavebeenbecauseitwasthefirstvesseltheyhadbookingson.Ontheotherhand,perhapsGandhiwantedtomakehisacquaintancewithacolonythathadoncebeenFrenchbeforeitwasBritishandwhich,likeNatal,hadasubstantialpopulationofIndiansbroughtouttoworkonthesugarplantations.WhenGandhilandedinMauritius,hisreputationhadprecededhim.Alocal
newspaperspokeofhow‘hehadbrilliantlydefendedthecauseofhiscompatriotsinNatal.’TheMuslims,whointhisislandwerefromnorthernIndiaratherthanfromGujarat,hostedagardenpartyforhim.Flagsandbuntingsflutteredinthewind,whilechildrenandadultsgatheredtopaytheirrespects.Gandhi‘advisedtheMuslimcommunitytosenditschildrentocollege,asitwasonlythrougheducationthattheywouldmakeamarkinlife’.HeaskedtheIndiancommunitytotakeanincreasingpartinpolitics,‘notthepoliticsoffight[ing]againstthegovernment,butthefightforitsrightsandaplaceinthesununderthepavilionofliberty’.WhenGandhiheardthatthesonofhishostwasstandingforelectionasamunicipalcouncillor,hepraisedhimfortakingupa‘beautifulandgood’cause.Gandhi’sremarkssparkedanangryresponsefromoneofthecolony’sleading
intellectuals,thepoetandlibrarianLeovilleL’Homme.TheAsianwayoflife,saidtheFrenchcolon,was‘absolutelyhostiletoours’.IfanIndianbecameacouncillor,themayorofPortLouiswouldbeshakinghandswithmenwhohad‘liceintheirhair’.TheEuropeanswhohadsettledMauritiuswerebearersofagreatmilitaryandpoliticaltradition.TosharepowerwithIndianswouldreducethesetraditions‘totheproportionsofasaleregisterofbalesoftamarind’;andtomakeofthecoloniststhemselves‘cadaversforthenon-Christiancommunities’.GandhiwasusedtobeingabusedbywhitecolonistsinNatal.Butthispieceof
invectivehedidnotsee,sinceitwasdeliveredinFrench.ThememorieshecarriedbackfromMauritiuswereofthegenerosityoftheIndians.Atafarewellreception,themainspeaker,aMuslimmerchant,comparedGandhitoamodern-dayPharaohwhoguidedhiscountrymen‘intheroughseafarawayfromtherock-under-waterwheretheremaybeeverychanceofbeingdashed’.55
TheGandhifamilyreachedBombayinthelastweekofNovember1901.AftersettlingKasturbaandthechildreninRajkot,GandhitookatrainacrossthesubcontinenttoattendtheseventeenthsessionoftheIndianNationalCongress,heldthatyearinCalcutta.The1901Congresshad896delegatesinall.Morethanhalfcamefromthe
hostprovince,Bengal.Gandhiwasoneofforty-threedelegatesfromtheBombayPresidency.HestayedattheIndiaClub,onStrandRoad,andcommutedbyrickshawtoBeadonSquare,wheretheCongresswasheldinagreatopen-airpavilion.ThemeetingbeganwithasongcomposedbySarolaDeviGhosal,anieceofthepoetRabindranathTagore.Itwassungbyachoiroffifty-eightmenandboys,with‘thenearly400volunteersjoiningthechorusforgoodeffect’.ThePresidentoftheCalcuttaCongresswasD.E.Wacha,hewhohadread
Gandhi’sspeechforhiminBombayin1896.Wacha’spresidentialaddresswastemperateintone:speakingoftheslowpaceofeconomicdevelopment,hesaidthat‘nodoubtwehaveagoodGovernment,butitisnotunmixedwithmanyanevil.Thedesireisthattheevilmaybepurgedaway,andinthecourseoftimewemayhaveabetterGovernment.’Otherspeakersweremoreforthright.‘IsthelifefunctionoftheIndianryot[peasant]toliveanddiemerelylikeabrute?’askedG.SubramaniaIyerofMadras:‘Ishenota“humanbeing,endowedwithreason,sentiment,andlatentcapacity”?’UnderBritishrulethestandardoflivinghadsunkfurther,suchthattherewerenowsome200millionIndians‘grimandsilentintheirsuffering,withoutzestinlife,withoutcomfortorenjoyment,withouthopeorambition,livingbecausetheywerebornintotheworld,anddyingbecauselifecouldnolongerbekeptinthebody.’56
Inhisownspeech,GandhipointedoutthatwerethepresidentoftheCongress,acivilizedParsi,tovisittheTransvaal,hemightbeclassifiedasbelongingtothe‘coolie’class.TheIndiansinSouthAfricaweredeeplyattachedtothehomeland;whenaskedtohelpfaminevictimsinBombay,theyhadraised£2,000.Gandhiurgedreciprocity.‘IfsomeofthedistinguishedIndiansIseebeforemetonightweretogotoSouthAfrica,inspiredwiththatnoblespirit,’heremarked,‘ourgrievancesmustberemoved.’57
WhenhehadvisitedCalcuttain1896,Gandhihadbeencold-shoulderedbythelocalleaders.Fiveyearslaterhegotawarmerreception.HisworkinSouth
Africawasnowmorewidelyknown;besides,hehadaninfluentialpatron,GopalKrishnaGokhale,whohadtakenhimunderhiswing.GokhalewasonlythreeyearsolderthanGandhi,butvastlymoreexperiencedinpublicaffairs.Teacher,writer,socialreformerandMemberoftheViceroy’sCouncil,hewasoneofthebest-knownIndiansinIndia.BorninavillageonthewestcoastofIndia,thesonofapoliceman,Gokhale
hadwilledhimselfoutofobscuritybyhardworkandself-learning.MovingtotheancientMarathacapital,Poona,hejoinedthefacultyofFergusonCollege,apioneeringcentreofmoderneducation.HetaughttheworksofJohnStuartMillandAdamSmith,yetrootedhisliberalisminanIndiancontext,bypromotingHindu–Muslimharmonyandanendtocastediscrimination.AfeaturedspeakerattheannualmeetingsoftheIndianNationalCongress,healsovisitedEnglandoften,lobbyingtheImperialGovernmenttobemoresensitivetoIndianneedsandaspirations.HearinghimspeakatCambridge,ayoungJohnMaynardKeyneswasimpressed,tellingafriendthatGokhale‘hasfeeling,butfeelingguidedandcontrolledbythought,andthereisnothinginhimwhichremindsusoftheusualtypeofpoliticalagitator’.58
WhentheCongressmeetingended,GandhimovedintoGokhale’shouseonUpperCircularRoad.Overmealsandwhiletakingwalks,GokhaletoldGandhiofthedebtheowedthesocialreformerMahadevGovindRanade,whohaddiedafewmonthspreviously.GandhiobservedthatGokhale’s‘reverenceforRanadecouldbeseeneverymoment.Ranade‘sauthoritywasfinalineverymatter,andhewouldciteitateverystep.’Gandhiwasbeginningtoviewhisnewmentorinthesamelight,for,asheobserved,‘toseeGokhaleatworkwasasmuchajoyasaneducation.Heneverwastedaminute.Hisprivaterelationsandfriendshipswereallfor[the]publicgood.’Gandhi’sspiritualpreceptor,Raychand,hadrecentlydied;intothevoid
steppedascholarwhowouldguidehimalongthepathofpublicservice.Thereremainedreservations.OnewasGokhale’slifestyle:why,askedGandhi,didthePoonamantravelinaprivatecarriageratherthaninapublictramcar?TheImperialCouncilloransweredthatthechoicewasnotoutofaloveforcomfort,butaneedforprivacy.‘Ienvyyourlibertytogoaboutintramcars,’GokhaletoldGandhi:‘ButIamsorry,Icannotdolikewise.Whenyouarethevictimofas
wideapublicityasIam,itwillbedifficult,ifnotimpossible,foryoutogoaboutinatramcar.’59
On19January1902,GandhiwasthemainspeakeratameetingintheAlbertHall,offCollegeStreetinnorthCalcutta.HewasintroducedbyGokhale,whopraisedhis‘ability,earnestnessandtact’,andprofesseda‘profoundadmiration’forhisworkinSouthAfrica.Hesaidthat‘MrGandhiwasamanmadeofthestuffofwhichheroesaremade.’If‘MrGandhisettleddowninthiscountry,itwasthedutyofallearnestworkerstoplacehimwherehedeservedtobe,namely,attheirhead’.60
GandhispokeonsuccessiveweeksattheAlbertHall.OnetalkfocusedonthehandicapsofIndiansinSouthAfrica.AnotherspokeoftheAnglo-BoerWarandoftheIndiancontributiontoit.Inpeacetimethecolonistwasrudeandhostile,butwhileatwar,recalledGandhi,theBritishsoldierwas‘altogetherloveable.Hemixedwithusandthemenfreely.Heoftensharedwithushisluxurieswhenevertherewereanytobehad.’FromhistimeonthebattlefieldGandhihadarrivedatthisintriguing,complicated,conclusion:‘AsaHindu,Idonotbelieveinwar,butifanythingcanevenpartiallyreconcilemetoit,itwastherichexperiencewegainedatthefront.’61
InthelastweekofJanuary,GandhitookashipfromCalcuttatoRangoon.OnboardhewrotealetterofthankstoGokhale.‘Icannoteasilyforgethowanxiousyouweretowipeoutthedistancethatshouldexistbetweenyouandme,’heremarked.ThenheapologizedforraisingthequestionofGokhale’smodeoftransport.Hehad‘norighttoquestionyourtasteonMondayevening…HadIknownthatIwouldcauseyoutherebythepainIdidcause,Ishouldcertainlyhavenevertakentheliberty.’Headdedafurtherhealingtouch,bysayingthat‘yourgreatworkinthecauseofeducationhasadmirersevenonboardthislittlevessel.’62
GandhihadgonetoRangoontoseehisoldfriendPranjivanMehta.Hismedicaldegreenotwithstanding,Mehtahadjoinedthefamilyjewellerybusiness,openingaprofitablebranchinBurmaandestablishinghimselfasaprominentmemberoftheIndiandiaspora.FromtheirLondondayshehadbeenaconfidantofGandhi’s.Theycorrespondedregularly,andMehtahadvisitedtheGandhisinDurbanin1898.WehavenorecordoftheirconversationsinRangoon,whichmusthavefocusedonthelawyer’splanofworkinIndia.
WhileinCalcutta,Gandhihadwrittentooneofhisnephews,Chhaganlal,askinghimtosupervisehischildren’seducation.HewantedtheboystobereadstoriesfromtheKavyadohan,aGujaraticompilationofHindumythsandlegends,since‘thereisn’tsomuchmoraltobedrawnfromtheworksoftheEnglishpoetsasfromouroldstory-poems.’Thenephew,himselfinhisearlytwenties,wasaskedto‘seethatnobadhabitsofanykindarepickedupbytheboys.Mouldtheminsuchawaythattheyalwayshavedeeplovefortruth.’63
GandhireturnedtoRajkotinearlyFebruary.Hechosetosendhiseldestson,Harilal,toaboardingschoolinthenearbytownofGondal.Chhaganlaltaughttheotherboys,whileGandhisoughttoestablishalawpractice.64Hestayedinhisparents’oldhouse,whichstillfollowedtheregimenlaiddownbyhismother,ofprayersandhymnsinthemorningandevening.Inbetween,Gandhiattendedtohischildren,wentforwalks,andlookedforclients.TheintriguesinPorbandarwerenowadistantmemory;adecadeafterthe
palacebreak-ininwhichhisbrotherwasanaccomplice,therewasnolingeringshadowofsuspicionoverthisGandhifromKathiawar.Evenso,hefoundithardtoestablishalegalpracticeinRajkot.Inseveralmonthsheacquiredonlythreebriefs.OnetookhimtoVeraval,whereaplaguewasraging,sothecourthearingwasheldinopenfieldsoutsidethetown.TheexperienceencouragedGandhitoraisefundsforthesick.HegotPranjivanMehtatowriteahandbookonthetreatmentofplaguevictimsanddistributedittovolunteers.GandhialsobusiedhimselfwithworkrelatedtoSouthAfrica.Hewrote
articlesforthepapers,andsentcopiesofpetitionstopublicmenaroundIndia.ThecostswerepaidbytheNatalIndianCongress,whichgrantedhimanallowancetoengageaclerkwhotookdictationandhelpedwithpackingandposting.65
Thebriefs,however,stillwouldnotcome.MohandasGandhiwasnowafailedlawyerinRajkot,wherehisfatherhadoncebeen,asDiwan,thesecondmostimportantmanintown.InJuly1902,hemovedtoBombay,tomakeonemoreattemptatestablishinghimselfintheHighCourt.Herentedanoffice,andsomeroomsinGirgaumforthefamily.Later,theyshiftedtoalargerhouseinthenorthernsuburbofSantaCruz.Meanwhile,inSouthAfrica,thelastroamingbandsofBoershadsurrendered.
OnthelastdayofMay1902thewarringpartieshadsignedatreatyat
Vereeniging,bywhichtheBoersrecognizedtheBritishmonarchastheirsovereign.Inexchange,theBritishagreedthatDutchwouldcontinueasthelanguageofchoiceintheschoolsandcourtsofTransvaalandtheOrangeFreeState.Thetwoformerrepublicswouldbe‘Crowncolonies’,rundirectlyfromLondon.Intimetheywouldbegrantedtheirownlegislatures.Thetreatyhowevernotedthat‘thequestionofgrantingfranchisestonativeswillnotbedecideduntilaftertheintroductionofself-government.’66Withthislastclause,itbecameclearthat(inthewordsofalaterhistorian)Vereenigingwasinessence‘atribalpeace,writtenandsubscribedtoinEuropeaninterestsalone’.67
ThatallofSouthAfricawasnowunderBritishcontrolwasasourceofgratificationtotheSecretaryofStatefortheColonies,JosephChamberlain.HeplannedatriptothenewdominionsintheNewYear.Hearingofthis,theNatalIndianCongresswrotetoGandhiaskinghimtoreturn.Hewasneededtosecuretheirrightsunderthenewdispensation.Gandhiagreedatonce.InearlyNovember,Gandhiwrotetoafriendthathehadn’tdecidedwhether
Kasturbawouldaccompanyhim.Evenifshedid,hewouldleaveHarilalandManilalbehindinRajkot,wheretheywouldstudyinhisoldschool,while‘atrustworthy,paidman…wouldlookaftertheireducation’.Thefriend,aformerfellowstudentinLondonwhowasnowasuccessfulbarristerinRajkot,wasaskedtoallowtheboystheuseofhistenniscourt.68
Intheevent,KasturbaandtheboysdecidedtostayinBombay.HarilalwasinboardingschoolinGondal,whiletheotherboyswereinthecareoftheirmotherandtheireldercousinChhaganlal.69Asin1893,thistimetooGandhiwouldtravelaloneinsearchofbetterprospectsinSouthAfrica.Inhisautobiography,Gandhiisenigmaticaboutwhyhechosetogobacka
yearafterhehadleftDurban,ashethought(andhoped)atthetime,forgood.Hewritesthathewas‘settlingdownasIhadintended’inBombay,and‘feltthatbeforelongIshouldsecureworkintheHighCourt’.But‘Godhasneverallowedanyofmyownplanstostand.HehasdisposedoftheminHisownway.’70
Memoirsarenotoriouslymisleading,notleastbecausememoriesarenotoriouslyfallible.Whenhewrotehisautobiographyinthe1920s,GandhiwasagreatIndiannationalist,thesymbolofacountrystrugglingforpoliticalfreedom.Howtoexplaintohimselfortohisreaderswhy,backin1902,hehad
leftthemotherlandoncemore?Intruth,thedecisiontoleaveforSouthAfricawasmandatednotbythemysteriouswaysoffate,butbythemundanefactsoffailure.WritingtoafriendinAugust1902,Gandhinotedthathewas‘freetoloungeabouttheHighCourtlettingtheSolicitorsknowofanadditiontotheranksofthebrieflessones’.Theresponsefromthepoliticalclasswaslikewisedispiriting;whenhewenttoPherozeshahMehtaforadvice,thestatesman‘gavemeacursewhichashesaidmightproveablessing.Hethought,contrarytomyexpectations,thatIwouldbefoolishlywastingawayinBombaymysmallsavingsfromNatal.’71
Gandhiwasunabletobreakintotheranksofwell-establishedlawyersintheHighCourt.Thosehisage,whohadbeencalledtotheBarintheearly1890s,hadadecadeofexperiencebehindthem.ThemanfromRajkotviaDurbanwas,inprofessionalandsocialterms,anoutsider.Inanycase,thewirefromNatalwasnotasummonsbutaninvitation.IftheofferattractedGandhi,itmayhavebeenbecauseinBombayhewasastillunsuccessfullawyer,whereasinSouthAfricahehadloyalandadmiringclients.
7
WhiteAgainstBrown
GandhisailedfromBombayinthelastweekofNovember1902.WithhimwerehisnephewsMaganlalandAnandlal,whohaddecidedtotrytheirluckinSouthAfrica.TheirshipreachedDurbaninthethirdweekofDecember.TheboysproceededtothevillageofTongat,wheretheyplannedtoopenashop.Theiruncle,meanwhile,placedhimselfattheserviceofthecommunity.TheMayorofDurbanhadfixedanappointmentforanIndiandelegationtomeetJosephChamberlain–thevisitingSecretaryofStatefortheColonies–ontheafternoonof26December.Gandhiaskedfor,andreceived,aday’spostponement,onthegroundsthatthe26thwasaFriday,‘theverytimeforprayerwhichmostofthe[Muslim]gentlemen,whoaretoformthedeputation,wouldbequiteunabletoforgo’.1
Atthemeetingonthe27th,Chamberlainwaspresentedwithapetitionaskingfor,amongotherthings,therelaxationofthelicensinglawsinNatalandtheprovisionofschoolsforIndianchildren.ChamberlainthentookatraininlandtoJohannesburg,withGandhifollowingsomedayslater.TheIndiansintheTransvaalhadaskedthat,sincetheyhadforsomeyearspastbeen‘guidedbytheadviceofAdvocateM.K.Gandhi’,healsocomealongwiththemtomeetthedignitary.Thegovernmentwrotebackstifflythat‘thedeputationwillconsistofnotmorethan15people,ofwhomMrGandhicannotbeoneasheisnotaresidentoftheTransvaal.’2
Themerchantscouldnottaketheirmanalong,buttheycouldatleastpresenttoChamberlainthepetitionhehaddraftedontheirbehalf.ThisaskedthatIndiansbeallowedtoownpropertyandtradeanywhere,insteadofbeingrestrictedtospecificlocations.ItclaimedthatIndiansintheTransvaalwere‘worse[off]thanbefore’theAnglo-BoerWar.Thenextweek,GandhipostedapetitiontohisIndianfriendsinCapeTown,whichtheywouldpresenttoChamberlainwhenhevisitedthatcity.Thus,withintwoweeksofhisreturnto
SouthAfrica,Gandhihadwrittenthreedifferentpetitionsonbehalfofhiscountrymen,dealingwiththeirpredicamentinthreedifferentprovinces.However,hewaslessthanhopefuloftheirimpact,writingtoDadabhaiNaorojiinthelastweekofJanuary1903thathefoundChamberlainhadbeenswayedbythecolonists’claimthatunlessstringentmeasureswereputinplace,‘thissub-continentwouldbeswampedbytheIndians’.3
WithhisfamilyinIndia,GandhicorrespondedmainlywithhisnephewChhaganlal.ItwasthroughhimthathecommunicatedwithKasturbaandthechildren.KasturbacouldreadGujarati,butnot,itappears,writeitwithanyfluency.She,inturn,passedonhernewsbyusingtheirnephewasascribe.InthefirstweekofFebruary,GandhitoldChhaganlalthatitwasnotrightto
havewithdrawnManilalfrommusiclessons,adding:‘Theblameisnotyours,butyouraunt’s.’Hethenturnedtohisownpredicament.Therewas‘greatuncertainty’abouthisfuture;lifeasalawyer-activistwas‘nobedofroses’.Thenextmonthwascrucial–ifhefoundthatitwasnotpossibleforhimtocontinueinSouthAfrica,hewouldreturntoIndiaandrejointhefamily.Ontheotherhand,ifhechosetostayon,‘itwillbepossibletobringyouallaftersixmonths.’4
Forthemoment,GandhichosetobasehimselfinJohannesburg.Afterthewar,theTransvaalhadbeenconstitutedasa‘CrownColony’.TheGovernor,LordMilner,wastheheadofitsadministration.Intime,thecolonywould,onthemodelofNatal,haveitsownelectedgovernment,runbywhitelegislatorselectedbywhitemalesalone.Inthistransitionalperiod,itwascrucialthatGandhiwasathandtolobbyfortheIndians.InthelastweekofMarch1903,Gandhiaskedtobeenrolledasapractising
attorneyintheSupremeCourtoftheTransvaal.HeattachedacertificatefromtheInnerTempleandproofthathehadpractisedbothattheHighCourtofBombayandtheSupremeCourtofNatal.On14Aprilhisapplicationwasapproved.5Afewmonthslater,hefoundofficespaceatthecornerofRissikandAndersonStreets,andaroomtoliveinthesameblock.6
Johannesburgintheearly1900swasverymuchawork-in-progress.ThejournalistFloraShawcaptureditsmoodwell,remarkingthatthecitywas‘muchtoobusywithmaterialproblems.Itishideousanddetestable,luxurywithout
order,sensualenjoymentwithoutart,richeswithoutrefinement,displaywithoutdignity.’7AnotherBritishjournalistobservedthateverydaylifeinJohannesburgpartookofan‘inbornrestlessness.Everybodyseemstobealwaysshiftinghisplaceofabode.Attheendofeachmonthwaggonloadsofmiscellaneousfurniturejoltslowlytosomenewsuburb.’8
TherewasanoverwhelmingpreponderanceofmeninJohannesburg,thegenderratiobeingtwomalestoeachfemaleamongthewhitepopulation,andclosetotenmalesforeachfemaleamongtheblackpopulation.Thesocialdiversitywasenormous–withalmosteverynationinEuroperepresentedinthecity,andalmosteverytribeinsouthernAfricatoo.FortuneseekersandjobhuntersdescendedonJohannesburg‘fromtheendsoftheearth:minersfromMozambique,Nyasaland,Cornwall,andAustralia;artisansandengineersfromScotland;shopkeepersfromLithuaniaandGujarat;financiersfromEnglandandGermany’.Thiswasacitywhere‘everybodycamefromsomewhereelse,socialarrangementshadtobeconstructedfromscratchandeverythingwasupforgrabs’.9
AcensusconductedshortlyafterGandhimovedthereestimatedJohannesburg’spopulationtobealittleover150,000.Itwasgrowingatalmost10percentayear.Thecity’sresidentsseemedtobein‘astateofperpetualhaste’.Newroadswerebeingdug,newhomesandofficesconstructed.Woodandotherbuildingmaterialslaypiledupontheground,andacloudofdusthungintheair.Tomoderateprivateenterpriseandmanageitsexcesses,theelementsofamunicipaladministrationwerebeingputinplace.In1903,asGandhimadehishomeinJohannesburg,thefirstsewagepipeswerelaidundertheground,andthefirststorm-waterdrainsconstructedabovethem.Inthisdecade,gasandelectricityalsomadetheirfirstappearanceinthecity.10
TheyearGandhimovedtoJohannesburg,thewriterJohnBuchanpublishedashort,sharpportraitofthecity.BuchanwasthenworkingonthestaffoftheGovernor,LordMilner.HesawJohannesburgas‘acitystillontrial,sensitive,ambitious,profoundlyignorantofherownmind’.Ithada‘shortandcheckeredpast’;onceaminingcamp,thenaminingcity,woulditeverbecomeacosmopolitancentreofcultureandthearts?WouldJohannesburg,askedBuchan,‘gothewayofmanycolonialcities,andbecomevigorous,dogmatic,proud,remotelyEnglishinsentiment,consistentlymaterialinheroutlook,andnarrow
withtheintensenarrownessofthosetowhompoliticsmeanlocalinterestsspicedwithrhetoric’;or,asshewas‘alreadyricher,moreenlightened,andmorefamousthanheroldersisters’(suchasMelbourneinAustraliaorWellingtoninNewZealand),wouldJohannesburg‘advanceonahigherplane,andbecomeinthetruesenseanimperialcity,withacloserkinship[tothemothercountry]andamoreliberalculture’?11
TheIndiansinJohannesburglivedchieflyintwosuburbs–Fordsburg,tothewest,andVrededorp,tothenorth-west.MohandasGandhi,however,workedandsleptintheveryheartofthecity,withinastone’sthrowofitsstockexchange,itsmainpostofficeanditslawcourts.RecordsofGandhi’slawpracticeinJohannesburg,preservedintheNationalArchivesofSouthAfrica,tellushisclientswerealmostallIndian.SomehadlivedinTransvaalbeforethewarandwantedtore-entertheprovince.OtherswerealreadybasedinTransvaalbutwantedarelaxationofthetradinglaws.YetotherswantedpermitsfacilitatingtravelbetweenthedifferentprovincesofSouthAfrica.TheirappealsweredraftedandputbeforetheauthoritiesbyGandhi.12
AsinNatal,Gandhi’slawpracticewasconductedside-by-sidewithhispublicwork.Thefirstwasnecessarytomakealiving;thesecond(sotospeak)tolive.TherewasaBritishIndianAssociationinTransvaal.ItschairmanwasaMuslimmerchant,AbdulGani,whosefirm,MessrsMahomedCassimCamroodenandCo.,hadofficesinbothDurbanandJohannesburg.Theorganization’snamewasnoteworthy:thesewerenotjustIndians,but‘BritishIndians’,appealingtoHisMajestyfortheirrightsassubjectsoftheEmpire.InthethirdweekofMay1903,theAssociationsoughtanappointmentwith
LordMilner.Milner’sambivalentattitudetowardsthecolouredracesismanifestintwoletterssentinquicksuccessiontohissuperiorsinLondon.On11MayhehadproposedmakingIndiansandChineselive(andwork)indesignatedareas,becauseoftheir‘veryinsanitaryhabits’,andbecauseitwould‘mitigatetheintensehostilityfelttowardsthembytheEuropeanelement,ahostilitywhich,inviewofthepossibleintroductionofself-government,isthegreatestdangerbywhichtheyareconfronted’.13
Thenextday,MilnerwrotethathewasinfavourofimportingChineseandIndianworkersfortherailwaysandthemines.The‘enormousresources’of
SouthAfricacouldnotbeexploitedbecauseofashortageoflabour,whichwas‘beginningtoassumeareallyalarmingaspect’.‘Atpresent,’complainedMilner,‘weareintheabsurdpositionofbeingfloodedbypettyIndiantradersandhawkers,whoarenobenefitwhatevertothecommunity,andnotallowedtohaveIndianlabourers,whomwegreatlyneed.’14
WhenhemetMilner,on22May,Gandhitoldtheproconsulthathispeople‘neededrestfromtheconstantchangesofpassesandpermits’.Milneransweredthatitwas‘nouseforcingthepositionhereagainsttheoverwhelmingbodyofwhiteopinion’.HedefendedthepolicyofcreatingAsian-onlybazaars,arguingthat‘itwouldbeadistinctadvantagetotheIndiancommunitytooccupytheminsteadofcausinggeneraloppositiontothemselvesbysettlingdownhere,there,andeverywhere,amongpeoplewhodonotwantthem.’15
Tendayslater,Milnermetwithmembersofanorganizationnamedthe‘WhiteLeague’.TheytoldtheGovernortheywereopposedtoAsianswhetherasmerchantsorlabourers.The‘Chinesearemostimmoral’,theyclaimed;asfortheIndians,‘cooliesaretraders,notproducers’.OneWhiteLeaguerangrilyaskedMilner:‘HowisitthatinCanadawedonothearofthissortofthing?There,whentheywantlabourtheygetwhitelabourfromhome.’16
TheIndiansheldameetingtocounteracttheWhiteLeaguers.TheygatheredinahallinJohannesburg’sFoxStreettoheartheBIAchairman,AbdulGani,complainthattheCrownhadbetrayedthem.IfthesoiloftheTransvaalwas‘wateredwiththebloodofEnglishmen,havenottheIndians,too,donetheirshare?’TheyhadhopedthataBritishvictorywouldbringjustice,thattheirhandicapswould‘vanish,asifbymagic,assoonastheUnionJackwavedoverthecapital’.Thiswasnottobe.For
someoneinauthoritysoondiscoveredthat,thoughBritishsubjects,wewereAsiaticsafterall,sotheyokeoftheAsiaticOfficewasplacedonournecks.TheAsiaticofficersnaturally,tojustifytheirexistence,unearthedtheAsiaticlawsforus.Andnowherewearefacedwithtotalsocialdestruction…Wearetobebrandedasaclassapart,coopedupinlocations,euphemisticallytobecalledbazaars,andprobablypreventedfromowingapatchofland,exceptinbazaars,andcompelledtopayaregistrationtaxof£3.Inshort,ifwewouldliveintheTransvaalwewouldbecontenttoliveassocial
lepers.17
In1897–8,whenhewasbasedinNatal,GandhihadthoughtofstartinganewspaperfocusingontheIndianquestioninSouthAfrica.Now,inthesummerof1903,hereactivatedtheidea,andfoundtwomenwillingtohelphim.The
first,MansukhalHiralalNazar,wasawidelytravelledGujaratiwhohadstudiedmedicineinBombayandrunabusinessinLondonbeforemigratingtoSouthAfrica.Thesecond,MadanjitVyavaharik,wasaformerschoolteacherwhoownedaprintingpressinGreyStreetinDurban.Thepressprintedweddingcards,businesscards,menus,accountforms,memoranda,circulars,receiptbooks,andsoon,in‘Gujarati,Tamil,Hindi,Urdoo,Hebrew,Marathi,Sanscrit,French,Dutch,Zulu,&c.&c.’18Tothisalreadyextensivelistwouldnowbeaddedaweeklyjournalofopinion.BothVyavaharikandNazarwereactivemembersoftheNatalIndian
Congress.In1895and1896,VyavaharikhadbeenaskedbyGandhitogofromdoortodoorinGreyStreetandaround,collectingmoneyfortheCongress.SincehehadabeautifulhandandGandhianillegibleone,hehadalsoputthelawyer’swordsonpaperinpetitionssenttothegovernment.Nazar,meanwhile,hadtravelledtoLondonin1897,sentbyGandhitocounterthecolonists’propagandaagainsttheIndiansandtheirways.19
Gandhi’scollaboratorswerebasedinDurban,thecentreofIndianlifeinSouthAfrica.Vyavaharik’stasknowwastoraisemoneyfrommerchantsandacquiretypeinthefourlanguagestheweeklywouldprintin–English,Gujarati,HindiandTamil.Nazar’sjobwastoplaneachissue,arrangeforarticlesandtranslations,editcopy,andseethemagazinethroughthepress.FromJohannesburg,Gandhiwouldprovideintellectualandmoraldirection,whichincludedwritingmanyarticleshimself.20
In1903therewerefourteenprintingpressesinDurban.Allwereownedandstaffedbywhites–withtheexceptionofthepressrunbyVyavaharik.Thenew,multilingualjournalstoodoutagainstamonochromaticbackgroundofperiodicalswritten,printedandreadinEnglishalone.Thestaffwassuitablydiverse–includingaCapeColoured,amanfromMauritius,severalGujaratisandatleasttwoTamils.21
ThejournalwasnamedIndianOpinion.Thefirstissue,appearingon4June1903,announceditselfasthevoiceoftheIndiancommunity,now‘arecognizedfactorinthebodypolitic’ofSouthAfrica.The‘prejudice’againstthemin‘themindsoftheColonists’wasbasedonan‘unhappyforgetfulnessofthegreatservicesIndiahasalwaysrenderedtotheMotherCountryeversinceProvidencebroughtloyalHindundertheflagofBritannia’.Anarticleinthesameissue
qualifiedthisloyalism,notingthatinSouthAfrica,‘ifanEuropeancommitsacrimeoramoraldelinquency,itistheindividual:ifitisanIndian,itisthenation.’22
InstartingIndianOpinion,Gandhiwassettinghimselfupasaknowledge-brokerandbridge-builder.ThejournalwouldcarrynewsofIndiansinSouthAfrica,ofIndiansinIndia,andgeneralarticleson‘allsubjects–Social,Moral,andIntellectual’.Itwould‘advocate’theIndiancause,whilegivingEuropeans‘anideaofIndianthoughtandaspiration’.Missingfromthisstatementofthejournal’saimswasanymentionofthelargestsectionofthepopulationofSouthAfrica–theAfricansthemselves.23
EachissueofIndianOpinionrantoeightpages.Acoverpagelistedthejournal’stitleandthelanguagesitwasprintedin.Aseriesofadvertisementsfollowed.AshopinDurbandrewattentiontoitsRaleighcyclesof‘therigid,rapid,reliablekind’;anothershopalertedreaderstoitsstocksof‘OrientalJewellery’.GeneralmerchantsinthetownsofNatalplacedinsertions,asdidspecializedshopssellingcigarettesandclothing.Otheradswereissuedbythepaperitself;theseaskedfora‘goodmachineboy’,for‘afirstclassTamilcompositor’,andforsomeonewhocouldreadbothHindiandEnglish.Suchwasthefirstpage;newsandcommentaryinEnglishfollowed.Later
pagescarriedmaterialinGujaratiand,attheend,inHindiandTamil.TheannualsubscriptionwastwelveshillingsandsixpenceinNatalandseventeenshillingselsewhere(payableinadvance).Singlecopiessoldatthreepenceeach.
NewlawsinNatalortheTransvaalthataffectedIndians,newsfromtheMotherlandaboutprotests,plaguesandgreatpatriots–thesewerereproducedinIndianOpinioninallthelanguagesitprintedin.Otherarticlesweretailoredtoindividualcommunities.TheTamilsectioncoveredfestivalsobservedonlyinSouthIndia.Italsofocusedrathermoreonschoolsforgirls,since–atthisstage–TamilsweremorekeentoeducatetheirwomenthantheGujaratis.24
TheEnglishandGujaratisectionsofIndianOpinionbothdependedheavilyonGandhi’scontributions(oftenprintedwithoutabyline).Hewroteshortnotesandleadersonavarietyoftopics.Thestatementsofmayorsandgovernorswerereproduced.Governmentdispatchesanddocumentsweresummarized.Casesofharassmentanddiscriminationwereanalysed.
ThepostbetweenDurbanandJohannesburgwaskeptbusybyaceaselessflowofletters,articlesandproofsbetweentheeditorofIndianOpinionandthelawyerwho,fromseveralhundredmilesaway,directeditsoperations.M.H.Nazarworkedferociouslyhard,planningissuesaweekinadvance,solicitingandeditingarticles,andsupervisingtranslations.Fundsranlow,asdidstocksoftype–acompositortoldNazarthathehadbettergoslowontheGujaratiequivalentoftheletter‘a’sincetheyhadnotenoughinstock.NazarwrotetoGandhithathewas‘quitedoneup’and‘toofaggedtothinkofanything’.Theeditorworkedwellpastmidnightonpressdays,whichmeantthatheoftenmissedthelasttramandhadtowalkhomethroughtheunlitstreetsofDurban.25
AsforGandhi,hiswritingsforthisperiodareveryheavilydominatedbyhispublicactivities.AmidsthundredsofpagesofeditorialsandreportsforIndianOpinion,petitionstoofficialsandlegislators,legalnotesandletterstosympathizersintheUnitedKingdomandIndia,therearerare,brief,glimpsesintohispersonallife.Theseincludetwoletterswrittenonthesameday,30June1903,sixmonthsafterhisreturntoSouthAfrica.ThefirstletterwasaddressedtohisfriendHaridasVora,afellowlawyer
basedinRajkot.Gandhi’seldestsonHarilal,nowfourteen,hadbeenunwell.Vorahadhelpedhimthroughhisrecovery.Gandhithankedhisfriendforhaving‘suppliedmyplacetoHarilal….Icanonlywishthathewasheretobeattendedbymeandregretthatheshouldhavebeenasourceofanxietyandworry….’HethenturnedtohisownlifeinJohannesburg.Hehad‘builtupadecentpractice’,buthispublicworkwascausinghim‘verygreatanxiety.’Itkepthimbusyfromnineinthemorninguntiltenatnight,withintervalsonlyformealsandashortwalk.Gandhisawnochanceofthepaceslackening,astheTransvaalGovernment
wasplanningnewlegislationaimedattheIndians.BeforeheleftBombay,hehadtoldhiswifethat‘eitherIshouldreturntoIndiaattheendoftheyearorthatsheshouldcomeherebythattime.’Hedidnotthinkhecouldfulfilthepromise.Kasturbacouldjoinhim,but,hewarned,‘shehadverylittleofmycompanyinNatal;probably,shewouldhavelessinJohannesburg.’IfthefamilycametoSouthAfrica,thetimespentwiththem,awayfromwork,mightmeanitwouldtakeuptotenyearstomeethisobligations.Ontheotherhand,iftheystayedoninIndia,that‘wouldenablemetogiveundividedattentiontopublic
work’,andhecouldreturnmorequickly,sayin‘threeorfouryears’.WouldKasturba‘consenttoremainingthereallthattime?’Havingposedthequestion,hetoldhisfriendthat‘IwishtobeguidedentirelybyhersentimentsandIplacemyselfabsolutelyinherhands.’Alsoon30June1903,GandhiwrotetohisnephewChhaganlalenclosinga
copyofhislettertoHaridasVora.Chhaganwastoldtoreaditoutandexplainthesituationheretoyouraunt.Itishighlydesirablethatsheshoulddecidetostayonthereaslifehereisratherexpensive.Ifsheremainsthere,savingsmadeinthisplacewillenableherandthechildrentoleadacomparativelyeasylifeinIndia.Inthatcase,Imaybeabletoreturnhomeintwoorthreeyearstime…If,however,shedecidestoleave,makeallrequisitepreparationsbyOctoberandtakethefirstavailableboatinNovember.Butdotrytoconvinceherthat
itwillbebestforhertoremaininIndia.26
FromhisearliestdaysinSouthAfrica,Gandhihadcollectednewsclippingsonrelationsbetweentheraces.Now,thesewereraidedforpublicationinIndianOpinion.AreportfromtheTransvaalLeaderfeaturedawhiteLabourLeaguewhichopposedAsiaticimmigration.TheLeaguebelievedthat‘thisnation,occupyingthestrongestgeographicalpositionintheSouthernhemisphere,willholdintheeventofanygreatEuropeanwar,thekeytotheSouthandtheEast,andthatitsfuturemustneverdependonaraceofhelots.’27Aliberalpaper,theStandard,remarkedthat‘theHindusappeartohavebeentreatedthroughoutSouthAfricamuchastheJewswereinEuropeduringtheMiddleAges,andastheyare,toaconsiderableextent,inRussiaatthisveryday.’28
InSeptember1903,anofficialintheTransvaalGovernmentnamedW.H.MoorpreparedareportontheIndianquestion.Therewere,heestimated,about13,000Indiansatthetimeofthewar.WhenhostilitiesbrokeoutmostleftforNatal,theCape,orPortugueseterritory.FromSeptember1901theyhadbegunreturning,witha‘committeeofinfluentialAsiatics’consultedonwhomtoawardpermits.InSeptember1902thiscommitteewasdisbanded,andaDepartmentofAsiaticAffairsformedtoregulatere-entryintotheTransvaal.FromtheendofwartoMarch1903,some4,900permitswereissued.ThereportwasreproducedinfullbyIndianOpinion.Moorhadsummarized
the‘popularfeeling’ofthewhitesintheTransvaalandthecounterargumentsoftheBritishIndians.Hedidsosequentially,butIhaveclubbedthemtogetherinachart,sothattheycanbereadsidebyside.Interestingly,ifnotunexpectedly,theofficialspeltouttheEuropeanpositionatgreaterlengththantheIndianone.29
PopularFeelingaboutIndians ArgumentsofBritishIndians
Thattheirmodeoflifeismeananddirty. Theydenythattheyareworsecitizensthantheirfellowsubjects;theyarereadytosubmittosanitaryandmunicipalregulations.
Thattheirlowstandardoflivingenablesthemtoacceptwagesonwhichawhitemancannotthriveandlive.
Theyareanxiousforeducationandcapableofbenefitingbyit.
Thattheyarenotgoodcolonistsinasmuchastheydonotbringmoneywiththem,andsendtheirsavingstotheirowncountries.
Theyareindustrious,temperate,frugal,law-abiding,andarepreparedtosettleinthecountry.
ThatSouthAfricaisacountrywherewhitepeoplecanliveandmaketheirhomesandestablishtheirrace;thattheOrientalraceshaveampleopportunityforexclusivecolonizationwheretheclimatesuitsthem,andwherewhitepeoplecannotsettle.
AsBritishsubjects,theyareentitledtoequaltreatmentwithothers,regardlessofcolour,casteorcreed.
ThattheinvinciblehostilityandrepugnancefelttowardstheindigenousblackraceshasproducedsomarkedalineofcleavageonthebasisofcolourthattheAsiaticracescannot
Theyhaveprovedthemselvestobepublicspirited,
everbetreatedonabasisofequalitywiththewhiteraces;sothattheintroductionoftheAsiaticracesaddsunnecessarilyathirdelementwhichcannotberefusedandanadditionalcomplicationinthesettlementofthedisturbancesinSouthAfrica.
liberalandcharitable,andtheymaintaintheirpoor.30
AneditorialinanearlyissueofIndianOpinionsoughttosee‘TheBrightSideofthePicture’.Thesituationnowlookedbleak,butthehope,inthelong-term,wasthat
astheEuropeancommunitygrowsolder,theawkwardcornerswouldberubbedout,andthatthedifferentmembersoftheImperialfamilyinSouthAfricawouldbeabletoliveinperfectpeaceinthenearfuture.Thetimemaynotcomewithinthepresentgeneration;wemaynotlivetoseeit,butthatitwillcomenosanemanwilldeny;andthatbeingso,letusallstrainoureverynervetohastenitscoming…bytryingtostepintotheshoesofouropponentsandendeavouringtofindoutwhatmayberunningintheirminds–tofindout,thatistosay,notmerelythepointsofdifference,butalso
pointsofagreement.31
ItwasbarelyfiveyearssinceGandhihadbeenattackedbyamobthatspokeforthewhitepopulationofDurban,ahandfulofliberalsexcepted.Evenashewrote,therewasaregularflowofderisiveremarksagainsthiminthewhitepress,andofcoursehiscompatriotsweresubjecttoracialprejudiceonadailybasis.Andyet,herewastheleaderoftheIndiansseekingtolivein‘perfectpeace’withtheiroppressors.Surely,thisoptimismwasaproductofthefriendshipsthathehadforged.
JosiahOldfieldandmembersoftheVegetarianSocietyinLondon;thelawyerF.A.LaughtonandthepolicemanR.C.AlexanderinDurban;laypreacherslikeA.W.BakerinPretoria–tothislistwerenowaddedwhitemeninJohannesburgwithwhomGandhitookwalks,sharedmeals,anddebatedtherightsofthedifferentracesinSouthAfrica.InhisfirstyearinJohannesburg,GandhibefriendedfourEuropeanswith
whom,forreasonsofclassandeducation,hewasmoretemperamentallyakinthantheIndianswhomherepresentedincourt.Ofthisquartet,thefirsttoenterhislifewasamannamedL.W.Ritch.HewasJewishandoriginallyfromLondon,inwhichcityhe(likeGandhi)hadsoughttobroadenhisfaithwithaninfusionofTheosophy.HemovedtoJohannesburgin1894,andhelpedfoundaTheosophicalLodge.ThismeteveryThursdaytodiscusstheworksofMadameBlavatskyandAnnieBesant.
InalettertoTheTheosophist,RitchdescribedtheTransvaalasarepublicinnameonly.Racialhatred,directedmoststronglyagainstanynationalityofsableexterior,isitsmostmarkedfeature.ThisissoeveninNatal,whereonlyrecentlyanattemptwasmadetopreventanumberofIndianslanding,anattempthoweverwhichprovedabortive,chieflytothepluckandpersistenceofmyIndianfriend,MrGandhi,Barrister-at-Law,agentlemanwhohasforalongtimepastbeenfightingtheIndianbattleinNatal,almostsingle-handed.
L.W.RitchfirstmetGandhibeforetheAnglo-BoerWar,ononeofthelawyer’svisitsfromDurbantoJohannesburg.Duringthewar,Ritchleftthecity.Hereturnedafterthepeacetreatywassigned,andsetaboutre-establishingtheTheosophicalLodge.Thisnew,syncretic,cosmopolitancreedwasatoddswiththeprevailingethosofacitydisplaying‘theconcentratedessenceofselfishness,individualism,greedandmammonworship’.Gandhi,whohadnowmovedtoJohannesburg–toalmostsingle-handedlyfighttheIndianbattlethere–beganvisitingtheLodgeregularly.Inandapartfromthesemeetings,heandRitchfoundtheyhadmuchtotalkabout.32
TwootherfriendscametoGandhiasaconsequenceofhistastesinfood.ThelawyeroftenatehismealsatJohannesburg’sonlyvegetarianrestaurant,theAlexandraTeaRoom.AnotherregularvisitortotheeaterywasanEnglishmannamedAlbertWest.Hehasleftbehindavividportraitoftheplaceanditsmilieu,c.1903:
AroundalargetablesatamixedcompanyofmencomprisingastockbrokerfromtheUnitedStateswhooperatedontheExchangeingoldanddiamondshares,anaccountantfromNatal,amachineryagent,ayoungJewishmemberoftheTheosophicalSociety[thismusthavebeenL.W.Ritch],aworkingtailorfromRussia,Gandhithelawyer,andmeaprinter.EverybodyinJohannesburgtalkedaboutthesharemarket,butthesemenwerefoodreformersinterestedinvegetariandiet,Khune[sic]baths,earthpoultices,fasting,etc.IwasspeciallyattractedbythismanfromIndia,andGandhiandI
soonbecameclosefriends.33
ItwasatthesamerestaurantthatGandhimetHenrySolomonLeonPolak,athin,lean,intellectually-mindedJewwhohadlatelyarrivedfromBritain.He,likeWest,wasinhisearlytwenties,afulldecadeyoungerthanthelawyerhewastobefriend.HisfamilywereoriginallyfromtheContinent–onegrandparentspokeDutch,anotherGerman.TheyhadmovedtoEngland,wherePolak’sfatherworkedastheadvertisingmanagerofanewspaper.HenryhimselfhadstudiedataschoolinNeuchâtel,intheFrench-speakingpartofSwitzerland,andthenatLondonUniversity.
Whileastudent,HenryPolakbeganwritingforaJewishweeklyonpoliticalmatters.HefellinlovewithagirlnamedMillieGraham,whowasbothaChristianand,asan‘ardentsocialreformer’,asupporterofwomen’ssuffrage.Hisfamilyweredistressedbytheromance,so–inanattempttobreakit–theydispatchedHenrytojoinanuncleinSouthAfrica.However,beforeheleftheinsistedonformalizinghisengagementtoMillie.34
Polakworkedatfirstinhisuncle’sbusinessinCapeTown.HesoonmovedtoJohannesburg,wherehejoinedthestaffofalocalweekly,theTransvaalCritic.HehadbegunreadingtheworksofLeoTolstoy,anditwasafellowTolstoyan,apainterandstageactor,whotookhimtothevegetarianrestaurantpatronizedbyanIndianwhoalsoadmiredtheRussianwriter.Astheyenteredtheeateryonedayin1904,thepainterpointedGandhiouttohisfriend.Polakthentook
aswiftglanceatthequiet,slender,pleasant-lookingmansittingatatablealone.Apartfromhisblackprofessionalturbanandhisdarkcomplexion,therewasnothingspeciallytomarkoutthealreadywell-knownEastIndianleader.Iwasdisappointed.IsupposeIhadexpectedtoseeabig,aggressivefellow,whohadbeenthesergeant-majorofanEastIndianAmbulanceCorpsduringtheBoerWar…Icouldnotguessthat,atthemoment,IwasgazingatthemanwhowastobecomethegreatestAsiaticofhistime.
Thetwomenwereintroduced,andfoundthattheysharedanadmirationnotjustofTolstoy,butofmoreobscureauthors,suchasAdolfJust,authorofReturntoNature.PolakvisitedGandhiathislawchambers,andasthefriendshipdeveloped,‘wemetalmostdailyanddiscussedvigorouslyeveryproblemandsubjectwhichinterestedeitherofus.’Theseconversationsusuallytookplaceoverdinneratthevegetarianrestaurant,wheretheyatesaladssodominatedbyaparticularpungentbulbthatPolakjokedthattheyshouldstartan‘AmalgamatedSocietyofOnion–Eaters’.35
JustbeforeorafterhemetPolak,GandhicameintocontactwithHermannKallenbach,alsoaJew,albeitofadifferentbackgroundandtemperament.BorntwoyearsafterGandhi,andoriginallyfromLithuania,KallenbachgrewupinPrussiaandqualifiedasanarchitect.Wiry,strongandextremelyathletic,heenjoyedtheoutdoors,spendinghiswintersskatingandhissummersswimmingandfishing.Body-buildingwasanotherpassion.Inabout1896hemovedtoSouthAfrica.HewasabeneficiaryoftheconstructionboominJohannesburg,designinglargebuildingsthatwentupintheheartofthecity.LikeRitchandPolak,hewaspartofasubstantialwaveofJewishemigrationtoSouthAfrica,
withthepopulationofJewsmultiplyingtenfoldbetween1880and1904.Manycame,likeKallenbachhimself,fromtownsinRussiaandEasternEuropethatwerehometoarisingtideofanti-Semitism.36
Kallenbach’sofficewasveryclosetoGandhi’slawchambers.TheyfirstmetthroughanIndianmerchantwhowasaclientofbothlawyerandarchitect.ThefriendshipwithKallenbachwasaninversionofGandhi’searlierfriendshipwithSheikhMehtab.Asanathletewhowasdeftwithhishands,KallenbachwasasortofmatureSheikhMehtab;exceptthatratherthanbeinglookedupto,itwashewhoadmiredGandhi–whoseinterestinmattersofthespiritandsteadinessofpurposewereincontrasttothearchitect’srestlessnessandconflictedsexualdesires(hewasabachelor,andatthisstageapparentlyavirgin).37
ItisstrikingthatofGandhi’sfourclosestfriendsinJohannesburg,threewereJews.White-skinned,butnotBoerorBriton,andcertainlynotChristian,theJewscamefromfamiliesthathadbeensubjecttoprejudiceandpersecution.TheywerequickerthanotherEuropeanstodeploretheunreasoningracismofrulersintheTransvaal;quicker,too,towarmtoanIndianwhowasalive,intelligent,andlessthanorthodoxinhisownreligious(ordietary)beliefs.38
ItisalsostrikingthatnoneofthesefriendswereGujaratiorevenIndian.InLondon,therehadbeenIndianstudentswithwhomGandhicouldconverse.InJohannesburg,however,hewastheonlyprofessionalinthecommunity.TherewerenootherIndianlawyers,noranyIndiandoctors,teachers,editors,ormanagersintheTransvaal.Tobesure,Gandhiwasconnectedtohiscompatriotsbytiesofsentimentandculture,butbooksandideaswerenotpartoftheirdiet;nor,really,werefruitandvegetables.TheGujaratisinJohannesburgwere,asMuslims,hard-coremeat-eaters,asweretheworking-classTamilsandTelugu-speakerswhorepresented,sotospeak,the‘otherhalf’ofthecommunity.Thesepeoplewerehisclientsandalsohiscompatriots.Heidentifiedwiththeirsufferings.Hisworkingdaywasspentadvancingtheirindividualandcollectivecauses.However,forconversationandcuisinehelookedelsewhere.Inhis‘GuidetoLondon’,writteninPretoriain1893,Gandhihadsaidthatthe
Indianstudentabroadwas‘masterofhistime’,with‘nowifetoteaseorflatterhim,noparentstoindulge,nochildrentolookafter’.Tenyearslater,livingaloneoncemore,Gandhiusedhisfreedomfromfamilyobligationstoexplorethedissentingsub-culturesofJohannesburg.Mostprofessionalsinthetownwere
likewisesingleorlivingapartfromtheirwifeandchildren.Theyusedtheirtimeoutsideworktoplayandparty.Rugby,cricketandhorse-racingheldnoattractionsforGandhi;nordidclublifeandhuntingexpeditions.Butexperimentsindietandinter-faithlivingdid.Theseinterestsorobsessions,firstvisibleinLondon,werenowmorevigorouslypursuedamidstJews,Theosophists,Nonconformistsandvegetariansinthisnewcityonareef.
OutsideSouthAfrica,Gandhi’smoststeadfastsupportersweretwoParsisinLondon:theformerMPDadabhaiNaorojiandtheservingMPM.M.Bhownaggree.HesentthemaregularstreamoflettersonIndianproblemsinSouthAfrica;they,inturn,passedonhisconcernstoHisMajesty’sGovernment.In1903alone,NaorojisentasmanyasnineteenletterstotheIndiaOfficeonGandhi’sbehalf–thisamarkbothoftheyoungerman’spersistenceandtheolderman’spatriotism.39
Bhownaggreewasscarcelylessenergetic.HeaskedmanyquestionsinParliament,wherehetermedtheanti-IndianlegislationinIndiaa‘scandal’,andinSeptember1903postedaletteroftwentyprintedpagestotheSecretaryofStatefortheColonies,JosephChamberlain.DrawingonmemorandasentbyGandhi,thisdetailedthe‘disabilitiesandindignities’sufferedbyBritishIndiansintheTransvaal.’Bhownaggreewarnedthat‘theaffectionoftheIndianpeopleforKingandEmpireisunderminedbythecontinuanceofthestateofaffairsinSouthAfrica.’Soonafterwards,Chamberlainresigned.Bhownaggreenowsenttheletterto
hissuccessor,AlfredLyttelton,whopasseditontotheGovernoroftheTransvaal,LordMilner,notingthathecould‘notbutfeelmuchsympathyfortheviewsexpressedinit,andIfearitwillbedifficulttomeethisrepresentationswithafullysatisfactoryanswer.’WhenLytteltonforwardedBhownaggree’snotetohim,LordMilneraskedhis
Lieutenant-Governor,AlfredLawley,topreparearebuttal.On13April1904,LawleysenthisbossacloselyargueddefenceofthepolicytowardsIndians.‘Thereisnotinthiscountryonemaninahundred,’heremarked,‘whowouldagreetorecognisethecolouredmanascapableofadmissiontothesamesocialstandardasthewhite.’Thenheadded:‘Idonotseektojustifytheprejudices
whichexist;Imerelydesiretosetthemforth.Theycannotbeignored.Theyhavegottobereckonedwith.’LikeMilner,LawleythoughtthatwhileIndianswereacceptableaslabourers,
astraderstheyposedaseriousthreattoEuropeaninterestsintheTransvaal.Therewasafurtherdanger,thatiftheirchildreneducatedthemselvestheymightseekafootholdintheprofessionalclass.TheAsiaticquestioninSouthAfricathusdrewone‘facetofacewithamostdifficultproblemofmoderncivilisation’.TheBritishEmpireincludedterritoriesofallclimaticandvegetativetypes.TropicalregionslikeIndiaandaridareaslikecentralAfricawerebothincapableof‘becomingthepermanenthomeofawhitenation’.Ontheotherhand,
SouthAfricaisoneofthecountriesinhabitablealikebyEuropeansandAsiatics,anditisdifficulttoconceiveanyquestionatthepresentmomentmoremomentousthanthestrugglebetweenEastandWestfortheinheritanceofthesesemi-vacantterritories.Promiseshavebeenmadewithoutknowledgeorperceptionoftheconsequenceinvolvedintheirfulfilment.IftheredemptionofthepledgesuponwhichSirM.Bhownaggreedependsbothinletterandspirit
meansthatinfiftyorahundredyearsthiscountrywillhavefallentotheinheritanceoftheEasterninsteadofWesternpopulations,thenfromthepointofviewofcivilisationtheymustbenumberedamongpromiseswhichitisagreatercrimetokeepthantobreak.
Lawleythereforeconcludedthat‘thefirstdutyofstatesmeninthiscountryistomultiplyhomesforwhitemen.’On18April,MilnerwrotetotheImperialGovernmentendorsingLawley’s
views.Thechallenge,ontheoneside,wastoprevent‘anindiscriminateinfluxofAsiatics’,andontheother,tofacilitate‘agreatincreaseinthewhitepopulation’.AsforIndiansalreadyintheterritory,Milnerthoughtthat‘theattempttoplacecolouredpeopleonanequalitywithwhitesinSouthAfricaiswhollyimpracticable,andthat,moreover,itisinprinciplewrong.’40
FacedwithMilner’sintransigence,M.M.BhownaggreeturnedoncemoretotheBritishParliament.BetweenFebruaryandAugust1904,heaskedasmanyastwelvequestionsaboutthetreatmentofIndiansinSouthAfrica.41Healsotookthedebatetothepress,tellingtheDailyGraphicthatintheTransvaal,‘theIndiansubjectsoftheKingarebeingactuallyworsetreatedthantheywereunderBoerrule.’Whenasked‘whythisreactionarycoursehasbeentaken’,Bhownaggreereplied:‘IcanonlyputitdowntotheinfluenceoftheWhiteLeague,amilitantbodythat…seemstohaveobtainedacommandinginfluenceovertheTransvaalGovernment.’42
Gandhi,meanwhile,wasbusywritingforIndianOpinion,shoringupthesaggingspiritofhiscountrymen.InNovember1903hesalutedDadabhaiNaorojionhisseventy-eighthbirthday;theParsiveteran,hesaid,was‘lovedfromtheHindukushtoCapeComorinandfromKarachitoCalcuttaasnootherlivingmaninIndiaisloved’.Twomonthslater,hewrotethatthelivesofChristandJoanofArcdemonstratedthat‘individualshavetosacrificesothatthecommunitymaygainagreatdeal’.Gandhithoughtthesituationdidnotcallfor‘heroicsacrifice’byIndians;rather,‘well-sustained,continuousandtemperateconstitutionaleffortisthemainthingneeded.’For‘iftheBritishmachineryisslowtomove,thegeniusofthenationbeingconservative,itisalsoquicktoperceiveandrecogniseearnestnessandunity.’43
InFebruary1904,seekingtogetthemachinerytomove,GandhiwroteseveralletterstotheChiefMedicalOfficercomplainingthattheIndianLocationinnorth-westJohannesburgwas‘over-crowdedbeyonddescription’.SinceIndianshadonlytenancyrights,theyhadnoincentivetokeeptheplaceclean.Gandhiwarnedthat‘ifthepresentstateofthingsiscontinued,theoutbreakofsomeepidemicdiseaseismerelyaquestionoftime.’44
Sureenough,bubonicplaguebrokeoutinthebazaarinMarch.Gandhiledtheattemptstonursethevictims.Atemporaryhospitalwasformedinanabandonedwarehouse,wherethesickweretreatedwithwet-earthpoultices.Manyweresaved,butatleasttwenty-onedied.45
Havingfailedtoprovidepropersanitation,themunicipalitynowdecidedtorazethebazaartotheground.Acontingentoftroopsevacuatedtheareaandsetfiretosixwholeblocks,containingatleast1,600buildings.Theresidentswatchedinstonysilence.Thenextday,theIndiansweretakentoanewlocation,inKlipstruit,tenmilesoutsidethecity.ThesitehadpreviouslyservedasacampforBoerprisoners-of-war:withtentsashousesandnosewage,theplacewasunfittoliveinandtotrade–who,whetherwhite,colouredorblack,wouldcomeandshopthere?TheIndianswhohadbeendumpedatKlipstruitmadetheirwaybacktoJohannesburgindribsanddrabs,livingandworkingatthemarginsofthecityitself.46
InMay,atradernamedHabibMotanappealedtotheSupremeCourtagainsttheGovernment’sdecisiontodenyhimagenerallicence.HehadtradedfreelybeforetheAnglo-BoerWar,andquestionedwhyhehadnowtobeconfinedtoa
location.Thejudge,bravelyandperhapssurprisingly,concurred.Gandhicongratulatedthemerchantforwinninghiscase,butwarned‘againstbeingtoomuchelatedbythissuccess.Probablyitmeansonlythebeginningofanotherstruggle.Oppositionwillberaisedupagainstthemthroughoutthecountry,andtheGovernmentmaybringinabilltocounteracttheeffectsoftheSupremeCourt.’HealsodrewattentiontotheproblemsofChinesetraders,who,insmalltownsacrosstheprovince,werebeingharassedbywhiteswhowantedthecustomofChinesemineworkersforthemselves.Thisremindedhim‘verymuchofsimilaragitationinDurbanin1896’(conductedagainsttheIndians,andagainsthimself).47
AsGandhihadpredicted,sectionsofthewhitepublicwereoutragedbytheMotanjudgment.AdeputationofwhitetradersmettheColonialSecretarytocomplainthat‘theAsiaticsaregettingholdofthenativetrade,whichrepresentsaverylargepartofthecountry’swealth’.Ahardlinegroup,theEastRandVigilanceAssociation,urgedtheGovernmentto‘formulateanewandcomprehensiveOrdinance,withallpossibledespatch,suchOrdinancetoberetrospectiveandtoprovidethatnoAsiatictradingorresidenceofanykindbeallowedintheTransvaalsaveinbazaarssetasidefortheexclusiveuseofAsiatics’.48
TheEastRandVigilanteswereledbyanAnglicanclergymannamedC.E.Greenfield,ofwhomGandhi’sweeklywrotethathe‘believedjusticetobeabsentfromHeavenitselfifitcontainedaBritishIndian’.49Thepriestrepresentedawidespectrumofwhiteopinion.AtameetingofEuropeanfarmersinPietersburg,onespeakerdescribedIndiansas
anevil-smellingrace,andaneyesoreonthis,oneofthemostbeautifulcountriesintheworld.Arewetoallowthemhere?(no).Arewetoallowthesehumanparasitestooverrunalandwhichistheheritageofwhitepeopleandforwhichtheyhavefoughtandbled?(no).ThenletustakemeasuresbeforeitistoolateortheywillgainsuchafootholdastheyhavealreadysecuredinNatal(loud
applause).50
Atanothermeeting,inPretoria,aspeakernamedA.H.Greendrewuponthirtyyearsspentasatea-planterinSouthIndiatowarntheaudienceagainstany‘sentimentalism’.TheHinduwas‘averywilyfellow’.If‘youhavetheIndianwithyouanddonotconfinehimtolivingandtradinginbazaars,’warnedGreen,then‘hewillenteruponthevariousspheresofworkthroughouttheTransvaal’.
HespokeofanIndianheknew,whomarriedanEnglishladywhilestudyinginEngland,andthentookherhome,whereshehadtocoverherheadandeatseparatelyfromhim.WhowastosaythatifmoreIndianswereallowedintotheTransvaal,theywouldnotfirsttaketheirland,thentheirjobs,and,finally,theirwomen?‘Haveyouadaughter,Sir?’askedtherabble-rouserofhisexcitedandfearfulaudience:‘WouldyouliketoseeyourdaughterweddedtoanIndian?’51
TheTransvaalGovernmentnowsoughttoannulthejudgmentinfavourofHabibMotan.LordMilnerwasworriedthatiftheverdictwasnotreversed,‘somethousandsofBritishIndianswillbeabletodemandasofrightaprivilegefromwhichtheyhadbeenexcludedpriortotherecentfindingoftheSupremeCourt.’52
Sensingahardeningofthewhiteattitude,Gandhisoughtacompromise.HeoutlineditstermsinaproposalsenttoLordMilnerinSeptember1904;thishasdisappearedfromtherecords,butaletterthataccompanieditexists.ItthrowsnewlightonGandhi’smotivationsatthispointintime.Theletter’stoneandcontentsareextremelyconciliatory.Gandhisaidhisproposals
meeteveryreasonableobjectionoftheColonistsinthat:(1)TheyareintendedentirelytoprohibittheimmigrationofallbutthefewestIndiansofeducation
suchasmaybeallowedtoentertheColonyfortheassistanceofthosewhoarealreadysettledinthecountry.(2)Theyplacetheissueofnewdealers’licencesabsolutelyunderthecontroloftheGovernmentor
thelocalbodiesiftheretoauthorisedsubjecttoreviewbytheSupremeCourtinextremecases.(3)UnderthemcompulsorysegregationwouldnotbenecessarybecauseinJohannesburgand
Pretoria,whichcontainthelargestpopulation,therearealreadylocationsexisting,andintheotherplacestheyaretotallyunnecessaryasthepresentIndianpopulationistoosmall.Therewouldbeverylittleadditioninfutureandfew,ifany,newlicenceswouldbeissued.
Gandhisaidofhisproposalsthattheydo‘givetherighttotheIndiansofowningfixedproperty,but,ifnecessary,certainportions–forinstance,farms–maybereservedforexclusiveEuropeanownership.IntownsitissubmittedthatthereshouldbenooppositiontoIndianownership.’Heendedhisletterwithaplea:
Throughoutmyelevenyears’connectionwiththequestion,myearnestendeavourhasbeentolookatthequestionfromtheEuropeanstandpointalsoandtoadvisemycountrymensofaraspossibletoavoidanappealtotheHomeGovernment.ItisthesamedesirethatpromptsmetoapproachHisExcellencyinthepresentinstance.Shouldmyattendanceberequired,IwouldwaitonHisExcellency.IbegtorepeatthatthisiswritteninmyprivatecapacitybutshouldHisExcellencybepleasedto
approveofmysuggestions,Idonotanticipateanydifficultyinsecuringtheacceptanceofthe
proposalsbymycountrymeninsofarassuchmaybedeemednecessary.53
EvenwithoutaccesstoGandhi’soriginalproposal,wecan,withtheaidofthisfascinatingandforgottenletter,divineitscontents.ThelawyeraskedthatIndiansbepermittedtoownpropertyandresideintownsalongsidewhitepopulationswheretheyalreadydidso.Thiswouldallowthemtoprotecttheirlivelihoods,andtheirdignity.Whathedidnotaskforwastheupholdingoftheirright,asBritishIndians,tomigratefreelytoanypartoftheEmpire.HencethecalltolimitfurtherimmigrationtoafeweducatedIndians.TheconcessionrefarmownershipwasperhapsduetothefactthatBoersdislikedIndiansevenmorethantheBritish.Anewpartynamed‘HetVolk’wascampaigningintheTransvaalcountrysideagainst‘thefreeinfluxofAsiatics’,itsleadersmakingwhatthewhitepresswasobligedtorefertoas‘violentspeeches’.54
Gandhi’sproposalrepresentedasignificantsofteningofhisviews.Backin1894and1895,hehadaskedthateducatedIndiansbegrantedthefranchiseinNatal.HenowsawmoreclearlythatwhitesinSouthAfrica(asdistinctfromwhitesinEngland)wouldnotconcedetherighttovote.Soheaskedforsomethingmoremodest–namely,confirmationoftheirrightsofresidence,work,travelandtrade.Indianscouldnotbecomeequalcitizens,buttheymightyetbetreatedashonourablesubjects,allowedtoliveatpeaceandwithdignityundertheBritishflaginSouthAfrica.OnemotivationforGandhi’sproposalwascertainlypolitical.Heunderstood
that,inthecontextoftheprofoundasymmetryofpower(andofnumbers),IndianscouldnotovercomewhiteprejudiceintheTransvaal.However,withthehelpofsympatheticBritishadministrators,theymightmoderateorplacateit.Hencethecompromisesuggestedbyhim–virtuallynofreshimmigration,butnoseizuresofpropertyorforcedrelocationseither.Anothermotivationwasverylikelypersonal.Although,ashereminded
Milner,hehadfirstcometoSouthAfricaelevenyearsago,thiscountrywasnomore‘home’tohimthanLondonhadbeen.Gandhihadgonetooneplacetostudy,totheothertohelpfightalegalbattle.ForallhiscommitmenttotheIndianslivingthere,SouthAfrica(liketheUnitedKingdom)remainedforhimaforeignland.InOctober1901hehadsailedfromDurbanforIndia,inhiseyesforgood.InNovember1902hesailedbacktoDurban,but–inasignofhow
temporaryhesawthisstaywouldbe–leftKasturbaandthechildrenbehindinBombay.Forsomesixteenyearsnow,MohandasGandhihadbeenajourneyman
betweencontinents.BornandraisedinKathiawar,hehadbravedconventionandcommunitytostudyinEngland.WhenheboardedtheSSClydeinSeptember1888,hesawthevoyageashisfirst,butalsohislast,journeyoverseas.Havingburnishedhiscredentials,hewouldreturntomakeacareerandnameinhisnativeKathiawar;ashismother’sspiritualguidehadadvisedher,withabarrister’scertificatefromLondonadiwanshipshouldbeherson’sfortheasking.HisbrotherLaxmidas’smisdeedsrenderedthatplanunfruitful,andlifebecamemorecomplicated.Havingtried,andfailed,toestablishhimselfinRajkotandBombay,onhisthirdtryGandhibecameasuccessfullawyerinDurban.Threeyearstherealone;threemoreyearswithhisfamily;andthen,toeducatehischildrenandovercomehiswife’sloneliness,in1901GandhireturnedtoIndia.AyearlaterhewasbackinSouthAfrica.Thistime,thecommunitydesired
thathebebasedinJohannesburg.Herehelivedthelifeofanexpatriate:workingwithhisIndianclientsduringtheday,andspendingtheeveningswith(white)professionalslikewisesingleorseparatedfromtheirfamilies.LifeinJohannesburgwasinterestingandintriguing,forawhile.ButoncetheIndianquestionintheTransvaalwassettled,hewouldmakeonefinaltranscontinentaljourneyandgobackhome.KasturbaverymuchwantedherhusbandtoreturntoIndia.Andhewishedto
gobackhimself.Theremayhavebeenalingeringambitiontotry–forthethirdtime–toestablishapracticeintheBombayHighCourt.Therewerealsooptionsoutsidethelaw,inthesphereofpoliticsandsocialwork.Foranambitiouspatriot,themotherlandofferedafarlargertheatreofactionthanthediaspora.TheexperienceandcredibilitythathehadacquiredinSouthAfricacouldbeparleyedtogreateffectbackhomeinIndia.TherewerethuscompellingreasonsforGandhitoreturnfinally–aftersixteen
yearsonthemove,shuttlingbetweenthreecontinents–toestablishhimselfasalawyerand/orsocialactivistinhishomeland.HencethecompromiseofferedtoMilner.IfGandhicouldsecureasettlementwhichstruckamiddlegroundbetweenthedesiresofthecolonists(thewholesaleexpulsionofIndians)andthe
hopesofthemoreradicalofhiscountrymen(therightoffreeentryandsettlement),hecouldleaveSouthAfricawithhishonourintact.Gandhi’snoteandletterwerepassedontotheGovernor.Milnerdoesnot
appeartohavecalledGandhiforameeting,orindeedtohavetakenhisproposalsveryseriously.GandhiwasnowlosingfaithintheintentionsofthisparticularEnglishman.AshewrotetoGokhale:
Contrarytoallexpectations,LordMilner,whoontheeveofthewar,wasthechampionoftheoppressedincludingtheBritishIndians,hascompletelyturnedroundand…isquitepreparedto
deprivetheIndiansofevenwhatlittlerightstheypossessedintheTransvaalbefore[the]war.’55
AnEnglishwomanwhogottoknowLordMilnerduringtheAnglo-BoerWarfoundhim‘clear-headedandnarrow’,adding,‘Everyonesayshehasnoheart,butIthinkIhitontheatrophiedremainsofone.’56TohiscompatriotsMilnermightsometimesshowemotion,buttoeveryone(andforeverything)elsehewasalwayshard-headed.AsSaulDubowhaswritten,notwithstandingMilner’sownlowopinionofBoerculture,theproconsulnowunderstoodthat‘securingaprosperousandloyalTransvaalwaskeytoestablishingandmaintainingBritishpoliticalsupremacyinSouthAfrica’.57InrejectingGandhi’sproposals,MilnerwasmerelyrecognizingthatEuropeansentiment,BoeraswellasBriton,wasoverwhelminglyagainsttheIndians.
MohandasGandhiwascity-bornandcity-bred.BorninPorbandar,raisedinRajkot,educatedinLondon;apractisingprofessionalinBombay,DurbanandJohannesburg–hehadspentallhisyearsinurbancentressmall,largeandmassive.In1904,nowthirty-five,hehadnotspentanightinavillage,norperhapsanentiredayeither.Andyethehadlonghadayearningfortherusticlife.ItwasfirstexpressedinLondon,inthemeetingsoftheVegetarianSociety,wherehemetHenrySaltandreadhisfriendEdwardCarpenter,aCambridgescholarwhohadsettledintheYorkshirehills,fromwherehesermonizedagainsttheillsofindustrialism.Inhisownfirstwritings,GandhihadspokenadmiringlyofthesimplelifeoftheshepherdsofKathiawar.LaterhehadreadTolstoy,andlearntoftheRussian’sexperimentsontheland.Inthelatterhalfof1904,GandhitravelledtoDurbanforwork,beingseenoff
atJohannesburg’sParkStationbyHenryPolak.Asthetrainpulledout,hisfriendgavehimacopyofJohnRuskin’sUntothisLast.Thiswasapolemic
againstthethenveryinfluentialscienceofpoliticaleconomy.RuskindeploredthetendencyofRicardo,Mill,etal.tomakemoneytheunitofallexchangeandvalue.Asciencethatregardedair,lightandcleanliness,orpeace,trustandloveasworthless,wasinconflictwiththeteachingsofthegreatreligions,andantitheticaltothedeeperinterestsofhumanityitself.WhereasRicardoandcompanyrigorouslyseparatedeconomicsfrommorality,Ruskinthoughtthataffectionandtrustmustgovernrelationsbetweenmasterandservant,capitalistandworker.Amoraleconomicswouldbeone‘whichnourishesthegreatestnumberofnobleandhappyhumanbeings’,notwhichpromotedthegreatestmonetarywealthorproducedthegreatestnumberofrichpeople.58
ThelawyerreadUntothisLastatonce,rightthrough,andwassomovedthathecouldnotsleepthatnight.Theimpactwassoimmensethat,asGandhilaterrecalled,‘Ideterminedtochangemylifeinaccordancewiththeidealsofthebook.’ThecoreteachingofUntothisLast,asunderstoodbyhim,wasthattheworkoffarmersandlabourerswasasvaluableastheworkoflawyersandfactorymanagers.Toworkwithone’shands,andontheland,wasmorehonourablethanworkingwithone’sbrainsorwiththeaidofmachines.59
ReadingRuskinonthetrainfromJohannesburgtoDurbanconsolidatedGandhi’sromanticallyruralorientation.ItpromptedhimtomoveIndianOpinionfromDurban’sGreyStreettoanewhomeinthecountryside.HeboughtafarmnearthestationofPhoenix,ontheNorthCoastLine,somefourteenmilesfromtown.Initsissueof24December1904thejournalannouncedtheshiftinlocation.Bothprintingpressandoperatingstaffwouldbehousedinthefarm,where‘theworkerscouldliveamoresimpleandnaturallife,andtheideasofRuskinandTolstoycombinedwithstrictbusinessprinciples’.Thosewhoworkedonthepress,whetherEnglishmanorIndian–orneither–wouldbepaidamodestmonthlyallowance(of£3)andallottedplotsoflandtogrowtheirfood.Thescheme’spromoterdescribeditas‘aboldexperimentandfraughtwithmomentousconsequences.Weknowofnonon-religiousorganisationthatisorhasbeenmanagedontheprinciplesabovelaiddown.’60
OneofthefirstrecruitstothenewexperimentwasAlbertWest.GandhihadpersuadedhimtoleavehisjobinJohannesburgandtakechargeofthepress.WhenWestreachedthefarmhefoundittobeapleasantenoughplace,withfruittreesanddate-palms,andariverrunningthroughtheproperty.Aplotoftwenty
acreswasboughtinthefirstinstance;withanothereightyacresaddedonsoonafterwards.Onthislandtheworkersbuilthomesofwoodandcorrugatediron.Meanwhile,thepresswasdismantledandtransportedfromDurbantoPhoenixinfourlargewagons,eachpulledbysixteenbullocks.Themachinerywasthenreassembled.Gandhiwantedtoworkthepressbyhand,butWestinsistedonthepurchaseofapetrolengine(therewasnoelectricityintheneighbourhood).Asaconcessiontohisfriend,theEnglishmandesignedahand-operatedmachinewithawheelmountedonawoodenframe,whichcouldbeusedwhentheoilranout.61
Theland,thebuildingmaterialsandtheworkers’stipendswerepaidforprincipallybytwomen.Gandhisuppliedthesubstantialsumof£3,500fromhisownsavings.(Clearly,the‘decentpractice’hehadspokenoftohisRajkotfriendwasverydecentindeed.)TheDurbanmerchantParseeRustomjeecontributedincashandinkind–apartfromwritingcheques,healsodonatedalargenumberofsheetsofcorrugatediron.BythefirstweekofJanuary1905,issuesprintedonthefarmhadbegun
reachingthejournal’ssubscribers.GandhiwrotetoGokhalethathenowhopedtoestablishaschoolatPhoenix‘whichwouldbesecondtononeinSouthAfrica’.HeaskedhismentortorecommendanIndianteacherwith‘ablamelesscharacter’,andtosendaletterofencouragementforprintinginIndianOpinion.62
Backin1899,whenthetwosetsofwhitecolonistsinSouthAfricawenttowar,GandhiwasanEmpireloyalist,abelieverinImperialcitizenshipwhothoughtthatflatteryandpersuasionwouldenddiscriminationagainstIndiansinSouthAfrica.ThushesigneduptosupporttheBritishintheircampaignagainsttheBoers.Thus,too,hisrepeatedpetititionstoLondon,madeinthebeliefthatevenifthecolonistsweresometimesbigotedandnarrow-minded,theywouldbebroughtaroundbysagaciousImperialstatesmen.GandhitookheartfromthefactthatBritishofficialsinIndiatendedtoside
withhispeopleinSouthAfrica.AleadingmemberoftheIndianCivilServicehadchastisedtheTransvaalGovernmentforplacingmembersofan‘ancientandorderlycivilization’onaparwith‘uncivilizedAfricanlabourers’.63AsecondICSmantoldadelegationfromNatalthat‘theIndianisnotonalevelwiththe
kafir;hebelongstoahigherclass.TheIndiantraderisalmostasadvancedasourselves.’64
Theseviewsonthehierarchyofcivilizationswereconventional–Gandhisharedthemtoo(atthetime).TheyplacedIndiansalmostadjacenttoEuropeans,fromwhichperspectivethediscriminatorylawsinSouthAfricawereclearlymisguided,ifnotactivelymalevolent.TheViceroyofIndia,LordCurzon,thuscriticizedLordMilnerfor‘justifyingthevexatiousregulations’onIndiansintheTransvaal.Curzonthoughtit‘muchmoreimportanttoconciliatetheunanimoussentimentof300,000,000ofoursubjectsinAsiathantodefertotheprejudicesofasmallcolonyofwhitemeninSouthAfrica.’65
WhenGandhisailedforDurbaninNovember1902,hishopesinBritishjusticewerelargelyintact.Twoyearslaterhewaslessnaïve.HehadoncehopedtounitetheIndianswiththeBritishagainsttheBoers;now,afterthewar,theBritishwereunitingwiththeBoersagainstthem.SouthAfricawasnotEngland,wherebrownmencouldbeelectedtoParliament;orevenIndia,wheretheycouldbecomejudgesandImperialCouncillors.Here,thebondsofracewouldalwaystrumpImperialloyaltiesandobligations.TheIndiansituationintheTransvaalwasnowuncertain,fraughtwithdifficulties.When,inSeptember1904,LordMilnerrejectedthecompromiseGandhiofferedhim,Gandhifelthehadtostayon.SoheaskedhiswifeandchildrentojoinhiminJohannesburg.KasturbaarrivedinSouthAfricatowardstheendof1904.Theeldestson,
Harilal,nowsixteen,hadstayedbackinIndia.HewaskeentosittheBombayMatriculationthathisfatherhadtakenbackin1887.However,theothersonscameoutwiththeirmother,asdidtwonephews,GokuldasandChhaganlal.
8
PluralistandPuritan
GandhirentedahouseinAlbemarleStreet,intheeastJohannesburgdistrictofTroyeville,toaccommodatethewholefamily.AsinDurban,theirswastheonlyIndianhomeinawhiteneighbourhood.Thetwo-storeyhousewasspacious,witheightrooms,balconiesandagarden.1
GandhihadwarnedKasturbathathewouldspendlittletimewithherinJohannesburg,andsoitturnedout.Heroseearly,helpedhiswifegrindflourfortheday’smeals,thenwalkedthefivemilestohisofficeinRissikStreet,carryingapackedlunchofwholemealbreadwithpeanutbutterandaselectionofseasonalfruits.Hisdayswerespenttakingcases,draftingpetitionstogovernment,andwritingforandsupervising,long-distance,theproductionofIndianOpinion.Hewalkedhomeintheevenings,where,afterdinner,hetaughthissonstheelementsofGujaratigrammarandcomposition.2
HermannKallenbachwasafrequentvisitortotheGandhihousehold.Theboyslikedhim,notleastbecausehebroughtgiftsofchocolatesandtoys.Theywerealsoimpressedbystoriesofhiselegantlifestyle;apparentlyhehadabarbercomeineverymorningtoshavehiminbed.3
Whilethechildrenwerebeinghome-schooled,theadultnephew,Chhaganlal,wassenttojointhecommunityatPhoenix.HisyoungerbrotherMaganlalwasalreadyworkingthereasacompositor.ChhaganandMaganservedasGandhi’seyesandearsinacommunityhehadfoundedandfunded,butatthisstagerarelyvisited.Theunclewrotetohisnephewsatleastonceaweek,askingforreportsonthestaffandthestateofthefinances.TheyoungmenwereadvisedonhowtosetGujaratitypeandwheretolookforsubscribers.IndianOpinionhadnowexpandedfromeightpagestothirty-six.Thetextwas
printedinthreecolumnsinsteadofsix.Theendpagesweretakenupwithadvertisements–of,forinstance,a‘GermanEastAfricanFortnightlySteamerforBOMBAY,Direct’.ACalcuttabooksellertookspacetopublicizehiswares,
whichincludedavolumeentitledHelpstotheStudyofEnglish,andanothercontainingSelectSpeechesoftheGreatOrators.Mostadvertisements,however,were(asbefore)forshopsandenterprisesinNatalsellingcloth,cigars,sweets,rice,gheeandrealestate.ThereportsintheexpandedIndianOpinioncoveredawiderangeoftopics.
TheriseofotherAsiannationswasnotedandappreciated.AfterthefallofPortArthurduringtheRusso-JapaneseWar,thejournalwrotethat‘theJapanese,bysheerforceofcharacter,havebroughtthemselvesintotheforefrontofthenationsoftheworld.Theyhaveshownunity,self-sacrifice,fixityofpurpose,nobilityofcharacter,steel[y]courage,andgenerositytotheenemy.’AnarticleinHindispokeofanationalrenewalinChina,withmovestocreateofficercorpsandmilitaryacademiesonJapaneseandWesternmodels.ThejournalrecalledGeneralGordon’soldpredictionthatwhenChinaawoke,theworldwouldwatchwithfearandadmiration.4
IndiandifficultiesinNatalandtheTransvaalwerewrittenabout,butsoalsowasthesituationoftheothercommunitiesinSouthAfrica.AreportofApril1905spokeofa‘monsternativepetition’signedby33,000people,addressedtotheImperialGovernmentinLondon,whichaskedthatwhenfullautonomywasgrantedtoTransvaal,theinterestsofAfricansbekeptinmind,andnoclasslegislationintroducedwhichwould‘degradeandsuppressallcolouredraces’.Thepetitionurgedtheabolitionofthedeathpenalty,anendtothepracticeofwhippingAfricans,andthegrantingofpermissionto‘respectablenatives’totravelin‘superiorclasses’onrailwaysandtovoteinmunicipalelections.5
Gandhi’sweeklyalsocarriedreportsonsocietyandpoliticsinIndia.AreportfromearlyJanuary1905summarizedthepresidentialaddressattheBombayCongressoftheliberalimperialistSirHenryCotton.Despitetheirpromises,saidCotton,theBritishhadbeenharsheronIndiansthantheBoers.‘TheirlittlefingerhadbeenthickerthanMrKruger’sloins.Wherehechastisedwithwhips,theychastisedwithscorpions.’6
Gandhi’snewspaperranseveralreportsontheopeningofan‘IndiaHouse’inLondon,promotedbyaGujaratiradicalnamedShyamajiKrishnavarma.ThechiefguestattheopeningwastheBritishMarxist,H.M.Hyndman.AsIndianOpinionreported,Krishnavarmasaidit‘gavehimmuchpleasuretoseehisveteranfriendDadabhaiNaorojiwho,tieddownashewasbycertainpolitical
views,hadthecatholicityandgenerosityofmindtogiveencouragementbyhispresencethatafternoon.’Inalaterspeech,Krishnavarmaremarked‘thatwhileundertheMahommedanruletheywerehitontheback,undertheEnglishruletheywerehitinthestomach’.7
MohandasGandhi’sowncontributionstoIndianOpinionincludedaseriesofsketchesoffamousmen.InthefirstweekofJuly1905thepaperprintedatributetotheRussianwriterMaximGorky,singlingouthiscriticismsoftyrannyandhisspiritofpublicservice.InthelastweekofJulyitsalutedMazzini,theunifierofItaly,whowasyet‘sobroad-mindedthathecouldberegardedacitizenofeverycountry’.InAugustitcarriedahomagetoAbrahamLincolnwhichstressedhishumbleorigins,hiscommitmenttothepoor,hisselflessnessandhispatriotism.SeptembersawthespotlightbeingturnedonTolstoy,who,bornintoarichfamily,voluntarilyembracedpoverty,andbravelycriticizedtheTsarandhispolicies.Thenextweekawomanwasprofiledforthefirsttime.ThiswasFlorenceNightingale,whoselife’sstorypromptedthemoral:‘Nowonderthatacountrywheresuchwomenarebornisprosperous.ThatEnglandrulesoverawideempireisduenottothecountry’smilitarystrength,buttothemeritoriousdeedsofsuchmenandwomen.’8
Thisglobal-mindedGujaratialsowroteofIndiansheadmired.OnthefirstanniversaryofthedeathofindustrialistJ.N.Tata,GandhiobservedthatTata‘neverlookedtoself-interest…nordidheevertakedistinctionsofcasteorraceintoconsideration…[T]heParsis,theMuslims,theHindus–allwereequaltohim.’AnassessmentoftheBengalisocialreformerIshwarchandraVidyasagaremphasizedhisworkfortheeducationofgirlsandtheemancipationofwidows.Vidyasagar’scareer,wroteGandhi,madeclear‘howBengalprovidesanexamplefortheotherpartsofIndiatofollow.’9
WiththesesketchesGandhiwasprovidingrolemodelsforhiscompatriots.Asnoteworthy,perhaps,washisappreciationoftheAfricanreformerJohnDube,who,Gandhiinformedhisreaders,hadacquired300acresoflandquiteclosetoPhoenix,wherehe‘impartseducationtohisbrethren,teachingthemvarioustradesandcraftsandpreparingthemforthebattleoflife’.WhenaprogressiveplantertookDubetomeetagroupofvisitingBritishscientists,theAfricantoldthemthatthecontemptwithwhichhispeoplewereregardedwasunjustified,
since‘theyworkedhardandwithoutthemthewhitescouldnotcarryonforamoment.’ThepraiseofDuberevealedacertainbroadeningofthemind,forAfricans–
or‘Kaffirs’,asGandhicalledthem,followingcontemporaryusage–hadpreviouslybeentreatedwithcondescensionbytheIndianleader.FurtherevidenceofthisevolutionisprovidedbyanessayattackingtheJohannesburgTownCouncilforcompellingAfricancycliststowearalargebadgeontheirleftarm,sothatwhitescouldavoidthem.‘MaynotaNativeaskthequestion,’wroteGandhi:‘hashenofeelings?’10
IndianOpinionfeaturedGandhithesocialreformerandcommunityactivist,butalsoGandhitheseekerandspiritualist,printingaseriesoftalksbyhimtotheTheosophicalSociety.HehadbeeninvitedtospeakbyL.W.Ritch,whowasbynownotjustGandhi’sfriend,butaclerkworkinginhislawoffice.Thelectureswereonreligion,asubjectthathadlongfascinatedGandhi.BornaHinduandmentoredbyaJain,encounterswithChristians,Jews,MuslimsandParsishadencouragedhimtoseehisfaithinbroader,morecomparativeterms.Thesepublictalksreportedtheprogressofhisreligiouseducation.Gandhi
beganwithHinduism,which,heargued,restedonthreepillars:theimportanceofcasteinsocialmatters;theimportanceofpantheisminreligiousmatters;andtheimportanceofself-denialinethicalmatters.GandhireferredinpassingtotheriseandfallofBuddhisminIndia,andalsomentionedJainism,whose‘mostremarkablecharacteristicwasitsscrupulousregardforallthingsthatlived’.Gandhi’ssecondlecturewasonIslam,whosekeynotewas‘itslevelling
spirit’.Its‘doctrineofequalitycouldnotbutappealtothemasses,whowerecaste-ridden.Tothisinherentstrengthwasalsoaddedthepowerofthesword.’ItthuswonmanyconvertsinIndia.However,‘inkeepingwiththespiritofHinduism’,attemptsweremadeto‘bringaboutreconciliationbetweenthetwofaiths’.AmongthesereconcilersinmedievalIndiawerethepoetKabirandtheemperorAkbar.ThethirdlecturedealtwiththeadventofChristianityinIndia.European
missionaries,admittedGandhi,had‘pointedoutsomeoftheglaringdefectsinHinduism’,suchascastediscriminationandthesubordinationofwomen.Thelasttalkobservedthat‘therehavebeenthreeassaultsonHinduism’,intheform
ofBuddhism,IslamandChristianity,yet‘onthewholeitcameoutofitunscathed.Ithastriedtoimbibewhateverwasgoodineachofthesereligions.’ThereactionofthewhiteTheosophistsintheaudienceisunrecorded.
However,whenthetalkswereprinted,theyprovokedatorrentofcriticismbyMuslims,whosaidGandhihadinsultedIslambysuggestingitsconvertswereoflowcasteorigin.OnecriticclaimedthattheancestorsoftheBohras,aprominentcommunityofMuslimtradersinGujarat,hadbeenBrahminpriests.Anotherobservedthat‘thestatementthatthelowerclassesofHindushadbeenconvertedtoIslamisnotsupportedbyanyUrduorGujaratibooksonIndianhistory’andare‘figmentsofHinduimagination’.AthirdchargedGandhiwithlayingexcessivestressonthe‘baddeeds’ofIslam.Hiswritingshad‘hurtthefeelingsofMuslims’;theywere‘unbecomingofaworthyperson’.AtGandhi’sinitiative,thecriticshadtheirviewsairedinIndianOpinion.He
pointedoutinreplythat‘nostigmaattachestoIslamiftheHindusofthelowercastesbecameMuslims.Onthecontrary,itshowsitsexcellence,ofwhichtheMuslimsshouldbeproud.’Heinsistedthat‘tome,personally,thereisnodistinctionbetweenaBrahminandabhangi[low-castescavenger].AndIconsideritameritofIslamthatthosewhoweredissatisfiedwiththesocialdistinctionsinHinduismwereabletobettertheirconditionbyembracingIslam.’Thedebatecarriedonforweeks,inpublicandinprivate.Astheeditorof
IndianOpinion,Gandhiwouldhavethelastword.HehadcomeacrossapieceinajournalcalledtheChristianWorld,whicharguedthat‘religion,byahundreddifferentnamesandforms,hasbeendroppingtheoneseedintothehumanheart,openingtheonetruthasthemindwasabletoreceiveit.’Gandhicommentedthatthis‘growingspiritoftolerationofallreligionsisahappyauguryofthefuture’.Tothisspiritofecumenism,
India,withitsancientreligions,hasmuchtogive,andthebondofunitybetweenuscanbestbefosteredbyawholeheartedsympathyandappreciationofeachother’sformofreligion.Agreatertolerationonthisimportantquestionwouldmeanawidercharityinoureverydayrelations,andtheexistingmisunderstandingswouldbesweptaway.IsitnotalsoafactthatbetweenMahomedanandHinduthereisagreatneedforthistoleration?SometimesoneisinclinedtothinkitevengreaterthanbetweenEastandWest.LetnotstrifeandtumultdestroytheharmonybetweenIndiansthemselves.Ahousedividedagainstitselfmustfall,soletmeurgethenecessityforperfectunityandbrotherliness
betweenallsectionsoftheIndiancommunity.11
InIndia,too,thequestionofHindu–Muslimunitywasintheforefrontofpoliticaldebate.InOctober1905,theBengalPresidencywasdivided.TheeasternpartofBengalwaspredominantlyMuslim;bymakingitaseparateprovince,theBritishhopedtoweanMuslimsawayfromtheHindu-dominatedIndianNationalCongress.Thepartitionprovokedagreatoutcry–especiallyamongthemiddleclassesinCalcutta,angrythattheirprovincewascutinhalf.Proteststoundothepartitiontookonanincreasinglyanti-Britishcast.AmovementknownasSwadeshi,meaning‘ofandforone’sland’,urgedtheboycottofforeigngoods.WatchingfromSouthAfrica,Gandhigavetheprotestshissupport.The
movementagainstthepartition,hesaid,‘hasinitthegermsoftheunificationofthedifferentcommunities’.Asfortheeconomicboycott:‘Whatcanbemorenaturalthanforthepeopletowishtoclothethemselves,tofeedthemselves,andtosupplytheirluxuriesoutofhome-grownproductsandhomemanufactures?’TheeventsinBengalwerecomparedtothedemocraticupsurgeunderwayinRussia.‘ThemovementinBengalfortheuseofswadeshigoodsismuchliketheRussianmovement,’remarkedGandhi.‘Ourshackleswillbreakthisveryday,ifthepeopleofIndiabecomeunitedandpatient,lovetheircountry,andthinkofthewell-beingoftheirmotherland,disregardingtheirself-interest.’12
Inbetweenworkandwriting,Gandhisnatchedtimeawayforthefamily.InJuly1905hewrotetoafriendinBombaysuggestingthathesendHarilaltoSouthAfrica.ThefundingofIndianOpinionhadcutintohissavings;besides,withKasturbaandtheotherchildrennowinSouthAfrica,itmadelittlesenseforonesontostaybackinIndia.‘Theburdenonmehereissoheavythatitisdifficultformetomeettheexpensesthere,’wroteGandhi.‘NordoIseethatHarilal’sinterestsareservedthereby.’13ButHarilaldidnotwanttoleaveIndia.Unbeknownsttohisparents,theboyhadfalleninlovewiththedaughteroftheRajkotlawyerHaridasVora.14WithHarilaloutofreach,Gandhiturnedhisattentiontohissecondson,Manilal.InSeptemberthethirteen-year-oldwassentforaspelltoPhoenix,wherehewassupervisedbyhiscousins.GandhitoldChhaganlaltoputManilaltoworkwithhishands.‘Themainthingistoclearthebigplotoflandandwatertheplants.Hewillgettoknowmorebyhimselfifhelooksafterthetrees.’15
TwosonsweretemporarilyawayfromtheGandhihousehold;meanwhile,twofriendswerewelcomedin.HenryPolakhadpersuadedhisfamilytopermithimtomarryMillieGraham.Gandhiplayedahandhere:whenPolak’sfatherclaimedthatthegirlwasnotrobustenoughformarriage,GandhiwrotethatifMilliewasindeedfragile,‘inSouthAfrica,amidstlovingcare,abeautifulclimateandasimplelife,shecouldgainthephysicalstrengthsheevidentlyneeded.’16
ToMillieherself,Gandhiofferedsomeadviceandinstruction.InthetimelefttoherinLondon,sheshouldpayher‘respectstotheHonourableMrDadabhaiNaoroji,whoistheG.O.M.[grandoldman]ofIndia.HerepresentsthehighestidealsoftheIndianpatriot.’ThensheshouldgototheLadyMargaretHospitalinBromley,whereGandhi’sformerflatmateandfellowvegetarian,DrJosiahOldfield,treatedthepatientsto–orwith–a‘strictlyfruitariandiet’.Sheshouldstudytheconditionsofpatientcareinthehospital,as‘inPhoenix,wearegoingtohaveaSanatoriumandanyexperienceyoumaygainthereinsuchmatterswillbemostvaluable.’HehadheardofaTolstoyFarmsomewherenearLondon;perhapssheshouldvisititandstudytheprinciplesonwhichitwasbased.‘Ihave,’saidGandhi,‘givenyouenoughhintsalreadyastowhatmightbeusefullystudiedtherebeforeyoucomeouttoSouthAfrica.’17
MillieGrahamarrivedinJohannesburginthelastweekofDecember1905.Thenextday,HenryandMilliewentwithGandhitobemarriedbytheRegistrarofEuropeanMarriages.TheHinduhopedtobearwitnesstothisunionofJewandChristian;theRegistrarthoughtthiswasnotpermittedbylaw.Heaskedthemtocomebackthenextworkingday.ButthenextdaywasSunday,andthedayafterthat,NewYear’sDay.AndMillieandHenryhadwaitedlongenoughalready.SoGandhiwentacrosstotheofficeoftheChiefMagistrate,towhomtheRegistrarreported.HeconvincedhimthatnothinginthelawdebarredabrownmanfromwitnessingaEuropeanmarriage.TheMagistrate,rememberedGandhi,merely‘laughedandgavemeanotetotheRegistrarandthemarriagewasdulyregistered’.18
Thedeeddone,thecouplemovedintothelawyer’shomeonAlbemarleStreet.MilliebeganteachingtheboysEnglishgrammarandcomposition,andhelpedKasturbainthekitchen.Thetwowomenbecamefriends,withthenewcomer’s
buoyantnatureovercomingthematriarch’snaturalreserveandherlackoffamiliaritywiththeEnglishlanguage.FortheGandhisandthePolaks,thedaybeganearly.Atsix-thirty,themenand
boysassembledtogrindwheat.Beforebreakfast,Gandhiwoulddosomeskipping,aformofexerciseatwhichhewasapparentlyquiteadept.Afterthemenwentofftowork,thechildrenweresettotheirlessons,supervisedbythewomen.Intheeveningthefamilysatdownfordinner,anextendedmealwheretheday’shappeningswerediscussed.Afterwards,iftherewerenoguests,passagesfromreligioustexts(theBhagavad-Gitabeinganespecialfavourite)werereadoutloud.LivingwiththeGandhis,Millieconcludedthatwithregardtomaritalrelations
atleasttherewasafundamentaldifferencebetweenEastandWest.Indianhusbandswereallowedperiodsofrestandcontemplation,buttheirwiveshadtowork,work,work.‘TheEasthasmade[woman]thesubjectofman,’MillietoldGandhi.‘Sheseemstopossessnoindividuallife.’Heansweredthatshewasmistaken:‘TheEasthasgivenherapositionofworship.’Asproof,hementionedthelegendofSatyavanandSavitri.WhenSatyavandied,SavitriwrestledwiththeGodofDeathforthereturnofherbeloved.‘Shehadahardbattletofight,’saidGandhi,butaftershowing‘thehighestcourage,fortitude,loveandwisdom’,eventuallywonherhusbandbacktoherside.Millieansweredthatthisstoryactuallyprovedherpoint.InIndianmythology,
itappeared‘womanismadetoserveman,eventowrestlingwiththeGodofDeathforhim’.Inmythandinreality(seeinghowGandhitreatedKasturba),MilliefoundIndianwomen‘alwayswaitingonthepleasureofsomeman’.19
TherewerealsoargumentsbetweenPolakandGandhi.TheEnglishmanthoughttheIndiantooeven-tempered–whenhewasslanderedinthepress,heshouldwritebackpolemicallyratherthanignorethematter.Polak,anardentsocialist,foundGandhitobewhollywithoutinterestineconomictheories;andfartooabsorbedinquestionsofreligion.PolakalsothoughtthatratherthanspendsomuchtimeteachinghischildrenGujarati,GandhishouldmakethemproficientinEnglish,thelanguageoftheworld.20
Once,afteraparticularlyintensedebatebetweenPolakandGandhi,KasturbadrewMillieasideandaskedwhatthefusswasabout.TheEnglishwomantriedtoexplain,asbestshecould,theintricaciesofthepoliticalproblemthatso
exercisedthemen.MillierememberedthatassheoutlinedtheargumenttoKasturba,‘asuspicionflittedthroughmymindthatshewasnotaltogethercrossthatMrPolakwascrosswithBapu[asGandhiwasknowntohisfamily].Shewasvexedwithhimsometimes,andtheangerofanotherpersonwho,sheknew,caredverymuchforhimseemedtojustifyherown.’21
Polakwasnowworkingpart-timeonIndianOpinion.Hisinvolvementincreasedwhen,inJanuary1906,theeditor,M.H.Nazar,diedinhissleepatPhoenix,acopyoftheGitabyhisside.22ThenextmonththeHindiandTamilsectionsofthejournalweredropped.WhileChhaganlalsawtotheproductionoftheGujaratipages,PolaktookchargeoftheEnglishcolumns,editingandreadingproofs,andregularlycontributingarticleshimself.HewasanenthusiastfortheSwadeshimovement,seeingechoesofthesearchfordignityinIreland,Poland,andotheroppressednations.PolakhadnotyetvisitedGandhi’shomeland;evenso,readingthereportsintheIndianpress,hesaw–orthoughthesaw–how
anewIndianliteratureisspringingup,hotwiththefervourofanewnationalaspiration;newleadersarecomingtothefore,earnestwiththemysticideaofaunitedIndiabeforetheireyes.‘IndiafortheIndians’isthewatch-word,andtheMotherlandisnowhailedbythosewhosemindsbutyesterdayrefusedtocontemplatetheunionofwarringsects,exclusivecastes,andstrivingpeoples.To-day,however,animmensefillipisbeinggiventoeverynationalhope.Nationalindustriesarespringing
uponallsides,andthedemandisallforindigenousproductsandhome-manufacturedgoods.23
ThefervourwasalsoHenryPolak’s.InsowholeheartedlyembracingtheIndiancause,Polakwasactingasa‘non-JewishJew’,whofoughtnotfortheequalityofJewandGentile,butforanendtoallvarietiesof‘dogmaticnarrow-mindednessandfanaticism’.LikeHeinrichHeineandKarlMarx,RosaLuxemburgandSigmundFreud,HenryPolakbelievednotintheemancipationofhisownraceortribeorsectbutin‘theultimatesolidarityofmankind’.24
OnerouteforJewsintheSouthAfricaofthelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturieshadbeenlaidoutbytheentrepreneurSammyMarks.Fabulouslywealthyowingtohisinvestmentsindiamondandcoal,Marksworkedenergeticallytobecomepartoftherulingelite.HepatronizedscientificsocietiesandChristiancauses,andsoughtmembershipingentlemen’sclubs,all‘partofapersonaldrivetowardsassimilationintothedominantAnglo-Saxonculture’.Inwishingtobecome–sotospeak–anhonoraryEnglishmaninSouthAfrica,hesimultaneouslydistancedhimselffromimmigrantsfromAsia.Whena
newlawconsideredplacingJewsonaparwithIndians,MarkssuccessfullypetititionedhisfriendsinGovernmenttoavoidadministeringto‘mypeople’the‘sametreatmentasismetedouttoCoolies’.25
TheassimilationistpathofSammyMarkswasfollowed,withvaryingdegreesofsuccess,bymostJewsinSouthAfrica.Butthereweresignificantexceptions,amongthemHenryPolak.Polak’sidentificationwiththeIndianswaspartphilosophical,partpersonal–thelatterowingtohisadmirationforMohandasGandhi.Still,hisdeferencewasslightcomparedtothatofGandhi’sotherJewishfriend,thearchitectHermannKallenbach.Livingalone,andremoved–inallsenses–fromhisfamilyinEurope,KallenbachlookedtoGandhiforsuccourandsupport.AletterwrittenbyGandhiinabout1904or1905bearstestimonytotheclosenessoftheirrelationship.Kallenbachhadbeenbesetbynightmares,andaskedhisIndianfriendtohelphimcopewiththem.
Youmustnot[on]anyaccountdespond[counselledGandhi].Bydegreesyouwouldgetoutofthehorribledreams.Justnowyourmindbeinginastateoffermentthesedreamscometowarnyouofthesecretenemywhomayattackyouwithoutnoticeandwhenyouareleastpreparedtomeethim…[Y]oumayturnthesedreamstogoodaccountbykeepinganeverpresentwatchonyourself.
ThisglossonKallenbach’snightmareswasGandhi’sown;itowednothingtoFreud’sTheInterpretationofDreams,whichwasthenavailableonlyinGerman.Frommattersofthemindtheletterthenturnedtomattersofthebody.‘Mydietyesterday,’wroteGandhitohisfellowfoodfaddist,‘was4bananas,3oranges,1lemon,½lbtomatoes,dates,2½oz.p[ea]nuts,12almondsandapawpaw.Twomotionsintheday.Retiredlastnightafter11,wokeupat4&leftthebedat5.Eyeshavebeguntocausealittletrouble.’26
TheGandhisofPorbandarhadstayedawayfrommeatandfishforgenerations.ButthisparticularGandhiwasnowmovingtowardsanextremeelaborationofavegetariandiet.Oneofhisfavouriteauthors,theanti-vivisectionistdoctorAnnaKingsford,claimedthatafruit-baseddietwasman’sgeneticinheritance.Italsohelpedcultivatekindnesstowardsothers.HerIndiandiscipleseemstohavebeentakinghertheoriesveryseriouslyindeed.
In1905,foracolouredcoupleandawhitecoupletolivetogetherwouldhavebeenunusualinanEnglishcitylikeLondon,orinanIndiancitylikeBombay.InthecontextofSouthAfricaitwasrevolutionary.Theprejudiceagainstthemixingoftheraceswasperhapsgreatertherethananywhereelseintheworld.
ForGandhitobefriendPolak,Kallenbach,Westandcompanywasanactofbravery;forthemtobefriendGandhiwasanactofdefiance.Howverysingularthismixed-racehouseholdwasisrevealedbythediaryof
ChhaganlalGandhi.InJanuary1906,ChhagantravelledtoJohannesburgtobriefhisuncleaboutPhoenixandIndianOpinion.Thisishowhesawthenextfewdays:
January4,1906:ArrivedatJohannesburgstation.Rama[Ramdas],Deva[Devadas],Bhai[Gandhi]andMrs.Polakweretheretoreceiveme.Reachedhomeat7o’clockwiththem.Afterawashwenttothetablefordinner.Foundthewesternizedstyleveryodd.Ibegantowonder,butcouldnotdecidewhetherourwayswerebetterortheirs…BeforethemealBhairecitedafewversesfromtheGitaandexplainedtheirmeaninginGujarati…January5,1906:Gettingupat5a.m.wasreadyby6.30…Everyonewentouttoworkwithout
anybreakfast.IwalkedwithBhaitohisoffice,abouttwomiles[sic]away.TalkedabouttheIndianOpinionontheway.Bhaistartedworkinhisofficeexactlyat9.30a.m.Seeingagirlworkingintheofficemademewonder.IntheafternoonBhaiandothershadameagremealofbananasandgroundnuts.Theaccountsofthepresswerethencarefullygonethrough.ReturnedhomewithBhaiat5.30p.m.IbegantowonderagainwhenIfoundtheEnglishfriends,thePolaks,mixingfreelywitheveryone.January6,1906:AfewpeoplewereinvitedtodinneratBhai’shouseinconnectionwith
MrPolak’smarriage.AmongtheguestswereEnglishpeople,MuslimsandHindus.Ifeltthattheyhadcrossedthelimitsintheirjokesatdinner.January11,1906:Smith,PolakandMrs.Polak,whoarestayingatBhai’shouse,behavevery
freely,whichmakesmethink.27
Chhaganwaspuzzledandconfusedbywhathesaw–thewhiteladysecretaryinhisuncle’soffice,thejokesandthebanterandthedisplaysofphysicalaffection(betweenHenryandMillie)inhisuncle’shome,theeatingatthesametableofHindus,MuslimsandEuropeans.TohisconventionalBaniaeyes,thehouseholdwaseccentric.TotheconventionalwhiteChristianinJohannesburg,thehouseholdwaspositivelyheretical.
InhisfirstyearsinJohannesburg,Gandhideepenedhisinterestinotherreligions,whilebefriendingseveralEuropeanmen(andatleastoneEuropeanwoman).Meanwhile,hishorizonswerebeingfurtherextendedbyencounterswithmixed-raceAfricans.GandhioccasionallyvisitedCapeTown,wheretherewasasmallbutactiveIndiancommunity,andwheretheBritishadministratorshedealtwithmaintainedresidences.OnthesevisitshecametoknowaColouredpoliticiannamedDrAbdullahAbdurahman.ACapeMalay,likeGandhiAbdurahmanhadbeenprofessionallytrainedintheUnitedKingdom(hestudied
medicineinGlasgow).BackhomeinCapeTown,he(likeGandhiagain)combinedprofessionalworkwithpublicservice.DrAbdurahmanwasthemovingspiritbehindtheAfricanPolitical
Organization(APO),whichpressedforhousingrightsandthefranchiseforColouredpeople.In1905and1906,GandhiattendedsomeAPOmeetingsandoccasionallywroteforitsjournal.ForAbdurrahmanhimselfhehadconsiderablerespect.Butultimatelyhefeltthattheircausesmuststayseparateanddistinct.InafascinatingpieceinIndianOpinionhespeltouthisreasonsforthis:
ThisAssociationofColouredPeopledoesnotincludeIndianswhohavealwayskeptalooffromthatbody.WebelievethattheIndiancommunityhasbeenwiseindoingso.For,thoughthehardshipssufferedbythosepeopleandtheIndiansisalmostofthesamekind,theremediesarenotidentical.Itisthereforeproperthatthetwoshouldfightouttheircases,eachintheirownappropriateway.WecancitetheProclamationof1857inourfavour,whichtheColouredpeoplecannot.Theycanusethepowerfulargumentthattheyarethechildrenofthesoil.TheycanalsoarguethattheirwayoflifeisentirelyEuropean.WecanpetitiontheSecretaryofStateforIndia,whereastheycannot.TheybelonglargelytotheChristiancommunityandcanthereforeavailthemselvesofthehelpoftheirpriests.
Suchhelpisnotavailabletous.28
ThestatementrepresentedadistinctevolutionofGandhi’sviews–henowquiteclearlyrecognizedthatallracesotherthanEuropeanssufferedfromstructuraldiscriminationinSouthAfrica.TheIndianswerenotalone.Yeteachcommunityhadtoworkoutitsownpathinovercomingthedisadvantagespeculiartoit.
AnEnglishmanwhomovedtoJohannesburgsoonafterGandhifoundit‘themostperplexing,andperhapsthemostfascinating’placeintheworld.Thiscityonthemakeandonthemovebecamemorediverseeverymonth(ifnoteveryminute).Migrantsarrivedfromatleastfourcontinents,seekingasliceofthewealththegoldunderneathhadspawned.Itwas‘thiscosmopolitancharacterofthepopulationwhichformsatoncetheattractivenessandperplexityoftheplace.Thereisnocohesion,thereisnomonotony.’29
Thislackofcohesionwasamatterofmuchconcerntotherulingrace.TheBoershadmovedtothehinterlandofSouthAfricatoescapeBritishdomination.There,theyhadestablishedasimplesocialorder,withtwo,unequal,divisions:BoerandBlack.TheUitlandersandtheIndiansthencametocomplicateit.Acompromise(followingabitterwar)wasforgedwiththeUitlanders.TheIndians,however,werenotEuropean;butnorweretheyAfrican.Theywerea
perplexingelementthatcomplicatedtheblack-and-whitesocialorderthewhiteshadhopedtoconstructinSouthAfrica.InEnglandandtheNetherlands,thecountrieswherethemajorityofthe
colonistscamefrom,whitesweredemographicallydominant.InIndiaandIndonesia,countriesoverwhichtheyhadpoliticalcontrol,theDutchandtheEnglishdidnotwishtomakeapermanenthome.InthisrespectSouthAfricawaspeculiarandevenunique.TheEuropeanswantedtoclaimitastheirown,anobjectivetowhich–atthetime–theIndians,andtheIndiansalone,posedaseriouschallenge.Hencetheenormoushostilitytowardsthem.AnEnglishmanvisitingtheTransvaalin1905noticedthat,whetheraslabourers,servants,hawkersortraders,theIndians‘didtheirworkwell’.Theywere‘deft[and]quiet’.Thetroublewasthat‘anAsiaticwhocompeteswithawhitemanisresented;thatthemanwhosellsorrentslandtohimforgainislookeduponasatraitor;andthathiscompetitionwithwhitemenisregardedasunequal’.30
In1905–6theTransvaalwasinaperiodoftransition.AftertheendoftheAnglo-BoerwarithadbeenconstitutedasaCrownColony;now,however,itpreparedtobegranted‘responsiblegovernment’.Anewspiritof‘whiteSouthAfricanism’wasabroad,seekingarapprochement,culturalaswellaspolitical,betweenDutchandEnglishcolonists.Thesetwogroups,sorecentlyatwar,nowforgedacommonfrontagainstblacksandcoloureds.31
ThenewconstitutionoftheTransvaalallowedthefranchiseonlytothoseofEuropeandescent.However,fortherulingracethatwasnotenough:theywishedtoputinplacelawsandproceduresthatwouldsteadilyreducethenumberofIndians.Here,thecolonistsintheTransvaalfoundastrongallyinthenewGovernor,LordSelborne.Selbornevigorouslypromotedtheagendaofhispredecessor,LordMilner.InsecretletterstotheSecretaryofStatefortheColonies,headvancedanovelargumentforkeepingoutcolouredimmigrants:thattheIndianswerenotwantedbecausetheydidnotknowhowtousearms.Whereas‘thewhitemanmustalwaysbeafighter’,Indians‘arenotofanymartialrace’.WhatiftheDutchandtheBritishfelloutagaininthefuture?ItwasthenlikelythattheTransvaalwouldfall‘againunderBoerdomination,owinglargelytotheabsenceofEnglishmen,Scotchmen,andIrishmen,oustedbytheirpressureintootherlands’.32
SelborneheldouttheexampleofMauritius,aonceuninhabitedisland,discoveredbyEuropeans,thatnowsupportedalargepopulationofwhich70percentwasIndianandlessthan3percentwhite.IfAsianswerenotkeptoutoftheTransvaal,hewarned,thentheywouldlikewisecometoformamajorityoftheprovince.‘Undertheseconditions,’wrotetheGovernor,‘SouthAfricawill,foralltime,requiretobeoccupiedbytroopsimportedfromEurope,notonlyforitsprotectionagainstforeigninvasionbutevenfortheenforcementoforderamongitsnativepopulation.’33
Gandhi,unawareoftheseletters,hopedtopersuadethenewGovernoroftheIndiancase.On29November1905,adelegationledbythelawyer,whoseothermemberswerefourGujaratiMuslimsandaTamil,metSelborneinhisoffice.TheyurgedhimtoallowbonafiderefugeestoreturntotheTransvaal,andalsoallowmerchantstoimportqualifiedassistantstoworkwiththem.ThedelegationaskedforIndianstohave‘perfectfreedomofowninglandedpropertyandoflivingwherewelikeunderthegeneralmunicipalregulationsastosanitationandappearanceofbuildings’.Theyaddedareassuringcaveat:‘Whatwewantisnotpoliticalpower;butwedowishtolivesidebysidewithotherBritishsubjectsinpeaceandamityandwithdignityandself-respect.’Threemonthslater,anotherdelegationledbyGandhimettheAssistant
ColonialSecretaryinPretoria.Theypresentedalistofsixteencomplaints,amongthemthedelaysingettingpermits,theinsistencethatapplicantsproducewitnesses,therefusaltoexemptwomen(eventhough‘theyatanyratedonotcompetewithwhites’),thedifficultiesthatchildrenfacedinre-enteringtheTransvaal,andthecontinuingdiscriminationontrainsandtrams.34
Thecomplaintsweredisregarded.SomeIndians,withGandhi’sencouragement,nowsoughttooverturntheconventionwherebyEuropeansandcolouredpeopledidnot–orcouldnot–traveltogetherinpublic.ElectrictramshadjustbeenintroducedinJohannesburg.InMarch1906,aGujaratimerchantnamedE.S.CoovadiatookatraminthecompanyofanEnglishlawyerwhoworkedwithGandhi.ThenHenryPolakaccompaniedthePresidentoftheBritishIndianAssociation,AbdulGani,onasimilarlytransgressivejourney.Inbothcases,theIndianswereaskedtogetoff,butappealedagainsttheirejectionincourt,withGandhiappearingforthem.
TheAnglo-BoerregimeinJohannesburgwasnew,andtramswerenewerstill.Therewasnoclearlawregulatingtheiruse.Butcustom,orprejudicerather,mandatedthattheybereservedforwhitesonly.Theall-whiteTownCouncildebatedthematter.Onememberarguedthatbyallowingcolouredpeopletobuyticketstheoperationswouldbemadeprofitable.Othermembersdisagreed,sayingthatifIndianscameaboard,whiteswouldboycottthetrams,forcingthecompanytoclose.Eventually,regulationsweredraftedreservingtramsforEuropeansandtheirpetsalone.35
Inhisdealingswithgovernment,theofficialwithwhomGandhiwasmostfrequentlyincontactwasMontfordChamney,whoborethetitleofProtectorofAsiatics.ChamneyhadpreviouslyworkedintheteaplantationsofeasternIndia,andhadasmatteringofHindustani.HewaspepperedwithrequestsfromGandhitograntpermitsforthosehopingtojointheirfamiliesorbusinesspartnersintheTransvaal.Hewasimpressedwiththelawyer’sanalyticalskills,asin‘thefacilityoffruitfulscanningoflegaldocumentsandstatutesforanyblemishescontained’.TheappreciationdidnotextendtotheIndian’slifestyle:‘MrGhandi’sstrongpredilectionforseclusionandthesimplelife,’complainedChamney,‘madehistownresidenceinsipidorevennauseous.’Thatistosay,dinnersintheGandhihomewere–unlikepartiesonteaplantationsinupperAssam–bereftofmeat,drinkormusic,inkeepingwiththefactthatthepatriarch‘tooknopleasureinsports,games,orgeneralpastimes’.36
TherelationshipbetweenChamneyandGandhimixedrespectwithirritation.WhentheProtectorofAsiaticsrejectedwhatseemedastraightforwardcase,Gandhiwrotesayingthedecisionhadcome‘asadisagreeablesurprise’.Heassumedthat‘therefusalismoreasymptomoftheofficialmindthanofyourownconviction.’Anothertime,GandhiwroteanextendedcomplaintagainstoneofChamney’ssubordinates,a‘youngman,ratherimpetuous’,proneto‘roughlyhandle’permit-seekersbykickingthemontheirshinsastheystoodtohavetheirheighttaken.Forhispart,Chamneywasexasperatedwiththelawyer’spersistence,
complainingtoacolleaguethat‘oneoftheAgentsmostaffected[bytherefusalofPermits]isMrGandhihimself,whohas,Iaminformed,beenaccustomedtopledgehimselftoclientsthataftertheyhavepaidhimhisfeeshewillguarantee
theissueofpermitsintheirfavour.’Thiswasverynearlylibellous,butanotherchargelaidbyhimatGandhi’sdoorwaslargelytrue.CommentingonthespateoflettersreceivedbytheGovernmentfrom‘AbdulGani,ChairmanoftheBritishIndianAssociation’,ChamneypointedoutthatMrGaniwas‘anilliteratemanandlittlemorethanafigure-head,andthattheSecretaryoftheAssociation,namely,MrGandhi,istheindividualwithwhomweareinvariablydealing,nomatterwhosignstheseletters.’37
InApril1906,aZulurevoltbrokeoutinNatal.TheGovernmenthadimposedapolltaxof£1perheadoneverymaleAfrican,aimedatraisingrevenuesandatforcingZulusintopaidemployment.Thetaxcausedwidespreadresentment.SeveralchiefssentwordtotheNatalGovernmentthatvillagerscouldnotaffordtopaythetax.Thecomplaintsweredisregarded.Whenthepolicecametocollectthetaxbyforce,theZulusexchangednon-complianceforarmedresistance.Theuprising(knownasthe‘BambathaRebellion’afteritsmainleader)quicklygatheredmomentum,andspreadthroughoutNatal.38
ThequestionbeforetheIndiansofNatalnowwas–whatposition,ifany,shouldtheytakeontherevolt?Gandhi,mindfulofmakingagoodimpressionontherulerswhiletheIndiancommunity’sfateintheTransvaalhunginthebalance,toldthereadersofIndianOpinionthat‘itisnotformetosaywhethertherevoltoftheKaffirsisjustifiedornot.WeareinNatalbyvirtueofBritishpower.Ourveryexistencedependsuponit.Itisthereforeourdutytorenderwhateverhelpwecan…Thatis,iftheGovernmentsodesires,weshouldraiseanambulancecorps.’The‘nursingofthewounded,’saidGandhi,was‘justashonourableandnecessaryastheshoulderingofarifle’.39
InthefirstweekofJune,twentyIndianswererecruitedasvolunteers.Gandhi’swasthefirstname;theothersincludedseveralTamilsandafewpeoplefromNorthIndia.TheGujaratimerchantsprovidedgoodsinkind,suchasflourandplates,aswellasmoney,whichwenttobuyovercoats,capsandsocks.Thirteenofthetwentyvolunteershadpreviouslybeenunderindenture.Theirtasksweretodisinfectcamps,dresswoundsandcarrymenonstretchers.Theworkwashard,withmarchessometimescommencingat3a.m.Themenwereoftenveryclosetothefiringline.40
Aftersixweeksatthefront,theambulancecorpswasdisbanded.WhentheyreachedDurban,theNatalIndianCongressgavethemareception,atwhichGandhisuggestedtheGovernmentsetupanIndianCorps,and‘ifforanyreason,thetraderscouldnotenlist,othereducatedIndiansaswellastheservantsandclerksoftraderscouldeasilydoso.’Onthebattlefield,‘thewhites[had]treatedtheIndiansverycordially’;ifthisfellow-feelingwasconsolidatedintheformofapermanentcorps,‘itwaslikelythatintheprocesswhiteprejudiceagainstIndiansmightaltogetherdisappear.’41
Ithadcostthestatenearly£1milliontosuppresstherebellion.Thirty-onecombatantsontheGovernmentsidelosttheirlives,asagainstnearly4,000Africans,inawar‘carriedoutwithmachinegunsagainstspearsandshields’.WhileloyaltotheBritishflag,theIndianambulancecorpstendedtothewoundedregardlessofcolour.Asanearlyhistorianoftherebellionpointedout,‘thewhiteshadnodesiretoministertowoundedZulus;withouttheIndianstretcher-bearersthesewouldpossiblyhavebeenlefttodie.TherewerealsohundredsofAfricanswhohadbeensentencedtoflogging.TheIndiansministeredtotheirfesteringsores.’42
There,were,circa1906,sixseparatestrandsinthelifeofMohandasK.Gandhi.First,therewashislegalcareer,hispaidworkonbehalfofhisclientsinJohannesburgandDurban.Second,therewashisworkasapoliticalcampaigner,hiseffortstosafeguardtherightsofIndiansintheTransvaalandNatal.Thisworkwasunpaid,butperhapsnotwithoutotherrewards,asintheesteemitacquiredforhimwithinandbeyondhiscommunity.Third,therewasGandhithepropagandist,whoranaweeklynewspaperandwrotemuchofit,andwho,goingbythetenorofhiswriting,seemstohavetakengreatpleasureinthecraftofcomposinganarticleoraseries.Hisfourthpreoccupation,linkedtothesecondandexpressedthroughthethird,wastohelphealdivisionswithintheIndiancommunity,whetherbetweenSouthIndiansandGujaratisorHindusandMuslims.Fifth,therewerehisobligationstohisfamily,whichinvolvednotmerelyearningenoughmoneytokeepthehouseholdgoing,butalsobeingacompaniontohiswife–lonelyinaforeignlandwhereshedidnotspeakthelanguage–andamentortohissons,whoseupbringinghadbeendisturbedbythemanymovesmadeasaresultoftheirfather’speripateticcareer.Finally,
therewasGandhi’sownprocessofself-discovery,asmanifestinhisinterestininter-religiousdialogueandinwhatconstitutedanappropriatediet.Thosetwointerests,inspiritualityandhealth,wereoflongstanding;tothesewasnowaddedathird,aconcern–soontobecomeanobsession–withthemaintenanceofcelibacy.Itwasinthelate(SouthAfrican)summerof1906thatGandhitookthevowof
brahmacharya.Hewouldnoweschewallsexualrelationswithhiswife.Byhisrecollection,theideahadbeenbrewinginhisheadforsometime.PerhapsitsrootslayinaconversationheoncehadwiththeJainsageRaychandbhai.WhenGandhipraisedtheconjugallovebetweenGladstoneandhiswife–asillustratedbyhermakingteaforhimevenintheHouseofCommons–histeacherasked,
Whichofthetwodoyouprizemore?TheloveofMrsGladstoneforherhusbandashiswife,orherdevotedserviceirrespectiveofherrelationstoMrGladstone?Supposingshehadbeenhissister,orhisdevotedservant,andministeredtohimthesameattention…wouldyouhavebeenpleasedinthesameway?Justexaminetheviewpointsuggestedbyme.
ByreflectingonRaychandbhai’squestion,Gandhicametotheconclusionthathehadtomakehisrelationswithhiswifepurelydisinterested.Shehad,inparticular,tostopbeingthe‘instrument’ofhislust.Theattachmenttoherhadtobeotherthansexual.SoKasturbaandhebegantosleepinseparatebeds.Thedecisionwashelpedbythefactthatbothagreedthattheydidnotwantanymorechildren.IntheJaintradition,celibacyoccupiedanexaltedplace.Sexualactivity
involvedpassion,andwashenceinjurioustothesoul.Jainsalsothoughtthatsexualintercoursedestroyedanumberofanimateobjectsdwellinginthefemalebody.Celibacywasthuspartofthepursuitofpureahimsa,ornon-violence.Agradualistapproachwasrecommended–thepractitionerwasfirsttoldtonothavesexduringtheday,preparinghimselfinstagesfortheachievementofcompleteabstinence.Theaspiringbrahmacharihadtostopwearingexpensivelytailoredclothes,andstayawayfromsoap,scents,jewelleryandothermeansofenhancinghisattractiveness.43
Raychandbhaihad,inhisearlythirties,takenavowofbrahmacharyahimself.Inadiscourseentitled‘ViewsaboutWoman’heexplaineditsreasonandlogic.Herejectedthecommonmaleviewthat‘awomanhasbeenimaginedandtakenasasourceofworldlyhappiness.’Thepleasurefromsexualintercoursewas
‘onlymomentaryandacauseofexhaustionandrepeatedexcitements’.Theorganused‘fortheenjoymentofconjugalbliss’,commentedtheJainsage,‘whenlookedatthroughthepiercingeyesofdiscrimination,doesnotstandfitevenforaworthyreceptacleforvomiting’.44
From1891,whenRaychandbhaiandGandhifirstmet,until1901,whenhedied,theJainscholarhadbeenamoralcompassforthelawyer.Hismemorybecamemoresacredafterhisdeath,asissometimesthecasewithateacherwhodiesyoung.(Whenthepersonyoumostrevereisnolongeraround,youtendtostriveevenhardertoliveuptowhatyouthinkhemayhaveexpectedorhopedfromyou.)SoitwaswithGandhiandRaychandbhai.Hisdetachmentfromworldlyambition,hisnon-attachmenttopossessionorphysicalpleasure,impressedGandhimoreandmorewitheverypassingyear.InaverseRaychandcomposedwhenhewaseighteen,andwhichGandhilikedtoquote,wemayseetheoriginsofthelatter’sdecisiontoembracecelibacyin1906:
WhenshallIknowthatstatesupreme,Whenwilltheknots,outerandinner,snap?WhenshallI,breakingthebondsthatbindusfast,Treadthepathtroddenbythewiseandthegreat?Withdrawingthemindfromallinterests,Usingthisbodysolelyforself-control,Hedesiresnothingtoserveanyulteriorendofhisown,
Seeingnothinginthebodytobringonatraceofthedarknessofignorance.45
Histeacher’sexamplelaybeforeGandhi.Andtherewereothers.IntheHinduaswellastheJaintradition,renouncerswererespected,admired,evenvenerated.Theforgoingofthepleasuresoftheflesh–bothsexualandculinary–wasseenasasteptowardsapurer,moremorallymeaningfullife.46
Thedecisiontostophavingsexledtoawiderreconsiderationofhisrespectivecallings.WhentheBambathaRebellionbrokeout,GandhihadtorushtoNataltoraisetheambulancecorps.HedecidedthatinhisabsenceKasturbaandthechildrenwouldbebetteroffatPhoenix,wheretheywouldhavefriendsandrelationsaroundthem,thanintheanonymityofaneverlargercity.Thismeantthedismantlingofaspacious,well-furnished,smoothlyfunctioninghomeinJohannesburg.Thepatriarchwhowasthearchitectofthebreak-upsawitasnecessaryandinevitable.Ashelaterrecalled,‘itbecamemyconvictionthatprocreationandtheconsequentcareofchildrenwereinconsistentwithpublic
service…[I]fIwantedtodevotemyselftotheserviceofthecommunityinthismannerImustrelinquishthedesireforchildrenandwealthandlivethelifeofavanaprastha–ofoneretiredfromhouseholdservice.’47
Initsclassical,sotosayBrahmanicalversion,aman’sraisingofafamilywasfollowedbyastagewhereheretreatedfromsociallifealtogether,bymovingtoaforest,orvana,wherehecontemplatedthemeaningsandmysteriesoflife.InGandhi’scase,however,hedetachedhimselffromthefamilyinordertomoreactivelytoengageinsociety.OnewondersifhewasatallinfluencedbythemythicalwarriorBhishma,whorenouncedhiskingdomandrefusedtomarrytomarkhisdisregardforpowerandpleasure.Bhishma’scelibacywaswidelyregardedasamarkofhismoraluprightnessandcommitmenttodharma.UnliketheBrahmanicalmonks,thewarrior-asceticdidnotwithdrawfromsociety;rather,heworked(andfought)withinit,whileservingasatouchstoneandmodelforhisfellows.ThatseemstohavebeenGandhi’saim,too.Intakingthevowofbrahmacharyain1906,Gandhimayalsohavebeen
influencedbyTolstoy’sprescriptiveessay,‘TheFirstStep’,whichhadrecentlybecomeavailableinEnglishtranslation.Here,theRussiansagewhomtheIndianlawyersogreatlyadmiredwrote,‘Nogoodlifeisthinkablewithoutabstinence.Everyattainmentofagoodlifemustbeginthroughit’–andthencontinued:
Abstinenceisaman’sliberationsfromthelusts…Buttherearemanyvariouslustsinman,andforthestrugglewiththemtobesuccessfulhemustbeginwiththebasalones,thoseonwhichother,morecomplexoneshavegrownup…Therearecomplexpassions,asthepassionforadorningthebody,games,amusements,gossiping,curiosity,andmanyothers;andtherearebasalpassions,suchasgluttony,idleness,carnallove.Inthestrugglewiththepassionsitisimpossibletobeginattheend,withthestrugglewiththecomplexpassions;wemustbeginwiththebasalones,andthat,too,inadefiniteorder.Thisorderisdeterminedbothbytheessenceofthethingandbythetraditionofhuman
wisdom.48
BytraditionandupbringingGandhiwasnota‘glutton’–bywhichTolstoymeantamanwhofeastslargelyorexclusivelyonanimalflesh–norconsumedbyidleness.Asalifelongvegetarian,andadisciplined,hardworkingprofessional,theonebasalpassionhehadtoconfrontandovercomewasthatof‘carnallove’.Andsohedecidedtotakethevowofbrahmacharya.
9
TroubleintheTransvaal
OnceGandhihadsettledKasturbaandthechildrenatPhoenix,hereturnedtoJohannesburg,movingintoasmallerhouse,whichhesharedwithMillieandHenryPolak.Thishouse,inBellevueEast,washalfthesizeofthevillainTroyeville:fourroomsratherthaneight,eachlarge(orsmall)enoughtoaccommodateonlyadoublebed.1
WithGandhiscalingbackonhislawpractice,theyhadtocutbackontheirexpenses,andthismodestabodewasabeginning.Intheirnewhouse,notedMilliePolakgrimly,
therewasnoproperplumbing,andamake-shiftbath-roomhadbeenfixedbyprevioustenantsunderthestairs;thewastewaterfromthebathrandownthewalloutsideintoakindofgutter,whichranalongadarkpassage,andthusthewallswerealwaysdamp.Theseconditionshelpedtoproducebig
slimyslugsthatgotintothehouse.2
Milliewishedtomaketheplacemorepleasant,butheraustereIndianhousemategotintheway.Gandhiwascontentwithabarefloorandbarewalls,whereasMilliewishedtoadornthemwithnicerugsandprettypictures.WhenMilliesaidapaintingwouldhidethewall’sugliness,Gandhiaskedhertolookoutofthewindowandadmirethesunset,morebeautifulthananythingconceivedbythehandofman.Shepersisted,bringingHenryontoherside.Gandhieventuallyconcededthatacharminginteriorwasnotincompetitionwiththegloriesofnaturewithout.Thenextargumentwasaboutfood.Gandhiaskedthatthehousehold’sdiet
excludesugar,sinceitwasmadethroughtheexploitationofindenturedlabourers.Hewantedrawonionsandmilkbannedonthegroundsthattheyexcitedthepassions.Milliewasfinewithgivingupsugarandonions,butnotmilk.Ifthatliquidstimulatedthepassions,sheasked,whywasitconsideredthebestfoodforbabies?Gandhiansweredthatmother’smilkwasgoodforchildren,butnokindofmilkwassuitableforadults.Milliecommentedacidlythatone
wouldthinktheyweregourmands;nohouseinJohannesburgwassoconcernedwithwhattoeatandespeciallywithwhatnottoeat.‘Amanshallbejudgedbywhatcomesoutofhismouth,’shetoldGandhi,‘notwhatbywhatheputsinit’.Inmakingahome,MilliePolakhadcomeupagainstthetwostereotypical
characteristicsofhiscastethatherIndianhousemate,afteralltheseyears,stillretained.BornaBania,Gandhihadinmostwaysradicallydepartedfromtheconventionsandhabitsofhiscaste.Baniaswerenotoriouslyconservativeinreligiousmatters;andhadaparticulardislikeofMuslims.GandhimixedfreelywithMuslimsandChristians,andevensharedhomeswiththem.ThedharmaoftheBaniawasmakingandsavingmoney,butGandhiexchangedalucrativeprofessionforsocialserviceandhadnodesiretoleavemoneyorpropertyforhischildren.Baniaswereaversetopoliticalmovements–theyhadstayedawayfromtheIndianNationalCongress(whereBrahminsandKshatriyaswereover-represented).Gandhi,ontheotherhand,activelysoughtpoliticalengagement.Hetereodoxinmostmatters,therewereyettwoareasinwhichGandhiwasstill,sotospeak,ofhiscaste–inhiscomparativelackofinterestinaestheticsandinhisthoroughgoingobsessionwithfoodtaboos.3
Foralltheirdisagreements,MillieretainedahealthyrespectforherIndianfriend.Shewasparticularlystruckbyhowhardheworked.Heattendedtohisclientsallday,includingSunday.ThePolaksbecameaccustomedtoIndianscominginatallhours,seekingthecounseloftheirlawyerandleader.AsMillieremembered,‘itwasnotanunusualthingtohavefourormoremenreturnatmidnightwithMrGandhi,andwhenallweretoowornouttocontinuetotalk,rugswouldbethrowndownthepassageoranywhereelseforthevisitorstogetafewhours’sleeperetheystartedtotrampbacktotown.’4
IndiscussingGandhi’svowofcelibacyintheWest,oneoftenfindsasenseofoutrageathisnothavingconsultedhiswife.Howcouldheendsexualrelationssoabruptly?Whatifshestillwantedtocontinuethem?Thisreactionisverymodern(andveryWestern).ItisunlikelythatKasturbawasgreatlydisturbedbyGandhi’svowofcelibacy.Whatworriedherfarmorewasitsextension,bywhichGandhisoughtnotjusttodistancehimselffromherphysically,butalsofromhischildren,emotionally.
Kasturbawasunhappyatthefraughtrelationsbetweenherhusbandandtheireldestson,Harilal.Gandhihadlefthome(forLondon)shortlyafterHarilalwasborn.In1892–3,whenhewasinBombay,thechildrenwereinRajkot.Notlongaftertheyjoinedhim,GandhidecidedtogotoSouthAfrica.Thefamilywerereunitedin1896,andtravelledtogethertoDurban;buttheywereseparatedagainin1902.Harilalwasapoorstudent,andfailedtosettledowninanyoftheseveral
schoolshestudiedin.ThisconcernedGandhi–perhapsbecausehehadoncebeenanindifferentstudenthimself.HehadaskedKasturbatobringalltheirsonstoSouthAfrica.However,Harilalstayedbehind,ostensiblytoappearforhisMatriculation.Itappearsthatbynowrelationsbetweenfatherandfirst-bornwerefrosty.That,atanyrate,istheimpressionconveyedbyaletterwrittenbyGandhion28December1905,wherehetoldHarilalthathewas‘dissatisfied’withhimfornotwritingregularly.Wheneverhereceivednewsfromothers,hecontinued,‘theycontaincriticismregardingyourconduct.’‘Yourgeneralconducttowardsyourparentsbetraysnoloveforthem,’complainedGandhi.5
TherelationshipbetweenfatherandsondeterioratedfurtherwhenGandhilearnedofHarilal’sloveforChanchal,6thedaughterofhisfriendHaridasVora.Gandhithoughtthecoupletooyoungtogetmarried,buthisbrotherLaxmidas,whowasinRajkot,sanctionedthewedding,andthemarriagetookplaceon2May1906.WhenthenewsreachedGandhi,hewrotetohisbrothersayingthat‘itiswellifHarilalismarried;itisalsowellifheisnot.ForthepresentatanyrateIhaveceasedtothinkofhimasason.’7
TheharshnessofthetoneisonlypartiallyextenuatedbythefactthatHarilalwasguiltyof,asitwere,serialdisobedience:ofnotstudyingproperly,ofnotjoiningthefamilyinJohannesburg,ofnotwritinglettersregularly,andworstofall,ofnotlisteningtohisfather’sadvicenottogetmarried.Kasturbawasdeeplyworriedabouttheestrangementbetweenfatherandson.Asan(Indian)mothershewasperhapsmoreforgivingofHarilal’stransgressions.ShealsosawthatGandhi’sbehaviourwasnotabovereproach:thathehadalternatedbetweenbeinggrosslyneglectfulandsomewhatoverbearing.Seekingarapprochement,shepersuadedHarilaltocometoSouthAfrica.Whenheagreed,GandhiwroteMontfordChamney,theProtectorofAsiatics,alongletter,whichrevealsthe
three-waytensionbetweenhusband,wifeandfirst-born.Theletterisdated13August1906:
DearMrChamney,
Ihavetoapproachyouagainonanotherpersonalmatter.Myeldestson,Harilal,hasleftIndia.HesentawiretoPhoenixfromMombasaofwhichmynephewhasgivenmeinformation…Myboyisto-dayoverage,thatis,heisnearlyeighteen.Hispermit,however,wasgrantedbyCaptainFowlewhenMrsGandhiarrivedhere[in1904].OnreceiptofacablefromMrsGandhiIaskedforapermitbutMrsGandhiarrivedwithoutmyeldestboyandmynephew.Mynephew[Chhaganlal]hassincecome,butmyson,Harilal,wasnotabletodosoashewishedtogoupforhismatriculationexamination,andthen,unfortunately,hehadtobemarried.Heisnowonhisway.IkeptthetelegrambymeforthreedaysasIwasnotcertainwhetherIshouldhavemysonwithmeorwhetherIshouldsendhimtoPhoenix.IhavenowcometotheconclusionthatifyouwouldbegoodenoughtolethimcomeonthestrengthofthepermithavingbeenpreviouslygrantedorotherwiseIshouldliketokeephimundermyobservation.Ihavebeenseparatedfromhimnowfornearlythreeyears.IfyouthinkthatyouwouldlethimcometomeIshouldthankyoutoletmehavehispermitnow.Hisfullnameis:HarilalMohandasGandhi.ThepermitthatwasgrantedbyCaptainFowletoMrsGandhiwasreturnedtohimafterherarrival.Therewasonlyonedocumentissuedforthewholefamily.Iamnotcertainwhether,intheeventofyourcomplyingwithmyrequest,IshouldhaveHarilalthroughfromDelagoaBayorDurban.IshouldthereforeliketohavehispermitmyselfsothatIcanmakeuseofitwhereverhehaslanded.HislandingwilldependonMrsGandhi’sintentionsandmymovements.ThesteamerisdueatDurbanonthe26thinst.ItislikelythatIshallhavetobethereatthattime.Inthatevent,Ishouldmeetmyboythereandbringhimwithme.Otherwise,inorderthatImayseehimearlierIshouldlikehimtolandatDelagoaBayandcomestraighttome.
IamYourstruly
M.K.Gandhi.8
Gandhi’swritings,whetherpublicorprivate,wereusuallylucidandprecise–traitsthatreflectedadecadeofpracticeinpublishingessaysfordifferentjournals.Thisparticularletter,however,betraysanuncharacteristicdisorderandsentimentalism.ItwashardlyappropriatethathewouldrevealtotheProtectorofAsiaticshisdisapprovalofHarilal’smarriage–orthathewouldspeaksofrequentlyandsopossessivelyof‘myboy’.Thisperhapsrevealshisownuncertaintyaboutbothmatters–heneededtoreassurehimselfthathewasrighttoopposethemarriage,andthathereallycaredabouthisson.TheconfusionaboutwhereHarilalwouldorshouldlandisalsorevealing.At
thispointKasturbawasliving,withherothersons,atPhoenix.ShipsfromIndiacamefirsttothePortuguese-heldportofDelagoaBaybeforeDurban.FromDelagoaBay,Johannesburgwasafewhoursawaybytrain.ItseemsthatGandhiandKasturbawereunsureastowhichparenttheboyshouldmeetfirst.Ifhegot
offtheshipatDelagoaBay,hecouldgotohisfather,withwhomhewishedtobereconciled.Ontheotherhand,ifhecarriedontoDurbanhewouldfirstmeethismother,whowasbothhispreferredparentandcouldadvisehimonhowbesttomendfenceswithhisfather.Therewasyetathirdpossibility,hintedatintheletter,whichwasthatGandhihimselfwouldgotoDurban,inwhichcaseHarilalwouldmeetbothparentsatthesametime.WherehewouldfinallylandwoulddependlargelyonwhatGandhidelicatelyreferredtoashiswife’s‘intentions’.ThedayafterhewrotetoChamney,Gandhiphonedtourgehimtograntthe
request.(Telephoneswerethenrelativelynew,andrare,inSouthAfrica;thatthefatherresortedtoitsuseshowshowkeenhewastohavehissonjoinhim.)Theappealwassuccessful,fortheofficialrepliedpromptlyandwithanuntypicalsoftnessoftone.Withintwenty-fourshehadpostedGandhialetterofauthorization,whichnotedthat,asaspecialexception,‘itwillnotbenecessaryforhim[Harilal]toreporthimselfatthisoffice.IwillhavehisformofapplicationfilledinatJohannesburgafterhisarrival.’Chamneyaddedthat‘ofcourseyouwillunderstandthatthegrantingofthispermitisnotinanysenseaprecedent.’Therewasafurtherrequesttobemade.Accordingtotherules,Harilalhadto
entertheTransvaalwithintwoweeksofobtainingthepermit.On17August,GandhiwrotetoChamneyaskingthatthisperiodbeextendedtoamonth,‘asMrHarilalisatpresentinDurbanandmightbethereforsometime’.ItseemsthatKasturbahaddecidedthatshewouldkeepherboyforawhileatPhoenixbeforesendinghimontoconfronthisfather.9Thereunion,whenitdidfinallytakeplace,waswithoutacrimony.Aftertheymet,GandhiwrotetoChhaganlalthat‘IamreallydelightedwithHarilal’stakingadeckpassageandmanagingeverythinghimself.’10Onetruststhepraisewaspassedontotheboyhimself.
Nowinhismid-thirties,MohandasGandhiwasnolongerinterestedinbecomingasuccessful,prosperous,orfamouslawyer.Hewouldworktoearnaliving,andtosubsidizehisother,tohimmoresignificant,activities.Obligationstohisfamilywerelikewiseundertakenmoreoutofdutythanconviction.Hecouldnotentirelyandpermanentlyseparatehimselffromhischildren;however,intimesofpoliticaltensionorcontroversytheytooksecondplace.
InAugust1906,evenasGandhiwasseekingtoreconcilewithHarilal,theTransvaalGovernmentintroducedanew‘AsiaticOrdinance’.ThisrequiredeveryIndianresidentinTransvaaltoregisterafresh,regardlessofageorgender.Thecertificatesofregistrationhadtobecarriedatalltimes;andproducedondemand.Thosenotcarryingthemwereliableforarrest,imprisonment,andevenexpulsionfromtheprovince.11
InNatal,too,Indianscouldnotvoteandcouldnotownpropertyinsomeplaces.Theyweresubjectsratherthanfull-fledgedcitizens.However,IndiansinNataldidnothavetocarryidentificationpapersatalltimesandinallplaces.TheTransvaalGovernmentarguedthatthisnewmeasurewasnecessarytoforestallimpersonationandfraud,andtoremovethefearamong‘the[white]peopleoftheColony’that‘ageneralinfluxofAsiaticswoulddisplacemanyoftheEuropeansatpresentemployedintradeandcommerce,andwouldendinconvertingtheColonyintoanAsiatic,ratherthananEuropean,community.’12
TheOrdinancehadbeendraftedbytheAssistantColonialSecretaryoftheTransvaal,LionelCurtis,aprotégéofLordMilner’s,educatedatOxford.Curtis’sviewsonracerelations,writeshis(generallysympathetic)biographer,were‘aconventionalamalgamofprejudice,badhistory,half-bakedDarwinism,andspuriousgeographyproducinganelementaryblueprintforasystemofresidentialsegregationandeconomicintegration’.Curtisarguedthat‘ifthetemperatezonesarereservedforthewhitesoshouldthetropicalzonesbereservedfortheAsiatic’.Self-governmentbyandforIndianshedismissedas‘nomoreinthenatureofthepeople,thanitisinthenatureofabilliardcuetostandonendwithoutsupport’.13
TheOrdinancewasintendedbyCurtisto‘shutthegateagainsttheinfluxofanAsiaticpopulation’,andthereby‘guardtheTransvaalasawhitereserve’.14
Hewasproudofthelegislation.Itwas,hetoldanadmiringaudienceinJohannesburg,themostimportantthinghehaddone.HebelievedtheOrdinancewould‘iftemperately,cautiouslyandcontinuallyworked…keeptheTransvaalawhiteman’scountry,sofarasthecircumstancesofthecountryallow.ItwouldsavethecountryfromthefatewhichhasovertakenMauritiusandJamaica.’Thenheaddedanoteofself-congratulation:‘Adebtofgratitude,thefulnessofwhichthepeopleofthiscountrywillneverknow,isdueto[my]office.’15
TheOrdinancewasvieweddifferentlybythosesubjecttoitsworkings.Inaletterof25August,theBritishIndianAssociationsaidthattomakeallAsiansagedeightandover,ofeithersex,undergofreshregistrationwould‘needlesslyviolatefemalemodesty,asitisunderstoodbymillionsofBritishIndians’.AneditorialinIndianOpinioncharacterizedthenewbillas‘abominable’.Itthreatenedto‘invadethesanctityofhomelife’,andappearedtohavebeendrafted‘withthedeliberateintentionofinjuringtheIndiancommunity’.On1September,adelegationledbyGandhitravelledtoPretoriatomeetthe
ColonialSecretary,PatrickDuncan.Theytoldhim‘thattheAsiaticActwouldbeunacceptabletotheIndiancommunityunderanycircumstancesandthatre-registrationwouldsimplynottakeplace’.TheSecretaryrefusedtoconsiderthewithdrawalofthelegislation.IndianOpinionnowcomparedBritishruleintheTransvaaltotheregimeoftheautocraticTsarofRussia.WhiletheRussianstate‘murder[s]peopleopenlyanddirectly’,itsaidsarcastically,theBritishinTransvaal‘kill[s]thembyinches’.16
Attheirmeeting,GandhitoldDuncanthatifthelegislationwentthrough,theIndianswouldrefusetoabidebyitsregulations,evenifitmeantcourtingarrest.Hesaidhewaspreparedtobethefirsttogotojail.ThatGandhiwasseriouslythinkingofcourtingarrestisconfirmedbyaletterwrittentohimbyhisfriendthePretorialawyerR.Gregorowski.GregorowskitoldGandhithatthepenaltiesforfailingtoregisterweresevere–imprisonmentwithhardlabourandperhapsastifffinetoo.HeadvisedtheIndianstosendadeputationtoLondon,tolaytheircasebeforethenewLiberalGovernment.Gregorowskiarguedthat
anyotherformofresistancethanbyconstitutionalmeansis…tobedeprecated.Itwouldbeanoffencetoinvitepeopletodisobeythelawandnottore-register.IthinksuchagitationisalsoboundtofailasnotagreatnumberofpeoplearemadeofthestuffthatseekmartyrdomandAsiaticsareno
exceptiontotherule.Thesameresultcould,Ithink,beattainedbyconstitutionalagitation.17
Gandhiacceptedtheadvice–forthemoment.TheBritishIndianAssociationwouldsendadeputationtoLondon,whosememberswouldbe‘MrGandhiandamemberfromthetradingclasses’.Athousandpoundswassanctionedfortheirexpenses.However,toassessthemoodofthecommunity,apublicmeetingwasproposedpriortotheirdeparture.Toplanthemeeting,agroupofIndiansmetdailyinthehalloftheHamidiaIslamicSociety,abodyfundedandpatronizedbyGujaratiMuslims.LettersweresenttoeverysmalltownintheTransvaal,urging
Indianstoattend.Handbillsandposterswerediscussedanddrafted.Alistofpossiblespeakerswasdrawnupanddebated.Themeeting,scheduledforSunday11September,washeldattheEmpire
Theatre,alargehallwithbalconiesthatseatedcloseto2,000people.Onthebigday,IndianshopkeepersandhawkersinJohannesburgstoppedworkat10a.m.ThedoorsoftheEmpireTheatreopenedatnoon,toaccommodatethepeoplecominginfromthecountryside.By1.30thetheatrewaspackedtooverflowing.Describingthescenewithin,theRandDailyMailwrotethat
eveninitspalmiestdays,theoldvarietytheatrecouldneverhaveboastedofalargeraudiencethanthatwhichassembledyesterday.Fromthebackrowofthegallerytothefrontrowofthestallstherewasnotavacantseat,theboxeswerecrowdedassurelytheyhadneverbeencrowdedbefore,andeventhestagewasinvaded.Wherevertheeyelightedwasfezandturban,anditneededbutlittlestretchoftheimaginationtofancythatonewasthousandsofmilesfromJohannesburgandinthe
heartofIndia’steemingmillions.18
GandhihadinvitedPatrickDuncantoattendthemeeting.TheColonialSecretarychosetosendMontfordChamneyashisrepresentative.TheProtectoroftheAsiaticssatonthedais,silentanduncomprehending,asaseriesofspeakersinveighedagainstthenewordinance.ChairingthemeetingwasAbdulGani,aJohannesburgmerchantwhoserved
asthePresidentoftheBritishIndianAssociation.Hesatonasofacoveredwithayellowsilkcloth,thepersonandhisbackgroundilluminatedbyelectriclight.GanispokeinHindustani.Whateverhisinadequaciesasapetitionwriter,hewasclearlyapractisedorator.Hismainpointwasthattheyshoulddefythelawandgotoprisonratherthansubjectthemselvestoafreshprocessofregistration.When‘MrGanispokeofgaol-going’,reportedIndianOpinion,‘theaudienceshoutedinonevoice,“Weshallgotogaol,butwillnotregisterourselvesagain.”’OtherspeechesweremadeinGujaratiandEnglish.Onespeaker,Nanalal
Shah,flourishedhisexistingregistrationcertificatebeforethecrowd.Thishadhisname,hisprofession,hiswife’sname,hiscaste,hisheight,hisage,andevenhisthumbimpression.‘Isallthisnotenough?’demandedMrShah.‘Howcananyoneelseusethisregister?DoestheGovernmentwantnowtobrandusonourforeheads?Iwillneverreturnmyregistrationcertificate.NeitherwillIberegisteredagain.Iprefergoingtogaol,andIwillgothere.’
Fiveresolutionswerepresentedtoandpassedbythemeeting.Thefirstoutlinedwhatintheordinancewasrepugnant;thesecondaskedtheTransvaalGovernmenttowithdrawit.ThethirdgaveformalapprovaltothedelegationbeingsenttoLondon.Thefifthauthorizedthemeeting’sChairman,AbdulGani,toforwardtheresolutionstotheTransvaaladministationandtotheImperialGovernmentinLondon.Thecrucialresolutionwasthefourth,whichsaidthatIntheeventoftheLegislativeCouncil,thelocalGovernment,andtheImperialAuthoritiesrejectingthehumbleprayeroftheBritishIndiancommunityoftheTransvaalinconnectionwiththeDraftAsiaticLawAmendmentOrdinance,thismassmeetingofBritishIndianshereassembledsolemnlyandregretfullyresolvesthat,ratherthansubmittothegalling,tyrannous,andun-BritishrequirementslaiddownintheaboveDraftOrdinance,everyBritishIndianintheTransvaalshallsubmithimselftoimprisonmentandshallcontinuetodosountilitshallpleaseHisGraciousMajestytheKing-Emperortograntrelief.
Movingtheresolution,thePretoriamerchantHajeeHabibsaid,‘Everythingdependsuponit.Thereisnodisgraceingoingtogaol;ratheritisanhonour.Onlyafewpeopleknewof[theIndianpatriot]Mr[BalGangadhar]Tilakbeforehewenttogaol;todaythewholeworldknowshim.’GandhispokeafterHabib,in(asareporteronthespotnoted)‘clear,lowtones,inearnest,serious,andcarefully-chosenlanguage’.Hesaidthattheresponsibilityforadvisingthemtogotoprisonwashis.‘Thestepwasgrave,butunavoidable.Indoingso,theydidnotholdathreat,butshowedthatthetimeforaction–overandabovemakingspeechesandsubmittingpetitions–hadarrived.’Gandhiaddedthathehad‘fullconfidenceinhiscountrymen’.He‘knewhecouldtrustthem,andheknewalsothat,whenoccasionrequiredanheroicsteptobetaken,heknewthateverymanamongthemwouldtakeit.’OneofthelastspeakerswasaTamilnamedThambiNaidoo.Bornin
Mauritiusin1875,hehadcometotheTransvaalasayoungman,andsetupasacarrier.HeprobablygottoknowGandhiduringtheplagueepidemicof1904.Hewasstocky,stronglybuilt,andoffirmconvictions.NowhestooduptopersuadehisfellowTamilstocommittoapathofactiondrawnupbytheGujaratis.Themeetingendedwithavoteofthanks,proposedbyanM.Lichtensteinand
secondedbyanI.Israelstam.They(andGandhi)hadbeenputuptoitbyHenryPolak.Forthesewere‘bothsonsofIsrael,both,therefore,representativeofapeoplethathave,forcenturies,sufferedpersecutionandoppression,byreasonof
theignorance,prejudice,superstition,andjealousyoftheiropponents,evenastheBritishIndiansinSouthAfricato-day.’19
Thusfar,themovementtogettheIndiansafairdealinSouthAfricahadfollowedastrictlylegalisticroute.Letters,petitions,courtcases,delegations–thesewerethemeansbywhichGandhiandhisfellowshadchallengedlawswhichboredownunfairlyonthem.Now,however,theywerethreateningtodefythisnewOrdinanceandgotojail.20
Ithasbeensometimesassumedthatthisresolutionof11September1906,mandatingamovefrompetitiontoprotest,wasinfluencedbyHenryDavidThoreau’sclassictractoncivildisobedience,firstpublishedin1849.Thereisnoevidencetosupportthisconjecture.Atthistime,GandhihadnotreadThoreau.Anotherspeculation,offeredbytherespectedGandhischolarJamesD.Hunt,isthathewasinfluencedbyprotestsbyNonconformistsagainsttheEducationActinEngland,whichforcedAnglicaninstructiononstate-aidedschools.Baptists,WesleyansandCongregationalistshadcourtedarrestratherthanallowtheirchildrentobeindoctrinatedintheofficialfaithofthestate.21
GandhididknowsomeBaptistandMethodistpriestsinJohannesburg.HedidreadtheBritishpress.Theterm‘passiveresistance’,usedbyhim,wasonemadepopularbyNonconformists,althoughitalsohadamoredistantoriginintheterm‘non-resistancetoevil’,madefamousinabookGandhiknewwell,Tolstoy’sTheKingdomofGodisWithinYou.22
Theseinfluencesmaybeinferredbuttheycannot,alas,bedemonstrated.Priortothe11Septembermeeting,therearenoreferencesinGandhi’swritingsandspeechestoNonconformistprotestsagainsttheEducationActinEngland.Ontheotherhand,GandhihadconveyedinIndianOpinionhisadmirationfortheSwadeshimovementinBritishIndia.Thisadmirationwassharedbyhiscolleagues–hencetheappreciativereferenceinHajeeHabib’sspeechtotheincarcerationofthemilitantnationalistBalGangadharTilak.Theideaofprotestandsacrificewasmoredirectlyinfluencedbytheeventsin
Indiain1905–6.But,asGandhipointedout,eventhedefianceofaspecificlawhadindigenousprecedents.WritinginGujaratiinIndianOpinion,hesaidoftheresolutionthreateningmassresistancethatit
is,andatthesametimeisnot,unique.Weconsideritunique,becausenowhereelseintheworldhaveIndianssofarresolved,astheyhavedonenow,togotogaolratherthansubmittoalaw.Ontheotherhand,wedonotconsiderituniquebecauseanumberofsimilarinstancesarefound[inhistory].Whenwearedissatisfiedwithanything,weresorttohartal.InIndiaweoftenconsideritourdutytodoso,inordertoobtainredressofourgrievances,particularlyintheNativeStates.Thehartalonlymeansthatwedonotapproveofacertainmeasuretakenbytheruler.Thistraditionofresistingalawhasbeeninvogueamongusfromveryearlydays,whentheEnglishpeoplewereinabarbarousstate.Thus,reallyspeaking,theResolutionpassedbytheTransvaalIndiansisnothingextraordinaryand
thereisnoreasonwhyweshouldfeelnervous.23
TheeditorsoftheCollectedWorksdonottranslatetheword‘hartal’.Ahartalreferstothewithdrawalofsupportandservicesfromthestate,orfromone’semployers.Amongthevariousformsittook,andtakes,wereworkerslayingdowntoolstodemandlargerwages,peasantsmigratingfromakingdomtoprotesthightaxes,andshopkeepersclosingtheirshutterstoprotestanewtax.Acognatewordisdharna.Ahartalisacollectiveactofprotest;adharnamoreoftenanindividualactofresistance.Aservantwhorefusestowaitonhismasterafterbeingabusedbyhimisondharna.When,backin1894,GandhiwouldnoteatinanIndianhomeuntilhishostscontributedtheirmitetotheNatalIndianCongress,hewasinvokingthisold(andwell-regarded)traditionofmoral-persuasion-shading-into-coercion.Now,twelveyearslater,hewasredirectingthattraditioninacollectiveprotestagainstaraciallybiasedlaw.TheOrdinancethatsparkedtheResolutionof11Septemberwaspeculiarto
theTransvaal.ResidentsofBritishIndiawerenotrequiredtotakeoutregistrationcertificates.However,IndiansinIndiahadprotestedoppressivelawsinsimilarfashioninthepast.InGandhi’snativeKathiawar,adistinctionhadlongbeenmadebetweentwowaysofprotestingthearbitraryactionsofastate.Thefirstwastoresorttoviolence,amethodpreferredbybanditswhoroamedthecountryside.Thiswascalledbaharvatiya–literally,goingoutsidethelaw.Ontheotherhand,agrievancecouldalsobeexpressedwithouttheuseofforce,asforexamplebysittingoutsidethehomeoftheofficialresponsibleforthelawormeasureonewasopposedto.Byrefusingtomove,andperhapscombiningthiswithrefusingtoeat,theprotesterhopedthestateoritsrepresentativewouldbeshamedintowithdrawingtheoffendingstatute.Thissecond,peacefulformofprotest,wasknownasrisaamanu,whichmeantthetemporaryseveringofrelationsbetweenpeoplewhowereotherwisecloselyandevenintimatelyconnected.24
IndianprecedentstotheResolutionof11Septemberexisted;andGandhiknewofsomeofthem.Evenso,hisappealtoancientIndiancustomlegitimizedratherthanexplainedthethreattocourtarrest.ForthemeetingattheEmpireTheatrewascarriedalongbyitsownmomentum.Encouragedbythelargecrowd,thespeakerscompetedwithoneanothertoraisethetemperature.Thespeechesandresolutionsrepresentedaspecificresponsetoaspecificsituation.ThenewOrdinancehadconsolidatedthegrievancesoftheIndiansintheTransvaal,whonowsoughtmeansofprotestmoredirect,andmoreradical,thananytheyhadresortedtobefore.Notably,theIndiansweresupportedbytheChineseintheTransvaal,who,as
fellowAsians,werealsoaffectedbytheOrdinance.ThegatheringattheEmpireTheatreincludedseveralChineseleaders.Twodayslater,theChineseConsul-GeneralinJohannesburgwrotetoLordSelborneurginghimnottosanction‘anoffensivemeasure’thatwasinbreachofinternationallawandwhich,ifimplemented,wouldharmfriendlyrelationsbetweenChinaandGreatBritain.BycallingforthecompulsoryregistrationofallAsiatics,hesaid,theOrdinancewouldsubjecthiscountrymento‘thedegradingexposureofalltheirbodilyinfirmitieswhichtoourOrientalmindsismostrepulsive,assuchasystemofidentification,isonlyresortedtoincasesofcriminalsinChina.’25
ThesentimentsofthosepresentattheEmpireTheatrewereendorsedbytheirlong-timesupporterinLondon,DadabhaiNaoroji.AsaGladstonianliberal,Naorojibelievedinthepoliticsofgradualandincrementalreform.Hiscommunicationsweregenerallycouchedinthemostunderstatedlanguage.ButthisnewOrdinanceintheTransvaalpromptedascathinglettertotheSecretaryofStatefortheColonies.Callingita‘wantoninsult’tohiscountrymen,amanwhohadbeenararebrownMemberoftheMotherofParliamentsremarkedthat
itismostgallingtothinkthatinBritishterritoriesif[thegreatEnglandcricketerofIndianextraction]PrinceRangitsinhjee[sic]wantedtoentertheTransvaalheshouldhavetoapplyforapermitandtheninorderthathemighthaveaglassofbeerheshouldhavetoapplycringinglytotheGovernmentforexemptionfromtheLiquorordinance[underwhichIndianswerenotallowedtobuyalcohol]…IsthisthewayinwhichthemostLiberalGovernmentthattheEmpirehasseenforyearswillprotect
weakandhelplessmembersthereof?26
BackinSouthAfrica,thethreatofpassiveresistancewasbeingheldinreserve.Forthemoment,GandhiwouldfollowhisfriendGregorowski’sadviceandmakeapersonalappealtotheauthoritiesinLondon.Withhimwouldcome
HajiOjerAlly,abusinessmanactiveinsocialworkinJohannesburg.TheywerebookedtoleavefortheUnitedKingdominearlyOctober.Afewdaysbeforetheydeparted,theEmpireTheatre,thevenueofthegreatmeetingof11September,wasguttedinafire.
10
ALobbyistinLondon
On2October1906,MohandasGandhienteredhisthirty-eighthyear.Hespenthisbirthdayinatraintravellingacrosstheveld,fromJohannesburgtoCapeTown.Ontheeveningofthe3rd,heboardedtheSSArmsdaleforthevoyagetotheUnitedKingdom.Gandhi’scompanionaboardtrainandship,HajiOjerAlly,wasaGujarati
bornin1853inMauritius.HestudiedandworkedonthatislandbeforemigratingtoSouthAfrica,whereheranawaterbottlingplantinCapeTown,latershiftingbasetoJohannesburg.Herehebranchedoutfrombusinessintocommunitywork,openinga‘HamidiaIslamicSociety’whosespecialfocuswastheeducationofMuslimyouth.HewasmarriedtoaMalaylady,withwhomhehadelevenchildren.1
InCapeTown,underthemoreliberalfranchiseofthatprovince,H.O.Allyhadbeenbothamunicipalandparliamentaryvoter.(Gandhi,arrivinginNatalafterthereformsleadingtoResponsibleGovernment,wasneither.)‘Thoughnotafinishedspeakeroranaccomplishedscholar,’wroteHenryPolak,‘[Ally]hadaverygoodcommandoftheEnglishlanguage,aswellasofUrdu,apowerfulvoice,andwaspossessedofaconsiderabledegreeofrougheloquence.’Hewasalsopartialtothedramaticgesture–whilespeakingonthejail-goingresolutionof11September,hedidsowithaUnionJackdrapedaroundhisshoulders.2
InallrespectsGandhiandAllywereastudyincontrast.TheHinduwasdressedinsoberWesternclothes,whiletheMuslimworeflowingOrientalrobesandacolourfulturban.Gandhiwasthinandsmall-made,Allytallandgrosslyoverweight.Unlikethelawyer,themerchantwasnotbelievedtohavetakenavowofcelibacy.ThesedifferencesemergequitestarklyinGandhi’saccountoftheirvoyage
together.Onboard,Allyatefishforlunch,andfishandsometimesmeatfordinner.Healsodrankteaandgingerale,andsmokedcontinuously.Gandhi,on
theotherhand,fedhimselfonmilk,bread,potatoes,stewedfruitandfreshair.TheMuslimmerchantwasreadingAmirAli’sSpiritofIslamandWashingtonIrving’sMahometandhisSuccessors.TheHindulawyerwasbrushinguponhisTamil,readingahistoryofGujaratandareporton‘alienimmigration’,andcomposinghisdispatchesforIndianOpinion.TheSSArmsdaledockedatSouthamptonon20October.Thesameday,
Gandhigavetwointerviewstothepress.SpeakingtotheLondoncorrespondentofanIndiannewspaper,hesaidtheactproposedbytheTransvaalGovernmentwas‘muchmorerigorousandsevere’thanearlierlegislation.SpeakingtoaBritishjournalist,GandhisaidrestrictionsonIndianimmigrationintotheTransvaalmustbe‘onsuchtermsasarenothumiliating,anddonotinterferewiththelibertyofthosealreadysettledinthecountry.’‘MrGandhistatesthattheIndiansaregreatlystirredoverthematter,’notedthereporter,‘andarepreparedtogotogaolratherthansubmit.’3
ThedayafterGandhilanded,hevisitedthefamilyofhisfriendHenryPolak.TheylivedonGrosvenorRoad,inCanonbury,NorthLondon.‘Nothingsurprisedme,asyouhadpreparedmeforeverything,’wroteMohandastoHenry,adding.‘Otherwisetomeetyoursistersandyourbrilliantfatherwouldhavebeenamostagreeablesurprise.Boththesistersarereallymostlovable,andifIwasunmarried,oryoung,orbelievedinmixedmarriage,youknowwhatIwouldhavedone!’4
Thesameday,GandhiwrotetohisnephewChhaganlalmakingamoreneutralcaseforinterracialliving.AlbertWest’ssisterhadchosentojoinhiminSouthAfrica.Gandhithoughtthis‘awisestep’.‘WedowantsomeEnglishladiesthere[atPhoenix],’hetoldhisnephew.‘Dopleasemakethebestusepossibleofher.Letyourwifeandotherladiesmixfreelywithher,andletherfeelthatthereisnodistancebetweenherandus,andmakeherascomfortableaspossible…Eachpartyhasverystrongpointsfortheothertoimbibe.’5
WhileMissWestpreparedforanausterelifeamongabstemiousIndians,GandhihimselfwasbilletedattheCecil,oneofLondon’smostluxurioushotels.Foravisitingdelegation,thehotelaffordedrespectabilityandaLondonaddressthatwascredibleaswellasconvenient,withinwalkingdistanceofWhitehallandCharingCrossrailwaystation.6Gandhi’sfirstfewdaysinLondonwerespentwritinglettersontheCecil’snotepaper,addressedtoMembersof
ParliamentandnewspapereditorswhomhehopedtowinovertotheIndiancase.ThelettersweretypedbyaMissLawson,whohadbeensentbyPolak’sfathertoactasGandhi’sassistant.TheyreferredtoH.O.Allyandhimselfrathergrandlyinthethirdperson,asin‘IshallbeobligedifyouwouldkindlygranttheDeputationaninterview…’Meanwhile,unknowntoGandhi–andAlly–theirclaimstorepresentthe
TransvaalIndianswerebeingchallenged.‘ItappearsthattherearetwosectionsamongtheBritishIndiansintheTransvaal,’wrotetheColony’sGovernortotheSecretaryofState.OnegroupwasrepresentedbyGandhiandAlly,whiletheother‘deniesthatthesetwogentlemenhaveanymandatetorepresentthem.’TheGovernorhimselfwas‘unabletodetermine[the]relativestrengthofthetwosections.’7
TheoppositiontothedeputationwasledbyamannamedC.M.Pillay,aTamilwhohadlivedinJohannesburgfrombeforetheAnglo-BoerWar.InNovember1902–whenGandhiwasstillinIndia–PillayhelpeddraftapetitionwhichdaringlyaskedthattheIndiansintheTransvaalbe
allowedtocomeandgofreely;thattheymaytrade,buyandsellunhinderedandunmolested;thattheymayacquire,own,anddisposeoflandedproperty,withoutlimit,clog,orundueobstacle;thattheymay,byinter-positionoftheirrulers,bepreservedfromanydifferentiationinlaws,orrestrictionofpersoningovernment,orintreatment;thattheymayinnowaybecurtailedoftheirlibertyorfreedom…
ThepetitionwentontodemandIndianrepresentationinlegislaturesandmunicipalboards.Itwassignedbytwenty-twopeople,amajorityofwhomwereTamils.8
Twomonthsafterthis,GandhihadarrivedbackinSouthAfrica.NowbasedinJohannesburg,hequicklybecamethemainchannelthroughwhichIndiandemandswerearticulated.ThisirritatedC.M.Pillay,whosawthelawyer’sriseasaconsequenceofthesupport,financialandmoral,ofGujaratimerchants.When,inMarch1904,thewhitepresscarriedreportsontheunsanitaryhabitsofIndianshopkeepers,PillaywrotetosaythatwhereastheTamilsfromtheMadrasPresidencywere‘immunefrominfectiousdiseasesofallkinds’,the‘BombayBunnias…arethemostfilthiestclassesimaginable.’Untilabout1890,theIndiansintheTransvaalwerelargelyTamils,butthenmerchantsfromBombayandGujaratarrivedtospoiltheshow.BecauseoftheseGujaratis,claimedPillay,the
Indiancommunityingeneral…aremadetosufferforthecriminalperversityofasectionwhosechronicantipathytocleanliness,fanaticaladherencetosuperstitioninitsgrossestform,andmammon
worshipisamostprolificsourceofcontagiousdiseaseofthemostvirulentform.9
Pillaysignedhisletter‘lateSecretary,IndianCongress,PretoriaandJohannesburg’.OnedoesnotknowhowmanymembershisbranchoftheCongresshad.Atanyrate,by1906Gandhi’sBritishIndianAssociationwasclearlyintheleadwhenitcametoadvancingthecommunity’scause.Therivalrywaspersonal,butalsocommunal.AsaTamil,PillayspokeadifferentlanguagefromGandhiandtheGujaratimerchants.Hemayalsohavebeenoriginallyfromadifferentclass,forhisnamesuggeststhathisforefatherscametoSouthAfricaasindenturedlabourers.Whenthe‘deputation’proceededtoLondon,Pillaymadecommoncausewith
hisfellowTamilWilliamGodfrey,adoctorfromNatalnowbasedinJohannesburg.Thedoctor’sriftwithGandhiwasofmorerecentorigin.ActiveintheBritishIndianAssociation,DrGodfreyhadbeenafeaturedspeakerinthemassmeetingheldintheEmpireTheatreon11September.HehadhopedtobeontheshiptoLondon;however,whentheBIAthoughtitwisetosendamerchantaswell,thisleftroomforonlyoneEnglish-speakingprofessional,who,ofcourse,hadtobeGandhi.On15October,astheSSArmsdalemadeitswayacrosstheocean,William
GodfreyandC.M.PillaysentalettertotheSecretaryofStatefortheColonies.ThisclaimedthatGandhiandAllyhadnomandatetorepresenttheIndians;andaddedforgoodmeasurethatthelawyerwasa‘wellknownprofessionalagitatorwhohasmademoneyoutofhiswork’.Gandhiwasaccusedofhaving‘causedanestrangementbetweenEuropeansandIndians’;andAllyofbeingapan-IslamistwhoseallegiancesweretotheSultanofTurkeyratherthantheBritishCrown.10
ThepetitionsentbyPillayandGodfreyhadmorethanahundrednamesattachedtoit.Gandhi’salert(andloyal)friendHenryPolaksoughtoutitssignatories.Whathefoundwasnotedifying.ATamilownerofanIndianlaundry,persuadedbyGodfreythathisomissionfromthedelegationrepresentedanaffronttotheTamils,hadplacedablanksheetofpaperinfrontofforty-fiveofhisworkers,andgotthemtoaffixsignaturesandthumb-impressions.ToldbyPolakthathisactionhadunderminedIndianunity,thelaundry-ownernow
disavowedthepetition.11TwoofGodfrey’sbrothers,whohadbeenGandhi’sfriendsandclientsinNatal,wrotetoTheTimesdisassociatingthemselvesfromtheirsibling.TheBritishIndianAssociationwiredtheSecretaryofStatetosaythatGandhiandAllyweretheirauthorizedrepresentatives,andthatthe‘entireIndiancommunityindignantlyrepudiate[d]’acampaignbasedonGodfrey’s‘personalanimus’.12
InLondon,themanwhowasatoncethelargerandlessermemberofthedeputationhadfallenill.Theexactsymptomsareunknown;butover-indulgenceseemstohavebeenthecause.AllywasrushedfromtheHotelCeciltoLadyMargaretHospitalinthetownofBromley,tenmilessouth-eastofCharingCross.Thehospitalhadbeenfoundedin1903byJosiahOldfield,Gandhi’soldfriendandflatmatefromhisstudentdays.Itwasrunonstrictvegetarianprinciples,withtreatmentbydietreplacingtreatmentbydrugs.Nomeatorfishwaspermitted,noranyalcoholeither.Thefoodwascookedwithcoconutoil,thenratherscarceinBritain.13
GandhiwrotetoOldfieldurginghimtoseeAllyeveryday–‘Yourpresencealonewouldbeinspiringandcheering.’Headdedthat‘expenseisofnoconsideration’.ToAllyhimselfGandhiofferedthisexplanationofhisill-health:‘Iamsuperstitiousenoughtosayitwasduetothecigar.’Hisrecoverymightbe‘retardedbyevenonepuffofthedeadlycigar–suchismystrongconvictionregardingnicotine’.ThenextdayGandhiwrotetohiscompatriotinsimilarvein:‘Ibeseechyoutokeepyourselfreligiouslyawayfromcigars.Certainly,haveasmuchasyoulikeofthehubble-bubble’(which,withitstobaccodilutedthroughwater,presumablywaslessharmful).‘FollowDrOldfield’sinstructionsimplicitly,’urgedGandhi.‘IamcertainthatnootherdoctorcouldrestoreyoutohealthwiththesameamountofdespatchasMrOldfield.’Thelastwassaidwithsomeconviction,forGandhiwasconsultingthesame
doctorhimself.BackinthedayswhenhewaspractisinglawinBombay,GandhitoldOldfield,hehadlosthissenseofsmell;nowhehadchroniccatarrh.Heaskedwhetherhisfriendcouldtreathim,orinsteadrecommendathroatspecialist.Anotherailmentwasrelatedtotheirsharedpassionandlifestylechoices.‘IthinkitwaswhenIwascarryingonafruit-and-nutdietexperiment,’wroteGandhi,‘thatIdamagedmyteeth.IbelievethatIhadpermanently
damagedtwomolarsandIthoughtthatIwasgoingtoloseoneofthemonboard.IcertainlytriedhardtopulloneoutbutIdidnotsucceed.Wouldyouseethemordoyouwantmetogotoadentist?’Althoughtheywereoldfriends,ifOldfieldwastoattendtoeithercomplaintGandhiinsistedonpayinghisprofessionalfees.14
On31October,GandhiwrotetotheSecretaryofStatefortheColonies,LordElgin,requestinganappointmentforadelegationconsistingofhimself,Allyandsomewell-placedEnglishmen;astatementoftheIndiancasewasattached.Themeetingwasscheduledfor8November.SinceElginwasaformerViceroy,GandhiaskedsomemembersoftheIndianCivilServicetojointhedelegation.SincehewasalsoaseniorBritishpolitician,theformerMPDadabhaiNaorojiandtheservingMPM.M.Bhownaggreewereaskedtocometoo.GandhiwentthreetimestotheHouseofCommonstomeettheLiberalMPHaroldCox,whoeventuallyalsoagreedtocome.InthefirstweekofNovember,Gandhihadseveralmeetingswitharadicaland
somewhatraffishIndianheknewwouldneverfitintoanyformaldelegation.HisnamewasShyamajiKrishnavarma.TwelveyearsolderthanGandhiandalsofromKathiawar,KrishnavarmahadstudiedatOxfordandbeencalledtotheLondonBar.BackinIndia,heheldaseriesofjobsintheKathiawariprincipalitiesbeforereturningtoEnglandin1905.KrishnavarmathoughttheIndianNationalCongresstooloyalistbyfar;what
hestoodforwascompleteemancipationfromBritishrule.Heestablishedan‘IndiaHouse’atHighgateinLondon(notfarfromthecemeterywhereKarlMarxwasburied),whichservedasahostelforstudentsandaforumfordebate.Studentswholivedheretookapledgethattheywouldnotworkforthecolonialbureaucracywhentheyreturnedhome.KrishnavarmaalsopublishedajournalcalledTheIndianSociologist,whicharguedthecaseforfreedomforsubjectpeoples.HisgreatestEnglishsupporterwasthesocialistandanti-imperialistH.M.Hyndman.15
GandhiknewofKrishnavarma’swork,forithadbeenwrittenaboutinIndianOpinion.NowtheymetinLondon,where,tobeginwithatanyrate,theyoungermanwasintriguedbytheolderman.Hewasimpressedbyhislearning–KrishnavarmaknewLatin,GreekandSanskrit–andsomewhatintimidatedbyhispassion.OnsuccessiveSundays,GandhipassedupinvitationstothePolak
householdinordertodebateIndianissueswithhim.AshewrotetoPolakpère,‘thePanditofwhomIspoketoyouandIhavenotfinishedthewholeofourdiscussion,andasitisratherimportantIamafraidImustdeprivemyselfofthepleasure’(ofmeetingthefatherandhischarmingdaughters).16Later,inareporttoIndianOpinion,Gandhisummarizedthecharacterandcredoofhisnewfriendinthesewords:
Thoughhecanaffordtoliveincomfort,helivesinpoverty.Hedressessimplyandliveslikeanascetic.Hismissionisservicetohiscountry.Theideaunderlyinghisserviceisthatthereshouldbecompleteswaraj[freedom]forIndiaandthattheBritishshouldquitthecountry,handingoverpowertoIndians.Iftheydonotdoso,theIndiansshouldrefusethemallhelpsothattheybecomeunabletocarryontheadministrationandareforcedtoleave.Heholdsthatunlessthisisdonethepeopleof
Indiawillneverbehappy.Everythingelsewillfollowswaraj.17
Afteraweekinhospital,H.O.AllymovedbacktotheHotelCecil.However,onOldfield’sadvice,hehadhour-longmassageseveryevening,tomakehimfitforthemeetingwiththeSecretaryofStatefortheColonies.Twodaysbeforemeetingthedeputation,LordElginreceivedajointletter
fromfiveIndiansfromSouthAfricastudyinginLondon–threeChristian,oneMuslimandoneHindu.TheletterwasclearlypromptedandverylikelydraftedbyGandhi.ItdetailedthedisabilitiesunderthelawsbeingproposedintheTransvaal,notingthatthesignatorieswouldnotbeabletogainentryintothecolonyontheirreturn.Ittellinglyadded:‘WeareherebeingnurturedintheteachingsofBentham,Austin,andotherEnglishwriterswhosenamesareawatchwordforlibertyandindependence,andwecouldhardlybelievethatanythingofthekindreferredtoabovewouldpossiblybeapplicabletous.’18
Ontheafternoonof8November,Gandhi,AllyandtenotherswereattheColonialOfficetomeetLordElgin.ThefirsttospeakwasSirLepelGriffin,formerChiefSecretaryofthePunjabandcurrentchairmanoftheEastIndiaAssociation.HereistheofficialtranscriptofpartofwhatGriffinsaid:
Andagainstwhomisthis[offending]legislationdirected?Againstthemostorderly,honourable,industrious,temperateraceintheworld,peopleofourownstockandblood,withwhomourownlanguagehasasasister-languagebeenconnected…Andbywhomisthislegislationinstigated?Iamtold,andIbelieveit,thatitisnotbythebestpart
oftheBritishcommunityintheTransvaal,whoare,Ibelieve,infavourofgivingallreasonableprivilegestoBritishIndiansubjects;itisbythealienforeignpopulationintheTransvaalwhoareperhapstosomeextentinconveniencedbyIndiantraderswhoaresoverymuchmoretemperateandindustriousthanthemselves.ItdoesnotcomefromtheEnglish.Thelegislationisprompted,andthe
prejudiceagainsttheIndiansisencouraged,bythealiens,byRussianJews,bySyrians,byGermanJews,byeveryclassofaliens,theveryoff-scouringsoftheinternationalsewersofEurope.
Thetwoquestionswerepertinent,butGriffin’sanswertothesecondwasextraordinary.Fromwhereandwhencedidthisdiatribecome?WasitaproductofSirLepelGriffin’sownprejudices,oramoregeneralpanderingtotheanti-SemitismthencommonamongtheBritishrulingclass?Infact,itwasBoersandBritons,Christiansboth,whohadbeenintheforefrontoftheanti-Indianlegislation.Tobesure,somerecentJewishimmigrantstotheTransvaalwerehostiletoIndiantraderswhocompetedwiththem.Evenso,Gandhi’sclosestsupporterswere,asoftenasnot,JewssuchasHenryPolak,HermannKallenbachandLewisRitch.WhatdidGandhithinkofSirLepel’sdiatribe,asheheardit?Alas,therecordsaresilentonthematter.19
Gandhispokenext,andwithsobriety.HeexplainedhowthenewOrdinanceviolatedthe‘fundamentalmaximoftheBritishlaw’thateveryonewaspresumedinnocentunlessprovenotherwise;it‘brandseveryIndianasguilty’.Itoriginallyappliedtowomentoo,butasaresultoftheirprotestsatleastthishadbeenwithdrawn.Thelargerworrywasthatitwouldbeappliedelsewhere,that‘whattheTransvaalthinkstodaytheotherColoniesthinktomorrow.’H.O.Allyspokebriefly,endorsingGandhi’sstandandemphasizingthatthey
were‘loyalBritishsubjects’whodidnotdemandpoliticalparity.‘WearecontentthatthewhitemanshouldbepredominantintheTransvaal,’saidAlly,‘butwedofeelthatweareentitledtoalltheotherordinaryrightsthataBritishsubjectshouldenjoy.’TheIndianMPM.M.Bhownaggreealsospoke.HeinvokedthedutyElgin
owedIndiaandIndians,asthe‘custodianandguardianofIndianinterestsandtheprotectoroftheirrights,duringamemorableanddistinguishedviceroyalty’.DadabhaiNaorojidrewattentiontothepoliticaltraditionsofthepartyofwhichhe,liketheColonialSecretary,wasamember.‘Ifthereisoneprinciplemoreimportantthananother,’remarkedNaoroji,‘itisthatofthefreedomofBritishsubjectsundertheBritishflag,andIdohopethattheBritishGovernment,especiallyaLiberalGovernment,willstanduponthatbasis.’(ItwascharacteristicthattheIndianTorystressedtheofficial’sduty,whereastheIndianLiberalemphasizedabroaderprinciple.)
Havingheardeverybodyout,Elginthenresponded.Hedidnotthink‘thattheimpressionofthumbmarkinitselfshouldbeaverydebasingoperation’.Gandhiinterjectedthatitwasaten-fingermarkthatwasrequired,whichinIndiawasaskedforonlyinthecaseofcriminals.Elginreplied,‘Idonotwanttoargueit,butIthinkthatthereisjustthatmuchtobesaid.’Hethenturnedtotheforcesbehindthenewlegislation.Hehadreceivedmanytelegramsfromdifferent(white)municipalitiesintheTransvaalurginghimtopasstheOrdinance.‘Icannot,therefore,entirelysubscribetowhatSirLepelGriffinsaidabouttheopposition[ofwhitestoIndians].’HeadmittedthathadhebeenintheIndiaOfficeratherthantheColonialOffice,hemighthavehimselfsigneddispatches‘protesting,inasstronglanguageashasbeenusedhere,againsttherestrictionsonBritishcitizens’.However,placedwherehewas,hehad
torecognizethefactthatallovertheworldtherearedifficultiesarisingonthepartofwhitecommunities,andwehavetoreckonwiththem.Idonotsaythattheyoughtalwaystosucceed;theycertainlyoughtnottosucceedinpointsofdetailwhichwould,inanyway,involveoppression.Butthefactoftherebeingthatsentimenthastobeborneinmindwhenwehavetodealwithmattersofthisdescription.
Heendedwithacarefullywordedequivocation:‘IhavenowheardwhatMrGandhihadtosay…Ihaveheardtheothergentlemenwhohaveaccompaniedhim.Iwillgivethebestconsiderationtotheirrepresentations,andIshallthinkitmydutytomakeupmymindwiththefullresponsibilitywhichIhavetoassume.’20
WritingtoHenryPolak,Gandhi,evertheoptimist,describedhismeetingwithElginas‘exceedinglygood’.21Forhispart,theSecretaryofStatefortheColonieswasnowpersuadedthatGandhiandAllywere‘reallyrepresentativeofthemajorityoftheircompatriots’.ElginwrotetotheTransvaalGovernmentthatwhileheappreciatedtheforceofwhitesentiment,hewouldnotwanttoadviseRoyalAssenttothenewlegislationjustyet.Heaskedthem‘tofavourmewithafurtherexpressionofyourownopiniononthequestion,inviewofthestrong,and,asIgather,somewhatunexpected,oppositionwithwhichtheOrdinancehasbeenmetbythemajorityoftheIndiancommunity.’22
TwodaysafterGandhi’sdelegationmetLordElgin,TheTimesprintedalongarticleonitsmission.BeforetheAnglo-BoerWar,perhapstheImperialGovernmentcouldhaveintervenedinfavouroftheIndians,butitwould‘beinjudicious,andindeedimpracticable,toattempttosettlesuchaquestionfrom
DowningStreetnow,whenthecolonywillenjoywithinafewmonthsalltherightsofresponsiblegovernment.’ThepaperexplainedwhytheIndians’claimsanddemandscouldnot,orratherwouldnot,beconceded:
Noyoungdemocraticcommunityofwhitemencanbeexpectedtodealouteven-handedjusticetoformidablerivalsintheirtradeandbusinesswhocomefromanotherrace,withothertraditions,othercreeds,andothercomplexionsthantheirown.ThefactthattheinterlopersaresubjectsofthesameSovereign,andcanclaimtobetreatedasmembersofthesameEmpire,willprobablynever,inourtime,outweightheseconsiderationswiththem.Thelapseofyears,andperhapsofgenerations,maybeneededtocreate,ifindeeditcaneverbecreated,suchaspiritofcommonImperialcitizenshipas
willgreatlymitigatethecombinedforceofraceprejudiceandofself-interest.23
Asastudent,MohandasGandhihadprovedimpervioustothedelightsanddistractionsofLondon.Plays,partiesandcricketmatchesdidnotinteresthimthen.Nowhehadneithertheinterestnorthetime.Heworkedfromnineinthemorninguntilmidnight,lobbyingeditors,politiciansandothermenofinfluence.They,andotherslikethem,werebesiegedbyatorrentofletters.Apparently,asmanyas5,000pennystampswereusedbythedelegation.AmongthemenGandhimetinpursuitofhiscasewasthecampaigning
journalistW.T.Stead.Steadhadfamously–orperhapsnotoriously–beensympathetictotheBoercauseduringtheWar,abandoninghisearliersupportfortheimperialismofCecilRhodes.GandhiaskedhimnowtowriteanarticleontheIndianquestionin‘yourowngraphicstyle’;hehad‘nodoubtthatsomeatleastoftheBoerleaderswouldlistentoyouandgiveeffecttoyoursuggestions’.24Steaddidnotwritethearticlerequested,butothergrandeesweremoreamenabletoGandhi’slobbying.ThedoctorandnaturalistGeorgeBirdwood,anoldIndiahand,wasdeeplyimpressedwithGandhi’spetitiontoElgin.Hereadit‘withthegreatestpersonaldelightfortheevidenceitaffordsoftheabilityandwisdomwithwhichyoungHindooslikeyoucanhandlesuchintricateandtrying[questionsof]Imperialpolicy’.TherejectionoftheIndianplea,thoughtBirdwood,wouldbean‘irretrievableblowtotheconsolidationofthe[British]Empire’.Inhisview,therewas
nohistoricalpeopleonearth–noteventheScots–whohaveabetterconceitofthemselvesorbetterdeserve[it]thantheHindoos,whohavegivenIndiaherimmemorialnameandfame,andawantonoutrageagainsttheirracialpridesuchasthatbywhichtheyareaffrontedinSouthAfrica,willstrikeadeadlyblowtotheirloyaltytowardstheBritish‘Raj’whichisthemightiestcorner-stoneofour
world-wideEmpire.25
Meanwhile,pressedbyGandhi,theliberalMPsHaroldCoxandHenryCottonraisedaseriesofquestionsinParliamentontheharassmentofIndiansintheTransvaal.TheywereansweredbytheUnder-SecretaryofState,WinstonChurchill,amannoticeablysympathetictotheideathatwhiteandbrowncouldnevermix.OnequestionrelatedtoanevictionnoticeissuedtoaboutahundredIndiantradersintheJohannesburglocalityofVrededorp.Thetradershadbeenthereforyears,andtheirvestedpropertywasvaluedat£20,000.WhenCottonaskedwhytheIndiansweremadetovacatetheirstands,ChurchillsaidthattherewerealsoBoertradersoperatinginthemarket,and‘itisverydesirabletokeepthewhiteandColouredquartersapart,asthepracticeofallowingEuropean,Asiatic,andnativefamiliestolivesidebysidein[a]mixedcommunityisfraughtwithmanyevils,and,inLordSelborne’sopinion,isinjurioustothesocialwell-beingofallthree.’26
GandhiimmediatelywrotetoLordElgin,takingissuewithChurchill’sclaims.Hesaid,first,thattheIndiansinthesuburbhadlegallyacquiredrightsofresidence;second,thatIndianshops,describedbyChurchillas‘tinshanties’,wereinfact‘superiortomanyofthebuildingsinVrededorp’;andthird,andmosttellingly,
thatifthedoctrineofthedesirabilityofkeepingthewhiteandtheColouredquartersapartissound,IfearthattherewillbeanendtoBritishIndianresidenceintheTransvaalwithanydegreeofself-respect.Thelogicalconclusionofsuchadoctrinewillbeasystemoflocationswhichcanonlyresult
inruinationtohundredsoflaw-abidingandrespectableIndians.27
On27November,GandhiandAllymettheUnder-SecretaryofStateinhisroomsintheColonialOffice.Churchillaskedthemtosendhimashortnote,nolongerthanonefoolscappage,ofwhatthey‘hadtosayonthisOrdinance,ontheVrededorpStandsOrdinanceandonthequestionasawhole’.Allythenremindedhimthat
hewasthesamepersonwhohadbeenpresentatthePoint[inDurban]toreceiveMrChurchillonhisreturnfromthe[Boer]war.AnditwasthesameMrChurchillthathenowpleadedforredressonbehalfoftheIndiancommunity.MrChurchillsmiled,pattedMrAllyonthebackandsaidhewould
doallhecould.Thisansweraddedtoourhopes.28
Hisexperiencesintheimperialcapital,meetingdoorsopen,closedandajar,convincedGandhithattheIndiansneededanorganizedbodytorepresenttheminLondon.Workingviathemailandthetelephone,heestablishedaSouth
AfricaBritishIndianCommittee(SABIC),whichwassupportedby,amongothers,Griffin,NaorojiandBhownaggree.L.W.Ritch,hisfriendfromJohannesburgwhohadnowqualifiedasalawyerinLondon,wouldserveassecretary.‘IhavenottoldyouallaboutMrRitch’scapabilities,’wroteGandhitoBhownaggree.
Hehashandledmanyameetingandhasbeensecretaryofmorethanoneorganization.HewastwentyyearsagoperhapswhatpeoplemaycallarabidSocialist.Hishasbeenamostchequeredcareer.Today,Idonotownafriendwhoknowsmemorethanhedoes.Heisoneofthosemenwho
believeindyingforacausethatheholdsdear.29
ItwasBhownaggreewhochairedafarewellmeetingforthedeputation.Thiswasheldon29November,intheRichelieuRoomoftheHotelCecil.Inattendancewereanarrayofpro-IndianmembersoftheBritishEstablishment,amongthemtheformerGovernorofBombay,LordReay;theformerPrincipaloftheMohammedanAnglo-OrientalCollege,TheodoreMorrison;sundryex-I.C.S.officialsandservingMembersofParliament.ThosewithmorepersonalconnectionstoGandhiincludedJ.H.L.Polak(fatherofHenry)andDrJosiahOldfield.30
Speakingtothegathering,GandhisingledouttheIndianstudentsintheroom,whosepredicamenthighlightedthetroubleintheTransvaal.TheseyoungmencontemplatedtheirreturntoSouthAfrica‘withconsiderableanxietyandapprehension’;theyworriedtheywouldsharethefateofthedispossessedIndiansinthecolony.For,asGandhiobserved,‘here,inEngland,theywillbecomebarristersordoctors,butthere,inSouthAfrica,theymaynotevenbeabletocrosstheborderoftheTransvaal.’31
Gandhi’senergeticlobbyinginLondonalarmedtheTransvaalGovernment.AsthedeputationsailedbacktoSouthAfrica,thecolony’sLieutenant-Governorwrotetohisbossgrumblingthat‘HisMajesty’sGovernmenthaveevidentlybeengreatlyimpressedbytherepresentationofMessrs.GandhiandAlly.’32TheGovernoroftheTransvaal,LordSelborne,thenwrotealettertohissuperior,theSecretaryofStatefortheColonies,pointingoutthattheOrdinancewas‘regardedalmostunanimouslybytheEuropeancommunityasbeingvitaltothebestinterestsoftheColony’.Hedefendedtheproposaltomakeregistrationcompulsory,andwarnedthattheprovisionofappealtotheSupremeCourt
(whichtheIndianswereagitatingfor)woulddefeatthelegislation’spurpose,since‘experiencehasshownhowdifficultitiswhenonceanAsiatichasenteredthecountrytofindhimagain’.TheGovernorremarkedthat
MrGandhimustknowbetterthanmostpeoplethatthereisanextensivetrafficinpermitsandregistrationcertificates,andhehashaduniqueexperienceoftheeasewithwhichtheCourtscanbemoved(andrightlysowhilethelawremainsasitis)toupsetanyadministrativeactionwhichisintendedtocarryoutaneffectivecontroloverimmigration.
TheparentheticalcommentscarcelyservedtosoftenwhatwasadirectinsinuationagainstGandhi’smotives:namely,thathehadavestedinterestintheoldlaw,andinprofitablyfightingcourtcasesunderit.SelbornethenexplainedthelargerprojectofwhichtheOrdinancewaspart.‘EverypatrioticSouthAfrican,’hewrote,
looksforwardtotheestablishmentofalargeandvigorousEuropeanpopulationhere…TheimmigrationofanAsiaticpopulationonalargescaleheregardsasamenacetotherealisationofthisideal.HeseesalreadyinNatalapicturewhichimpresseseventhecasualobserveroftherapiditywithwhichtheAsiaticisfillingaplaceintrade,andnoweveninagriculture,whichotherwisewouldhaveaffordedscopeforagrowingEuropeanpopulation.HeseesthesameprocessatworkintheTransvaal,moreslowlyatpresent,but,capable,ashebelieves,ofrapidacceleration.HeisquitewillingtorecognisetheclaimswhichBritishIndiansnaturallyhaveonHisMajesty’sGovernment,butheprotestsagainst,andispreparedtoresist,thoseclaimswhentheyinvolvethepeoplingofhiscountrywhichhebelievestobefittedtobethehomeofastrongEuropeannationwithapeoplewho
canneverbetohimanythingbutanalienrace.33
Thisdefenceofthewhitecasebeggedacrucialquestion–whyweretheIndiansmore‘alien’thantheEuropeans?UnliketheAfricans,neitherhadoriginatedinthecontinent.Bothgroupshadcomefromacrosstheoceans,theEuropeansfromtheWest,theIndiansfromtheEast,eachseekingbetterprospectsforthemselvesandtheirfamilies.TheEuropeansnowclaimedthatSouthAfricawastheirhome.Butwhycouldn’ttheIndiansbelikewise‘patriotic’aboutalandwheretheytoolivedandworked?Evidently,theIndianswereseenasthemain,perhapsonly,threattothecreationofasettlerstatetoberuledanddominatedbywhites,withasubmissivenativepopulationalongside.ForSouthAfricatobecomemorelikeAustralia,CanadaandNewZealand,itwasimperativethatnomoreIndianswereallowedintotheterritory.Theintensityandpassion,evenparanoia,thatcharacterizedthepresentation
ofthecolonists’casewasanindirecttributetoGandhi.Theoppositionledbyhimhadunnervedandunsettledthem.TotheGovernor’sprivatewarningswere
nowaddedabookpublishedinLondonwiththealarmisttitle,TheAsiaticDangertotheColonies.WrittenbytheJohannesburgjournalistL.E.Neame,thisaimedatinfluencing‘home’opinionagainsttheIndians,andthussmoothingthepathforthenewpoliciesintheTransvaal.NeamewasparticularlyworriedbytheriseofnationalisminIndia,asmanifestintheSwadeshimovement.Hewarnedthat‘theideaisgaininggroundthataweakspothasbeenfoundinthearmourofEurope.’ThisactivistspiritwouldnotjustbeaimedatBritishruleinIndia;it‘maybeusedfortheforcingofmanyacloseddoor’.LikeEurope,Asia‘tooneedsroomforitssurpluspopulation’;hencethedemand,ledbyGandhi,toallowIndiansthefreedomtomovetoSouthAfricaonthegroundsthatitwasalsopartoftheBritishEmpire.Itwasnot,however,merelyaquestionofcompetingnumbers.AsNeame
acutelyobserved,‘theAsiatichasanotherfault–fromthewhiteman’sstandpoint.Heisambitious.Theplantationcooliemaydieacoolie;hissonmaybecomealandowner,orasmalltraderorstorekeeper,evenamerchantonaconsiderablescale.’AssuccessivegenerationsofIndiansgraduatedtomoresophisticatedoccupations,theytookawayjobsandtradespreviouslymonopolizedbythewhites.AndsothisEuropeaninJohannesburgplaintivelyasked:‘WhatistobetheirfutureiftheIndianworksinthefarm,ownsthestore,andperformsskilledlabourinthefactory?’Gandhiandcompany,complainedNeame,hadmobilizedthesupportof
‘MembersofParliamentwhoknowIndiabutnottheColonies’.Tocounteractthis,thecolonistappealedtothebaserinstinctsofthemothercountry,byarguingthat
intheendthecolonywiththelargestAsiaticpopulationwherewhitemenshoulddwellwillbeofleastvaluetotheEmpire.ItisaneconomicaxiomthatthewhitemanconsumesmorethantheAsiatic.ThetradeofacolonywithabigwhitepopulationmustbemoreremunerativetoEnglandthanthatofacolonywhereadecreasingwhitepopulationisstrugglinghardagainstthecompetition
oftheEasternpeoples.34
L.E.NeamewasansweredbyHenryPolak,aEuropeanwhohadcrossedtheracialdividetostandupfortheunderdog.Inafour-partreviewinIndianOpinion,Polak(writingas‘TheEditor’),accusedNeameofa‘Caucasianbias’,asone‘whodoesnotquestiontheultimateandinherentsuperiorityofthewhiterace’whilerelegating‘thedisturbingAsiatictothelimboofpermanent
inferiority’.BydividingtheworldintoAsiaticandnon-Asiatic,Neamehadshownthathe‘doesnot,evidently,believeinthebrotherhoodofmanandhisunitywithNature.Hecannotconceivethatmenaremoulded,alltheworldover,inthesamegeneralwaybythesameseriesofcircumstances.’OfNeame’sargumentthatAsiatictraderswouldswampwhitecompetition,
Polakarchlynotedthat‘hispleaisnotthatthewhitemanshouldmakealiving,butthattheAsiaticshouldnot.’ForiftheCaucasianswereindeed‘inherentlysuperior’,then
whatistheaddedadvantagetobederivedfromRegistrationLaws,ImmigrationActs,commercialbarriers,protectivewalls[andothersuchmethods]…betokening,notacalmself-assurance,notastrongsenseofbreathingapureratmospherethanthatbreathedbyanyother,butamortalfearlestthephantomofanallegedsuperiorityshouldbediscoveredandexposedtopublicderision–aterrorlestthewindydummyofinflatedself-importancebepricked.35
Gandhiandcompanydidnotreallywanttochallenge,stilllessoverthrow,EuropeanruleintheTransvaal.Whattheyaskedforwasthesafeguardingofexistingandpreviouslyguaranteedrightsofresidence,tradeandtravel.Theyhadsaidtimeandagainthatthepoliticalsuperiorityofthewhiteswasnotinquestion,buttherulingracewasnotreassured.UnliketheAfricans,theIndianswereadeptattradeand(asGandhi’sownexamplehadshown)attheprofessions.HeretheydirectlycompetedwithEuropeans.ThedangerinadmittingmoreIndianswasthattheeconomicchallengewouldintensify,leadingtoclaimsforpoliticalrepresentationaswell.Hence,asL.E.Neameputit,thedoorhadtobefirmlyshuttotheIndians.
11
FromConciliationtoConfrontation
GandhireturnedtoSouthAfricainthethirdweekofDecember1906.LandingatCapeTown,heandhiscolleagueH.O.AllytookthetraintoJohannesburg.Arrivingonthemorningofthe22nd,theyweremetatParkStationbyalargecrowdofIndians.ThenextdayanevenlargergatheringwelcomedtheduoatthehalloftheHamidiaIslamicSociety.1
ThenextweekGandhiandAllywereinNatal,speakingatVerulamandthenatDurban,wheresomanygatheredtohearthemthatthemeetingwasshiftedfromtheCongressHalltothecoveredmarketatPineStreet.Afterwards,ParseeRustomjeehostedadinnerintheirhonour.Thenextday,GandhitookAllyandafewothersonatourofPhoenix,where‘thevariousdepartmentswereinspectedwithinterestandthevisitorsexpressedpleasureatwhattheysaw.’That,atanyrate,wastheclaimofIndianOpinion;perhapstheepicureanAlly,unusedtoanddisenchantedbytheasceticlife,sawthingsratherdifferently.2
GandhihadcometoNatalnotmerelytogarnerpraise.TheNatalGovernmentwasplanningfreshcurbsonmerchantswhowerenotwhite.OnboardtheRMSBritonhehadwrittenanoteurgingthatIndiantradersbeallowedtoimportclerksandassistants;thatwhendeniedalicencetheybepermittedtoappealtothecourts;andthateducatedorpropertiedIndiansbegrantedthemunicipalfranchise.Gandhiinsistedthat‘NatalcannotbeallowedtodrawuponIndiaforasupplyofindenturedlabourwhensherefusestotreattheresidentIndianpopulationwithjusticeanddecency.’3
SentthenotebytheImperialGovernment,theNatalMinistersrefutedGandhi’spointsonebyone.TherewerealreadymoreIndiansthanwhitesinNatal;now,‘ifpermissionwereaccordedtoIndianclerksordomesticservantstoentertheColonytemporarily,asproposedbyMrGandhi,insuperabledifficultieswouldbeopposedtoreturningthemattheendoftheirtime.’Asforgreaterleewayinthegrantingorrenewalofdealers’licences,‘theIndianMerchanthas
alreadyaverystrongfootingintheColony’andhisEuropeanrivalswere‘determinedthatNatalshallbeawhite-man’scolonyandthattheyshallnotbeoustedbythosewhoareincapableofgoverningtheColonyandwhoseonlyobjectistomakemoney’.SincetheIndiansweresaidtobemoreloyaltoIndiathantoNatal,theycouldnotbetrustedwiththevoteeither:‘TheEuropeanColonistsintendtoreservethefranchise,politicalandmunicipal,forthosewhowillexerciseitforthebestinterestsofNatal.’4
FourteenyearsofrepresentativegovernmenthadmadetheNatalcolonistsmoretruculent,morewillingtodisregardtheImperialinterestandtreattheircolouredsubjectsastheypleased.InspectorsoftheNatalGovernmentwouldnotrenewIndiantraders’licences,citingunsanitaryconditionsorunconventionalbook-keeping.Theseweretheprofessedreasons;often,itwasprejudiceorfearofcompetitionthatlaybehindtherefusal.5
IntheCape,traditionallythemostliberaloftheSouthAfricanprovinces,feelingsagainstIndianslikewisehardened.When,in1907,thecouncillorsofCapeTownconsiderednineapplicationsbyIndiantraders,theyrejectedsevenoutright,referringtheothertwoformoreinformation.ThereportofthemeetingcontainedtheforcefulyetrepresentativeviewsofacouncillornamedGibbs:
‘Indians’,saidMrGibbswithgreatscorn,‘Iwantnoneofthem–noneofthatnationality!I’mnotinfavouroftheseIndianscominghereatall,andIwouldliketoseeasmanyofthemaspossiblegettingoutofthiscountry…Ireallythinkagooddealofthedepressionexistingatthistimeisduetothem.Why,theyliveonthesmellofanoil-rag,andsleeponthebutter!(laughter)I’lldoeverythingpossibleinmypower,whateverCouncilI’mon,todrivethemout.LookatthePost
Officereturns,andyou’llseethatalltheirmoneygetssentoutofthecountry’.6
Soonafterwards,theCapeAssemblyconstitutedacommitteetolookintothequestion.TheIndianswhogavetestimonycomplainedaboutharassmentbyimmigrationofficials,andinsistedthattheirpremiseswerecleanandtheiraccountsup-to-date.Europeanmerchants,ontheotherhand,complainedthattheIndians‘eatcurryandricewithoutanyspoons’.AtradernamedPhilipssaid‘theIndianscomeheremerelyasbloodsuckers,itisavulgarterm,buttrue’.ClaimingthatmanyEuropeanshadto‘closetheirdoors’becauseofcompetition,thecommitteeconcludedthat‘itisimpossibletoviewtheextinctionoftheEuropeanstorekeeperwithoutthegravestfearsforthefutureoftheColony’.7
Facedwithrenewedhostilitytohiscompatriots,Gandhicharacteristicallydidnotgiveuphope.PerhapsiftheIndianspresentedabetterfacetheymightbetreatedmorekindly?IntwostrikingarticlesinIndianOpinion,heaskedshopkeepersinNataltomaintainproperaccounts,keeptheirpremisesclean,anddresswellinordertomakesuretheirlicenceswererenewed.Andheurgedthemnottospit,belchorbreakwindinpublic.‘ItissheerstupiditytobelievethatallthesethingswillnotprejudicetheEuropeans,’hewrote.‘Whileweliveinthiscountry,weshouldsobehavethatthewhites’prejudicesagainstusareweakened.’8
GandhialsoproposedthatsomeIndiansfromNatalbesenttotheUnitedKingdomtoqualifyfortheBar.HisformerassistantJosephRoyeppenwasinLondon,qualifyingatLincoln’sInn.Royeppenhadgoneunderhisownsteam;Gandhi’sfriendPranjivanMehta–nowaprosperousjewellerinBurma–offeredtofundanotherstudenttofollowhim.Gandhi’schoicefellonChhaganlal.‘Youseemtobetheonlypersonwhocanbedependedupontocarryforwardtheheritageofmythoughtandwords,’hetoldhisnephew.‘Ourultimatecapitalisnotthemoneywehave,butourcourage,ourfaith,ourtruthfulnessandourability.IfthereforeyougotoEngland,yourintellectremainsunspoiledandyoureturnwithyourphysicalandmentalpowersstrengthened,ourcapitalwillhaveappreciatedtothatextent.’9
ChhaganlalwasthesonofGandhi’sfirstcousinKhushalchand.Hewasanephewonceremoved,yetfarclosertohimthanthisrelationshipmightsuggest.Twelveyearsyoungerthanhismentor,hewasdevotedtoGandhi’sexampleandhisideas.Hehadacquiredhistrustbythemannerinwhichhesupervisedthecomposing,printinganddistributionofIndianOpinion.Intheirfather’sabsencehehadtosupervisetheeducationofGandhi’schildrenaswell.Gandhi’sletterstoChhaganlalthusrunseamlesslyfrommattersofpoliticstotheupbringingofhissons.Aletterof7February1907says:‘IknowthatManilalisweakinhisarithmetic.Pleasegivehimadequateattention’;andfurther–‘ThoughHarilalhasagreedtostay[inSouthAfrica],Ifindsomeuncertaintyinwhathewrites.Therefore,Iwrotetoyoutotreathiminsuchamannerastohaveasteadyinginfluenceonhismind.’10Soonafterwards,Chhaganlalhadachildofhisown,whereuponGandhiinstructedhimonhowbesttoraisehisbaby.HesuggestedthatChhaganinvestinanEnglishcradle,andmakesurethatthemother’sbed
was‘keptneatandtidy’.Thefathershoulddothecleaninghimself,eventhoughthisparticularformoflabourwasnotconsistentwithhiscaste.Intherearingofthechild,saidGandhi,‘pleasedonotallowouroldcustomsaboutuntouchability,whichareuselessandwicked,tocomeintheway’.11
InthethirdweekofFebruary1907thewhitemalesofTransvaalvotedtoelecttheirfirstgovernment.ThepartyoftheBoers,HetVolk,wonamajority.GeneralLouisBothawassworninasPrimeMinister.AnotherformerGeneral,J.C.Smuts,wasappointedColonialSecretary.LouisBothawasaquintessentialAfrikaner–offarmingstock,broughtupon
alargeestateinwideopencountryinafamilywhichreadtheBibleoutloudseveraltimesaday.Hehadbeenabravecommanderduringthewar,hisresistancedelayingtheBritishvictorybymorethanayear.Now,however,Botha‘stoodforthemagiccauseofreconciliationbetweenthe[BoerandBritish]races’.ThewarhadravagedtheeconomyoftheTransvaal.Torestoreittohealththeone-timerivalshadtoworktogether.Bothahimselfrecognizedthattherewas,afterall,‘agreatdealincommonbetweentheBoerandtheEnglishcountrygentleman–intheirjoyincountrysports,theirsuspicionofchange,theirhabitofcommand’.12
Morethanaloveofhunting,whatcompelledBoerandBritontonowstandtogetherwastheneedtodenypeopleofcolourtheelementaryrightsofcitizenship.OneofthenewGovernment’sfirstactswastohavetheAsiaticOrdinanceof1906madeintolaw.AbillembodyingitsprovisionswasintroducedintheTransvaalAssemblyon20March.Itwentthroughthreereadingsinasingleday,beforebeingsentforapprovaltotheLegislativeCouncil.Onthe22nditspassagewasannouncedinthegovernmentgazette.LordSelbornewrotetoLondonurgingthattheKinggranthisassentassoonaspossible.The‘illicitandunauthorizedinfluxofAsiatics,’heclaimed,was‘proceedingatanalarmingrate’;thebill,whichaimedtocheckthis,represented‘theunanimousdemandofallsectionsofthewhitecommunityintheTransvaal.’13
On29March,theBritishIndianAssociationconvenedameetingtoprotestthehastewithwhichthebillwaspassed.Morethanadozenpeoplespoke,inatleastfourlanguages.AbdulGani,ChairmanoftheBIA,saidthebillshowedthat
‘ourlegislators[are]thecustodiansofthewhitesalone’.Else‘howcouldthemembersbecomefamiliarinanightwithabill,whichwasadmittedlyveryimportantandcomplicated?’Anothermerchant,EssopMia,extendedthechargeofracialprejudicetotheGovernor,notingthat‘LordSelbornehasbeenill-disposedtowardsusfromtheoutset.Hehasalwaysregardedusallascooliesandnobetterthanlocusts.’AHindupriestfromGermiston,RamSundarPundit,remarkedthat‘themothergivesherchildmilk,butastep-mothereatshimup.TheGovernmentislikeastep-mother.’Themeetingpassedaresolutionoffering‘tosubmittovoluntaryregistration’
inorderto‘satisfytheGovernmentandpopularprejudice’.Ifthisofferwasrejected,theIndiansrequested‘fullImperialprotectionbyreasonofthefactthatBritishIndianshavenovoiceinthechoiceofthelegislators,andrepresentaverysmallandweakminority.’Speakinglast,Gandhisaidtheprocedureofvoluntaryregistrationwould‘bebasedonmutualunderstanding…Ifgaol-going–whichwehavebeencontemplating–comesafterthisproposal,itwillappearmoregraceful.’14
TheChineseoftheTransvaalhadjoinedtheIndiansintheirprotest.About1,100inall,theyworkedasmerchants,gardenersandlaundrymen.ThenewActwouldbeardownhardonthemtoo.Theirleader,LeungQuinn,decidedtomakecommoncausewithGandhi.OriginallyfromCanton,Quinnwasapartnerinafirmofmineral-watermanufacturersinJohannesburg.Hehad‘nointentionofregisteringunderanycircumstances’.TheChineseAssociationwrotetotheTransvaalGovernmentthatitendorsedtheresolutionspassedbytheIndianmeetingof29March.Thus,astheRandDailyMailobserved,‘theAsiaticcommunitiesoftheTransvaalarenowasunanimouslyagainsttheact,asperhaps,thewhitecommunitiesareinfavourofit.’15
TheprotestswereamplifiedinLondon,whereL.W.Ritchwasnowbased.RitchsenttheColonialOfficeaseriesoflettersdetailingIndianhandicapsintheTransvaal.HeaskedthatRoyalAssenttothenewOrdinancebewithheld.16AmorepointedpetitioncamefromJosephRoyeppen,onceaclerkinGandhi’slawofficeinDurban,nowaCambridgegraduateandqualifiedlawyerhimself.AfteradecadestudyinginthebestcollegesinEngland,RoyeppenwishedtoreturntoSouthAfricaandpractiseasalawyerintheTransvaal.But,ashetoldLordElgin,whilehewas‘entitledtofollowmycallinganywhereinHisMajesty’s
Dominions,IshallnotbeabletodosoinaBritishColonyneighbouringmyownhome.’ThelibertiesthathehadenjoyedinEnglandwouldbedeniedRoyeppeninthecountryofhisbirth,ruledasitwasby‘obnoxiousrestrictionsemanatingfromunreasoningprejudice’.ItislikelythatGandhiputRoyeppenuptothischallenge;forhiscase
highlightedthehypocrisiesoftherulerslikenoother.RoyeppenwasaChristian,aCambridgeman,andabarristerofLincoln’sInn.However,hewasnotwhite.IfamanwithhisqualificationswasdebarredfromenteringtheTransvaal,then‘IndiansasawholewillhavejustreasonsforlosingmuchoftheirfaithintheBriton’ssenseofjusticeinthecolonies.’17
BackintheTransvaal,GandhiaskedforandwasgrantedanappointmentwiththenewColonialSecretary,JanChristianSmuts,amanwho–inthedecadestofollow–wasalsotohaveamostprofoundimpactonthehistoryoftheBritishEmpire.BornafewmonthsafterGandhi–on24May1870–Smutswas,unliketheIndian,‘anexpertexaminationhurdler’.OfproudBoerstock(hisfamilyhadbeeninSouthAfricasincethe1690s),Smutsgotafirst-classinhismatriculation,adoublefirstinhisBA(fromVictoriaCollege,Stellenbosch),andthenanotherfirstinhisLawTriposatCambridge.18
Aloverofpoetry(particularlythatofWaltWhitman,onwhomhewroteanunpublishedbook),andakeenstudentofphilosophyandscience(especiallyecologyandbotany),Smutsreturnedtohishomelandin1895andsoughttoenterpubliclife.InanearlyspeechatKimberley,hearguedthattheBoersandtheBritonshadtocloseranks,orelsetheirpositionwould‘becomeuntenableinthefaceofthatoverwhelmingmajorityofprolificbarbarism’.However,theJamesonRaidmadehimsuspiciousofBritishintentions.In1897heshiftedfromCapeTowntotheSouthAfricanRepublic,inanexpressionofsolidaritywithhisfellowBoers.InJune1898hewasappointedStateAttorneythere.HebecameaprotégéofPresidentKruger,theirrelationshipakinto,andsometimesdescribedas,thatbetweenfatherandson.WhenwarbrokeoutSmutswentatoncetothefront.Putinchargeofaunitof
commandos,heledtheminaseriesofmarches,attacksandretreats.Hegavehistroopsasenseofdisciplineanddirection,therebyacquiringtherankofGeneral.WhenhostilitiesceasedheplayedakeyroleintheTreatyofVereeniging.His
commandofEnglish,hiseducationinEngland,hisloveofAmericanpoetryandhisknowledgeofEuropeanphilosophyallmadeSmuts–intheeyesofhiserstwhileenemies–anexception.AnEnglishfriendwrotetohimthat‘youaretheonlyAfrikander…whohasthepowerofexpressingonpaperthesentiments,moralandpolitical,ofyourpeople.’Smutsstoodout,as‘forthemostparttheAfrikanderpeoplearestilldumb,onlyabletoexpressthemselvesindeeds.’19
Smuts’cosmopolitanism,however,didnotcrosstheboundariesofrace.ThetreatyasdraftedbyLordMilnerhadaclausethatread:‘TheFranchisewillnotbegiventoNativesuntilaftertheintroductionofself-government.’Smutshadthischangedto:‘ThequestionofgrantingtheFranchisetoNativeswillnotbedecideduntilaftertheintroductionofself-government.’TheBritishhopedtodelaythegrantingofcitizenshiprightstothosewhowerenotwhite;Smutsandcompanywantedtodenythoserightsforever.AfterthewarSmutsbuiltasuccessfulpracticeattheBar,andraisedabrood
ofchildren.Thenhere-enteredpolitics,helpinghisneighbourandformerCommander-in-Chief,LouisBotha,toformaparty,knownasHetVolk,representingtheAfrikanerinterest.Whentheirpartywonthefirstelectionsbyawhites-onlyfranchise,BothaaskedSmutstoserveasColonialSecretary.LikeBotha,SmutsrealizedthatBoerandBritonhadtomendfencestokeep
outthe(coloured)hordes.InAugust1902,hewrotetoaprominentBritishpoliticianintheCapethatthe‘onlyhopeforthefutureisthatthetwopartsofthe[white]populationwillbesensibleenoughtoworktogetheronacommonbasisandleavealonetheoldrivalriesandfeuds’.Attheendoftheyear,whenJosephChamberlaincameouttoSouthAfrica,SmutswrotetohimonbehalfoftheTransvaalAfrikanersthatthenewpoliticalarrangementsmust‘makeitplaintotheNativesthatthewaralteredtherelationsbetweenthetwowhiteracesbutnotbetweenthewhiteandcolouredpopulationofthecountry’.AmemorandumofSeptember1903,alsowrittenbySmuts,opposedtheentryofAsiansintotheTransvaal.TheGovernment,stillrunbyBritishadministrators,waswarnedoftheexampleofNatal,where‘theCoolieandtheKaffiraregraduallyencroachingongroundwhichformerlybelongedtowhites,andinmanyofthetownsandvillagestheCooliesarebecomingapermanent,ifnotpredominantfactor.’Itwould‘bedisastroustotheinterestsofthewhitepopulationofSouthAfrica,’
saidSmuts,ifTransvaalweretofollow‘thedesperateandruinousexampleofNatal’.20
Now,withthepassingoftheAsiaticacts,Smutscamefacetofacewithhisfellowlawyer,fellowfamilymanandfellowbelletristMohandasK.Gandhi.OnThursday4April,1907,Gandhi,alongwithfiveothers(includingAbdulGaniandH.O.Ally)setofffromJohannesburgtoPretoriatomeetSmuts.Theyboardedthe8.35a.m.expresstrain,normallyreservedforwhites,buthereallowedtocarryafewIndianscourtesyofaone-timeexemptiongrantedbytheGeneralManageroftheSouthAfricanRailways.Atthemeeting,
MrGandhinarratedallthefactstoMrSmuts.HeremindedMrSmutsthattheIndiancommunityhaditselfregisteredseveraltimes.He…showedinotherwaysalsothattheIndiansweretrustworthy.ItwaswiththehelpoftheIndiancommunitythatofficialsoftheAsiaticOfficewhotookbribeshadbeenarrested.Takingallthisintoconsideration,MrGandhisaid,theGovernmentshould,onthisoccasion,agreetotheproposalofvoluntaryregistration.
TheothersspokeinsupportofGandhi’sproposal.Smutslistenedpatiently,andaftertheIndianshadbeenatitforclosetoanhour,saidhehadheardseveralthingsforthefirsttime,andwouldmakeenquiriesandsendthemawrittenreply.This,whenitcamesomedayslater,wasdeeplydisappointing.Smutssaidthatcompulsoryregistrationwasrequiredbecauseofthe‘strongevidence’of‘unlawfulinfiltration’ofAsiaticsintotheTransvaal.HehopedtheIndians‘wouldco-operatewiththeGovernmentineverywaybyregisteringthemselveslawfully,gracefullyandexpeditiously’.TheBIArepliedtoSmuts,pointingoutagain‘thatthenewlawgravelyoffendsagainst[thecommunity’s]feelings’,andurgingoncemorethat‘theIndianproposalbegivenatrialbeforethelawisenforced.’21
ThisexchangeofletterswithJanSmutsonquestionsofpublicpolicywasimmediatelyfollowedbyanotherexchangeonfamilymatters.InearlyApril,Gandhi’sbrotherLaxmidashadwrittentohimwithalonglistofcomplaints.Theletterisunavailable,butfromMohandas’sreplyonegetsaclearsenseofitscontents.ThebrotherinSouthAfricabeganbyoutliningtherootsoftheirgrowingestrangement:‘IamafraidouroutlooksdifferwidelyandIseenopossibility,forthepresent,oftheirbeingreconciled.Youseekpeaceandhappinessthroughmoney.Idon’tdependonmoneyformypeace…’
Fifteenyearsafterthepalacebreak-inatPorbandarhaddestroyedhischancesofpreferment,Laxmidasremainedabitterandfrustratedman.Hisdesireforwealthandfameremainedunfulfilled.Now,hechastisedhisyoungerbrotherfornotcaringenoughaboutthefamily.Mohandasanswered:
Ifailtounderstandwhatyoumeanbytheword“family”.Tome,thefamilyincludesnotonlythetwobrothersbutthesisteraswell.Italsoincludesourcousins.Indeed,ifIcouldsaysowithoutarrogance,Iwouldsaythatmyfamilycomprisesalllivingbeings:theonlydifferencebeingthatthosewhoaremoredependentonme,becauseofbloodrelationshiporothercircumstances,getmorehelpfromme.
Hethencametothequestionofmoney.Asforyourdemandforahundredrupeesamonth,ImustsaythatIseeneitherthemeansatpresentnortheneedofmeetingit.IrunthePhoenixPresswithborrowedmoney.Moreover,ImayhavetogotogaolinthestruggleagainstthenewOrdinance.InthatcaseImaybecomepoorerstill…If,however,theconditionhereimprovesduringthenextfewmonthsandIamfreefromtrouble,Ishalltrytosendyouthemoneyyouhaveaskedforbymoneyorderwiththesoleintentionofpleasingyou.
Gandhiacceptedthat,asbrothers,‘youandKarsandashave[arightto]ashareinmyearnings’.Headmittedthat,byraisingthemoneyforhimtostudyinLondon,Laxmidashadplacedhiminhisdebt.However,hepointedoutthat,whilehislegaleducationhadcostRs13,000,hehadsincesenthisbrothersmorethanRs60,000fromSouthAfrica(equivalenttoperhaps£320,000today).‘IdonotconsiderthatIhaveobliged[you]bydoingthis,’heremarked.‘Evenifnothingwasdoneforme,whateverIhavetodoformyblood-brotherIwoulddoasamatterofduty.’Thenhecensoriouslyadded,‘Imustsaywithdeepsorrowthat,onaccountofyourextravagantandthoughtlesswayoflife,youhavesquanderedalotofmoneyonpleasuresandonpompandshow.Youkeptahorseandcarriage,gaveparties,andspentmoneyonselfishfriends;andsomemoneywasspentinwhatIconsiderimmoralways’(presumablyonprostitutesoronamistress).22
TheGandhibrothershadoncebeenveryclose–itwasLaxmidaswhohadstoodwithMohandasagainsttheirparochialfellowBaniaswhenhewishedtogotoEngland,andwhothenraisedthemoneyforhisfeesandlivingexpenses.Butovertheyearstheyhaddriftedapart.ProximitytohedonisticprincesinKathiawarhadmadeLaxmidaslessinclinedtofollowtheausterewaysofhisforebears.Hisbrother,meanwhile,hadtakenBaniaausteritytoevergreaterextremesinSouthAfrica–simplifyinghisdiet,workingwithhishands,placing
himselfintheserviceofhisfellows.Hencetheharsh,evensavage,letter,inwhichaoncedeferentialyoungerbrotherchastiseshiselderforhiswastefulnessandsinfulness.
Thebrotherputinhisplace,GandhireturnedtothestruggleintheTransvaal.WiththelocalandImperialgovernmentsunyielding,thepledgefirstmadeintheEmpireTheatreinSeptember1906wouldbehonoured.TorecallGandhi’swordsinthatmeeting,thetimehadcomefor‘aheroicsteptobetaken’.AsalawyerinNatal,Gandhihadsometimessavedclients–rebellious
indenturedlabourersorIndiansoutatnightwithoutapass–fromaprisonsentence.Hewasthesonandgrandsonofdiwans,amongwhoseresponsibilitieshadbeenthemanagementofprisonsandprisoners.Hisforefathershadsentpeopletojail,whereasasalawyerheworkedtokeepthemout.Thevoluntarycourtingofarrestwasforeigntohisclassandprofession,asitwastotheclassandprofessionofthepeoplehenowhopedtomobilize.Gandhiknewthatmerchants,whetherGujaratiorotherwise,werenotthelikeliestofvolunteersforjailterms.BackinSeptember1906,carriedalongbythepopularmoodintheEmpireTheatre,thetradershadpledgedtocourtarrest;now,severalmonthslater,weretheyreallypreparedtoabandontheirshops,theirhomes,theirfamilies,theirbusinesses?InanarticleforIndianOpinion,Gandhiclarifiedthefuturecourseofaction.
Anyonechargedorarrestedfornottakingoutapermitwouldbedefendedbyhimfreeofcharge.Incourt,hewouldsaythattheclienthadactedonhisadvice,inwhichcaseitwaslikelythat‘MrGandhiwillbearrestedandhisclientletoff.’Evenifprotesterswereprosecutedandsenttojail,‘thechancesarethattheywillsoonbereleasedandthelawamendedsuitably.’Thewifeandchildrenofanyoneinjailwouldbemaintainedbypublicsubscription.‘Thereisnodisgraceattachedtogoingtogaolonthisoccasion,’saidGandhi.‘Onthecontrary,itwillpositivelyaddtoone’sprestige.’23
IndianOpinion’sleaderfor11May1907washeadlined‘TotheGaol!’NowthattheAsiaticActhadbeensentforroyalsanction,‘thegoalforBritishIndiansinTransvaalistheTransvaalgaol.’ThepreviousSeptember,theyhadpledgedtocourtimprisonmentiftheordinancebecamelaw,withtheirresolution‘flashed
acrossthecabletotheworld.InthesightofGodaswellasman,theynowstandpledgedtotheresolve,andbytheirdeedtheyshallbejudgedbyeverafter.’24
Thiseditorial,thoughunsigned,wasprobablywrittenbyHenryPolak.ThroughMayandJune,Gandhipublishedaseriesofarticlesunderhisownname,aimedatstrengtheningtheresolveoftheIndians.HequotedapoembyNarmadashankerontheachievementsofColumbus,Napoleon,MartinLutherandAlexander.‘Withsuchexamplesbeforethem,’commentedGandhi,‘howcantheTransvaalIndianslosehearteveninthesmallestdegree?’AnotheressayinvokedtheProphetMohammed,whowasinacavewithtwodiscipleswhenahostilearmycameby.Thediscipleswereovercomebyfearandterror,untiltheProphettoldthem:‘Wearenotthree.God,Whoisamatchforall,isalsowithus.’Intheendthearmypassedthecavewithoutevenlookingin.AthirdessayreferredthereadertotheongoingprotestsinthePunjabagainstoppressivelandpolicies.Theleaderofthemovement,LalaLajpatRai,wasanuncompromisingopponentofWesterncolonialism.Gandhiadmiredthemethodwithoutendorsingtheend.TheTransvaalIndiansshould‘showthesamecourageourselves,butinsteadofdesiringtheendofBritishrule,letusaspiretobeasableandspiritedastheColonistsare,anddemandandsecuretherightswewant’.AfourthessayrehearsedthestrugglesandsacrificesofCromwell,MazziniandGeorgeWashington,whichshowed‘thatonemustpassthroughsufferingbeforetastinghappiness.For[the]publicgood,menhavetosufferhardshipseventothepointofdeath.’25
Theexhortationshadtheireffect.InlateMay,itwasreportedthatIndiansintheTransvaal‘arequietlyandpersistentlymakingallarrangementsforcarryingoutthehistoricgaolresolution’.IndianOpinionbeganprintingthenamesofthosewhohadpledgedtocourtarrest.TheyincludedHindusandMuslims,TamilsandGujaratis.26
On1June,GandhiwrotetothePrimeMinister,GeneralBotha,seekinganinterview.Therequestwasdeclined.TheGeneralandhisGovernmentwereinnomoodtocompromise.TheyhadreceivedareassuringletterfromLordElgin,whichsaidthatsincethebillrepresented‘thegeneralwilloftheColony,clearlyexpressedbyitsfirstelectedrepresentatives’,hewouldadvisetheKingnottodisallowitspassing.27LaterthatmonththeRoyalAssentwasreceived.TheActwouldcomeintoforcefrom1July,whenPermitOfficeswouldopeninvarious
towns,toallowIndianstoregister.Inhis‘JohannesburgLetter’of29June,Gandhiobservedthat‘TheGovernmentGazetteannouncesthatMrChamneyhasbeenappointedRegistrarunderthenewlaw.IhopetheIndiancommunitywillseethatheonlysitsandyawns.Thiscorrespondent’snamewillneverbearrestedintheregister.ItismyconstantprayertoGodthatthesamemaybetrueofeveryIndian.’28
HisoverturestotheGovernmentspurned,Gandhiwasnowinacombativemood.Inalettertothewhite-ownedRandDailyMailheadoptedanunusual,oratanyrateuntypical,toneofsarcasm.TheSecretaryofStatehadapparentlystatedthatthumbandfingerimpressionswereallthesame;andthattheirintentwasnottooffendordegradetheIndians.‘LordElginmaycertainly,sittinginhiscushionedchair,’remarkedGandhi,
seenodistinctionbetweenmakingamarkwiththethumbinsteadofapen,butIknowthathebelongstothatnationwhichwouldriseinrebellionfromendtoendtoresentanattackonpersonalliberty,andthathewouldbethefirstpersontocryoutagainstevenaforcibletracingofhissignature.Itisthecompulsionthatstings,notthedigit-impression…ThatinthemindoftheGovernmentthereisnodesiretodegradeistrueonlyontheassumptionthatmycountrymenarealreadysufficientlydegraded[not]tofeelanyfurtherdegradationinthislandoffreedomforpeopleotherthan
Asiatics.29
Aweeklater,GandhiwroteoncemoretotheRandDailyMail,tocorrectthenewspaper’sclaimthatthepassiveresistancenowbeingplannedbytheIndianswasa‘newway’ofprotest.Gandhiclarifiedthat
picketingisbynomeansanewthingtotheIndianmind.ThenetworkofcastesinIndiasimplyillustratestheuseandvalueofthatweapon,provideditisrightlyused.OstracismandexcommunicationarethemostpowerfulinstrumentsresortedtotodayinIndia,inunfortunatelytrivialmatters,and,iftheRegistrationActnowenablesmycountrymentorealizetheuseofthatterribleweaponforahigherpurpose,bothLordElginandtheTransvaalGovernmentwillhave
deservedtheirgratitude.30
Inwritingthis,GandhihadinmindhisownboycottatthehandsofhisfellowModhBaniaswhen,asayoungman,hehadchosentostudyinLondon.OnhisreturntoIndiahehadtodipintoriversandthrowfeaststogainreadmittance.Hiscastemateshadboycottedhimfora‘trivial’matter;whereasheandhisfellowswerenowboycottingthePermitOfficesforadecidedlyhigherpurpose.
PretoriawasthefirsttowndesignatedfortheregistrationofIndians.AwhitenewspaperpraisedtheGovernment’sdecisiontoissuepermitsdistrictbydistrict.
IftheOrdinancehadbeenintroducedsimultaneouslyinthewholecolony,‘theremighthavebeenamovementtoignoretheActuponsomethinglikethelargescalehintedatbyMrGandhi.’‘PretoriaisnotoriouslytheweakestspotintheorganisationoftheIndians,’saidthepaper,‘andwedonotthinkthattheresistancemovementtherewillmakeanyheadway.’31
ThePermitOfficewastoopeninPretoriaon1July.Thepreviousday,30June,severalhundredIndiansmetinthetown’smosque.Themeetinglastedforfourhours.Themoodwasdefiant.Gandhispoke,butthestarturnwasanimam,MaulviMukhtiar,who‘createdasensation’byproducingaletterfromtheSouthAfricanRailwaystotheeffectthatChristianandJewishministerswereallowedconcessionarytravel.Theprivilegewasnotextendedtoholymenofotherfaiths.‘ThisinformationaddedfueltothefireandshowedIndiansthatadeathstruggleunderlaytheAct.’32
ThePermitOfficeopenedthenextmorningasscheduled,butnocertificateswereissued.EncouragedbyGandhi,groupsofIndiansconvergedoutsidetheoffice,‘courteously’persuadingthosewhowishedtogointoreturnhomeinstead.ThetownwasplasteredbypostersinGujaratiandEnglish,reading:‘boycott,boycottpermitoffice!bygoingtogaolwedonotresist,butsufferforourcommongoodandself-respect.loyaltytothekingdemandsloyaltytothekingofkings[namely,God].’Initsissueof20July,IndianOpinionreportedwithgleethatthePermitOfficer,aMrCody,hadineffectenjoyedafortnight’spaidholiday.33
ThereportsoftheprotestsintheTransvaalreachedNatal.Inaninspiredshowofsupport,theDurbanIndiansstagedaplayineightactstoraisemoneyforthestruggle.InActI,aParsigentleman,twoMuslimmerchantsandseveralhawkersexpressedtheirreadinesstodefythelawandcourtarrest.InActII,thewomenwereseensupportingthem;inActIII,thePermitOfficeinPretoriawasshown,withitsofficials‘sittingyawningandsmokingcigarettes’.InActIV,nativepolicemencameandarrestedtheresisters.InActV,theIndianstroopedintogaolinbatches,‘greetedwithloudcheers’bythosealreadyinside.InActVItheprisonerswerereleasedbytheColonialSecretaryandgivenfifteendaystoregister,tonoavail,asthePermitOfficewasshowndesertedoncemore.ActVIIpresented,sotospeak,acounterfactualalternative–adepictionof
eventsasiftheIndianshadbeensofoolishorsoweakastohavesubmittedto
theAct.‘Allthemiserabledetailsoffinger-impressionsandthegivingofnamesweregonethroughinthepresenceoftheregistrationstaff,aninterpreterandtheKaffirpolice.Criesof“shame!”greetedthisrealisticperformance.’Thefinalact,ananti-climaxperhaps,showedanIndianchargedincourtwith
havingafalsepermit,actuallyalegaldocumentwithsometriflingdefect,forwhichhewassenttojail.Aftertheperformance,ParseeRustomjeecameonstageandthankedthe
actors.Asumof£50wasraisedforthepassiveresisters.34
TheplaywasstagedintheIndianTheatreonVictoriaStreeton13July.AweeklaterGandhivisitedDurbanhimself.SpeakingtotheNatalIndianCongress,heobservedwithsomepridethatinIndia,‘theGovernmentsucceedsbysettingthetwocats–HindusandMuslims–againsteachother.Hereitisnotso.Boththecommunitiesareunited,henceourcouragewillbearfruit.’HeaskedhisfriendsinNatalto‘joinusinoursufferings…WhenallIndiansintheTransvaalarepreparedtosufferanylossinthestruggle,youshouldnotlagbehindingivingmonetaryhelp.’35
AstheendofJulyapproached,therumourgainedgroundthattheGovernmentwouldbeginarrestingtheresisters.Tothoseworriedbytheprospect,Gandhiofferedthisspine-stiffeningadvice:
Irecommendthat,onandfromAugust1,noIndianwhatevershouldcarryanymoneywithhimandcertainlynotgoldinanycase.Temptationisaverybadthing.Notbeingusedtotheideaofgaol,onhearingthesentenceoffine,theaccusedmayfindhishandsunconsciouslystrayingintohispocketorhemaycastanimploringglanceathisfriends.Whenthishappens,heshouldmentallyaskforGod’sforgiveness,removehishand[fromhispocket],standerectand,clearinghisthroat,declarethathe
willnotpaythefinebutgotogaol.36
Ontheeveningof24July,GandhiwasinPretoriaforwork.Hewasmetatthetrainstationbyagroupofmerchants,whotoldhimthatoneoftheirfellows,namedKhamisa,hadbrokenranksanddecidedtoregister.Hewascoercinghiscustomerstodolikewise.GandhiandhiscompanionswentatoncetoKhamisa’sshop,wheretheyranintoadetective.Sharpwordswereexchanged,thepolicemantellingthelawyer,‘youknowthelaw,dowhatisproper’.Theyweretoldtoleavethepremisesatonce.Thatsamenight,atKhamisa’sshop,sometwentymenregistered,andthus‘blackenedtheirhandsandfaces,andbroughtasluronthegoodnameoftheIndiancommunity’.Gandhitermedita‘ghastly
betrayal’;theculpritsknewtheyweredoinga‘shamefulthing’,whichiswhytheyhadtakenoutpermitssecretly,atmidnight.37
Meanwhile,abetrayalofanotherkindhadbeencommittedbyGandhi’scolleagueH.O.Ally.HehadwrittentoJusticeAmeerAliinLondon,insinuatingthatthestruggleintheTransvaalwasmotivatedbytheinterestsofHinduhawkersratherthanMuslimmerchants.TheJusticewasanimportantmemberoftheSouthAfricaBritishIndianCommittee.‘WetakeitasadisgracetotheIndiancommunitythatMrAllyshouldhavepennedsuchwords,’wroteGandhi.‘TheTransvaalstruggleaffectsHindusandMuslimsalike.’38
Tomarkamonthofcontinuousprotest,some2,000IndiansmetinthegroundsofthePretoriaMosqueon31July.AspecialtrainwascharteredtoferryprotestersfromJohannesburg.Otherscamefromthesmallertownsofthecolony.AreporterfromthePretoriaNewsfoundthesceneoneof‘intenseinterest’;‘inthebackground,theMosquewithitsdeepverandahs,itssuggestionofsolemnworship’,and‘inthegroundsoutside,thegreatconcourseofIndiansofallcastesandreligions,verymuchinearnest’.Theirleader,MohandasGandhi,wasdescribedasa‘learnedDoctorofLaws,scholarandphilosopher,towhomtheMunicipalityofPretoriadenytherighttousethefootpath,andwhomaynotoccupyaseatintheMunicipaltrams.’Themeetingpassedthreeresolutions.ThefirstchastisedtheIndianswhohad
appliedforcertificatesofregistration.Thesecondcongratulatedthosewhohadrefusedtosuccumb.ThethirdurgedtheGovernmenttoaccept,evennow,theofferofvoluntaryregistration.Afterwards,theliberalwhitepoliticianWilliamHoskenspoke.OriginallyfromCornwall,aMethodistbyfaith,HoskenhadmigatedtotheTransvaaltoworkasamanagerinthemines.HewasafriendofGandhiandsympathethictotheIndians,frequentlylobbyingforthemintheJohannesburgTownCouncilandtheTransvaalAssembly.Butnowheurgedtheprotesterstorecognizethattherewas,ashetermedit,‘adeadwallofoppositionagainstthem’.Heconsideredthenewlaw‘inevitable’,andsawnodifferencebetweenvoluntaryandcompulsoryregistration.Hoskencalledthedecisiontodefythelawa‘mistake’,andhopedtheywouldrecant.Herecognizedthespiritbehindtheiropposition–thattheydidittoretaintheirdignityasfreemen,becausetheybelievedittobetheirduty.But,saidHosken,‘heconsidereditevenagreatercallofdutytosubmittotheinevitable.’
Hosken’sspeechwastranslatedbyGandhi,whothenaddedsomecommentsofhisown.He‘thoughtandfeltmostdeeplythatneitherMrHoskennoranymemberofaWesternrace…wascapableofunderstandingwhatanEasternmindunderstoodbytheinevitable’.Himself‘oneofthemostpeacablemeninSouthAfrica’,Gandhihad‘notembark[ed]uponthiscrusadewithoutmaturethoughtanddeliberation’.TheActwas‘mostdespicable’,andhadtobeopposed.Forthepolicyofpassiveresistancenowinplace,thelawyer‘personallytookfullresponsibility’.ThemanfromthePretoriaNewsthoughtGandhi’sglosshadtheeffectof‘cleverlydiscountingandweakeningtheeffectwhich[Hosken’sspeech]mighthavehadonthelessresolutebrethren.’39
On8August,GandhiwrotetoSmuts’secretarydisputingtheGovernment’scontentionthathealonewas‘responsiblefortheagitationagainsttheAsiaticLawAmendmentAct’.Iftheimputationmeant‘thatmycountrymendonotresenttheActatallbutthatIunnecessarilyinflamethem,’heremarked,‘Iventuretorepudiateitaltogether.Ontheotherhand,ifitmeansthatIhavevoicedtheirsentimentsandthatIhaveendeavoured,tothebestofmyability,toplacebeforethemaccuratelywhattheLawmeans,Ibegtoaccepttheentireresponsibility.’Afterthiscombativeopening,Gandhisoftenedhistone,saying,‘IamasanxioustoservetheGovernmentasIamtoservemycountrymenandIfeelthatthequestionisoneofveryseriousandImperialimportance.’HesuggestedanamendmenttotheAct,makingregistrationvoluntary,exemptingchildrenundersixteenyearsofagefromregistering,anddeletingtheclauseaskingthatthecertificatebeproducedwheneverrequired.ThiswouldmeettherequirementsoftheGovernmentwhileremovingthestigmaattachedtothelawintheeyesoftheIndians.Smuts,however,rejectedthecompromise;heandhisGovernmentweredeterminedto‘carryoutinfulltheprovisionsoftheAsiaticLawAmendmentActandiftheresistanceoftheIndiansresidinginthiscountryleadstoresultswhichtheydonotseriouslyfaceatpresent,theywillhaveonlythemselvesandtheirleaderstoblame.’40
Thestrugglecontinued.InPietersburg,wherethePermitOfficehadnowmoved,Indiansourcesclaimedtheboycottwas100percentsuccessful.Eventhewhitepapersadmittedthatfewerthan10outof200residentshadregistered.41ThehighrateofsuccessmayhavebeeninfluencedbythefactthatIndianOpinion
hadprintedthenamesoftherenegadesinPretoriawhohad‘appliedforthetitle-deedofslavery’.TheterribleweaponofcommunalostracismhadalsobroughtpoorH.O.Allytohisknees.InthesecondweekofAugusthesentastatementtothepressclarifyingthathesupportedpassiveresistanceintheTransvaal.Atthesametime,heannouncedthathewasshiftingbacktoCapeTown.IndianOpinioncommentedthattheharmdonebyhisearlierletterhadbeen‘partlyundone’;itaskedAllyto‘renderpatrioticservice’and‘infusevigour’intocommunityorganizationsintheCape.42
Theconflictwasnowescalating.InAugust1907,theStarofJohannesburgwroteofGandhithat‘hehascertainlymarshalledhisforceswell,andtheIndiansasarulearepreparedtofollowhimtotheextreme.’Thelawyerwas‘nowtherecognisedleaderoftheIndiancommunityinSouthAfrica’.Hehad‘anattractivepersonality,’saidtheStar,‘andinfuseshisutteranceswiththatdynamicforcethatcarriesconviction.Inconversationhehasaforciblemanner.Hiseyesbrightenwithenthusiasmwhendiscussingthesubjectsuppermostinhismind,andonecannotwonderattheholdhehasovertheIndians.’43
Backin1895,areporterinNatalhadstressedthestammerinGandhi’sspeech,hisslow,hesitantdeliverywhenmakingsubmissionsincourt.ThenextyearGandhiwastooshytoreadoutatextbeforeanaudienceinBombay.Now,adecadelater,hehadclearlymaturedasapublicspeaker.Hisvoicewasstillsoft,buttheconviction(andcourage)itcarriedwasmanifestbothtodoggedfollowerandtoimpartialobserver.Thelawyerhadbecomealeader,indeed,therecognizedleaderoftheIndiancommunityinSouthAfrica.
TheTransvaalGovernmenthadnowintroducedanewbill,makingitmandatoryforimmigrantsorreturningresidentstofillinaforminaEuropeanlanguage.YiddishwasclassifiedasaEuropeanlanguageundertheAct,whereasIndianlanguagesofgreaterantiquityandliterarysophistication(suchasTamil)wereexcluded.TheinsultwascompoundedbythecompanytheIndianswerebeingmadetokeep.Forthebillhadspecifiedvariouscategoriesof‘prohibitedimmigrants’,whichincludedprostitutes,indigents,lunatics,lepers,spiesandconvictedcriminals.44
TheRandDailyMailhadclaimedthattheAsiaticswere‘unanimously’againsttheAct,andthewhitesjustasunanimouslyinfavourofit.Therewere,
infact,someexceptions–Indianswhosecretlysignedonforpermits;Europeanswhoopenlycrossedracialboundariesandidentifiedwiththeprotesters.HermannKallenbachsentalettertotheStardeploringthedepictionofmen‘whoareunselfishlyandstrenuously’workingfortheircompatriotsas‘aggressiveagitators’.‘IshallconsideritaprivilegetovisitmyIndianfriendsingaol,’saidKallenbach,‘andtodomyutmosttoreducethehardshipsofprisonlifewhichtheyarepreparedtoundergo.’45
Similarlettersweresenttothepressbyotherwhitesympathizers,amongthemajewellernamedIsaacandadrapernamedVogl(bothalsoJewish).ButtheEuropeanwhomostexplicitlyidentifiedwiththeIndianswasHenryPolak.PolakpublishedaseriesofsharpandoccasionallysavageessaysinIndianOpinion.Onearticlemadefunoftheparanoiainthewhitepressabouttheleaderofthepassiveresisters:
ThatremarkablemanMrGandhiwillgodowntoposterityasamiracle-worker.Inthefirstplace,heissupposedtobethefonsetorigooftheoppositiontotheLaw;thenheissupposedtohaveactivelyincitedeveryIndianintheTransvaalnottoobeyitsprovisions;and,lastly,heissupposedtobehere,there,andeverywhereatthesametimeurgingapolicyofnon-submission.
TheseremarkswerepromptedbyreportsinonepaperthatGandhihadaddressedameetinginPietersburg;inanotherpaperthathehaddonethesameinPotchefstroom.Infacthehadbeeninneitherplacerecently.‘WhatfeeblecreaturesIndiansaresupposedtobe!’,commentedPolak.‘Theymustalwayshavetheirnursewiththembeforetheycanbetrustedtotrotalongalone.’NoonefromJohannesburgvisitedPietersburgwhenthePermitOfficewasopened,norwouldanyonegotoPotchefstroomorKlerksdorpwhentheOfficeshiftedthere,for‘thelocalIndiansdon’trequireanypin-prickstomakethemjump.’46
Polakwasprophetic.ThePermitOfficemovedon,andtheIndiansmovedaway.InearlySeptemberhewrotemockinglyofhow‘thatramshacklemachine,theGovernment“perambulator”,isstillsqueakingfromtowntotown,unoiledforlackofregistration.’Twoweekslaterhewrotethat‘the“perambulator”isatlasttofindarestingplaceforawholemonthatatime,afterwhich,nodoubt,itwillberelegatedtothePretoriaMuseum,tobekeptthereuntilthenextAsiaticinvasionarrives.’WhenthePermitOfficedidreopen,asplanned,inJohannesburg,‘thetobacconistsofthistownshallrejoicegreatlyattheprospects
ofallthecigarettesthatwillbesmoked’astheRegistrationOfficials‘whileawaythewearyhourswaitingfortheunregeneratetoreform’.47
SomeofPolak’spiecesweresigned,othersunsigned.Yetothersusedthenomdeplume‘A.ChessellPiquet’.48Anessayunderthisnamepresentedaseriesofsatirical‘silhouettes’ofhowwhitessawtheconflict.Forthe‘SmallWhiteStorekeeper’thenewlawwas‘asplendidthing’,keepingthecooliesintheirplace.The‘EuropeanWholesaleMerchant’thoughtboththeGovernmentandIndianswerefools.(Complainingthathehadn’thadanorderfromanIndianmerchantformonths,hesaidhewouldmeetSmutsand‘askhimtoadministertheLawmildly’.)The‘Consumer’admittedtheIndianschargedfarlessthanthewhiteshopkeeperswholivedinstyle,with‘theirplate-glassandstainedceilings’.Asforthe‘RegistrationOfficial’,whilepleasedthat‘accommodationupcountryismuchbetterthanitwasthreeorfouryearsago’,hecomplainedthattheIndianswere‘absolutelymisledbytheirleaders’.Hecouldnotbearanyonetomention‘G[andhi]’,whosenamemadehim‘quitenervous’.Therewas,finally,the‘Common-SenseIndividual’,whothoughtthepassiveresistancemovement‘splendid’,andthe‘onlywaytomakeanimpressiononthesecolour-blindfanatics.’49
HenryPolakmayhavebeenexceededinenergyandcommitmentbyGandhi,andbysomeotherIndianpassiveresisters.Butnooneenjoyedthestruggleasmuchashedid,thejoy–andthepassion–expressedinthestreamofpolemicsandsatiresthatpouredoutfromhispen.
InSeptember1907thenameofHenryDavidThoreauappearedinthecolumnsofIndianOpinionforthefirsttime.Gandhihadonlyrecentlybecomeacquaintedwithhistractoncivildisobedience.Thejail-goingresolutionof11September1906hadbeeninventedonthespot;inlaterweeksandmonths,GandhisoughtprecedentsinIndiantraditionsofboycottandprotest.Thenhebeganusingtheterm‘passiveresistance’,whoseoriginslayratherintheboycottbyNonconformistsofschoolsthatindoctrinatedtheirpupilsintheteachingsoftheChurchofEngland.Now,afullyearafterthetechniqueofprotestwasfirstproposed,theteachingsofanAmericanradicalwereinvokedtosupportit.InGandhi’sparaphrase,Thoreausaidthat‘weshouldbemenbeforewearesubjects,andthatthereisnoobligationimposeduponusbyourconscienceto
giveblindsubmissiontoanylaw,nomatterwhatforceormajoritybacksit.’TheAmerican’s‘exampleandwritings,’thoughtGandhi,‘areatpresentexactlyapplicabletotheIndiansintheTransvaal.’Thiswasunexceptionable.ButGandhialsowrotethat‘historianssaythatthe
chiefcauseoftheabolitionofslaveryinAmericawasThoreau’simprisonmentandthepublicationbyhimoftheabove-mentionedbook[OntheDutyofCivilDisobedience]afterhisrelease.’Nohistorianswerenamed,perhapsbecausetheycouldnotbe.ThatThoreau’stracthelpedendslaverywas,ofcourse,outrageoushyperbole.WasGandhiwritingoutofignorance,ordidtheclaimneedtobemadetoboosthispeople’smorale?50
Theanswer,verylikely,isthelatter.Inaletterwrittenmanyyearslater,HenryPolakdisputed,asIhavehere,theviewthatGandhiderivedhisideasfromThoreau’stractoncivildisobedience.PassiveresistancehadbeengoingonforsometimeinSouthAfricabeforeGandhibecameacquaintedwiththeAmericanthinker.However,oncehereadThoreau,Gandhiseizeduponhisideasasproofofthepowerofhisownapproach.Inthissense,notedPolak,whatThoreauprovidedGandhiwithwas‘encouragement,notinspiration’.51
AspassiveresistanceintheTransvaalgatheredmomentum,GandhiwasengagedinanintenseexchangeofletterswithaChristianpriestwhowishedtobecomehisdisciple.OfGermanextraction,JohnCordeshadoncebeenamissionaryinRhodesia.Atsomestageheacquiredanddivorced(orabandoned)anAfricanwife.HisreadingsandjourneyshadturnedhimawayfromconventionalChristianityandtowardsTheosophy,thehybrid,occultistreligionthengatheringarushofnewconvertsacrosstheworld.CordescontactedGandhiinearly1907.Hefeltconstrainedbythecompanyof
hisfellowwhites,andthoughtaspellwithIndiansingeneral,andthisIndianinparticular,wouldfreehimmorefullyfromtheprejudicesofhisupbringing.HehadheardofGandhi’sworkfrommutualfriends,andhadalsobeenreadingIndianOpinion.Hewantednowtocuthimselfloose,to‘throwtheracegogglesonthedustheap,tobetterenjoythemountainairoffreedomfromsocialtrammelsandacquireasightfittedforwidertruths’.52
InJohannesburg,immersedintheprotestsagainsttheAsiaticAct,GandhicouldnotsuperviseCordesdirectly.SohesuggestedthepriestmovetoPhoenix,
wherehewouldbepartofalivingcommunity.Thesettlementwasnowinitsthirdyear.Ithadeighthomes,builtofcorrugatedironsupportedbywoodenplanks.Eachhadtwosmallbedrooms,aliving-and-diningroom,akitchenandabathroom.Thefittingsinthelastwereingenious:withwaterdrippingdownfromtheroofintoawateringcan,heldupbyarope,whichservedasashower.Themoreadventurouscouldbatheinthestreamrunningthroughtheproperty.Drinkingwatercamefromtheheavens;rainwaterbeingcollectedandstoredforfutureuse.Eachhousehadavegetableplotattachedtoit;somesettlersmaintainedthese
energetically,whileothersleftthemtotheelements.Therewerenodomesticatedanimals;nocowsandsheep,noranydogs(butplentyofsnakesandjackals).ThenearestshopswereinDurban,fourteenmilesaway.Duringthedaythepresshummedwithactivity,compositorssettingtypeandworkingitthroughthemachines.Afterdusk,theonlynoisesoneheardwerethechirpingofbirds;theonlylightsonesawflickeredinZuluhomesinthevalley.53
InthefirstweekofJuly1907,JohnCordestookatrainfromRhodesiatoNatal.Hetoldhisnewmentor(whomhehadnotyetmet)thathe‘hadnobreakfast,managingmypursestringsonstrictlyGandhianlines’.WithinafewdaysofhisarrivalatPhoenixhewasexultinginthesurroundings.‘Whatablessingitis,’hetoldGandhi,‘togetawayfromtown&itsnoise&smell,howpleasanttoberidofcuffs&collars,bracesandthetrappingsoftowns’war-paint.Thewindisnothing,beingthemereequinoctialnight&morningbreeze,towhichIamaccustomedfromBulawayo.’CordeswasequallyimpressedbythehumanmaterialatPhoenix.‘Dev[a]das
willmakeasplendidlawyer,’hetoldthe(mostly)absentfather,‘fancyhimcrossquestioninghiselderbrotherRamdasthewayhedoes.ManilalwillnotblessmanyvisitorslikemeIreckon,hehadtoworklikeahorse,&didsolikeaTrojan,betw[een]hislessons,&hiscompostingjob.’54Gandhi,inreply,shiftedtheconversationfromhissonstohiswife.‘HowwereyoureceivedbyMrs.Gandhi?’heaskedCordes.‘Shetellsmeshefeelstooshytositatthesametablewithyou…[S]heisterrifiedeverhavingtoattendtoaguestwhoisaperfectstranger,and,whatismore,wearingawhiteskin…WhatchangesyoumayhavewroughtinhermentalconditionafterpresentingyourselfandyourcredentialsIdonotknow.’55
GandhiapprovedofCordes’sdesireto‘reachtheladiesthroughthekiddies.Ihavenodoubtthatyouwillsucceed.Itisthebestpointofattack.’Hewaskeentohavethevisitor’sopinionaboutacommunityhehadfoundedbutcouldrarelybepartof.‘Iwanttoknoweverythingaboutyouandyourviewofthesurroundings,’saidGandhi.‘Areyouintunewiththem?’56
ManilalandRamdasreportedtoGandhihowCordeswasgettingalong.Theytoldhimthepriestwasdoingoddjobsinandaroundthehouse.GandhiwrotetoCordesapprovingly;hehad,itseems,‘wonMrs.Gandhientirelytoyourside.Shenowsaysyoucanremainwithherforaslongasyoulike.’Tomakehimselfevenmoreathome,CordesshouldlearnGujarati,sothat‘youmayunderstandthepeoplearoundyouandforwhomyouareworking’.57
ByOctober,CordeswaswellsettledatPhoenix,withaplotoflandtocallhisown,andamodesthouseunderconstruction.‘Mrs.Gandhitellsmethatyourpalaceisvisiblygrowing,’wroteGandhiinencouragement.‘Ionlyhopethatitwillbeperfectlysatisfactorywhenitisfinished,thatistosaysimple,artistic,hygienic,rain-proof,rat-proof,andatempleofpeace.’58
TheselettersbetweenaChrist-lovingHinduandaHindu-lovingChristianescapedtheattentionoftheeditorsoftheCollectedWorks,fortheylayinaprivatehomeinthetownofHaifa,inIsrael,acountrywithwhichIndiahadnodiplomaticrelationsfordecades.ThecorrespondenceprovidesafascinatingwindowintoGandhi’sgiftforfriendshipandhispenchantforattractingdisciples.SixmonthsafterJohnCordesmovedtoPhoenix,hereceivedaletterfromHenryPolakagreeingthat
itisverydifficulttodevelopaspiritsuchasthatwhichmovesMrGandhi.Youareperfectlyrightincallingitaprivilegetobeinvitedtoassisthiminthetaskthathehassetbeforehimself,anditisinthatlightthatIhavealwaysregardedthematter.WhilstIhavetheordinaryhumansympathyforthepeopledowntherebeingkeptupallhoursofthedayandnighttowardstheendoftheweek[whenIndianOpinionwenttopress],IwilladmittoyouquitefranklyandprivatelythatIthinkthatnooneatPhoenixshouldraisehisvoiceagainstit,eventhoughitmeansdeathtohim.Iconsiderthisisasplendidcausetodiefor,ifitisnotpossibletoliveforit.Thedifficultyis,asalways,todevelopthefacultiesofimaginationandsympathy.Itisrarelythathispurposesopossessedamanastomakehimforgethisowncomfort,hisownhealth,hisowninterests,andthehappinessofthosewhoservehim.IammoreandmorecomingroundtotheIbsenideathattruthmustbesoughtatanycost,andtorealisedaybydaymorevividlythat,inthewordsofDr.Staubman,thegreatestmanishewhostandsmostalone.Allthis,ofcourse,isforyourprivateconsumption.59
TheseremarksbeautifullycapturetheidealsandeccentricitiesoftheGujaratilawyerwhomthesetwoEuropeansnowacknowledgedastheirmentorandmaster.
12
ToJail
On1October1907,thePermitOffice–whichIndianOpinionhadtakentocallingthe‘PlagueOffice’–openedinJohannesburg,whichwastheTransvaal’slargestandrichestcityandhadthelargest(andrichest)concentrationofIndiansaswell.ThefateoftheAsiaticLawAmendmentActwouldbedeterminedbywhathappenedhere.Gandhiwarnedpicketersagainstanyintimidationorviolence.‘Awatchman’sdutyistowatch,nottoassault…Ourwholestruggleisbasedonoursubmittingourselvestohardships,notinflictingthemonanyoneelse,beheanIndianorEuropean.’1
AmeetingofIndianswasheldeverySundayinthepremisesoftheHamidiaIslamicSociety,intheJohannesburgdistrictofPageview.WhenGandhiwasintown,hewasalwaysthemainspeaker.ProminentGujaratimerchantssuchasEssopMiaandAbdulGanioftenspoke.TheTamilswererepresentedbyThambiNaidoo,thecarrierwhowasrapidlyemergingasaleadingactivistinthestruggle.Toshowthatthemovementwasnotracist,HenryPolaksometimesaddedhisvoicetothechorus.TheleaderoftheChineseAssociation,LeungQuinn,wasanoccasionalguestspeaker.Speecheswerealsobeingmadeelsewhere,andbyotherpeople.Inthefirst
weekofOctober,JanSmutstoldhisconstituentsthattheIndianswere‘detrimentaltotheeverlastingprosperityofSouthAfrica’.Smutsclaimedthattheirfrugalwayswereacauseofthecurrenteconomicdepression.HechargedthatcertificatesofresidencewereboughtandsoldnotjustinJohannesburg,butalsoinDurbanandasfarafieldasBombay.‘IhavenoquarrelwiththeIndians,’saidSmuts:‘theobjectisnotpersecution,butastoppageoftheinfluxofIndians.Wehavemadeupourmindtomakethisawhiteman’scountry,and,howeverdifficultthetaskbeforeusisinthismatter,wehaveputourfootdown,andshallkeepitthere.’Hisremarksweregreetedwith‘loudapplause’.2
Meanwhile,awhite-ownednewspaperwarnedIndiansnottolistentoGandhi,a‘mischief-monger’who,afterthecurrentconflictwasover,would‘pickuphisbriefcaseandgoelsewhere’.Thewarningwasdisregarded.ThepicketinginJohannesburgwaslargelysuccessful.ThetacticsofGandhi’sownnewspapercertainlyhelpedhere,foritnowpublishedtwolistseachweek,oneofnewsubscribers,theotherofIndianswhohadtakenoutpermits–listsofloyalistsandtraitorsrespectively.AmongthetraitorswasacertainS.Haloo,whowenttoGandhi’sofficetoexplainwhyhehadappliedforapermit.Somemilitantswrotetothelawyersayingthatifheentertainedthisblacklegagain,hetoowouldbeboycotted.Gandhiendorsedthethreat–hewanted,hesaid,‘allIndianstohavethesameburningenthusiasmalways’.3
ThroughSeptemberandOctober,apetitionagainsttheAct,draftedbyGandhi,wascirculatedamongthetownsandvillagesoftheTransvaal,and4,522signatureswereobtained.ThedocumentwasthenpostedtoGeneralSmuts,alongwithabreakdownofsignatoriesbyreligiousandprovincialaffiliations–namely,Surtis(1,476),Konkanis(141),Memons(140),GujaratiHindus(1,600),Madrassis(991),Northerners(157)andParsis(17).Ofperhaps8,000IndiansresidentintheTransvaal,onlyabout350hadappliedforpermits.Ninety-fivepercentofthesecamefromasinglecommunity,theMemons,acautious,conservativecasteoftradersandmerchants.4
ThepetitionwasevidenceofGandhi’swishtoshowthedepthofhissupport,andalastattempttogetSmutstowithdrawtheOrdinance.Hewasnot,itseems,absolutelycertainthe‘burningenthusiasm’oftheIndianswouldtranslateitselfintocourtingarrest.Forhispart,SmutsextendedthedeadlineforIndianstoregisterforamonth,from31Octoberto30November.Thetwolawyers,placedonoppositesides,eachhopedtheotherwouldblinkfirst.GandhithoughttheweightofnumberscarriedbythepetitionwouldconvinceSmutstorepealtheAct.SmutshopedthepassageoftimewouldleadtheIndianstoreconsidertheiropposition.5
AverylargeproportionofIndiansintheTransvaalwerenowsolidlybehindGandhi.TherewasasurgeinsubscriptionstoIndianOpinion–nowupto3,000,morethantwiceasmanyaswhenthepassiveresistancemovementstarted.6AnIndianinEuropewaslessimpressedwithGandhi’smovement;thiswashisformerfriendandsparringpartner,ShyamajiKrishnavarma.Inthesummerof
1907,KrishnavarmahadfledLondon–afterchargeswerebroughtagainsthimforpreachingdisaffectionagainsttheEmpire–totherelativesafetyofParis.Fromtherehefollowed,withinterestandincreasingdismay,theprogressofthepassiveresistancemovementintheTransvaal.Krishnavarma’shatredfortheBritishEmpirecompelledhimtomake
commoncausewiththeBoers.LiketheIndiansinIndia,heargued,theywereabeleagueredcommunity,fightingforfreedom.RecallingGandhi’ssupportfortheBritishduringthewarof1899–1902,heasked,‘WhatrighthavetheIndianstoclaimgoodtreatmentfromthepeoplewhomtheyonceinjuredbothmorallyandpoliticallyoutofselfishmotives?’Under‘suchprovokingcircumstances’,hethoughttheBoerswould‘bejustifiedinexpellingfromtheTransvaal,nayextirpatingeveryIndianwhohadanyclaimindeprivingthemoftheirnationalpoliticalindividuality’.HeprefacedhisbroadsidebyspeakingofGandhias‘anamiableperson’,
whose‘gentilityandsuavityofmannerendearhimtoallwithwhomhecomesincontact’.Despitehis‘personalregard’forthelawyer,theradicalfeltobligedtoexpose‘himforthemischiefheisdoingbyhispublicactsandutterancestothecauseofpoliticalfreedom’.ItisnotclearwhetherGandhireadthisarticle,whichwaspublishedinanémigréjournalprintedinParis.7
TheBritishIndianAssociationnowhadanewchairman–EssopMia,whohadreplacedAbdulGani.On4November,Miapostedaletter(written,naturally,byGandhi)tothePresidentoftheIndianNationalCongress.TheannualsessionoftheCongresswastomeetthenextmonthintheGujaratiporttownofSurat.Mia/Gandhiurgedthattheirstrugglebe‘intheforefrontofthesubjectstobedealtwithbytheCongress’.For,inopposingtheAsiaticOrdinanceintheTransvaal,theyregardedthemselvesas‘therepresentatives,inthiscountry,ofourMotherland,anditisimpossibleforus,aspatrioticIndians,tokeepsilenceunderaninsultthatisleviedagainstourraceandournationalhonour.’Thiswasheartfelt,andalsotrue.ButthenMia/Gandhiwentontomakea
largerclaim.Weholdthatourmovementofpassiveresistancemeritstheapprovalofallreligiousmen,ofalltruepatriots,ofallmenofcommonsenseandintegrity.Itisamovementsopotentastocompeltherespectofouradversariesbyvirtueofourverynon-resistance,ofourwillingnesstosuffer;andwearethemorefirminourdeterminationtoofferthisopposition,becauseweconsiderthatourexample,
onasmallscaleinthisColony,whethersuccessfulorunsuccessful,maywellbeadoptedbyeveryoppressedpeople[and]byeveryoppressedindividual,asbeingamorereliableandmorehonourable
instrumentforsecuringtheredressofwrongsthananywhichhasheretoforebeenadopted.8
‘Amorereliableandmorehonourablemethodoffightinginjusticethananywhichhasheretoforebeenadopted.’Thiswasadaring,evenrecklessclaim.NotasingleIndianhadyetcourtedarrestintheTransvaal.Ontheotherhand,Indiansinseveralprovinces(Bombay,Bengal,Madras,Punjab)hadbeenjailedduringtheSwadeshimovement.GandhihadattendedasolitaryCongress(inCalcuttain1901),givingoneoftheminorspeeches.Butherehewas,tellingGokhale,Tilakandothernationaliststalwartsthat,amongasmallgroupofexpatriatesinSouthAfrica,hehadforgedapatrioticspiritthatequalledtheirs,andinventedapoliticaltechniquethattheywoulddowelltoemulate.
InthesecondweekofNovember1907,thecaseofthefirstIndiantobeprosecutedundertheAsiaticLawcameupincourt.ThispioneeringoffenderwasaHindupriestbasedinGermiston,arailwaytownsometenmilesfromJohannesburg.NamedRamSundar,hewasbornandraisedintheholycityofBanaras,wherehelearntSanskrit,andintimebecameapriest(andhenceacquiredthetitle‘Pandit’).HemigratedtoNatalinabout1898,marriedalocalIndiangirl,andtheyhadtwochildren.In1905hemovedtotheTransvaaltotakechargeofatemplerunbyaHindutrust,theSanatanaDharmaSabha.RamSundarstayedinGermistononatemporarypermit,whichwasextended
twomonthsatatime.On30September1907hisrequestforrenewalwasrefused.Askedtoleavethecolony,thepriestsaidhewouldnotobeytheorder,‘ashehadtoremain[inGermiston]toperformhisreligiousduties,therebeingnoonetotakehisplace,andhewasquitepreparedtosuffertheconsequencesofhisdisobedience’.OctoberwasthegraceperiodgrantedbySmutstotheIndians.Atthe
beginningofthenextmonth,theGovernmentdecidedtoact.TherecalcitrantRamSundarwasitsfirsttarget.On8Novemberhewasplacedunderarrest.OneofhisfirstvisitorsinGermistonjailwasHenryPolak.AsatokenofsupportforRamSundar,IndianstoresthroughouttheTransvaalwereclosedforaday.Indianhawkerswentofftheroads,andIndiannewspaperboysdidnotdotheirrounds.
Onthe11th,thepriestwasproducedincourt,andGandhihadhimreleasedonbail.Ashecameoutofthebuilding,RamSundarwasreceivedbyashowerofflowers.AcongratulatorymeetingwasthenconvenedinthepremisesoftheSanatanaDharmaSabha.ItwaschairedbyaMuslimpriest,MoulviSahebAhmedMukhtiar,whosaiditwasthedutyofholymenofallfaiths‘totaketheleadinsuchtimesofdifficulty’.TheTamilactivistThambiNaidooadded‘thatthefightwouldbecomemoreexcitingonlywhenPunditjiwenttogaol’.RamSundar’scasecameupforhearingon14November.Thefirstwitnessfor
thedefencewasaMuslim,ImamAbdulKadir.ProddedbyGandhi,hesaidthat‘thewholeofthe[Indian]community–bothHindusandMahomedans–feltverybitterlyabouttheprosecutionoftheaccused.’ThenextwitnesswasaHindufromGermiston,LalaBahadurSingh.HesaidthePandit‘hadpreachedagainsttheAsiaticActpurelyonreligiousgrounds,becauseitwasagainsttheirreligiousscruples’.Thepriestobservedinhisowntestimonythattheirreligionprohibitedtheirgivingtheirwives’names,andheobjectedtogivingimpressionsofhistenfingers.Thecourtroomwaspacked,withamixedaudienceofIndiansandEuropeans
(some300otherswereturnedawayatthedoor).TheyheardGandhisubjectMontfordChamneytoanintensecross-examination.TheProtectorofAsiaticssaidthathehadreceivedcomplaintsfromwhiteandColouredpeoplethatthePanditwasincitingpeopleagainsttheGovernment.Addressingthecourt,Gandhiinsistedhisclientwasarrestednotbecausehedidnotholdapermitbut‘becausehehaddaredtoholdstrongviewsabouttheAsiaticActandhadnothesitatedtoplacethembeforehiscountrymen.’If‘thatwasacrime,’Gandhiwenton,‘thenthemajorityofIndianswereguiltyequallywiththeaccused’.Atthisstage,themagistrate,C.C.Gillfillian,interjectedtoexpressthe‘hopethatMrGandhiwouldnotburdentherecordswithtoomuchevidence’.Summingup,themagistratecongratulatedGandhionhis‘veryable’handling
ofthecase.Hehimselffelta‘greatdealofsympathy’with‘personswhohadtosufferfromactsperformedfromapurelyreligiouspointofview’.However,hehadtoadministerthelawasitstood.Itwasnotforhimtojudgewhetheritwasrightorwrong.Asanactofleniency(orcompassion),hewouldinflictthe‘minimumpunishment’possible,whichinthiscasewasonemonth’simprisonmentwithouthardlabour.ThismagnanimousspeechfromtheBench
addedtothelustrearoundRamSundar.Asheleftthecourt,thepriestshookhandsindividuallywithallpresent.Whenhecameoutside,escortedbypolicemen,‘hewasgreetedwithloudcheersbytheIndianswhohadassembled.’9
Gandhiwasgreatlyencouragedbythecross-classandcross-religioussupportforRamSundarPandit.Aweekafterthepriestwasconsignedtojail,threedelegatesleftTransvaaltoattendtheforthcomingSuratsessionoftheIndianNationalCongress.Theywerecarrying,amongotherthings,aletterfromGandhitohismentor,GopalKrishnaGokhale.Thisstatedthat
thestruggleweareundergoingherehasresultedinmakingusfeelthatweareIndiansfirstandHindus,Mahomedans,Tamils,Parsees,etc.afterwards.Youwillnotice,too,thatallourdelegatesareMahomedans.Iampersonallyproudofthefact…MayIaskyoutointerestyourselfinthemandmakethemfeelperfectlyathome?AHindu–Mahomedancompactmayevenbecomeaspecial
featureoftheCongress.10
Oncemore,alowlylawyerinSouthAfricawaslecturinghismoreexaltedcompatriotsinIndia.GandhihadalreadytoldGokhaleabouttheworldwiderelevanceofasmallpassiveresistancemovementthenstillunfolding;nowhewassuggestingthatthereligiousharmonyforgedinthediasporamightserveasamodelfortheovercomingofsectariandifferencesathome.
Withtheprotestscontinuing,GeneralSmutswrotetotheTransvaalGovernor,LordSelborne,complainingthat‘theIndians,headedbythelawyerGandhiandcertainotheragitators,seemtothinkanyconcessionmadetobeasymptomofweakness.’11TheGovernornowaskedtwoliberal-mindedwhites,WilliamHoskenandaJusticeofthePeacenamedDavidPollock,totryandreconcilethewarringparties.GandhioncemoresuggestedthattheGovernmentwithdrawtheActandallowIndianstovoluntarilytakeoutcertificatesofdomicile,whichwouldcontain‘fullidentificationparticulars’.Theissueoffingerprintscouldbeleftinabeyance,butGandhiinsistedthatMontfordChamneybereplaced,sincehe‘isentirelyincompetentfortheofficeheholds,inhavingnolegalabilitytosiftevidence’.PollockandHoskentookthisproposalbacktoSmuts,whometitwitha‘bluntrefusal’.12
OnSunday24November,some2,000IndiansconvergedontheFordsburgMosquetodiscusstheirfuturecourseofaction.‘Thereweremeneverywhere,ontheverandahofthemosque,itsterraceandroof.’Adozenmenspoke,butthe
starturnwasGandhi.Heclaimedthatagrowingnumberofwhitessympathizedwiththeircause;inanycase,their‘petitionnolongerlaywithanearthlyruler;itwastobeaddressedtotheCreator’.Answeringquestionsaboutwhattodowhentheywerearrested,Gandhisaidthatifaskedtoprovidefingerprintsinprison,theyshouldgivethem.‘Thiswasastruggleforfreedomfromslavery,notagainstdigit-impressions.’IncaseGandhihimselfwasjailed,then‘MrPolakwouldbeabletoattendtoallwork,suchassendingtelegrams,etc.’13
InthelastweekofNovember,theGovernor,LordSelborne,hadafurthermeetingwithwhitesseekingtomediatebetweentheStateandtheIndians.ACongregationalministernamedCharlesPhillipstoldLordSelbornethat‘thecolouredpeopleandtheeducatednativesarewatchingthisstruggleclosely,andthatforthefirsttimetheyrecognisethattheyhaveaninstrumentintheirhands–thatis,combinationandpassiveresistance–ofwhichtheyhadnotpreviouslythought.’SelbornehimselfbelievedthatAfricanswereincapableof‘combinationandorganizedaction’.Heworriedhoweverthatthe‘manufactureofmartyrs’bythejailingofIndianprotestershadunderminedthecredibilityoftheGovernment.SelbornenowwrotetoSmutsaskingwhetheritwasnotpossibleto‘builda
bridge’totheIndians.PerhapstheGeneralcouldallowthemtoregistervoluntarily.SmutswrotebacksayingthatwhilehewaspreparedtomeetGandhiandcompanyina‘friendlyspirit’,amonghiscolleaguestherewasa‘strongpopularfeeling’againstanyconcessionstothem.14
WritingtoaCapepolitician,Smutsadmittedthat‘theIndianquestionisaverydifficultonehere–undertheinfluenceoftheirleaderstheyhavemadeaverysuccessfulresistancetothefingerprintregistration.’Iftheprotestscontinued,theGovernmentwouldbe‘forcedtoresorttodrasticstepssuchasthedeportationoftheleaders’.15
WiththeGovernmentunyielding,theprotestscontinued.OnSunday,1December,anotherlargemeetingwasheldinFordsburgMosque.Allthosepresent,wroteareporteronthespot,‘regardedthemselves,HindoosandMohammedansalike,asattendingareligiousceremony’.They‘wereallpreparedtogotogaol,andeventoclosetheirstores’.16
WatchingthesedevelopmentsfromPhoenixwasJohnCordes.ReadingGandhiinIndianOpinion,andreadingaboutthestruggleinthewhite-owned
press,promptedhimtowritealetterofadmirationandsupport.Theletterislost,butwecanguessitscontentsfromtheansweritelicited.‘Youtalkofmygeneralship,’wroteGandhitoCordes:
Thisshowshowlittleyouunderstandme.Idonotthinkthatthereisanygeneralshipinmeatall,but,ifmyactionhasbeenhithertoserviceabletotheIndiancause,itsimplymeanstothatextentatriumphoftruth.MyfaithinGodandtruth(twoconvertibleterms)isalmostinvincible,andifappropriatethingscomefrommypenonappropriateoccasions,youmaytakeitthatIamnottobe
credited.17
TheresolveoftheIndianshad,bynow,impressedsomeEuropeanslessinthralltoGandhihimself.InlateNovember,anarticleinpraiseoftheresistersappearedinanewspaperpublishedintheAfrikanerstrongholdofBloemfontein.Compulsoryregistration,itsaid,hadledto‘sufferingtotheAsiaticcommunityofakindandtoanextentwhichwearecertainthegoverningraceneverintended.ItisamartyrdomthattheAsiaticsarenowundergoing.Nootherwordwouldbeexact,becausetheirsufferingisvoluntary,andmarkstheirrefusaltocomplywithwhattheyconsideradegradinglaw.’Thepaperurgeda‘reasonablecompromise’onbothparties,namely,areturntotheofferofvoluntaryregistrationthattheBritishIndianshadoriginallymade.TocontinueenforcingtheOrdinanceasitstoodwould‘drivetheself-respectingclassofIndiansoutofthecolony[throughdeportation]andretainonlythemoralrabble[i.e.thosewhoregister]withinit.Alawwhich…expelsthebestandkeepstheworststandsself-condemned.’18
Twoweekslater,theTransvaalLeaderprintedalongletterfromDavidPollock.Asof1December,notedPollock,95percentofallIndiansinthecolonywereunregistered,andhenceliabletoarrestandpossibledeportation.Thiswasnow‘notmerelyaquestionoflocaleconomics’,but‘amatterofgraveImperialconcern’.For,saidthisopen-mindedwhite,‘wecannotsendthousandsofagitators(andagitatorsforconsciencesake,remember!)tocomplicatestillfurthertheproblemwithwhichtheGovernmentofIndiaisstruggling’(namely,thegrowingmovementagainstcolonialrulewithinIndiaitself).PollockurgedtheGovernmentto‘scornthepettyroleofpersecution’,repealtheAsiaticAct,andissuecertificatesofdomiciletoalllawfullyresidentAsiatics.Itwastime,hesaid,torecognizethatamistakehadbeenmade,andtosetitright.19
On9December,GandhiappearedincourtinthetownofVolksrust,closetotheTransvaal–Natalborder.Hewasdefendingthirty-sevenIndianswhohaddeliberatelyenteredtheprovincewithoutvalidpermits.OftheprotestersonlyfourwereMuslims,theothersbeingHindu.Thisrevealedaninterestinglopsidedness,whichmayhavehadseveralcauses–amongthemtheexampleoftheHindupriestRamSundarandthecharismaoftheHindulawyerGandhi;and,ontheotherside,thereluctanceofmanyMuslimmerchantsactuallytotesttheircommitmentbycourtingarrest.On13December,RamSundarPanditwasdischargedfromprison.Hewas
‘enthusiasticallyreceivedwithgarlandsandbouquets’.AsadvisedbyGandhi,thepriestnowwrotetoGeneralSmutsthatalthoughhehadbeenorderedtoleavethecolonyinsevendays,hewouldstayontoservehisflockinGermiston.20
Twoweekslater,arrestwarrantswereissuedagainsttwenty-threeresistersintheTransvaal.TheyincludedGandhi,ThambiNaidoo(describedas‘chiefpicket,Johannesburg’),theChineseleaderLeungQuinnandRamSundarPandit.FiveMuslimmerchantsalsocameforwardtocourtarrest.However,themostsurprisingnamewasthatofC.M.Pillay.Sometimeduringthecourseoftheyearandthestruggle,thisTamilrivalofGandhihadbecomereconciledtohisleadership.Gandhiheardofthearrestwarrantagainsthimonthemorningof27
December.ThePoliceCommissionertoldhimthathewasatlibertyfortwenty-fourhours,buthadtoappearincourtthenextday.Thesameevening,ameetingwashurriedlyconvenedintheHamidiaHall.HereGandhitermedthelegislationunderwhichhefacedimprisonmentas‘thesavageActofa…GovernmentthatdarestocallitselfChristian.IfJesusChristcametoJohannesburgandPretoriaandexaminedtheheartsofGeneralBotha,GeneralSmutsandtheothers,hethoughthewouldnoticesomethingstrange,somethingquitestrangetotheChristianspirit.’21
Backin1894,onvisitingaTrappistmonasteryinhighlandNatal,Gandhihadsaid‘areligionappearsdivineordevilish,accordingasitsprofessorschoosetomakeitappear.’InlateryearshehadsometimeslecturedNatalcolonistsonhowtheiractsoractionsdepartedfromthespiritofChrist.Hisremarksherewereincharacter:GandhiaskedHindusandMuslimsasmuchasChristianstorecallthe
noblervaluesandpracticesoftheirownmoralorreligioustradition.Hadtheyreadtheseremarks,however,GeneralsBothaandSmutswouldscarcelyhaveappreciatedthem.Noteventhemostbroad-mindedAfrikanerwouldabidebeingpreachedtobyaHindulawyerwithabrownskin.
ThecaseofM.K.GandhiversustheTransvaalGovernmentcameupforhearinginJohannesburg’sBCourtonthemorningof28December1907.Manyfriendsoftheaccusedwerepresent,mostlyIndiansbutalsoHenryPolak.WhenGandhiaskedtomakeastatement,thejudge,H.H.Jordan,refusedpermission,saying,‘Idon’twantanypoliticalspeechesmade.’Gandhisaidhe‘simplyaskedtheindulgenceoftheCourtforfiveminutes’.Thejudgeanswered,‘Idon’tthinkthisisacaseinwhichtheCourtshouldgrantanyindulgence.Youhavedefiedthelaw.’Hethengavehisorder,whichwasthatifGandhididnotleavethecolonywithinsevendays,hewouldbesentencedtoamonthinprisonfornotpossessingavalidpermit.Ifhestayedoninthecolonyformorethanaweekafterthatsentenceexpired,hewouldbesentencednexttimetosixmonthsinprison.Thenewspaperreportonthecasecontinues:
MrGandhi,interruptingtheMagistrate,askedhimtomaketheorderfor48hours.Iftheycouldgetitshortereventhanthat,theywouldbemoresatisfied.Mrjordan:Ifthatisthecase,Ishouldbethelastpersonintheworldtodisappointyou.Leavethe
Colonywithin48hoursismyorder.
Immediatelyafterhewassentenced,Gandhidefendedtheothersaccusedofviolatingthelaw.C.M.Pillay,askedwhyhedidnotregister,saidhebelieved‘thatanyself-respectingmanwouldnotcomplywiththeprovisionsoftheAct,asitsimplyplacesourlibertyinthehandsoftheRegistrarofAsiaticswho,inmyhumbleopinion,isnot[a]fitandproperpersontoholdthispost’.Thisirritatedthemagistrate,whosaid‘hewouldnotlistentononsenseofthiskind.HethoughtitwasapieceofgrossimpertinenceforapersontocomethereandabuseanofficialoftheGovernmentinthatway.’Gandhiagreedthattheremarkswereimproper,andthenaskedPillay:‘DoyouobjecttotheofficerortheAct?’togettheanswerhewanted,namely,‘MainlytotheAct.’ThambiNaidoo,forhispart,toldthejudgethathe‘objectedtoregistrationas
itplacedhimlowerthanaKaffir,anditwasagainsthisreligion.’ThenitwastheturnoftwoChineseresisterstospeak.One,aMrEaston,said‘hewasnotpermittedbyhisreligion–Taoism–togiveanyimpressions’;theother,Leung
Quinn,said‘hedidnottakeoutapermitbecauseitwasalawdisgracefultohimselfandhisnation.’Thejudge,insentencingtheaccusedtoprison,saidtheyhaddeliberatelydefiedtheGovernmentandhadtakenupaveryseriousposition–onewhichhewassorrytoseeanyresidentinthiscountryadopt.Ithadbeenamistake,hehadnodoubt,whichhadbeencopiedfromthe[Nonconformist]passiveresistersatHomeinconnectionwiththeEducationBill,andthatwasanattitudewhichhadneverappealedtohiminanyshapeatall.Thelawsofacountrymustbecompliedwithbythepeopleresidentthere,andiftheycouldnotdothat,therewas
butonealternative–suchpeoplemustgosomewhereelse.22
Oneoftheaccusedhadinfactalreadydecidedtogosomewhereelse.Onthe27th,RamSundarPanditwaspresentinGandhi’schamberswhenthePoliceCommissioner’snoticecame.Hepromisedtoattendcourtthenextday,butwhenhereachedGermistonthatevening,he‘calledoneortwoofhisdisciplesandtoldthemthathewasthinkingofrunningaway,sincehecouldnotfaceasecondtermofimprisonment.Hisdisciplesexpostulatedwithhimbuthewasovercomewithfear.’Onthemorningofthe28th,thePanditpickeduphisbelongingsandtookatraintoNatal.GandhidrylycommentedthatRamSundar’sfall
wasassuddenashisrise.Ihavewrittenatgreatlengthabouthiminthispaper.Allthishasturnedouttobemistaken.Thepoemsabouthimhavebeenmeaningless.Abadcoinwillalwaysremainabadcoin.Thisisastrugglesuchaswillexposeeveryoneinhistruecolours.Sofarasthecommunity
isconcerned,RamSundarisdeadhenceforth.Wearetoforgethim.23
Meanwhile,asnewsofGandhi’sownconvictionspread,messagesofsupportbeganpouringintotheofficesoftheBritishIndianAssociation.Theycamefrom(amongotherplaces)Durban,Pietermaritzburg,theCape,BombayandMadras.‘MrGandhiwillnotleave[theTransvaal]’,ranonenewsheadlineinNatal,continuing,‘WidespreadSympathy’.24
ThedaythatGandhiwastriedandconvicted,theyear’slastissueofIndianOpinionwasprintedinDurban.CopiesreachedJohannesburgbytheevening.ReaderswouldhavenoticedacallurgingthemtosendinIndianequivalentsfortheterms‘passiveresistance’and‘civildisobedience’,whichhadbeencoinedbyBritishNonconformistsandanAmericanwriterrespectively.Gandhiwantedindigenousreplacements,since‘torespectourownlanguage,speakitwellanduseinitasfewforeignwordsaspossible–thisisalsoapartofpatriotism.’The
prizeforthebestentrywastencopiesofabookletontheAsiaticAct,whichthewinnercouldcirculateamonghisfriends.
On28DecemberGandhihadbeenorderedtoleavethecolonywithinforty-eighthours.Aweekpassed,butthesummonsdidnotcome,perhapsbecausemagistratesandpolicemenalikewereoccupiedwiththeNewYear’sfestivities.Telegramsprotestingthechargeswereflyingthickandfastbetweenthethreecontinentswithwhichtheaccusedhadconnections.TheBritishIndianAssociationinTransvaalwiredtheSouthAfricaBritishIndiaCommitteeinLondonthattheimpendingarrestofGandhiandhiscolleaguesplacedan‘unduestrain[on]Indianloyalty’.TheGovernmentofIndiainCalcuttawiredtheImperialGovernmentinLondonthatameetingofmorethan7,000GujaratisinSurathadaskedtheViceroytointerveneinhavingthechargesagainstGandhiandcompanydropped,andtheActitselfwithdrawn.25
OnNewYear’sDay,1908,aBaptistministernamedJosephJ.DokewalkedintoGandhi’schambersatthecornerofAndersonandRissikStreet.FromafamilyofCornishtinminers,Dokehadfollowedhisfatherintotheministry.AsayoungmanhetravelledextensivelythroughIndia,concludingfromhisexperiencesofBanaras,CalcuttaandBombay,andHindus,MuslimsandParsis,thatthelandwasa‘perfectmixtureofopposites:Idon’tunderstandit.’Inlateryears,heservedasaministerinDevonandinNewZealand,beforemovingtoachurchinGrahamstown,intheCape,in1903.InNovember1907,hetookchargeoftheCentralBaptistChurchinJohannesburg.Gandhi’scampaignappealedtoDokebecauseofitsobviousresonanceswith
thepassiveresistanceofhisfellowBaptistsagainsttheEducationActinEngland,whichdiscriminatedagainstchildren(andfamilies)whowerenotofthedominantAnglicanfaith.ThatthisHindulawyerregularlyandapprovinglyquotedChristwasanaddedpointinhisfavour.Doke,writeshisbiographer,wasdistressedbythefactthat‘theleadersofChristianthoughtandenergyontheRandwereeitherapatheticorantagonistic’toIndianaspirations.He,ontheotherhand,couldnotremain‘untouchedandindifferenttothecryofapeoplewhereaquestionofconscience,evenreligion,wasinvolved’.26
WhenhewalkedintoGandhi’schambersonNewYear’sDay,DokefoundacrowdofIndiansalreadythere.Later,hesketchedthescenefrommemory:men
inturbans,standing;womeninsaris,squatting,somewithchildrenintheirarms.Intheante-roomaflaxen-hairedwomancouldbeseentakingdownaclient’sparticulars.27ThiswasGandhi’syoungsecretary,SonjaSchlesin,aLithuanianJewwhohadarrivedinJohannesburgviaMoscowandCapeTown.HermannKallenbachhadrecommendedhertoGandhi,whobecamegreatlydependentonhershorthandandtypingskills.28Byhisownadmission,Gandhiknew‘veryfewwhosewritingisworsethanmine’;29itfellnowtoMissSchlesintodecipherhisdraftsandrendertheminlegibleEnglish.Dokewentpastthesecretary’sroomintothelawyer’soffice,which,hefound,
was‘meagrelyfurnishedanddusty’.Asforthemanhimself,theministerhadexpectedtofind‘atallandstatelyfigure,andabold,masterfulface,inharmonywiththeinfluenceheseemedtoexertinJohannesburg.’Tohissurprise,Gandhiturnedouttobe‘small,lithe,spare’,withadarkskinanddarkeyes.Hishairwasblack,withasprinklingofgrey.Seeingthewhiteministerenter,theIndianswhowerealreadytheresilently
lefttheroom.DokeimmediatelyaskedGandhiadirectquestion:‘Howfarareyoupreparedtomakeamartyrofyourselfforthegoodofthecause?’andreceivedanequallydirectanswer:‘Itisamatterwithmeofcompletesurrender…Iamwillingtodieatanytime,ortodoanythingforthecause.’30
GandhimettheReverendJosephDokeonthemorningof1January1908;thesameafternoon,heparticipatedinameetingheldintheFordsburgMosque.Hespokeforhimself,butalsoforhissecretary,SonjaSchlesin,whohadwrittenaspeechbutwastooshytoreaditherself.Gandhi,steppingin,conveyedtheEuropeanlady’sadvicethattheIndiansshould‘continuesteadfastinyourheroicresolvetogiveupall,ayelifeitself,forthenoblecauseofcountryandreligion’.She,andhe,remindedthemofthestruggleofsuffragettesinEngland,who,‘forthesakeofaprinciple’,had‘tobraveinnumerabletrials’,includingimprisonment.31
On3January,Gandhidefendedtwopassiveresistersincourt.TheywereformersoldiersoftheIndianArmy,bothPathans,whohadseenactionandsufferedwoundsintheAnglo-BoerWar.Thesefactstheirlawyersuccessfullyimpressedonthemagistratesentencingthem.Afewdayslater,GandhitoldtheStarnewspaperthatIndianswereactuallyworseoffnowthanundertheBoer
regime.Inanotherinterview,withtheTransvaalLeader,hecomplainedthatSmutshadreferredtoIndiansas‘coolies’.SolongastheGeneral‘holdsBritishIndianssocheapanddeniesthemthefullstatusofBritishsubjects’,heinsisted,‘solongmustIndiansrestcontentwithimprisonmentordeportation’.However,hewasstillopentoacompromise,tellingacorrespondentfromReutersthatiftheActwassuspended,hewouldundertakethateveryIndianinTransvaalwouldregisterhimselfwithinamonth,‘inaccordancewithaformtobemutuallyagreedupon’.32
Composingthatweek’s‘JohannesburgLetter’forIndianOpinion,GandhinotedthatoftheseveralsuggestionsforanIndianequivalentto‘passiveresistance’,onewasdescribedas‘notbad’.Thiswassadagraha,whichroughlytranslatedas‘firmnessinagoodcause’.ThesuggestioncamefromMaganlalGandhi.Hisuncle,andleader,tookthelibertyofrefiningitfurther,tosatyagraha,orthe‘forceoftruthinagoodcause’.‘Thoughthephrasedoesnotexhausttheconnotationsoftheword“passive”’,remarkedGandhi,‘weshallusesatyagrahatillawordisavailablewhichdeservestheprize.’33
On10January,thisparticularpassiveresister–orsatyagrahi–wascalledtoappearbeforeajudgefornotcomplyingwiththesentencetoleavethecolony.Gandhireachedthecourtby10a.m.,withmanysupportersintow.Thehearinghadhoweverbeenpostponedtotheafternoon.TheIndiansthenrepairedtotheFordsburgMosque,where,inanimpromptumeeting,theirleadertoldthemtorefuteSmuts’claimthat‘thewholeofthisagitationdependeduponafewIndians.’IftheynowdemonstratedtotheGeneralthat‘themajorityofIndianswerenotgoingtoaccepttheAct,butwouldrathersufferimprisonmentanddegradation,[and]forfeitureofalltheirgoods’,thenSmutswouldcometoappreciatetheirqualitiesandhimselfsay,‘thesearethepeoplewhomIshallprizeasfellow-citizens’.Afterlunch,theaccusedandhisassociatesproceededtocourt.Ithadbegunto
rain,soanadmirerheldanumbrellaforGandhitowalkunder.ArushofIndiansenteredthecourtroom,beforethepolicebarredtherest.Inside,GandhipleadedguiltytothechargeofdisobeyingtheordertoleavetheColonywithinforty-eighthours.Heaskedforthe‘heaviestpenalty’underthelaw,whichwassixmonthsinprisonwithhardlabourandafineof£500.Thejudge,thesameH.H.
Jordan,declinedtomeethisrequest,insteadsentencinghimtotwomonthswithouthardlabour.34
GandhiwastakentotheFortPrison,sitedonHospitalHill,agreatmoundofearthoverlookingthecricketandrugbygroundsknownas‘TheWanderers’.Builtinthe1890s,theprisonhadseparatequartersforwhitesandnatives.AsanIndian,Gandhicouldnotbeplacedwiththeformer,sohehadperforcetobeputinwiththelatter.Asafreeman,hehadlivedprettyausterely.Althoughhisforefathershadservedkings,hisownhomesweremodest.Evenso,hisnewplaceofresidencemusthaveseemedconfining,anarrow,dark,‘nativeblock’thatcontainedsomeseventy-twoprisoners.35
ThearrestofGandhi,andthecourseofthepassiveresistancemovementintheTransvaalgenerally,attractedattentionintheneighbouringcolonyofNatal.MilitantwhitesthoughtNatalshouldemulateTransvaalbyframinglaws‘thatwillforcetheAsiatictoleavewithdisgust’.36Lessshort-sightedwhiteswerenotsosanguine;a‘perplexinginter-Colonialsituation’mightdevelopshould,assomesuspected,GeneralSmutsattempttopushtheoffendersoutoftheTransvaal.The‘deportationofrecalcitrants’wouldresultinan‘unseemlystateofthingsupontheNatalborder’.AstheNatalMercuryputit,‘inthisColonywehaveourownAsiaticproblem,andwedonotwishittobeaggravatedbytheconversionofNatalintoadumpinggroundforthepeopleofwhomtheTransvaalwantstoriditself.’NatalwassmallerinsizethantheTransvaal,yetalreadyhadtentimesas
manyAsians.Besides,unliketheBoers,theBritishhadasentimentalandimperialconnectiontoIndia.Thegrowingmovementfornationalindependencethereworriedthem.ThesefearsunderlaythesomewhatcriticalcoveragegivenbytheMercurytothespeechesofGeneralSmuts.ItwarnedthathistacticsofintimidationwouldonlymakemartyrsofGandhiandhiscolleagues,and‘producequiteunforeseenresults,bothhereandinIndia.’37
TheNatalIndians,fortheirpart,threwtheirnumbersandtheirfundsbehindthepassiveresistancemovement.HinduandMuslimmerchantscompetedwithoneanothertooffersupportforthewivesandchildrenofthosesenttoprisonintheTransvaal.Theever-generousParsiRustomjeepledgedto‘stakeeverypennyIhadintheworldtofreeSouthAfricanIndiansfromthedegradationofthe
AsiaticAct’.Pietermaritzburgalonecontributed£3,700toafundfortheresisters.38
ThedayafterGandhiwasincarcerated,alargemeetingwasconvenedbytheNatalIndianCongress,heldinthemarketadjoiningthemosqueoffWestStreetinDurban.HereParseeRustomjeesaidthearrestswouldfurthertestIndia’sloyaltytotheEmpire,alreadyunderstrainduetofoodscarcityandthedrainofwealthtoEngland.Asecondspeaker,HassimJooma,wasreportedassayingthatall
MrGandhiaskedwasthatnoodiousclasslegislationbeinflictedindiscriminatelyuponhighandlow,educatedandilliterate,bonafidepre-warresidentsandunauthorisedentrantsintothecountry.TheirbloodboiledwhentheyrememberedthattheIndianex-soldiers,who,afterthewar,hadmadetheTransvaaltheirhome,hadbeengivenrigorousimprisonment…althoughtheyfoughtforthelandonbehalfofBritain,sufferedallthehorrorsofwar,sustainedphysicalwoundsandindescribablemisery,andnow,aftertheconquest,theywerenotallowedapeacefulresidenceintheverylandtheyfoughttoacquire.
Athirdspeaker,aDrNanji,saidthattherewasnoneedtopityGandhi,forbyhissacrifice‘hehadmadeanameforhimselfandwasknownallovertheworld.ButitwasMrs.Gandhiwhowasgrievingoverherloss,andtheymustsympathisewithher(Applause).’39ThemeetingsentacollectivetelegramtoPhoenixoffering‘theirsinceresympathytoMrs.Gandhiandfamilyduringtheirtroubleforthesplendidself-sacrificemadebyMrGandhiintheIndiancause.MayIndiaproducemanymoreGandhis.’Thiswasoneofforty-eighttelegramsreceivedbyKasturbainthefirstdayafterGandhi’sarrest,inwhich(asIndianOpinionreported)‘theprevailingtonewasoneofcongratulationratherthancommiseration.’40
ThatthewhitesofNatalwouldbeambivalentaboutthestruggleintheTransvaal,andthattheIndiansofthecolonywouldbesupportive,wastobeexpected.MoresurprisingwastheendorsementofGandhi’smovementbytheAfricaneducatorJohnL.Dube.WritinganonymouslyinhisnewspaperIlangalaseNatal,Dubepraised‘thecourageousmannerinwhichtheIndiansareactingintheTransvaal.’‘ItiscommonfortheBantutoadmire“pluck”,’saidthereformer,‘especiallywhenthepluckycontenderhasafairclaimforjustice.’Hesagaciouslyaddedthat‘slavesneveryetmadeanationoranEmpire;meannessandhopelessnessoflifearethefactorsthatweakentheEmpire,nomatterhowstrongitmayhavebeenatfirst.’InDube’sview,theconflictintheTransvaal
was‘theoutcomeofvanityandinabilitytoguidethedifferinginfluencesintotheirrespectiveandproperchannels’.41
Theassessmentwaswise,andthesentimentsuncommonlygenerous.Dube’sownInandasettlementlayincloseproximitytoGandhi’sPhoenixfarm.This,andhisownbig-heartedness,mayhaveledhimtoforgiveorforgettheIndians’characteristictendencytodistinguishtheircausefromthatofthe‘Kaffirs’,whomtheythoughtlesscivilizedthanthemselves.
13
ATolstoyaninJohannesburg
Ingoingtojailforapoliticalprinciple,GandhichosetofollowpeoplehehadpreviouslypraisedinthepagesofIndianOpinion–suchastheIndiannationalistBalGangadharTilak,theAmericanradicalHenryDavidThoreau,theRussianpacifists,andtheBritishsuffragettes.Evenso,theexperiencewasnovelfortheLondon-trainedbarrister,aventureintotheunfamiliar,andtheunknown.When,on10January1908,GandhireachedJohannesburg’sFortPrison,he
wasundressedandweighed,andhisfingerprintsweretaken.Hewasgivenasetofprisonclothes,consistingoftrousers,shirt,jumper,cap,socksandsandals.Then,sinceitwasalreadyevening,hewassentofftohiscellwith8ouncesofbreadforhiseveningmeal.Thecellwaslabelled‘ForColouredDebtors’,andGandhihadtoshareitwithadozenothers.Theysleptonwoodenplanks,with‘anapologyforapillow’.Themealsweredominatedbywhatwasknownlocallyas‘mealiepap’,aporridgemadeofmaize,whichhefounddifficulttodigest.Whenheprotested(inwriting),hewasgivenanextrahelpingofvegetables.Thenextmorning,theprisonersweretakentoasmallyard,wheretheycould
walkabout.Thelatrinesandbathingareawerealsolocatedhere.Gandhiwasrelievedtoseethatthecellswerewashedanddisinfecteddaily.However,withnocombsortowelstohand,heworriedthathemightgetscabies.Hegotpermissiontocallinabarberandhavehismoustacheshaved,andalsohishead.Athalf-pastfiveintheeveningtheprisonersweretakenbacktotheircells.
Therewasasinglelightbulb,bywhichonecouldreaduntileight,whenthistoowasswitchedoff.On14January,GandhiwashappytowelcomeintojailhisfriendsThambiNaidooandLeungQuinn,presidentoftheChineseAssociation.Duringthecourseoftheweekmorepassiveresistersjoinedthem.TheyincludedTamils,GujaratiHindusandMuslims.Theyhadnowbeenpermittedtoreceivericerations,andtopreparetheirownmeals.ThambiNaidootookchargeofthecooking,whileGandhisupervisedtheservingandwashing-up.Theyfoundthe
jailstaffquitehelpful,exceptforasternwarderwhowasnicknamed,inevitably,‘GeneralSmuts’.TheprisonauthoritieshadagreedtoplaceatableinGandhi’scell,andto
providepensandanink-pot.Gandhialternatedbetweenreadingandwriting.HehadbroughttheBhagavad-Gitawithhim,aswellassomebooksbyoraboutTolstoy,SocratesandRuskin.FromtheprisonlibraryheborrowedtheworksofThomasCarlyleandacopyoftheBible,whosecontentshediscussedwithaChineseprisoner.AsmoreIndianscamepouringin,thewarderswerecompelledtoerecttentsin
theyard.Gandhi,outofsolidarity,joinedhiscompatriotsinsleepingintheopen,butworriedthattheirhabitofspittingeverywherewouldleadtotheplacebecomingdirtyandinfected.Anothercomplaintwasdirectedattheauthorities–whereastheprisonhadachapelfortheChristianinmates,whydidtheynotallowHindupriestsorMuslimimamstovisittheirco-religionists?1
ThedayafterGandhi’sarrest,manyIndianstoresinNatalandtheTransvaalclosedinhonouroftheirleader.Thelawyer’sEuropeanfriendswerealsospeakingoutinsupportofhismovement.Addressinghiscongregationon12January,theReverendJosephDokecalledGandhi’scampaign‘aheroicstruggleforconscience’ssake’.Hemarvelledthat‘alittlehandfulofIndiansandChineseshouldhavesoimbibedtheteachingofChristinregardtotheinherentnobilityofmanthattheyshouldbecometeachersofamercenaryage,whileChristiansstandbyandsmileoraresilentastheysuffer’.Twodayslater,HenryPolaktoldacrowdedandenthusiasticmeetingoftheChineseresidentsofJohannesburgthat‘the15,000AsiaticsintheTransvaalwerefightingaracefightwhichwasoftheutmostimportanceforthewholeworld,andthatstrugglewaswhethertheAsiaticpeopleswereeternallytobekeptinsubjectionortreatedontermsofequality,regardedasfellow-men,asfellowhumanbeings,tobetreatedasmentomen,andnotasmentoslaves.’2
DokeandPolakstressedtheprinciple,whileHermannKallenbach,justascharacteristically,spokeofthepersonality.Protestingthe‘insinuatingremarks’inthepressattributing‘materialanddishonourablemotives’toGandhi’sconduct,thearchitectsaidthathehadnotmet‘amoreconscientious,morehonourableorbetterman’.For‘ifMrGandhi,afterthemostthoroughtestand
self-investigation,considersthecoursetobeadoptedbyhimtobetherightone,hewillnotbehinderedbyanyresults,howeverdisastroustheymaybetohimselffromamaterialpointofview,or,aswehaveseennow,fromthepointofviewofhispersonalfreedom.’Kallenbachappealedtohis‘fellow-colonistsnottobeunjusttoamanwhosemotivesareofthehighest,andwhohasprovedthistousbyaction’.3
Doke,PolakandKallenbachwereallfriendsofGandhi.Morestrikingwasthesupportthatcamefromtheothersideofthecolourbar,fromAfricanswhomGandhididnotknowatall.Inanarticleentitled‘ALessoninTrueManliness’,theBasutolandStarmarvelledthattheTransvaalGovernment,‘knownallovertheworldasbeingveryharshandinconsiderateinitstreatmentofallpersonsofcolour’,was‘almostdriventoclimbdownfromitshighpedestalbytheexhibitionofmanlyqualitiesbytheIndians’.Thepaperapprovedofthemovement’sendsand,ascrucially,ofthemeans.‘Manhastwowaysofresentingorresisting,’saidtheBasutolandStar:
Theoneisbyactiveresistance,andtheotherisbypassiveresistance.Theformerisnotcommendable,asitleadstobloodshed,whichshouldbeavoided,andthelatteriscommendable,asitavoidsbloodshedandusuallyendsinabloodlessandamicablesettlementofthepointatissue.Itisthelattermodeofresistance,whichtheAsiaticshaveadopted,whichwecommendourpeoplethenativesofSouthAfricatoemulate.Gandhiandhiscompatriotsaretrulymartyrs,and,comewhatmay,truemartyrshavebeforetodayneversufferedinvain…Oursympathiesgoouttoouroppressedfellow-subjects,whoaremadetosufferforthesamecausethatwesuffer–viz.,ourslightpigmentoftheskin.Truly,theTransvaalhastarnishedthefairnameofourmightyEmpirebyits
blindcolourprejudice.4
Thisstatementofsolidarityismademoreremarkablebythefactthatitwasunprompted,unsolicited,and–sofaraswecantell–unrequited.
InthethirdweekofJanuary,GandhiwasvisitedbyAlbertCartwright,editoroftheTransvaalLeader,aliberal-mindedEnglishmanwhohadexperiencedtermsofimprisonmenthimself(foropposingthewaythewaragainsttheBoershadbeenconducted).CartwrightwasintouchwithSmutsaboutanegotiatedsettlementbetweentheGovernmentandtheIndians.TheGeneralwasnowworriedaboutthepressureonthejails.Ashetoldameetingofwhites,hehad‘senteveryleadertoprison,andhundredsmore,andithadhadnoimpression.’TherewerenotenoughjailstohousealltheIndiansintheTransvaal.To‘take
10,000menbythecollar’andputtheminprisonwas‘notonlyphysicallybutmorallyimpossible’.5
PressurewasalsobeingexertedontheColonialOfficebytheIndiaOffice,whohadbeenalertedbytheViceroyof‘theexistenceofaverystrongandbittersentimentamongsttheeducatedandarticulatesectionsofthenativecommunitythroughoutIndiaonthesubjectofthedisabilitiesimposedontheircountrymenresidentinSouthAfrica.’6TheViceroyhadbeenforwardedananguished,breathlesstelegramreceivedbytheAnglicanChurchinIndia,whichread:
BarristermerchantstradershawkersagentsclerksinterpretersgovernmentofficialscolonialbornmarriedSouthAfricanchildrenbornhere[all]arrested…manyfamiliesleftmercycommunitysomemerchantstwentyyearsstandingincludinggreybeardsothersgaoledincludeyouthstenderyears2oldsoldiersbearingmedalsseveralcampaignsalsoleadersambulancecorpsboerwarstretchercorps
Natalrebellion…7
WithhisambivalentfeelingsaboutBritishimperialists,Smutsmightnothavebeenswayedbytheseprotestshadtheynotbeenendorsedbyhisoldfriend,theCapeliberalJ.X.Merriman.ThetreatmentofeducatedAsiaticslikeGandhi,saidMerrimantoSmuts,‘savour[ed]oftheyellowcapoftheJew,ortheharryingoftheMoriscoesofSpain’.HeurgedSmutstofollowtheprinciple:Parceresubjectisetdebellaresuperbos(tosparethehumbleandsubduetheproud).8
Gandhiwaslikewiseamenabletoacompromise.Beforestartingthesatyagrahahehadworkedhardtoavoidit.Hewasnowpreparedoncemoretotrythepathofdialogueandreconciliation.Theresisterswereallfirst-timesatyagrahis,anddoubtlesskeentogetoutofjailasearlyaspossible.CartwrightandGandhihadtwomeetings,afterwhichtheeditordrafteda
documentwhereintheresistersofferedvoluntaryregistrationinexchangeforthedroppingofcases,thereleaseofprisoners,thereinstatementofGovernmentemployeeswhohadbecomesatyagrahis,andadiscussionabouttherepealoftheAsiaticact.ThepaperwassignedbyGandhi,ThambiNaidoo(onbehalfoftheTamils)andLeungQuinn(representingtheChinese).9
On30January,GandhiwastakenbyaposseofpolicementomeetSmutsinPretoria.Theydiscussedthetermsofthecompromise,withSmutsaskingthatthoseIndianswhohadbeenloyaltotheGovernmentnotbeharassed.Later,GandhiwrotetoafriendthatheandtheGeneral
metasthoughwehadbeenoldchums.Hespokemostfamiliarlyandallowedmetodolikewise.Hebeganbysayingthathehadnoill-feelingagainstmeortheAsiatics,thathisbestfriendswereIndiansatthetimehewasstudyingfortheBar,andthathewantedtogiveeveryassistance…HethensaidthatIshouldseethattheIndiansdidnotcrowovertheirvictoryandthatdemonstrationwasavoided.Thiswas,ofcourse,inourinterests,becausetheLawwasyettoberepealed,whichhehaspromisedtodo,andtherepealoftheLawwillcosthimagreatdealofanxietyandtrouble…[He]cametothedoortoreceivemeandweshookhands.Therewasheartinessonhispartinthe
handshake.10
ThatsameeveningGandhiwasreleased.AreporterwhomethimatJohannesburgstationsaidhe‘seemedkeenlypleasedthatasettlementhadbeencometobywhichneithersidehadsufferedinhonour,integrityorprestige’.11
Thenextday,theotherpassiveresisters(about220inall)werealsosetatliberty.ThosefreedwentatoncetoGandhi’slawchambers.Thefirsttoarrivewasanex-soldiernamedNawabKhan,‘conspicuousintheuniformoftheBengalLancers’.Gandhicamesoonafterwards,ridingabicycle.AlargecrowdofIndianshadassembledtogreetthesatyagrahis.Areporteronthespotnotedthat
acertainamountofmutualgratificationseemedtobegoingon,buttheperfectorderlinesswhichhasmarkedtheagitationwasmaintained…[I]ndeferencetoMrGandhi’sunderstoodwish–thattherewastobenodemonstrationofanykind–theydepartedquietlyafterhearingnewsandexchanging
theirviews.12
Gandhi’spoliticalstylewasorientedtowardsreconciliationandcompromise.Petitions,letters,meetings–itwasonlywhenthesemethodshadnotprovensuccessfulthathehadchosentocourtarrest.Buthowlongcouldhe,andtheIndians,sustainthepathofstruggleandsacrifice?Sensibleofthecompulsionsofhisfollowers,theirneedtoearnalivelihoodandnotbeseparatedfromtheirfamilies,GandhiwasnowamenabletoasettlementwithGovernment.ThemoremilitantPathans,however,werenot.Theyhadplayedtheirpart,as
soldiersontheBritishside,inthewaragainsttheBoers.Thattheywerenowsubjectedtohumiliatinglawsbythosetheyhadoncemilitarilydefeatedenragedthem.Gandhihadmobilizedthemforthestruggle;now,theywouldratherfighttothefinish.Theybelievedthelawyerhadbackeddowntooeasily.AtameetinginJohannesburg,theyraisedobjectionstothegivingoffingerprints,whichPathanssuchasNawabKhanthoughtwashumiliating.BackinIndia,onlycriminalswereaskedtoprovidethem,andtosubmitone’sbodytosuch(symbolic)subjectionwasanathematotheirsenseofmasculinityandtribalpride.
ThePathanswerenotpersuadedbyGandhi’sclaimthathehadhimselfhadhisfingerprintstakeninprison.Seekingacompromisewithinthecompromise,GandhiwrotetoSmutsaskingifthumbimpressionsalonewereacceptable.Whiletohim,‘personally,itisimmaterialwhetherthumb-printsordigit-impressionsbegiven,therearemanyamongtheAsiaticstowhomthelatterpresentsanimpassabledifficulty’.13GandhisuggestedthateducatedIndianswaivetherighttogivesignaturesandofferfingerprintsinstead.14
ExtremistsontheEuropeansidewerealsounhappywiththecompromise.Gandhishouldhavebeenexiledfromtheprovince,theyargued.AmeetingoftheWhiteLeague,heldinJohannesburgon1February,askeditsmembersto‘passivelyresisttheAsiaticsbysecuringpledgesfromthewhitepeoplenottodealwiththeOrientals’.Aco-operativesocietyofwhitestoreplacethetradeofIndianhawkerswasproposed.Thesecolonists‘want[ed]theAsiaticsoutofthecountry,andwillhavenothingtodowiththem.’15
Asmandatedbytheagreement,voluntaryregistrationwasscheduledtobeginattena.m.onMonday10February1908.AnofficewasopenedatVonBrandisSquare,intheheartofJohannesburg.Hopingtobethefirsttoregister,Gandhilefthischambersataquartertoten,accompaniedbyThambiNaidooandEssopMia.Thesubsequenteventsaredescribedinacontemporarynewspaperreport:
Ontheway,apartyofIndiansstoppedtheparty[ledbyGandhi]andaskedwhattheyweregoingtodo.MrGandhirepliedthattheyweregoingtoregister,andothersendeavouredtoexplainthat,if
fingerimpressionswereobjectedto,theregistrationofficerswouldnotinsist.OneofthepartyraisedastickandhitMrGandhionthebackofthehead,knockinghimtothe
ground.OneofMrGandhi’spartytriedtosavetheirleader,buthealsowasknockeddownwithasevereblowonthesideofthehead.MrMia,thechairmanoftheBritishIndianAssociation,alsointerfered,andhewasputoutof
actionwithablowtothehead.TheassailantshitMrGandhiseveralblowswithsticksonthehead.Thepoliceonpointdutysawthedisturbance,andtheirappearancecausedtheassailantsto
decamp.Two,however,werearrested.TheassailantsarePunjabisandPathans,andtheyallegethatMrGandhihasnot,incomingtotheagreement,guardedtheirinterests.Considerableexcitementprevails,judgingbythenumberofIndianswaitingtoberegistered.The
greatmajorityareonMrGandhi’sside.16
Thisreport,fromtheNatalMercury,needstobesupplementedbyonefromIndianOpinion,fromwhichitappearsthatThambiNaidoomayhavesaved
Gandhi’slife.TheTamilwascarryinganumbrella,andusedittoengagethemainattacker,MeerAllamKhan,pittinghisinstrumentagainsttheironrodusedbythePathan.Theumbrellafinallybroke,butbythenthecommotionhadattractedthepoliceaswellastheemployeesofArnottandGibson,alawfirmwhichhaditsofficesnearby.17
WhenGandhirecoveredconsciousness,hewastakentotheprivateofficeofJ.C.Gibson,apartnerinthefirmthatborehisname.Hewasbleedingfromthelipsandtheforehead,andtwoofhisfrontteethwereloose.Adoctorwascalledintotreatthewounds.TheBaptistministerJosephDoke,hearingoftheattack,hadreachedthescene.WhensomeonesuggestedthatGandhiberemovedtohospital,theclergymanofferedtotakehimtohishouseinSmithStreetinstead.Doke’ssonClementvacatedhisroomfortheunexpectedguest.Clement’ssisterOlivewatchedasthepatientwaspatchedup.Inhervividrecollection,‘hewouldnothaveanychloroformoranything,hejustsatonthebedwhileMotherheldhimupandthedoctorsstitcheduphiswounds.Twostitcheswereputinhischeekandtwoonhislipandtwoonhiseyebrow.Thelastonewasalmosttoomuchforhim;henearlyfainted.’18
Duringtheday,MrsDokemadeteaforthestreamofIndianswhocameintovisittheirwoundedleader.Atnight,DokesatbyGandhi’sbedsideandprayed.Fortwodaysaftertheattack,Gandhiranahighfever.This,andtheinjuriestohisfaceandlips,madeitveryhardforhimtoeatordrink.Slowly,hebegantakingliquidsandalsofruit,and,intime,breaddippedinmilk.Thewoundswerehealing,thankstoearthpoultices,applieddespitethedoctor’sobjection.19
TelegramsofsupportforGandhiandofthankstotheDokesbeganpouringinfromallpartsofTransvaalandNatal.TheChristiancouplereceivedmoneyandjewelsfromindividualsandcommunitygroups,thankingthem‘fortheirkindlyandcharitableassistancetoourfellow-countrymanandleaderMrGandhiinhistimeofphysicalneed’.JosephDokesaidhewouldcreateatrustfundfromthegifts,tofundtheeducationofIndianboys.20
Backin1897,whenGandhihadbeenattackedbyawhitemobinDurban,itwasaEuropeansuperintendentofpolicewho,withParseeRustomjee,hadhelpedspirithimtosafety.Now,whensavagedbyagroupofangryIndians,itwasafamilyofBritishBaptistswhonursedhimbacktohealth.Inthecourseofhisconvalescence,GandhibecameveryattachedtotheDokes,tothefatherand
daughterinparticular.Afterhehadlefttheirhousehold,hewould,fromtimetotime,sendOliveplayfulnotes,enclosingIndianwomen’smagazinesforhertoreadanddemandingthatshesendchocolatestohislawofficeinexchange.Theselettersrevealanunexpectedtendernessinamanwhosemissivestohisownsonswerefarmorecensoriousandprescriptive.21
ForGandhi,thesupportgivenbyAlbertCartwright,andthenbytheDokes,confirmedthatthisconflictshouldnotbeseenthroughapurelyraciallens.TheIndiancommunity,hewrote,should‘giveupitsangeragainstthewhites.Weareoftenthoughtlessenoughtosaythatthewhitescanhavenothinggoodinthem.Butthisispatentfolly.Mankindisone,andevenifafewwhitesmakethemistakeofconsideringthemselvesdifferentfromus,wemustnotfollowtheminthaterror.’22
TwodaysaftertheattackonGandhi,agroupofPathansmetinahallinVrededorp.TheprincipalspeakerwasNawabKhan,ex-BengalLancers,dressed,asever,inmilitaryuniform.He‘urgedonhisaudiencethat,nowMrGandhihadforsakentherightpath,theyshouldfollowhimnolonger,andrefusetosubmittotheindignityofhavingimpressionsoftheir10digitstaken’.Khan‘workedtheaudienceuptosuchapitch’thattheyfollowedhimintakinganoathnottoregister.23
ThePathanswereinaminority.WhenonenewspapersoughttorepresentitasaHinduversusMuslimquestion,agroupofleadingmerchantspointedoutthat‘theveryfirstmentoregisteronMondaywereMahomedans.SofarasSouthAfricaisconcerned,happily,onnon-religiousmatterstherearenodifferencesbetweenthetwocommunities.’24The‘generalopinionamongtheAsiatics,’commentedonereporter,‘isthattheassaultonMrGandhiwasacowardlyone.ItisremarkablehowtruetheAsiaticsaretotheirleader.’25
TheeventsofrecentweeksandmonthshadenormouslyenhancedGandhi’sstandinginthecommunity.Once,hewasadmiredforhisprofessionalqualificationsandskills–forbeingtheonlyBritish-educatedEnglish-speakingIndianlawyerinNatalandtheTransvaal.Hisarrest,andtheattackonhim,gavehimanaltogetherdifferentglow.Hewasnowadmirednotsomuchforhiseducationandprivilege,asforhiscourageandconviction.Thedignitywith
whichheboreimprisonment,andwithwhichhefacedhistormentors,greatlyimpressedTamilsandGujaratis,HindusaswellasMuslims.IntheweekaftertheassaultonGandhi,asteadystreamofmerchantsand
hawkersgotthemselvesregistered.Therewasnow‘acrowdofexcitedIndiansoutsidetheRegistrationOffice’,registeringundertheguidanceofThambiNaidoo,whowassportingabandagedhand.Thosewhocouldsigntheirnameswerenotaskedtoprovidefingerprints.Gandhihimselfregisteredfromhissick-bed,thepapersandotherequipmentbeingbroughttohimbytheRegistrarofAsiatics,MontfordChamney.26
Initsissueof15February,IndianOpinioncarriedanessayofover4,000words,thelongestsinglepieceithadpublishedthusfar.WrittenwhileGandhiwasrecoveringattheDokes’,itsoughttostilltheuneaseamongsomeIndiansaboutthesettlement.Theessaywascouchedasadialoguebetweena‘Reader’askingquestionsandthe‘Editor’seekingtoanswerthem.TheissuethatmostconcernedtheReaderwasthegivingoffingerprints.He
wonderedhowthese,so‘objectionablebefore,havesuddenlybecomeacceptable’.Coulditbethat‘theeducatedandtherichhavehadtheirinterestsprotectedattheexpenseofthepoor?’TheEditor(Gandhi)answeredbysayingthatnowthatthelawwastoberepealed,Indiansshouldnotstandon‘falsepride’.EvenwhiteswhoenteredTransvaalunderthenewimmigrationlawhadtogivefingerprints.IfIndiansgavethemoutof‘ourownfreechoice’thereshouldbenoobjection.Besides,theseprintswererequiredonlyontheapplication,notonthecertificate.Tofurthercalmthewaters,Gandhiproposedthatdespitetheexemptionforthosewhocouldsign,menoflearningandstandingmustnotavailthemselvesofit.The‘importantthing’wasthat‘well-educatedpersonsshouldregardthemselvesastrusteesofthepoor.’‘ApersonlikeMrEssopMiawillriseinstaturebygivinghistenfinger-impressions.’27
Gandhi’sattackersweretriedon19February.Theypleadednotguilty.Thevictimwasnotpresent,butEssopMiaandThambiNaidoogaveevidenceastothenatureoftheattack.ThedefenceclaimedthatwhenthePathansstoppedtotalkwithGandhi,thelawyerabusedtheminEnglish(thisisrepresentedinthecourtrecordbyaseriesofdashes),whileThambiNaidooproddedthePathanswithastick.Itwasthenthattheyretaliated.Oneattacker,MeerAllamKhan,
saidhe‘wassorrywhenhefoundthathehadhurt[Gandhi].Itwasalldoneinhotblood.’Inhissummingup,themagistrate,H.H.Jordan,saidthathewasperfectlysurethatMrGandhididnotusethewordsallegedagainsthim.HedidnotthinkthatanyonecouldbebroughtforwardtosaythatMrGandhihadusedbadlanguage.Itwasfromhispersonalknowledgeofthemanthathecouldsaythathe(MrGandhi)wasnotamantousewordsofthatdescription.
Theverdictwasofanunprovokedassault,andthesentencewasthreemonthsinjailwithhardlabour.28
HavinglosttheargumentintheTransvaal,Gandhi’scriticsnowsoughttorenewitinNatal.On5March,whilehewasaddressingalargegatheringinDurban,somemenwithsticksrushedtowardstheplatform.ThecrowdsurroundedGandhiandguardedhim.Thechairmandeclaredthemeetingclosed,andGandhiwastakeninacarriagetoParseeRustomjee’shouse.29
Theseattacksspokeofacertaindesperation.ThemajorityofIndiansweresolidlybehindGandhi,andthepaceofregistrationsteadilypickedup.Initsissueof7March,IndianOpinionobservedthat‘thePermitOfficedoesnothaveamoment’srespite’(instrikingcontrasttothesituationabaresixmonthspreviously,when,asthesamepaperhadreported,itwasdesolateandlifeless).Bynow,morethan4,000Indianshadalreadyregistered,amongthemsomepreviouslyrecalcitrantPathans.30
On14MarchtheBritishIndianAssociationgaveadinnerfortheEuropeanswhohadstoodbythem.TheeventwasheldintheMasonicLodge,thereservationbeingmadeonGandhi’sbehalfbyHermannKallenbach.FortyIndians,payingtwoguineaseach,entertainedsometwenty-fivewhites,thesebeingjournalists,legislatorsandlawyerssympathetictotheirstruggle.Thedinnerconsistedoftwenty-fourvegetarianitems,washeddownwithlimejuiceandsodawater.Themenucardcarriedtheline:‘Thisdinnerisarrangedasanexpressionofgratitudetothosewhiteswhofoughtfortruthandjusticeduringthesatyagrahacampaign.’Furtheringthisspiritofinter-racialsolidarity,theChinesegaveadinneron20
MarchfortheirIndianandEuropeanfriends.Oursourcedoesnottelluswhatfoodwasserved,butwemaypresumethatitdidnotexcludefishandmeat(norwhiskyandwineeither).WedoknowthataChinesebandwasinattendance.
ThebandfellsilenttoallowanoakdesktobepresentedtoJosephDokeforlookingafterGandhi,andagoldwatchtobegiventoAlbertCartwrightforhispartinarrangingthecompromise.HenryandMilliePolakalsoreceivedgifts.Gandhiwaspresentedwithanaddresswhichpraisedhis‘politicalacumen’.Inareportforhisnewspaper,GandhiadmittedtheChinesehadsurpassedtheIndiansin‘cultureandgenerosity’.31
Absentfromthesedinnerswasoneveryearly,andverysteadfast,EuropeansupporteroftheIndians–L.W.Ritch.HewasnowbasedinLondon,lobbyingtheImperialGovernment.WhenaJewishnewspapertooknoticeofhiscontribution,Ritchwroteintosaythat‘itcannot,ofcourse,beamatterofsurprisethattheJewshouldfigureprominentlyinanymovementdirectedagainstpersecutionandintolerance,whetherofraceorreligion.’SpeakingoftheworkintheTransvaalof‘myfriendsPolakandothers’,Ritchasked:‘WhatJewdarecoquettewiththedemonsofracialprejudice,religiousintolerance,orthejealousiesengenderedbysuperiorbusinessacumen,thrift,sobrietyandgeneralself-discipline?’32
InthefirstweekofApril1908,HenryPolakenrolledasanattorneyoftheSupremeCourtofTransvaal.HehadcompletedthreeyearsasaclerkinGandhi’soffice,andalsopassedthenecessaryexaminations.AsforGandhihimself,hecontinuedtodraftpetitionsonbehalfofclientstravellingtoIndia,whowishedtohavethepaperworkinplacetoallowthemre-entry.HisclientsincludedMuslims,Hindus,Parsis,Christiansand–significantly–someChinese.GandhicomplainedtoMontfordChamneyofexcessivedelaysingrantingexitpermits,andofthe‘latentfeelingofsuspicion’inthemindsofmanyIndiansthattheywerebeingsingledoutforspecialharassment.33
InthelastweekofApril,threenewbillswereintroducedintheNatalLegislature.ThefirstsoughttostoptheimportofindenturedIndianlabourafterJune1911;thesecondtosuspendtheissuingofnewtradinglicencestoIndiansafterAugust1908;thethirdtoterminateexistingIndianlicencesaftertenyears,subjecttothepaymentofcompensationequivalenttothreeyears’profit.ThebillswereclearlymeanttoprotecttheinterestsofEuropeantradersagainsttheirhardworkingIndiancounterparts.Evenso,theywereextremelysevere.Asaliberalwhitenewspaperpointedlyasked:
IsanIndiannottobeallowedtokeepabarber’sshoptoshaveandcutthehairofhisowncountrymen?Ishenottobeallowedtohawkthevegetableshegrowsonthelittlegardenhehas,ortosellthefishhemayhavecaughtintheBayorontheopensea?Ishenottobeallowedtosupplythespecialwantsofhisowncountrymeninthepeculiararticles,someofthemconnectedwith
religiousobservances,whichnoEuropeancouldverywelldealin?34
Gandhiwelcomedthefirstbill,forhetoowishedtoseetheendingoftheharsh,dehumanizingsystemofindenturedlabour.But,hewrote,‘theothertwoBillsareasignorantastheyaretyrannical.’Ifnotrescinded,theymighthavetobefought‘withtheswordofsatyagraha’.35
IntheTransvaal,thecompromisebetweentheIndiansandtheGovernmentwascomingunderstrain.InearlyMay,Smutsdecidedthatthewindowofvoluntaryregistrationwouldbeopenforthreemonthsaltogether.Formerresidentscomingbacktothecolonyafter9Augustwouldhavetheircasesexaminedunderthenotorious(andstillunrepealed)actof1907.GandhiwrotetotheGovernmenttoreconsider.Hehadverynearlylosthislifeasaresultofthecompromiseonthefingerprintquestion.Now,ifhewasseenashavingacquiescedinclosingthedoortolate-comers,hewouldbe‘totallyunworthyofthetrustreposedinmebymycountrymen’.36
On17May,thePresidentoftheBritishIndianAssociation,EssopMia,wassetuponbyaPathaninthestreet,andbadlyinjured.HewastargetedbecauseofhisclosenesstoGandhi.GandhiwrotetoSmuts,warningthat‘manymoremaybeassaultedin[the]nearfuture’.He‘dailyreceive[d]indignantletterssayingthatIhaveentirelymisledthepeopleastothecompromiseandthatthelawisnotgoingtoberepealedatall’.HeaskedtheColonialSecretary,‘forthesakeofthosewhohavehelpedtheGovernment’,toannouncethattheAsiaticActof1907wouldberescinded,andthatnewarrivalscouldregisterthemselvesvoluntarily.37
TheGovernmentwasunyielding.Voluntaryregistrationwouldnotbepermittedbeyond9August.Smuts’secretarytoldGandhi,somewhatgratuitously,that‘ifyouthinkthatyourpersonisinanywayindanger,youwillimmediatelyavailyourselfoftheprotectionofthepolice,whichtheGovernmentwillbeonlytoogladtosupply.’38
TheinsensitivityoftheGovernmentwasansweredbyahardeningoftheIndianposition.InthelastweekofMay,GandhiwrotetoMontfordChamneyaskinghimtoreturnthepaperssubmittedwithhisapplicationforregistration.
Hewantedthepapersback,hesaid,becauseoftheGovernment’s‘breachofspiritofthecompromise’.LeungQuinnandThambiNaidoo,hisfellowsignatoriestothepactwithSmuts,likewisewroteaskingfortheirpapers.Bothinsistedthat‘theonlyreasonweacceptedthecompromisewasinordertobringabouttherepealoftheAct’.HundredsofIndiansandChinesefollowedtheirleadersindemandingthereturnoftheirpapers.Theywereall‘oncemoreprepared…tosubmittothepunishmentsinvolvedinnon-submissiontotheAsiaticAct’.39
SmutsnowsummonedGandhitoPretoria.Theymeton6June,withGandhiremindingtheGeneralofhispromise,madeinJanuary,that‘iftheAsiaticscarriedouttheirpartofthecompromise,youwillrepealtheAct’.Smutsrememberedtheirconversationdifferently;hehad,heclaimed,givennosuchassurance.ThelawyerreturnedtoJohannesburg‘withoutadefiniteassuranceofrepeal’.Indespair,GandhiwrotetoAlbertCartwrightaskinghimtoresumehisroleasan‘AngelofPeace’andchangetheGovernment’smindin‘favourofJusticeandRighteousness’.GandhiandSmutsmetagainthefollowingweek.Theconversationwasless
thancourteous.TheColonialSecretarysaidnewlegislationtogovernIndianimmigrationwasunderconsideration.Gandhiaskedthatitallowpre-(Boer)warresidentsandpossessorsofBoer-issuedcertificatestovoluntarilyregister,andthateducatedIndiansbeallowedtoenteronthesametermsasEuropeans,namely,afterpassingatest.Smutswouldnotcommittotheseterms;whatwasworse,heinsinuatedthatGandhididnotreallyrepresenttheIndiansoftheTransvaal.On22June,GandhimetSmutsforthethirdtimeinasmanyweeks.The
discussionsprovedfruitless.Inastatementissuedtothepress,GandhichargedtheGeneralwithhaving‘wreckedawholecompromisetoavoidthepossibleaccessiontotheAsiaticpopulationoftheColonyoftwothousandAsiaticsasanoutsidefigure’.Herecalledthatwhen,backinJanuary,hehadcommencedtalkswiththeGovernment,somecolleagueshadwarnedthattherulerswerenottobetrusted.Theyarguedthattherepealofthe1907Actshouldhaveprecededvoluntaryregistration.Gandhihadtoldthem‘thatwasnotadignifiedpositiontotakeup’;now,itseemed,hiscriticshadbeenvindicated.40
SmutsexpressedhisownfrustrationstothebusinessmanWilliamHosken.Whileotherconcessionswerepossible,saidtheGeneral,‘therepealoutandoutoftheAsiaticAct’wasoutofthequestion.The‘whitepopulationisbecomingdailymoreexasperatedanddemandingevenmorestringentlegislation’.Bymakingfreshdemands,Gandhihad‘thrownaway’a‘goldenchanceforafinalsettlement’.41
Thebattlelineshadoncemorebeendrawn.AmeetingofIndianswasconvenedontheafternoonofWednesday24June1908.ThevenuewastheFordsburgMosqueinJohannesburg,anddelegatesfromallovertheTransvaalwereinattendance.Themeetingresolvedthat,sincetheGandhi–SmutscompromisehadbeenbreachedbytheGovernment,theIndianswouldwithdrawallapplicationsforlicences,reaffirming‘thesolemndeclarationmadeonthe11thdayofSeptember,1906,nottosubmittotheAsiaticLawAmendmentAct,buttosuffer,asloyalcitizensandconscientiousmen,allthepenaltiesconsequentuponnon-submissionthereto.’42
ThenextissueofIndianOpinion,outthatsameSaturday,warnedthatinviewoftheimpasse,satyagrahamightnowhavetoresume.Gandhiremindedhisreadersthat‘inanygreatwar,morethanonebattlehastobefought’.Inthepastdecade,theBoershadfoughttheBritishandJapanhadfoughtRussia,eachwarlastingforseveralyearsandinvolvingseveralfamousbattles.TheIndianstruggle,thoughwagedwithsatyagraharatherthangunpowder,was‘nowhitlessofawar’thantheothers.TheexamplemostrelevanttothemwasthatofJapan,forwhenthatnation’s‘braveheroesforcedtheRussianstobitethedustofthebattle-field,thesunroseintheeast.AnditnowshinesonallthenationsofAsia.ThepeopleoftheEastwillnever,neveragainsubmittoinsultfromtheinsolentwhites.’43
In1903,whenLordMilnerfirstsanctionedspecificlocationsforIndians,aBritishjournalistwarnedthat‘thecontroversyitwillarousewillnotbeconfinedtotheTransvaal,butwillextendtoEnglandandIndia.’44Andsoitdid.ThefactsofthesatyagrahaintheTransvaalwerebecomingknowninGandhi’shomeland.CopiesofIndianOpinionwerereadinBombayandMadras,andfurtherafield.LettersbyGandhitoGokhalewerecirculatedwithinandbeyondCongresscircles.Fromthelastmonthsof1907throughthefirsthalfof1908,the
satyagrahainSouthAfricawasthesubjectofreportsandeditorialsin(amongotherjournals)theSasilekhaofMadras,theVokkaligaPatrikeofBangalore,theInduPrakashofBombay,theKesariofPoona,theWestCoastSpectatorofCalicutandtheDesamatafromRajahmundry–thesepublishedinEnglish,Urdu,Gujarati,Hindi,Kannada,Telugu,Malayalam,Tamilandotherlanguages.TheIndianreportsontheTransvaalprotestsarguedthatdiscriminationabroad
wasaconsequenceofoppressionathome.OnceIndiabecameafreecountry,itwouldbedifficultforforeignerstotreatitscitizenswithimpunity.AnUrduweeklyfromMadrassaidracialdistinctionsintheTransvaalwereparticularlyinvidiousbecausetheBoerswere‘noteducatedandculturedliketheIndians’.Theywere,infact,quite‘wild’,theirwildnessevidencedbythefactthattherewasnotasingleuniversityintheircountry.ATamilweeklyprintedinthesamecitycalledthesatyagrahis‘trueAryaputras’,whohadchosentogotojailtoupholdnationalhonourandself-respect.TheShaktiofSuratinterpretedthestrugglemorebroadlystill:theprotestsofIndiansinSouthAfrica,itsaid,reflectedAsia’sawakeningaftercenturiesofdeepslumber.Itwasamicrocosmofawider‘struggleforexistencebetweenthewhiteandtheblackraces’.TheGujaratipresswroteappreciativelyofthemanleadingtheresistance,
theirnativeson,MohandasK.Gandhi,borninPorbandarandeducatedinRajkot.Vartaman,aGujaratipaperpublishedoutofBombay,saidthe‘wholeofIndiawasproud’of‘MrGandhiandhisgallantband’.TheMahiKanthaGazetteofSuratinvokedtheepics:‘ThesuccessofMrGandhi,’itclaimed,‘hasprovedtotheworldthatinspiteofherpoverty,MotherIndiaisnotyetbankruptofmenofthetypeofBhishma,Arjuna,Dronaandothers.’45
Thiswidespreadcoverageinthepresswasconsolidatedbypublicmeetingsheldinsolidaritywiththeresisters.AmeetinginKarachion28January1908conveyeditssupportto‘therelationsofMrGandhi’.Thenextday,theAgaKhanchairedameetinginBombay,atwhichsome7,000peoplewerepresent.Here,‘referencestoMrGandhi’simprisonmentwerereceivedwithprolongedcriesof“Shame”.’TherepressionintheTransvaal,saidonespeaker,had‘producedagrowingsenseofwronganduniversalindignationamongallcreedsandcastesinIndia’.AnotherspeakerwarnedofthedangerstotheRajifthemethodspractisedinSouthAfricawereextendedtothesubcontinent.‘Howwill
BritishstatesmencarryontheEmpire,’heasked,‘if300,000,000[Indians]aredegradedtoday,disaffectedtomorrow,andrebelliousintheend?’AtameetinginMadras,thesocialreformerandcampaigningjournalistG.
SubramaniaAiyarcommendedthe‘manfulstruggleagainstoppressionandpersecution’ofGandhiandcompany.AmeetinginPatnaproclaimedthat‘IndiacannotpraytohavetruersonsthanMrGandhiandhiscompatriots.’OthermeetingsofsolidarityandsupportwereheldinSurat,Ahmedabad,Kathiar,Lahore,Aligarh,CoimbatoreandJullundur.ThenameofMohandasK.Gandhiwasnowbecomingreasonablywell-known
inIndia.Ameetingwhichmayhavegivenhimgreatcheerwasheldinhishometown,Porbandar,on18January1908.ThevenuewasanhistoricbuildingknownastheSatsvarupHaveli.AMuslimwasinthechair;aHindumadethemainspeech.Fourresolutionswerepassed.Thelastthreechastised,indifferentways,theImperialGovernmentfornothonouringitsobligationstoitsIndiansubjects.Thesewerecastingeneralterms;thefirstresolution,ontheotherhand,expressedamoreintimate,localprideandpatriotism.Itsaidthat
thepeopleofPorbandarhavelearntwithgreatsorrowthatMrM.K.Gandhi,whowasbornatPorbandar,asalsootherrespectableIndians,havebeenimprisonedbytheTransvaalGovernment.ThismeetingemphaticallydeclaresthattheyareproudofMrGandhi,andthattheyhighlyappreciatetheservicesthatheisrenderingtotheMother-country.
TheresolutionsweresenttotheSecretaryofStateforIndia,LordMorley,urginghimto‘viewthisquestionfromapointconsideringyourselftobeanIndianforthetimebeing.ThefateandfutureofIndiaisinvolved.’46
ThesupportforGandhi’smovementdisgustedavisitortothesubcontinent–aglobetrottingBritishpreachernamedG.N.Thompson.ThompsonhadspenttimeinSouthAfrica,wherehewaspersuadedoftheneedtokeepoutAsiatics.Inthesummerandautumnof1908,hetouredthedistrictsoftheMadrasPresidency,tellingaudiencesthatitwas‘quiteunreasonablefortheSeditionmongersheretotalkthattheIndiansintheTransvaalarebeingill-treatedbytheBritishandconsequentlyloyaltyinIndiaisbeingstrained.’For‘theBoersarenosubjectraceandwillneverbedictatedto’.‘BoerlawwillprevailintheTransvaal’;and‘MrGandhiismostpervertedinhisagitation.’47
BackinJohannesburg,Gandhiwascultivatingnewfriendshipswithwhitepeople.AjewellernamedGabrielI.Isaachadbecomeincreasinglyattractedto
theIndianlawyerandhiscause.AnEnglishJew,andapractisingvegetarian,IsaacraisedmoneyforIndianOpinionandlivedforatimeatPhoenix.Inamoreemphaticexpressionofsupport,heofferedtotemporarilytakeovertherunningofshopsownedbysatyagrahisinjail.48
InMay1908,GandhispentseveraldaysinthecompanyofavisitingEnglishclergymannamedF.B.Meyer.MeyerwasthepastorofRegent’sParkChapelinLondon,andapastpresidentoftheBaptistUnionandoftheNationalFederationofFreeChurches.Hewaswellknownasacampaigneragainstprize-fighting.(Whenaskedwhetherhehadeverseenaboxingmatch,Meyeransweredthathewouldratherundergoasurgicaloperationthanwatchone.)49
MeyerandhiswifehadcomeonatourofSouthAfrica.TheyarrivedinJohannesburgbywayofCapeTown,KimberleyandBloemfontein.HismaincontactinthecitywashisfellowBaptistJosephDoke,whoputhimontoGandhi.After‘prolongedwalksandtalks’withthelawyer,Meyer‘wasledtoformahighestimateofhispersonalcharacter.’AmongthetopicstheydiscussedweretheHinduviewoflife(anddeath),andtheuseofwaterinprayer.Thepriestwasimpressedtofindthat‘whilsttenaciousofhisHindooreligiousviews’,Gandhihad‘agreatreverenceforJesusChrist’.MeyerexpressedacautioussympathywithGandhi’smovementofpassive
resistance.OntheonehandheseemedpersuadedthattheAsiaticActwas,inhisnewfriend’swords,‘classlegislationofadegradingtype’.Ontheother,thewhitesintheTransvaalhadcomplainedtohimofthetradepracticesoftheIndians.Thatprisonersofconsciencewereputtohardlabourmadehimslightlylessthaneven-handed.‘ObviouslyIcannottakesides,’remarkedtheminister,‘andIcanhavenosympathywithanyunfaircuttingofprices,butitseemsbarbaroustoputHindoogentlementomenialwork,generallygiventoKaffirs.’50
GandhiwasalsohavingregularwalksandtalkswithaEuropeanresidentinJohannesburg,hisfriendthearchitectHermannKallenbach.InMarch1908,withhisfamilystillatPhoenix,GandhimovedoutofthehousehesharedwiththePolaksintoKallenbach’shomeinthesuburbofOrchards.ThehousecombinedEuropeanelements,suchaslargebaywindows,withAfricanones,suchasathatchedroof.Indeferencetothelattertheownerhadcalledit‘TheKraal’.51
Thechangeofresidencewaspromptedbytwothings.HenryandMillienowhadchildrenoftheirown,andneededthespace.AndGandhiwishedtopursuehisownself-improvementmoreseriously,aprojectinwhichKallenbachwasafarmorecongenialpartnerthanthePolaks.BeforehemetGandhi,Kallenbachhadlivedluxuriously.Aftercomingunderhisinfluence,hehadreducedhisexpensesbysome90percent,afactreportedwithsomesatisfactionbyGandhi.Risingatfivea.m.,theydidalltheirowncookingandcleaning;theirsmusthavebeentheonlyhouseinthiswhiteneighbourhoodwithoutaservant.ByGandhi’sadmissionthebulkoftheworkfellonhisJewishfriend.CarpentrywasKallenbach’sparticularpassion,heremanifestinthemakingofnewtablesandchairsandincontinuingmodificationstowindowsanddoors.Afterbreakfast(usuallymilkandfruits)thefriendswalkedsomefivemiles
intothecity,toattendtotheirrespectivesetsofclients.Iftheyhadanearlymeetingtheycycledinstead,Gandhigettingoffhisbikeonthesteeperslopes.Oncetheday’sworkwasdonetheywalkedorcycledbacktoTheKraal.GandhiwrotetoJohnCordesthatKallenbachandheliveda‘reasonable’ifnota‘popular’life.Theyhadlearnttobetolerantofoneanother,andtogiveeachotherthebenefitofdoubt.52
AmongthethingsthatbroughtGandhiandKallenbachtogetherwasasharedadmirationfortheworksofLeoTolstoy,whoatthistimewascertainlythemostfamouswriterintheworld.Tolstoywasadmiredforhisnovelsandstories,andinsomequarters,evenmoreforhisattemptsatsimplifyinghislife.Inhisearlyfiftieshehadaconversionexperience,followingwhichhegaveupalcohol,tobaccoandmeat.Hisvegetarianismbecamesowell-knownthathewasaskedtowriteanintroductiontoabookofHenrySalt’s.Hetookupworkinginthefields,andsplittingwoodandmakingshoesinabidtoempathizewithhisserfs.Fromamartialbackground,henowbegantopreachthevirtuesofpacifism.AlthoughbornandraisedintheRussianOrthodoxChurch,hedevelopedadeepinterestinHinduismandBuddhism.OfTolstoy’smanytransitions,themostpainfulwashisembraceofcelibacy.
Inhisyouthhehadbeen(inhisownwords),‘aradicalchaserafterwomen’.Hiswifewentthroughmorethanadozenpregnancies.Hehadaffairswithpeasantwomenonhisestate.Amanof‘wildpassion’,hesoughtinmiddleagetogiveupsexalongwiththeotherpleasureshehadforsaken.53
Tolstoy’sembraceofthesimplelifewaswidelyspokenof,andoftenemulated.AcrossEurope,AsiaandNorthAmerica,hisfollowersrefusedtoenrolformilitaryservice,establishedcraftandfarmingco-operatives,practisedvegetarianismandpreachedreligioustolerance.Readingandveneratingtheirmaster,theseTolstoyanssoughttodointheirhomelandswhatTolstoywasbelievedtohavedoneinhis.54
TheexperimentsofGandhiandKallenbachinJohannesburgwereofapiecewiththisworldwidetrend.Bothwerefrommiddle-classbackgrounds;bothpractisedprofessionsthatbroughtthemclosetocirclesofwealthandpower.ReadingTolstoywasforeachaneducativeandevenepiphanicexperience.Forthelawyer,itconsolidatedthenon-attachmenttoworldlypossessionssoexaltedintheHinduandJaintraditions;forthearchitect,itprovidedanencouragementtoembracealifeofausterityandabstinencethathisown,Jewish,traditiondidnotmandateand(atleastwithregardtocelibacy)perhapsdidnotcomprehend.GandhiandTolstoywereakiningoodwaysandbad.Bothwereindifferent
fathersandlessthansolicitoushusbands.Therewerealsodifferences.Gandhi’sprosestylewasmorerestrained,lesspolemical.WhereasTolstoylovednature,andtookhisfamilyforholidaysinthehills,Gandhididnotmuchcareforbeaches,parksorforests.AlthoughheoftenvisitedCapeTown,thereisnorecordofhiseverhavingclimbedTableMountain.Once,whentheGandhiswereinCapeTownandManilalwantedtostayanextradaytoclimbit,hisfathertoldhimthattherewasnoneed,since‘whenyougohometoIndiayoucangouptotheHimalayaswhichcontainthousandsofTableMountains’.55
WhereGandhimorecloselyemulatedhisRussianidolwasinhisincreasingdisenchantmentwithhisprofession.Despiteconstantlybeingurgedtodoso,Tolstoyturnedawayfromwritingthesortofnovelswhichhadmadehimfamous.Likewise,Gandhihadcometoseehislegalpracticemoreasanobligationthanasacareer.Hewouldattendtocasesofdiscrimination,buthisheartlay(asTolstoy’sdid)inpersonalimprovementandsocialreform.TolstoyhadoncewrittentoanEnglishdisciplerejectingformal,institutional
Christianity,andinsteadexalting‘thesincereeffortmadebyeachindividualpersontocoordinateone’slifeandactionswiththosemoralfoundationsoneconsiderstobetrue,regardlessofthedemandsoffamily,society,andgovernment’.56This,precisely,wasthegoalthatGandhiandKallenbachhadset
themselves.Thusitcametobethat,inaSouthAfricantownin1908,alawyerfromwesternIndiaandanarchitectfromeasternEuropesetouttoruntheirTolstoyanexperiment.ThecontoursoftheirlifetogetheremergeclearlyinaletterwritteninJune1908byKallenbachtohisbrotherSimon.Thiswentintodetailsabouttheirdomesticlabours–‘wecook,bake,scrubandarecleaningthehouseandtheyard;wearepolishingourshoes,andareworkingintheflowerandvegetablegarden.’Theseactivitieswereforeigntothetraditionsandhabitsofthesocialclassto
whichKallenbach’sfamilyhadaspired.AshetoldSimon,hehadnowradicallydepartedfromthelifestyleofthemodernizingJewishbourgeoisieofEurope.ThestimulusforthesedepartureswashisHinduhousemate,whowas‘avegetarianaccordingtohisreligiousconvictions’,andyet‘anextraordinarilygoodandcapableperson’.UnderhisinfluenceKallenbachhadgivenupmeat;evenmoredramatically,asheinformedhisbrother,‘forthelast18monthsIhavegivenupmysexlife.’Bythesechangesandchoices,Hermannhad‘gainedincharacter–strength–mentalvitalityandphysicaldevelopment;mybodilywell-beinghadbecomebiggerandbetter.’InLondon,twentyyearspreviously,GandhihadsharedahomewithJosiah
Oldfield.Theflatmatesorganizedpartiesandvisitedhomestoconvertmeat-eaterstovegetarianism.Now,livingwithKallenbachinJohannesburg,Gandhisoughtrathertoconverthimself(andhishousemate),bypractisingtheausterityanddetachmentfromworldlypleasuresadvocatedbyhisoldpreceptorRaychandbhaiandhisnewpreceptorLeoTolstoy.Bythistime,thereweretwodistinctgroupsamongGandhi’sfollowersand
friends.Onegroupendorsedhispoliticalprogramme:theywerepreparedtogotojailforhim,andtogivespeechesandwritearticlesinfavourofliftingrestrictionsagainsttheIndians.ManyGujaratimerchantsandTamilhawkersfellintothiscategory;asdidEuropeanfriendssuchasHenryandMilliePolak.Asecond,smallergroupendorsedGandhi’smoralandspiritualprogrammeas
well.Theysimplifiedtheirdietandtheirneeds,theyworkedwiththeirhandsathomeandatthepress,theysoughttopromoteinter-faithunderstanding,theysought(notalwayssuccessfully)topractisebrahmacharya.InthisgroupwereGandhi’snephewsChhaganlalandMaganlal,AlbertWest,andthenewresidentofPhoenix,JohnCordes.AndnowHermannKallenbach,too.
Gandhihadalreadytakenavowofcelibacy;Kallenbach,underhisinfluence,joinedhim.TokeepthevowwashardenoughfortheIndian;butevenharderfortheJew.Foronething,Gandhiwasolder,andhadalreadybegottenfourchildren.Foranother,Indianreligioustraditionsplacedaveryhighvalueonabstinencefromsexualpleasure.However,Kallenbachwasyoungerandhighlysexed.Besides,celibacywasutterlyforeigntotheJewishtradition,wherereligiousfulfilmentwascompatiblewithfamilylifeandsexualrelations.57
Gandhihadfailedtoconverthisowneldestson,Harilal,tobrahmacharya.Theboyhadmarriedagainsthiswishes,andwasplanningafamilytoo.LikeHarilal,Kallenbachwasdeeplyattractedtowomen.Thathestillchosetobecelibatewasproofofhisadmiration,evenawe,forGandhi.Havingdescribed,tohisbrotherSimon,hislifewithhisnewmentor,Kallenbachspokeofhowitmightturnoutinthefuture.Inthreemonths,hetoldhisbrother,paymentsforworkinprogresswouldmakehimfinanciallyindependent.Then,withanannualincomeof£250,hewouldbefreetoleave,ashehoped,tostudyinLondon.Buthewouldnotgoalone.For‘probablyMrGandhi,whoisabarrister-at-law,planstogowithmeinordertostudymedicineinLondon;thereheplanstoacquainthimselfwithHydrotherapy(abranchofNaturopathy).Foryears,MrGandhihadbeendeeplyinterestedinthestudyandmethodsofallnaturalhealingmethods.’Kallenbachhimselfwasundecidedwhattostudy,whether‘languages,
architectureorevenmedicine’.HerelishedtheprospectofGandhiandhebeingstudentstogether,whentheywould‘naturally,livetogetherinLondonandcontinueourlifeinasimilarfashionaswelivehere’.Theplanswerefirmbutnotyetfinal,Kallenbachtellinghisbrotherthat‘if,forsomereasonorother,MrGandhiwillbepreventedfromleavingSouthAfricawithin3or4months,Iintendwaitingforhimtilltheendoftheyear.However,thereafterIintendgoingonmyown.’58
ThefactthatGandhiwascontemplatingleavingSouthAfricain1908tostudymedicineinLondonseemstohaveescapedtheattentionofhistoriansandbiographers.ButthereisacontemporaryverificationofKallenbach’sclaim,inthebookofhisSouthAfricantravelswrittenbytheBaptistpreacherF.B.Meyer.‘Hepractisesasabarrister,’wroteMeyerofGandhiinthesummerof1908,‘but,notcontentwithoneprofession,ishopingtovisitLondonagain
shortly,tostudymedicine,andgivehissonswideropportunitiesforrealisingtheidealswithwhichhehasinspiredthem.’59
Gandhihadlongbeenkeenonnaturalmethodsofhealing–applyingmudpoulticestowounds,forexample,andtakingtheso-calledKuhnebath,whereonecleansedoneselfwithwaterinwhichsaltandbakingsodaweremixed.Hydropathyandnaturopathywereattractingincreasingattentionintheearlytwentiethcentury,withinfluentialschoolsandpractitionersacrossWesternEuropeandNorthAmerica.Hotwater,coldwaterandsteamwerebeingusedtotreatfever,painsandothersymptomsofill-health(includingalcoholism).60
Gandhi’sinterestinnaturopathywasofapiecewithhisadmirationforTolstoyandRuskin,whosewritingsstressedtheneedtoshedpossessionsandtoadoptascepticalifnotcriticalattitudetothefastpaceandmaterialorientationofmodernindustrialcivilization.Still,thathewouldwishtopursuethestudyofthisunorthodoxbranchofmedicinefull-timespeaksofaninterestratherdeeperthanthatsuggestedbyhisownwritings.Hewasnowalmostthirty-nine;establishedasalawyer,acclaimedasacommunityleader,withobligationstohiswifeandchildren.Whatwouldmotivatehimnowtoseekadifferentcareeronadifferentcontinent?Andhowseriouswasthisambition?Thereisnohintofitinhisautobiographicalwritings;andnohintofcourseintheexhortativearticlesforpublicconsumptionthathewroteforIndianOpinion.Gandhihadstudiedlawinonecity,Londonandpractiseditinfourother
cities–Rajkot,Bombay,DurbanandJohannesburg.Hislifethusfarhadbeenmarkedbymultipledislocations–asanadulthehadlivedinadozendifferenthouses.Butatleasthiscareerhadbeenthesame.Andinthiscareerhehadsteadilybecomemoresuccessful.Inrecentyears,hehadincreasinglysubordinatedhislegalpracticetohissocialactivism.Thereasonforthisisclear–itwasduetothecompellingneedtosecureIndiansinSouthAfricatheirrights.Thereasonforhiswantingtoqualifyasadoctorarelessapparent.Whynowwouldhewanttoexchangeoneprofessionforanother?Perhapshewasboredwiththelaw.TherangeofcasesforanIndianrepresentingotherIndianswasratherlimitedinSouthAfrica.Theissuingofnewpermitsandlicences,therenewaloflapsedpermitsandlicences–thesemoreorlessexhaustedwhathecoulddoforhisclients.
Gandhiseemstohavethought,orhoped,thatthepressureoftheprotestsheledwouldpersuadeGeneralSmutstohonourhispromiseandrepealtheobnoxiousAsiaticActof1907.Ifthathappened,IndiansinSouthAfricawouldhavetheirrightsprotected.AndhewouldbefreetoleaveforLondontostudymedicine.Perhaps,innowcontemplatingacareerinmedicine,Gandhiwasinspiredby
theexampleofothers.Awomanhegreatlyadmired,AnnaKingsford,hadacquiredamedicaldegreedespiterefusingtodissectanimals.ShecombinedmedicinewithvegetarianismandheterodoxChristianity.TwoofGandhi’sclosestfriends,JosiahOldfieldandPranjivanMehta,hadqualifiedasbarristersanddoctorsboth.Mehtahadinfactgoneontotakeupathirdprofessionaltogether,thebuyingandsellingofjewellery.Itmaybethattheirsuccessful(andfulfilling)changesofprofessionnowencouragedGandhitodolikewise.ButwhatdidGandhimeanwhenhetoldMeyerthatbygoingtoEnglandhewouldgivehissons‘wideropportunities’?HarilalhadnowworkedforalmosttwoyearsonIndianOpinion;andManilalhadbegunassistinginthejournal’soperationsaswell.Didtheirfatherthinkthatbyremovinghimselffromthescene,theboyswouldbecomemoreresponsibleandmature?
Ontheevidence–publishedaswellasunpublished–HermannKallenbachwasdeeplydevotedtoGandhi.TheIndianwastohimacombinationofelderbrotherandmoralpreceptor.HegreatlylookedforwardtotheirlifetogetherinLondon.Thepossiblebarriershealludedto–the‘somereasonoranother’–were,onesupposes,personalconstraints–wouldKasturbaandtheirsonshaveapprovedofGandhigoing?–andpoliticalcompulsions–howwouldtheIndiansoftheTransvaalandNatalhavereactedtotheemigrationoftheirleader?Intheevent,itwastheGovernment’sintransigencethatputpaidtotheplans
ofthetwofriends.WhenGeneralSmutsrefusedtorepealtheActand,tomakemattersworse,introducedfreshlawsaimedattheIndians,Gandhiandhiscolleagueswerecompelledtostartanewroundofsatyagraha.Kallenbach’slettertohisbrotherSimonwaspostedon14June;twoweekslater,GandhiannouncedtohiscolleaguesthathistalkswithSmutshadfailed.TheIndianshadnowtofollowtheexampleoftheJapaneseand,albeitnon-violently,maketheirEuropeanopponents‘bitethedust’.
InearlyJuly,writinghisweekly‘JohannesburgLetter’forIndianOpinion,Gandhiexplainedwhatthecomingsatyagrahawasabout.ItwasfortherightsofthoseIndianswhoheldBoercertificatesofresidence,forthosepastresidentsoftheTransvaalwhowerepresentlyoutsidethecolony,andforeducatedIndians.Themethodsitwouldfollowweretheburningofregistrationcertificates,andtherefusaltogivesignaturesorfingerprintsifaskedtobythepolice.Iftradersorhawkersweredeniedlicencesbecausetheywouldnotsignorprovidefingerprints,theywouldcontinuetrading.Imprisonmentonaccountofanyofthesebreachesofthelawwouldbeimmediatelyaccepted.Totheresisters,Gandhiwouldprovidelegalassistance‘freeofchargeasusual’.61
TheBritishIndianAssociationnowscheduledamassburningofcertificatesforSunday12July1908,butthenagreedtoapostponementattherequestofAlbertCartwrightandWilliamHosken.Thesewhiteliberalsstillhopedasettlementwouldbestruck.TheycarriedGandhi’sviewstoSmuts,andviceversa.Intheevent,theangelsofpeacefoundbothsidestobeunyielding.SmutsaccusedGandhiofexploitingIndianpermit-seekersforhisprofessionalgain;heevenclaimedthatthelawyerchargedhisMuslimclientsmorethanhisHinduones.Gandhidismissedthisasa‘damnablelie’.Thedifferencesbetweenthetwomenwereofperceptionandofpolicy.Smuts
thoughtthatasmanyas15,000IndianshadBoercertificatesandhenceclaimstore-entertheTransvaal;Gandhiinsistedthatthenumberdidnotexceed1,000.Of‘paramountimportance’,however,weretherightsofeducatedIndians.GandhitoldCartwrightthathe
shoulddeserveseverestcondemnationevenfromGeneralSmutsandallmyEuropeanfriends,ifI,abarristerhavingreceivedaliberaleducation,weretosaythatmyfellow-barristersshouldnotentertheTransvaaloranyotherColony,becausetheywereIndians.LettheeducationtestbeassevereasGeneralSmutschoosestomakeit…[B]utaracialtestIshallneveraccept.
Theresultofthesedifferences,saidGandhi,would‘beapetitionto[theTransvaal]Parliamentagainsttheclause[prohibitingtheentryofeducatedIndians],apetitiontotheImperialGovernment,and,ifIcancarrymycountrymenwithme,undoubtedlypassiveresistance.’62
Gandhi’spositionwasconsistentwithhisbroaderviewofthepastandfutureofracerelationsinSouthAfrica.Hewas,sotospeak,a‘non-racialincrementalist’.Whilerecognizingthetechnological,political,economicand
socialsuperiorityofEuropeans,hesawnoreasonwhyitmustnecessarilybemaintainedintothefuture.Individualsfromothercultureswerecapable,undertherightconditionsandinthefullnessoftime,ofachievingparity(inallsenses)withtherulingrace.Theseviewsfindexpressioninafascinating(andneglected)speechdelivered
byGandhiattheJohannesburgYMCAinMay1908.Withtherecentsatyagrahainmind,theAssociationhadorganizedadebateonthetopic:‘AreAsiaticsandtheColouredracesamenacetotheEmpire?’Gandhimayhavebeentheonlynon-whitepresent;hewascertainlytheonly
non-whitespeaker.Opposingthemotion,hepointedoutthatthelabourofAfricansandAsianshadmadetheEmpirewhatitwas.‘WhocanthinkoftheBritishEmpirewithoutIndia?’heasked,adding,‘SouthAfricawouldprobablybeahowlingwildernesswithouttheAfricans.’Gandhithencontrastedwesterncivilization,whichwasrestless,energeticand
centrifugal,witheasterncivilization,whichwascontemplativeandcentripetal.Thesetendedatpresenttobeopposingtendencies,‘butperhapsintheeconomyofnaturebotharenecessary.’Hewelcomedtheirmeeting,wherebyeasterncivilizationwouldbe‘quickenedwiththewesternspirit’,andthelatter,presentlydirectionless,wouldbeinfusedwithapurpose.Gandhibelieved–orhoped–thatastheencounterproceeded,‘theeasterncivilizationwillbecomepredominant,becauseithasagoal.’SomeEuropeanswantedtheIndianstobethrownoutofSouthAfrica.Gandhi
answeredtheseextremistsbycontrastingdifferentpartsoftheimperialcapital,London.
TherearemanycomplaintsagainstthepeoplelivingintheEastEndofLondonbythepeoplelivingintheWestEnd,butnoonehassuggestedthat,therefore,thepeopleintheEastEndshouldbesweptaway.Sweepawaytherack-rentandtheconditionsprevailingintheEastEnd,anditsinhabitantsshallbeasgoodasthoseintheWestEnd.
GandhiusedthiscomparisontourgethecoloniststoraisethestandingandstatusoftheIndians,theirfellowimmigrants;allowingthemto‘livefreelywithoutbeingrestricted,movefreelywithoutbeingrestricted,ownland,andtradehonestly.’HeacknowledgedthattospeakofpoliticalrightsforIndiansandAfricanswaspremature,butinsistedthesetoowouldcome,that,infact,itwas‘themissionoftheEnglishrace,evenwhentherearesubjectraces,toraise
them,toequalitywiththemselves,togivethemabsolutelyfreeinstitutionsandmakethemabsolutelyfreemen.’If‘welookintothefuture,’hedaringlyasked,‘isitnotaheritagewehadtoleavetoposteritythatallthedifferentracescommingleandproduceacivilisationthatperhapstheworldhasnotyetseen?’63
GandhiwasnowtheleadingcolouredresidentofJohannesburg.Hisspeechboremarksofhiselevatedstatus,andtheresponsibilitiesthatwentwithit.Forperhapsthefirsttimeinpublic,heusedtheneutral‘Africans’insteadofthepejorative‘Kaffirs’.Thechangeinlanguagereflectedadeeperchangeinhiswayofthinkingabouttheworld.WhenhefirstcametoSouthAfrica,GandhihadpleadedforIndianstobedistinguishedfromAfricans,whomhethenconsidered‘uncivilized’.Now,fifteenyearslater,hebroughtallraceswithinasingleambit.Theyallhadsimilarhopes,andwouldonedayhavethesamerights.Inthefuture,IndiansandAfricanswouldbeabsolutelyfreemen,minglingwithBoersandBritonsinanationwhereone’scitizenshipdidnotdependonthecolourofone’sskin.
Withnopossibilityofasettlement,theprotestsresumed.FromJuly1908,Indiansbegancourtingarrestbyhawkingwithoutalicence.Theycarriedbasketsoffruitontheirheads,wentfromdoortodoor,andwaitedforthepolicetoarrestthem.Gandhidefendedtheseresistersincourt.Heaskedtheaccusedtomakeitclearthatthiswasnottheirnormalprofession,andthattheyhadtakentohawkingtoprotestagainsttheGovernment’spolicies.IfGandhiwasbusyelsewhere,hiscolleagueHenryPolakdefendedtheviolators.64
Thesentenceforhawkingwithoutalicencewasnormallyoneweekinprison.Somesatyagrahisbecameserialoffenders,amongthemThambiNaidoo.BackinJuly1907,whentheIndianswereresistingregistration,theTamilactivisthadledthepicketingofthePermitOffice.Whentheydecidedtocourtarrest,hewasoneofthefirsttoenterjail.WhenGandhiforgedacompromisewithSmuts,hethrewtheweightofhisfellowTamilsbehindthesettlement.WhenSmutsdishonouredthepact,heledthesatyagrahisintojailoncemore.ThambiNaidoowasbornandraisedinMauritius,aBritishcolonywhere
Indianswerefreetoliveandtradeastheywished.HechafedattherestrictionsintheTransvaal,whichbroughttotheforehisnaturalcombativenessandmilitancy.Acarrierbyprofession,whenthesatyagrahabeganhewashappyto
doanytaskassignedtohim.Postingletters,carryingloads,arrangingseatsorchairingameetinghimself–allthesehedidtillthetimecametogotojail.WiththeGujaratiswavering,GandhihadcometodependonThambimoreandmore.HewasnowGandhi’schieflieutenant,hispositionconsolidatedbythefactthathehad,withtheadroituseofthatumbrella,wardedoffthelawyer’spotentialassassins.GandhiwassuitablygratefultoThambiNaidooforhissupport.Hecalledhim
asatyagrahi‘withfewequals’,and‘perhapsthebravestandstaunchest’ofalltheIndiansinprison.AlthoughhehadneverbeentoIndia,‘hisloveforthehomelandknewnobounds’.Meanwhile,IndianOpinionwrotethat
beforethemovementcommencedMrThambiNaidoowasaself-satisfiedtrolleycontractorearningafatliving,andwasahappyfamilyman.Today,heisaproudpauper,atruepatriot,andoneofthemostdesirableofcitizensoftheTransvaal,indeedofSouthAfrica.Hisoneconcern,whetherinjailoroutsideit,istobehavelikeatruepassiveresister,andthatistosufferunmurmuringly.
WithThambiinprison,hiswifeVeerammalhadtotakecareoftheirbroodofchildren.Shehadneitherthetimenortheexpertisetomanagehisbusiness,andsotokeepthedebtorsawayshebegantoselloffhishorsesandcarts,onebyone,livingfromweektoweekontheproceeds.65
InthelastweekofJuly1908,afterThambiNaidoohadbeensentencedforthethirdtimewithinamonth,Gandhi,accompaniedbyPolak,DokeandMaulviAhmedMukhtiaroftheHamidiaIslamiaSociety,calledonMrsNaidooto‘expresstheirsympathywithherinherdifficultposition,andtheadmirationthattheyfeelforherhusband’scourageandfortitude’.GandhiandPolak,HinduandJew,stoodwiththefamilywhileDoke,theChristianminister,‘offeredupabriefprayeraskingforhelp,andMaulviSahibtoldMrs.Naidoothathisco-religionistswereallprayingforherhusband’swelfare.’66
MrsNaidoowasheavilypregnant;thefollowingweek,whenthechildwasdelivered,itwasstill-born.Polakaccompaniedthegrievingmothertothecemetery.Later,hecomposedaneditorialsuggestingthat,inthecourtofIndianpublicopinion,‘themurderofMrNaidoo’schildhasbeenattributedtoGeneralSmuts.’67
TofurthertesttheGovernment,theBritishIndianAssociationaskedaliterateParsinamedSorabjeeShapurjeeAdajaniatoentertheTransvaal.Adajania,whospokefluentEnglish,hadmatriculatedfromtheSuratHighSchoolandnow
workedasamanagerofashopintheNataltownofCharleston.HewasaswelleducatedasmostEuropeanswhowishedtomakeahomeinthecolony.However,hisqualificationswere,intheeyesofthelaw,nullifiedbythefactthathewasan‘Asiatic’.HeenteredtheTransvaalinthelastweekofJune,claimingtherighttoresideasaneducatedimmigrant.Hewaschargedwithviolatingthelaw,anddefendedincourtbyGandhi.Toldtoleavethecolonywithinaweek,herefusedtodoso,andwassummonedoncemoretocourt.ThemagistratehearingthecasewasconstrainedtoadmitthatGandhi’sargumentswere‘verysubtleandveryable’.Thelaw’sracialunderpinningsstoodnakedlyexposed.Butthejudgewaspaidtoadminsterit,whichmeantthatAdajaniawassentencedtoonemonthinjailwithhardlabour.68
On28July,GandhidefendedsixIndianschargedwithhawkingwithoutalicence.Gandhiwasnowappearingincourttwoorthreetimesaweekforthesamepurpose.Thiscasewassomewhatdifferent,however,foramongtheaccusedwasHarilal,hiseldestson.Harilal,whohadjustturnedtwenty,waslivingatPhoenix,withhismother,hisbrothersandhiswifeChanchal,whohadrecentlyjoinedhimfromIndia.Hehadbeenpersuadedbyhisfathertojointhesatyagraha.EnteringTransvaalfromNatal,hewasdetainedatthetownofVolksrustfornothavingavalidcertificate,andtoldtoapplyforoneinPretoria.Instead,heproceededtoJohannesburgandimmediatelybegantohawkfruit.Harilalwasfinedonepoundorsevendayshardlabour;liketheothers,heoptedforimprisonment.ThedayHarilalwasreleased,Gandhiwrotealettertohisoldadversary
MontfordChamney.Thetonemixedtruculencewithtriumph.ThejudgehadgivenHarilalGandhianotherchancetoregisterforapermit.‘Ihavethehonourtoinformyou,’wroteGandhitoChamney,‘thatmysonhasnodesiretodoso,andthathewillbepreparedtoansweranyproceedingsthatmightbeinstitutedagainsthimforbreachoftheAsiaticAct.’69
Shortlyafter11a.m.on10August,HarilalGandhiwasaskedtoproducearegistrationcertificatebyapolicemaninJohannesburg.Whenherefused,hewasarrestedandhisfingerprintsforciblytaken.(ThesestillexistinafilepreservedintheNationalArchivesofSouthAfrica–blacksmudgesoftherightandleftthumbs,and‘theplainimpressionsoftheFourFingers[ofeachhand]takensimultaneously’.)Hisparticularsweretakendown–hewas,saidtherecord,five
feet,fourinchesinheight,of‘stout’buildand‘light’complexion,withblackhairandtwoscarsonhisforehead.70
Thesameafternoon,HarilalappearedincourtbeforeMrJordan,with‘Gandhi,sen.’appearingforthedefence.Thefatheraskedthattheaccusedbeorderedtoleavethecolonywithintwenty-fourhours,‘ashewishedtogotoprisonwithhisfriends’.Thejudgerefusedtocomply,insteadgivingHarilalaweektoleave,orfacetheconsequences.Onthemorningofthe18th,thegraceperiodhavingelapsed,Harilalwasarrestedforrefusingtocomplywiththecourtorder.HeappearedoncemorebeforeMrJordan,whosentencedhimtoamonth’simprisonmentwithhardlabour.TheconvictionandincarcerationoftheyoungerGandhigeneratedawaveof
sympathyamongtheIndiansoftheTransvaal.TheHamidiaIslamiaSocietymetandpassedseveralresolutions,thefirstofwhich‘congratulate[d]MrHarilalGandhiforhiscourageinsufferingforhiscommunityatanycost’;thesecondofwhich‘sincerelysympathise[d]withandcongratulate[d]MrandMrsGandhionaccountofthesentencepassedupontheirsonHarilalthroughtheinjusticeoftheTransvaalGovernment’.71
TheimprisonmentofhisteenagesonprovokedacomplexsetofemotionsinGandhi.‘IwanteveryIndiantodowhatHarilalhasdone,’saidGandhipèreinalettertoIndianOpinion.‘ItwillbeapartofHarilal’seducationtogotogaolforthesakeofthecountry.’Bygoingtoprisontheboyhad,inasense,substitutedforthefather.AsGandhiexplained,
IhaveadvisedeveryIndiantotakeuphawking.IamafraidIcannotjoinmyselfsinceIamenrolledasanattorney.Ithereforethoughtitrighttoadvisemysontomakehisroundsasahawker.IhesitatetoaskotherstodothingswhichIcannotdomyself.Ithinkwhatevermysondoesatmyinstancecanbetakentohavebeendonebyme.72
Therewas,then,asenseofpride,andofvindication.Butthereappearsalsotohavebeenaresidualsenseofguilt.‘Harilalisonlyachild,’saidGandhiinthatsameletter.‘Hemayhavedeferredtohisfather’swishesinactinginthismanner.ItisessentialthateveryIndianshouldactonhisown…’Mightithavebeenthatwhiletheboywaswillingandthefatherwillinghimon,hismotherandwifewerenotsokeenonHarilal’scourtingarrest?
14
PrisonerofConscience
Theescalationofpassiveresistanceinthesecondhalfof1908wasviewedwithsomedismaybythewhitepress.ApaperinPretoriathoughtGeneralSmutshad‘loweredtheprestigeoftheColonybyhishandlingoftheAsiaticquestion’.Itchastisedhimforhaving‘startedanothercontroversywithMrGandhi’.ApaperinJohannesburgwaslesseven-handed.ItarguedthatGandhi’stestimonythatSmutshadpromisedtherepealofthe1907Actwas‘certainlynotconclusive’;inanycase,theGeneralwouldhavehadtoratifythepromiseinthelegislature.Thepaperconcludedthat‘whateverhardshipstheAsiaticshavesufferedtheyoweentirelytotherecalcitrancyandfollyoftheirleader.’1
WhethersympathetictoGandhiorhostile,suchcommentsrepresentedahugeleapintheIndian’sstandingintheTransvaal.Beforethesatyagrahaof1907–8,hisoppositenumberonthewhitesidewasMontfordChamney.Infactandinfancy,thelawyerwasopposedtothebureaucrat,thepermit-seekertothepermit-giver.Now,however,hewasbeingequatedwiththescholarandwarheroGeneralSmutsinthepopularimagination.Theyweretheleadersoftheirrespectivecommunities,engagedinanargumentabouttherightsandclaimsofthosetheyrepresented.Thisnewequivalenceisreflectedinthecartoonsofthetime,which,forexample,showedtheAsiaticsledbyGandhiasakintoanelephant,barringthepassageofasteamrollerdrivenbytheGeneralhimself.2
On14August1908,GandhiwrotetoSmutsannouncingthattheIndianswouldmeetsoontoburntheirregistrationcertificates.Then,characteristically,hetemperedhismilitancy,askingtheGeneraltorecognizethat‘thedifferencebetweenyou,asrepresentingtheGovernment,andtheBritishIndiansisverysmallindeed.’ThediscrepancycouldberemovedbytheGovernmentacceptingtheadmissionofeducatedIndiansandpre-warresidentsoftheTransvaal.3
OntheafternoonofSunday16August,some3,000AsianscongregatedoutsidetheFordsburgMosque.OnaraisedplaformsatGandhi,EssopMiaofthe
BritishIndianAssociation,DawadMahomedandParseeRustomjeeoftheNatalIndianCongress,theCapeIndianleaderAdamMahomed,andLeungQuinntorepresenttheChinese.Belowthepodiumwas‘thePresstable,andbeyondthat,aseaofupturnedandexpectantfaces,withdeterminationandabittermerrimentstampeddeepuponeachofthem.’4
Themainspeaker,inevitably,wasGandhi.Oncetooshytoreadfromapreparedtext,hewasnow,adecadelater,verywillingtodirectlyaddressalarge(andmostlycaptive)audience.Claimingthecountrytobe‘asmuchtheIndians’astheEuropeans”,hesaidtherecentlawssoughttotreatthemascattleandnotmen.‘Iwouldfarratherpassthewholeofmylifetimeingaolandbeperfectlyhappythanseemyfellow-countrymensubjectedtoindignityandIshouldcomeoutofgaol.’Thelessonoftheirstrugglewasthat
unenfranchisedthoughweare,unrepresentedthoughweareintheTransvaal,itisopentoustoclotheourselveswithanundyingfranchise,andthisconsistsinrecognizingourhumanity,inrecognizingthatwearepartandparcelofthegreatuniversalwhole,thatthereistheMakerofusallrulingoverthedestiniesofmankindandthatourtrustshouldbeinHimratherthaninearthlykings,andifmycountrymenrecognizethatpositionIsaythatnomatterwhatlegislationispassedoverourheads,ifthatlegislationisinconflictwithourideasofrightandwrong,ifitisinconflictwithourconscience,ifitisinconflictwithourreligion,thenwecansaythatwewillnotsubmittothelegislation.
ThisflightintotheEmpyreanwasfollowedbyadirectattackonanearthlybeing–theProtectorofAsiatics,whomGandhichargedwith‘hopelessincompetenceandignorance’.UnlessMontfordChamneywasremovedfromhisjob,claimedthelawyer,‘therewillbenopeace’.5
AfterGandhihadspoken,theIndianscameuptoplacetheirindividualcertificatesinalargethree-leggedpotpreviouslysaturatedwithwax.
Paraffinwasthenpouredin,andthecertificatessetonfire,amidasceneofthewildestenthusiasm.Thecrowdhurrahedandshoutedthemselveshoarse;hatswerethrownintheair,andwhistlesblown.OneIndian,saidtobealeadingblackleg,walkedontotheplatform,and,settingalighthiscertificate,helditaloft.TheChinesethenmountedtheplatform,andputintheircertificateswiththe
others.6
Thedayafterthisconflagration,GandhiwassummonedtoPretoriatomeetGeneralSmuts.AlsopresentwerethePrimeMinister(GeneralBotha),theleadingOppositionpoliticianSirPercyFitzpatrick(representingtheBritishinterest),WilliamHosken,AlbertCartwrightandLeungQuinn.Theytalkedforthreehours;eventually,theGovernmentagreedtoallowprewarresidentsto
returnandregister;nottoregisterchildrenundersixteen;andtoallowthumbimpressionsorsignatureswhenissuingtradinglicences.Havingyieldedonmanypoints,theGovernmentremainedadamantthatitcouldnotallowtheadmittanceofeducatedIndians.Asforthe1907Act,itwouldnotberepealedbutremaina‘deadletter’.7
Threedaysafterthismeeting,SmutsintroducedanewbillintheTransvaalLegislature,whichcontainedtheconcessionsregardingBoercertificatesandminors,butstillbarrededucatedIndians.Movingthis‘AsiaticRegistrationAmendmentBill’,theColonialSecretaryadmittedthedepthofthepopularoppositionhehadfacedfromtheIndians.Therewas,hesaid,
nomoreawkwardpositionforaGovernmentthanamovementofpassiveresistance…Inmoreprimitivetimesonewouldhavemetitbysimplyissuingadeclarationofwar.Butinthesetimesitisimpossibletodothat,andthereforethesituationbecameaverydifficultoneforustohandle.Ididmybest…tocarryoutthelawandapplythepenaltieswhichhavebeenfixedunderthelaw,andasaresultearlythisyearmanyAsiaticswerelanguishinginprisonsfromoneendofthecountrytothe
other.Thiswasanundesirablestateofaffairs.8
Withoutrightrepressionhavingfailed,saidSmuts,hehaddecidedtoreleaseGandhiandhiscolleagues,anddraftabilllessonerousthanitspredecessor,providingforthevoluntaryregistrationofallAsiaticslegallyresidentintheTransvaal.Smutsassuredhiscolleaguesthatcompromisecertainlydidnotmeancapitulation.Thus,
MrGandhihasreferredtoIndiansbeinginpartnershipwiththewhitepopulationofthiscountry.Ihavenothingtosayagainstthat.ItisaclaimwhichmayappealstronglytotheIndiansandthosewhoareinterestedinthem,butitisaclaimthatthewhitepopulationwillneverallow(sustainedcheers).
Itwillbeimpossibletomeetthemonthatground.9
TheformerJamesonRaiderPercyFitzpatrickspokenext.BeforetheWar,Smutsandhewereonoppositesides;now,withBoerandBritonreconciled,heendorsedtheclosed-doorpolicyagainsttheIndians.TheHousehadto‘beabsolutelyfirmonthepolicythatthisColonywasnotgoingtobethehomeforimmigrantAsiatics(Cheers)’.SouthAfrica,thunderedFitzpatrick,‘wasredeemedfrombarbarismbythewhitepeople’;anditwas‘thewhitepeoplewhowillhavetocarryiton,anddefenditifneedsbe.’10
ThebillwaspassedbytheHousewithintwenty-fourhoursofitsfirstreading.WritingtotheGovernoroftheTransvaal,PrimeMinisterBothaclaimeditmet‘everyreasonableclaim’putforwardbytheIndians.TheGovernor,inturn,
wrotetotheColonialOfficeaskingittorecommendthatHisMajestyassenttoitimmediately,otherwise‘theIndianswillcontinuetheircampaignofresistanceagainstthelawsinforceinthehopethatbysodoingtheymayinfluencethejudgementoftheImperialauthoritiesforthepurposeofobtainingconcessionstheyarenotentitledtoinlaw,injustice,orinreason.’11
Thequestionsthatimmediatelycometomindwhenreadingthis,areofcourse:WhoseJustice?WhichRationality?12
TheconcessionsofferedbytheGovernmentdidnotsatisfytheIndians.ForthenotoriousAsiaticActhadnotbeenformallyrepealed,whileeducatedIndianswerestillbarredfromenteringtheTransvaal.So,on23August,anotherbonfireofcertificateswasorganizedoutsidetheFordsburgMosque.Thistime,somePathansalsojoinedinafterhaving‘admittedtheirpreviouserrors’.Thenextday,GandhiwrotetoSmutsaboutthismeetingandthestrongsentimentsexpressedtherein.Hehopedthat‘colonialstatesmanshipwillstillfindawayoutofthedifficulty,andclosethestrugglethathasnowgoneonfornearlytwoyears’.13
TheGeneralchosenottoanswer.GandhinowaskedfourIndiansfromNatal,amongthemhisoldfriendandpatronParseeRustomjee,tocomeandshowtheirsupport(theothersincludedthepresidentandsecretaryoftheNatalIndianCongress).TheNatalianstouredthetownsoftheTransvaal,collectingcertificatestoburn.Afteraweekontheroad,theywerearrestedanddeported.Theyre-enteredthecolonyandrecommencedtheirpropagandaactivities,goingaroundIndianhomesinJohannesburgandraising£200forthecampaign;then,hatinhand,goingtoHeidelbergandStanderton.InearlySeptembertheywerearrestedoncemore;thistime,theirsentencewasthreemonthsinjailwithhardlabour.14
TheNatalianswereallmenofproperty,andtheywereallGujaratis.Gandhi’shopewasthattheirexamplewouldinspireGujaratimerchantsintheTransvaaltomoreactivelycourtarrest.Atthemoment,theTamilsweremorereadytotaketheplunge.Gandhifoundthemtobe‘mostenthusiastic’forthestruggle;bytheendofAugust,fullyone-fourthoftheTamilcommunityhadbeentoprisonatleastonce.Theyincludedhawkers,artisans,cooksandwaiters,allriskingtheirlivelihoodsforthelargercauseofcommunityself-respect.15
GandhihadnowmadeanewsuggestiontotheTransvaalGovernment–thatacertainnumberofeducatedIndians(saysix)beallowedintothecolonyeachyear.Thesuggestionwaspromptedinpartbypersonalconsiderations–thesensethatasalawyerhimselfheshouldnotbarthewaytootherqualifiedIndians–andinpartbynationalpride,thesensethatgiventhechance,IndianswerefullytheequalofEuropeansinthemodern,high-statusprofessions.16
Gandhi’sdemand,saidoneJohannesburgpaper,wasveryreasonable,for‘evenifthefullnumberofsixcameeveryyear,wedoubtifthatformidableinvasionwouldruintheTransvaal.’OthercoloniessuchasAustraliaandCanadapermittedacertainnumberofAsianstoentereachyear.Byinstitutingacolourbar,theTransvaalLegislaturehad‘enacted,forthefirsttimeinthehistoryoftheEmpire,sofarasweknow,thatinnocircumstances,undernoconditions,shallthepeoplefromanotheroftheImperialstatessetfoothere’.17
GeneralSmutsandhisfellowministerssawitdifferently.OneGandhiwastroubleenough.Ifsixsuchlawyerswereallowedineveryyear,wouldtheynotmobilizetheIndiansformoreandgreaterrights?TheproblemwitheducatedIndianswasthattheymightinstilintheirworking-classcompatriotsthedangerousideathattheavowalordenialofequalcitizenshipshouldhavenothingtodowiththecolourofone’sskin.JosephDokewasinLondononholiday.ReadingthenewsfromtheTransvaal
andregularlymeetingthemembersoftheSouthAfricanBritishIndianCommittee,hewasitchingtogetbacktowherehisfriendwas.On11SeptemberhewrotetoGandhithat‘youmaybesurethatmywholeheartgoesouttoyouandtheIndiansintheirgreataffliction…Sogoon;thecauseisrighteousanditmustprevail.It’sonlyamatterofsometimeandsuffering.Weshallbethevictors.It’safightnotforSouthAfricanIndiansonlybutforthedumbmillionsofIndia!’18
InthesecondweekofSeptember,theBritishIndianAssociationannouncedthatitschairman,EssopMia,wasresigninginordertogoonpilgrimagetoMecca.HewasreplacedbyAhmedMahomedCachalia,alsoaprominentmerchant,whohadalreadyprovedhiscredentialsbygoingtojail.Ontheotherside,theTransvaalGovernmentbegantougheningitsstand.Theshopsofmerchantswhohadcourtedarrestwereboardedup,andtheirgoodsconfiscatedandauctioned.19
InthelastweekofSeptember,GandhiwenttoPhoenixforaspell.Asmallschoolhadbeenestablishedthere,withaGujarati,PurushottamdasDesai,asprincipal,andAlbertWestandJohnCordesamongtheteachers.Onthisvisit,GandhihopedtoopentheschooltoboardersfromelsewhereinNatal.ThecurriculumwasinbothGujaratiandEnglish,andincludedinstructioninthereligionoftheboy’schoice.DesaiwouldteachHinduboystheelementsoftheirfaith,WestwouldtakecareoftheChristians,avisitingmaulvitheMuslims,while(inatypicallyGandhiantouch)theTheosophistCordeswouldinstructthosewithmoreunorthodox,experimentalleanings.Justascharacteristically,Gandhipaidcloseattentiontowhattheboyswould
eat.Theywereencouragedtoconsumegreenvegetables,freshfruitandpulses.Ontheotherhand,tea,cocoaandcoffeewereforbidden,asthese‘areproducedthroughthelabourofmenwhoworkmoreorlessinconditionsofslavery’.20
InNatal,Gandhiwasinterviewedbyacorrespondentofthecolony’smostinfluentialnewspaper.Hewasdescribedas‘thedoughtychampionoftheIndians’causeintheTransvaal’(thissaidwithsomerelief,sincehewasnolongerthedoughtychampionoftheIndians’causeinNatal).GandhitoldthepaperthatwhitesintheTransvaalwere‘frightenedwiththebogeyofaninvasionofhalf-educatedyouthsfromNatal’.Thepassiveresisterswerefightingforsomethinglarger,namely‘thehonourofIndia,andforaprinciple…viz.thatrestrictionshouldbebasedonsensible[criteria]andnotongroundsofcolourorrace’.Theeducationtestwasnottheissue;itcouldbemadeassevereastheywanted.Itwastheexclusiononracialgroundsthattheyopposed.ThepaperwasremindedofthelargerImperialconsequencesofthecontroversy.Englishmen‘couldnothaveIndiaasthebrightestjewelintheBritishCrown,andyetusethejewelasatargetfromeverypoint.’21
JosephDoke,nowbackinSouthAfrica,hadresolvedtowritealifeofhisfriend,andthustotellastoryofstruggleandsacrificethatmustandwouldtriumph,astorybasedinpartonwhatDokehadseenandinpartonwhatthesubjectcouldorwouldtellhim.OnthelastdayofSeptemberhewrotetoGandhibegginghimto
tryandnotgetconfiscatedanddeportedoranythingofthatkind–ifyoucanhelpitjustnow.Ihaveathousandquestionstoask–onanyoneofwhichofcoursethewelfareoftheBritishEmpiredepends.IwanttoknowwhytheIndiansrecalledyoufromIndiabycable[in1902].IwanttoknowwhethertheDurbanpeoplegavetheIndianstretcher-bearersagoodsendoffwhentheywentto
ColensoandSpionKop,anddidtheworkdoneonthebattlefieldsmakethemmorefriendlytoyou?Iwanttoknowallthathappenedsince,andespeciallyIwantagoodcabinetphotographofyourself–
withoutyourhat.Sodon’tgetcaught!22
IncontrasttoDoke’swishes,GandhihadnowdecidedthathemustmoreactivelychallengetheGovernmenttoarresthim.GatheringagroupofNatalIndians,hecrossedtheTransvaalborderon6October,andwasdetainedatVolksrust.Whenaskedtoproducehisregistrationcertificatehesaidhehadnone.HewasremandedtoVolksrustprison,fromwherehesentawrittenmessagetoIndianOpinion,remindingitsreadersthat‘thiscampaignknowsnodistinctionsofHindus,Muslims,Parsis,Christians,Bengalis,Madrasis,Gujaratis,Punjabisandothers.AllofusareIndians,andarefightingforIndia.’23
Onthe14th,GandhiandthosewhohadcrossedtheborderwithhimwerebroughtbeforeamagistrateinVolksrust.Gandhitoldthejudgethat‘hetooksoleresponsibilityforhavingadvisedthemtoentertheColony.’Headdedthat‘hewasquitepreparedtosuffertheconsequencesofhisaction,ashealwayshadbeen.’Hewasconvictedandfined£25,or,indefaultofpayment,sentencedtotwomonthsimprisonmentwithhardlabour.24
ThenewsofGandhi’sarrestwascommunicatedbywordofmouthacrosstheTransvaal.ThetelegraphcarriedittoLondon,where,ameretwodaysafterhewasconvicted,aprotestmeetingwasheldinCaxtonHall.PresentinLondonatthistimeweresomecelebratedIndiannationalists.One,LajpatRai,saidthat‘MrGandhi,inhisgaol,hadthesatisfactionofknowingthathewasmakinghistory.’Another,BipanChandraPal,saidthat‘everystrokeofMrGandhi’shammeronthestonesmeantastrokeontheshackleswhichboundtheircountry;everypieceofstoneseveredfromanotherpiecebythathammerwasalinkthatremoved[Indians]fromthechainthatboundthemtotheMotherCountry’[i.e.England].Toagreatburstofcheering,theBengaliradicalcontinued:‘Goon,brotherGandhi.’RaiandPalweretwoofthethreemainleadersoftheSwadeshimovement;
thethirdwasBalGangadharTilak.Thetriowereknownwithaffectionandadmirationas‘Lal,BalandPal’.ThatGandhiwassoextravagantlypraisedbyLalandPalinLondon(BalwastheninjailinIndia)testifiedtohisrisingstature
inthenationalconsciousness.HisactionsintheTransvaalwereappreciatedbothbytheestablishedandtheemergentnationalists.ThusoneoftheresolutionsattheCaxtonHallmeetingwassecondedbytheradicalstudentleaderV.D.Savarkar;anotherbytheyoungartcriticandhistorianAnandaCoomaraswamy.25
BackintheTransvaal,ameetingwasheldon18OctobertocondemnGandhi’sarrest.Some1,500peoplefromalloverthecolonycametotheHamidiaHall.Twoblackflagswereflownathalf-mast,tomarkthesacrificesofthecompatriotsinjail.ThemainspeechwasbyA.M.Cachalia.TheGovernmenthopedthatbyarrestingtheirleaderthemovementwouldcollapse.Cachaliadismissedthisasa‘fallacyofthefirstorder’.WithGandhiinprison,hesaid,‘eachoneofusmustbepreparedtoplaytheleader.’HarilalGandhialsospokeatthismeeting.‘Thedayhisfatherwasarrested
wasafestivaldayforhim,’saidtheson,‘buthecouldnothelpfeelinghowridiculouslythelatterhadbeenchargedandpunished.AskingamanwhohasbeenpractisinginSouthAfricafor13yearstogivehisidentificationparticularswasnothingshortofcowardice.’26
Naturally,thewhitepressintheRandviewedGandhi’sarrestsomewhatdifferently.IngivingGandhionlytwomonthsinjail,saidtheStarofJohannesburg,‘theTransvaalGovernmenthasbeenundulylenienttowardsthemaliciousactivitiesoftheleaderoftheAsiaticmovement’.‘Farbetteritisthatthegaolsshouldbecrowded,’remarkedthepaper,‘thanthatthenativepopulation–alreadysomewhatunsettledontheRand–shouldbetemptedtoemulatethetacticsoftheircolouredbrethrenfromtheFarEast’.27
GandhiwassenttoVolksrustPrison,tojoin(amongothers)hisoldDurbanfriendParseeRustomjee.ItwasthemonthofRamadan,sotheMuslimprisonerswerefasting.Inanycase,withthepreponderanceofmealiepapatmealsthere‘wasincessantgrumblingaboutfood’.ThesegrumblesreachedtheearsofJosephDoke.ThegoodChristiancalledontheDirectorofPrisons,tellinghimthatmealiepapwasabhorrenttoHinduprisoners,whoweremostlyvegetarian;aswellastoMuslims,sincetheanimalsfromwhomthefatwasextractedwerenotkilledintheprescribedfashion.28
Tofulfilthesentenceof‘hardlabour’,theprisonersweretakeneverymorningtoafieldwithstonysoilwhichtheyhadtodigwithspades.TheworkwasnewtoGandhi,andhefoundhishandsweresooncoveredinblisters.‘Itwasdifficulttobenddown,andthespadeseemedtoweighamaund.’29
Aftertendays,GandhiwasmovedtoJohannesburg,wherehewastoappearasawitnessinacourtcase.Hewastakenbytraininathird-classcompartment.Whenhedisembarked,withhisescort,atthecity’sParkStation,hewasnoticedbyagroupofTamilhawkers.Theywatched,withfascinationandnotalittledismay,astheirleader–cladinconvict’sgarbofjacketwithanumberedbadge,shorttrousersandleathersandals–wasmarchedoutofthestationandintotheroadoutside.ThewarderaccompanyingGandhiofferedhimtheoptionoftakingacabtotheprison(forwhichhewouldhavetopay)orwalking.Theprisonerchosetowalk,climbingupthehillwithhisbags.Hewasfollowed,atarespectfuldistance,bytheTamils,untilhedisappearedintoaprisononwhoseentrancewascarvedthemotto,‘UnionMakesStrength’.30
TheTamilhawkersconveyedwhattheyhadseentoHenryPolak.PolakissuedastatementclaimingthatthetreatmentofGandhiwasreminiscentoftheSpanishInquisition,whichlikewisemarcheditsvictims‘clothedinbag-shapedyellowgarb’throughthetownbeforedisposingofthem.31HealsosentanangrytelegramtoL.W.RitchinLondon,whopassedonthecomplainttotheColonialOffice.They,inturn,wrotetotheTransvaalGovernmentaskingifitwascorrectthat‘Gandhiwasmarchedthroughthestreetsinconvictdress’.Thechargewasadmitted,butqualifiedbytheclaimthatwhenconductedfromthestationtotheprison,Gandhididnothavetowearhandcuffs,and‘wheninCourtasawitnesshedidnotappearinprisonclothes.’32
InJohannesburgPrison,Gandhiwasputwithconvictsservingtimeformurderandlarceny.Hefelt‘extremelyuneasy’,moresowhenanAfricanandaChinese‘exchangedobscenejokes,uncoveringeachother’sgenitals’.ForcomforthereadthecopyoftheBhagavad-Gitahehadbroughtwithhim.HismoodimprovedwhenPolakcametovisit,andwhenKallenbachsentasupplyofbreadandcheese.On4NovemberGandhiwastakenbacktoVolksrust.Seeinghimenterthe
traininprisonuniform,thehawkersontheplatform‘werefilledwithtears’.Wordofhisjourneygotaround,sothatenroute,atHeidelbergandat
Standerton,Indiansmethimwithsuppliesoffood,whichhisescortallowedhimtoaccept.ShortlyaftermovingbacktoVolksrustPrison,GandhiheardfromAlbertWest
atPhoenixthatKasturbahadsufferedahaemorrhage.Thedoctorattendingherwasnotsureshewouldsurvive.WestsuggestedthatGandhipayhisfineandjoinher.Heansweredthatthiswouldbe‘impossible’,since‘whenIembarkeduponthestruggleIcountedthecost.IfMrs.Gandhimustleavemewithouteventheconsolationadevotedhusbandcouldafford,sobeit.’Kasturba’sillnesshadoncemorebroughttotheforethecompetingclaimson
Gandhi’slife.Theobligationsoffamilyclashedwiththedemandsofthestruggle.Kasturbaandhehadnowbeenmarriedformorethantwenty-fiveyears.Theyhad,intheemotionalaswellassexualsense,alwaysbeentruetooneanother.Perhapsbecauseoftheirperiodic,extendedseparations,Kasturbadeeplycherishedtheirtimetogether.Rajkot,Bombay,Durban,Johannesburg,Phoenix–inalloftheseplacesshehadlivedwithhimandforhim,butneverreallyfeltathome.NotfluentinEnglish,reservedbynature,forbiddenbycustomandtraditiontoseekoutstrangersonherown,Kasturbawascomfortablein,andcomfortedby,thecompanyofherchildrenandherhusband.Thechildrenwerewithher,mostly,whileherhusbandwasmostlyabsent.Andso,allthroughtheirtimeinSouthAfrica,itwasherhusband’scompanyandattentionthatshecravedmost.Herlovewasreciprocated.YetunlikeKasturba,Gandhihadmorethanhis
familytolookoutfororanswerto.Askedtochoose–ashewashere–Gandhiwouldplacetheinterestsofthecommunityabovethoseofhisownwife.HeexplainedboththedilemmaandhischoiceinaletterthatManilalcouldreadtoher.HetoldKasturbathatsincehehad‘offeredmyalltothesatyagrahastruggle’,hecouldnotcutshorthissentencebypayingthefine.Heaskedhoweverforadailybulletinonherhealth,andthenaddedthesewordsofencouragementandconsolation:
Ifyoukeepcourageandtakethenecessarynutrition,youwillrecover.If,however,myilllucksohasitthatyoupassaway,IshouldonlysaythattherewouldbenothingwronginyourdoingsoinyourseparationfrommewhileIamstillalive.Iloveyousodearlythatevenifyouaredead,youwillbealivetome.Yoursoulisdeathless.IrepeatwhatIhavefrequentlytoldyouandassureyouthatifyou
dosuccumbtoyourillness,Iwillnotmarryagain.33
Thisisaletterofanunusualandperhapsunexpectedtenderness.Accordingtocustomandtradition,partofthedutiesofaHinduwifewastomakesurethatshedidnotpredeceaseherhusband.ThisprospectmusthaveworriedKasturba;sotoo,perhaps,theprospectofGandhitakingasecondwife.Hisownfatherhaddoneso,andwhilehisfirstwifewasstillalive.HenceGandhi’sassurances,heremade(ashenotes)notforthefirsttime.GandhiwasreleasedfromVolksruston12December,havingcompletedhis
term.Beforehelefttheprison,hepresentedakindlywarderwithaninscribedcopyofTolstoy’sTheKingdomofGodisWithinYou.34WhenhereachedJohannesburg,hewasmetatthestationbyacrowdof300,mostlyIndians,butalsoincludingHenryandMilliePolak,JosephDoke,andSonjaSchlesin.As‘hejumpedfromthetrain,MrGandhiwasgarlandedamidstterrificcheers’.HewasthencarriedshoulderhightothemosqueinFordsburg,wherehespokebrieflytoa‘mostorderly’crowdofsome1,500people.35
WhileGandhiwasinprison,meetingsinsolidaritywereregularlyheldattheHamidiaMosqueinJohannesburg.InthelastweekofNovember,‘practicallythewholeIndiancommunityinJohannesburg’turnedupforameetingoutsidethemosque.TheChineseleaderLeungQuinnspokefirst.Thestarturn,however,wasA.M.Cachalia,theGujaratitraderwhowasnowchairmanoftheBritishIndianAssociation.CachaliafirstquotedBookerT.Washington,whosaidtheblackmanhadtodobetterthanthewhitemantogetanyrecognition.Hethenprovidedarobustdefenceofsatyagraha.SomeEuropeansfearedthattheIndians’avowalofpassiveresistancewouldprovoketheAfricanstoadoptsimilarmethods,andproceedfromtheretoviolentprotest.Cachaliathoughtthispreposterous–‘surelypassiveresistance,’hesaidsarcastically,‘wasnotthesparkthatsetablazetheNatalrebellionof1906.Rightlyorwrongly,itwastheirsenseofinjusticethatcausedthatoutbreak.’InCachalia’sopinion,Mendonotproceedfrompassivetoactiveresistance.Thepassiveresisterishigherinthemoralscale,andinthatofhumandevelopmentthantheactiveresister…Passiveresistanceisamatterofheart,ofconscience,oftrainedunderstanding.ThenativesofSouthAfricaneedmanygenerationsofcultureanddevelopmentbeforetheycanhopetobepassiveresistersinthetruesenseoftheterm.Meanwhile,theywillbewhatrobustmenare–gratefulforjusticedonethem,resentfulofinjustice,andinthelattercasetheywillprobablyseektheirremedyirrespectiveofexample,untilthedifficultlessonofnon-resistancetoevilislearnt.Butsurelyourcriticswouldbebetteradvisedtourgethe
nativestosubstitutefortherifleandtheassegaithepeacefulmethodsofthepassiveresister,andbetteradvisedstilliftheyremovedtheneedofanyresistancewhatsoever…bydoingjusticethough
theheavensfall.36
Cachaliasaw,muchmoreclearlythanGandhi,thattherootsofnativediscontentlayindiscriminationandexpropriationbyEuropeans.HisspeechmanifestedasuregraspofthethoughtofGandhi’sownmentor,Tolstoy.Anditprovidedacompellingdefenceofnon-violenceasthemostmoralmeansofchallenginginjustice.
AstheIndianswentinandoutofjailintheTransvaal,therewasasignificantdevelopmentamongtheircompatriotsinNatal.Theynowhadasecondweeklynewspaper,complementingGandhi’sIndianOpinion.NamedAfricanChronicle,thiswaseditedbyaTamilnamedP.S.Aiyar,whohadcomeouttoDurbanin1898andmarriedalocalgirl.Despiteitsnamethenewpaper,likeGandhi’sown,gavelittlecoverageto‘African’issues.Rather,itwasavehiclefortheTamilsofNatal,whodidnotfeelwhollyrepresentedinorbyIndianOpinion,whichnowcarriedarticlesinEnglishandGujarationly.AfricanChroniclemadeitsfirstappearanceinJune1908.Itrantosixteen
pages:fourinEnglish,eightinTamil,withafinalfourpagescontainingadvertisementstakenoutbyTamiltradersandshopkeepers.Itcarriednewsofindenturedlabourersonplantations,andofmerchantsintowns.Sportwasapassion,withfootballandboxingmatchesbeingextensivelyreported.Theeditorwasparticularlypreoccupiedwiththe£3taxonfreedlabourers,andregularlywroteaskingforitsabolition.ThepaperalsokeenlyfolloweddevelopmentsintheTransvaal.EarlyissuespraisedGandhiforhis‘steadfastnessofpurpose’and‘deadlyearnestness’.HisarrestinOctober1908had‘castagloomovertheIndiancommunity’.Gandhiwas‘ouresteemedleader’–esteemedfor,amongotherthings,his‘characteristicplainandstraightforwardmanner’.The‘meritoriousstruggle’heledwas‘fightingforthehonourandfreedomofthenation’.Thepaperendorsed‘MrM.K.Gandhi’sknownintensedesiretoeffectaunionbetweenthesegreatsectionsoftheIndianpopulation’(namely,HindusandMuslims).AfricanChroniclesharedGandhi’sdislikeofMontfordChamney–whomitcalled‘alittletin-god’–aswellashisadmirationofThambiNaidoo.WhenNaidoowasarrestedforthethirdtime,thepaper‘congratulate[d]theIndiansinSouthAfricaforpossessingsuchaman’.37
TheconflictbetweentheIndiansandtheTransvaalGovernmentwasplayedoutagainstthebackdropofagrowingmovementfortheunionoftheSouthAfricancolonies.ThearchitectsofthewaragainsttheBoers,JosephChamberlainandAlfredMilner,hadalwayshopedthatvictorywouldbefollowedbyacreationofasingleintegratedstate,formingpartoftheBritishEmpire.InhisfarewellspeechinFebruary1903,Chamberlaintoldhisaudienceto‘makepreparationfortheultimatefederationofSouthAfricawhichisdestined,Ihopeinthenearfuture,toestablishanewnationundertheBritishflag,whoshallbe“daughterinhermother’shouseandmistressinherown”.’38
In1906Transvaalbecamea‘self-governingcolony’onthemodelofNatalandtheCape.OrangeFreeStatefollowedtwoyearslater.InMay1908,whitepoliticiansfromthefourterritoriesmetinan‘intercolonial’conferencetodiscusstheprospectsofaunitedfederation.Thiswasfollowedbyafull-fledged‘NationalConvention’,whichfirstmetinDurbaninOctober1908,followedbymeetingsinothertownsofSouthAfrica.Themotivationsofthoseseekingunionwerepartlyeconomic.The
standardizationofcustomsduties,taxesandrailwaylineswouldmakebusinessmucheasier.WhitesinSouthAfricawereimpressedbytheexampleofCanadaandAustralia,whereoncediscreteterritorieshadcometogetherassinglefederations.However,theyfacedaproblemlargelyabsentinthoseotherBritishdominions–averylargenativepopulation.SomeAfricansandsomeIndianswerevotersintheCape.WhileafewliberalssoughtanextensionoftheCapefranchise,mostpeopleattheConventionthoughtthatpeopleofcolourshouldnotbegrantedthevote.TheTransvaalpoliticianPercyFitzpatrickinsistedthatthe‘blackmanwasincapableofcivilization’.AbrahamFischeroftheOrangeFreeStateremarkedthatsince‘self-preservationwasthefirstlawofnature’,whitesshouldkeepthevotetothemselves.AnotherFreeStater,C.R.DeWet,saidthat‘ProvidencehaddrawnthelinebetweenblackandwhiteandwemustmakethatcleartotheNatives[and]notinstilintotheirmindsfalseideasofequality.’ThedelegatesfromtheAfrikaner-controlledcoloniesprevailed.TheTransvaal
PrimeMinister,LouisBotha,persuadedhisCapecolleaguesthattheirprioritymustbetobringabouta‘unionofthewhiteracesinSouthAfrica’.
Complicationsaboutthenativefranchisewouldimperilthisunion.ItwasagreedthatwhilethecolouredvotersintheCapewouldnotimmediatelybedisenfranchised,inothercoloniesonlywhiteswouldvote;andwhitesalonewouldsitintheUnionParliament.39
InDecember1908,asGandhiwasleavingjail,theGovernoroftheTransvaal,LordSelborne,circulatedtothemembersoftheConventionsome‘informalsuggestionsonthequestionoftheNativeFranchise’.Thisproposeda‘civilizationqualification’,wherebytobeeligibleforthefranchise,amanhadto(a)committomonogamy;(b)speakaEuropeanlanguage;(c)meetacertainpropertyorincomequalification;and(d)be‘habituallywearingclothesandlivinginahouseasdistinctfromahut’.Europeanmaleswhofulfilledthesecriteriawouldeachhaveafullvote.On
theotherhand,‘everynon-Europeanwhoprovesthepossessionofthecivilisationqualificationbeforeanimpartialtribunal’wouldbegiven‘avoteequalinvaluetoonetenththevoteofaEuropean’.Thesonofthiscivilizednativevoter,ifhelikewisemetthosefourcriteria,wouldbeawardedoneninthofavote,hissononeeighth,andsoon.Selborne’sschemeallowedforthepossibilityofmiscegenation.ThesonofaEuropeanfatherandanon-Europeanmotherwould–providedheenjoyedthe‘civilizationalqualification’–haveone-fifthofavote,hissonaquarterofavote,andsoon.Finally,therewasalsoanagestipulation.WhereasqualifiedEuropeanmalesvotedattheageoftwenty-one,acivilizednativeorAsianwouldbeallowedtovoteonlyatthirty-one,hissonatthirty,hisgrandsonattwenty-nine.Theoffspringofmixedunionswouldbegrantedthefranchiseattwenty-six.Selborne’sproposalsweresurelyinfluencedbytheongoingprotestsofthe
IndiansintheTransvaal.AsanEnglishman,heknewalsoofprecedentsinthehomecountry,wheresomeIndianshadbeengrantedthevoteandtwoofthemhadevenenteredParliament.Gandhihimselfbelievedthat,giventhechanceandthefreedom,allIndianscouldprovethemselvestobeasworthyasallEuropeans.Tobesure,hethoughtthismighttakesometime.ButhisincrementalismwaspositivelyradicalincomparisontotheideasofcolonialistslikeLordSelborne.UnlikeGandhi,theGovernorthoughtthatonlyindividuals,andnotwholecommunities,couldeverascendupwardsonthecivilizationalladder.Hishorizonswerealsofarmoreextended.WhereasGandhihopedfor
racialparityinhisownlifetime,theGovernorthoughtthatintengenerations,orperhapstwohundredyears’time,aparticularmanofcolourmight–alwaysassumingheorhisforebearsdidnotslipbackwardsintopolygamy,ignoranceofaEuropeanlanguage,etc.–cometoenjoythesamepoliticalrightsasawhiteman.TobefairtoSelborne,hismindatleastadmittedtheoddshadeofgrey.Most
membersoftheNationalConvention,ontheotherhand,thoughtonlyinblackandwhite.Theywishedtodenythevote,anyvote,evenafractionofavote,tonon-whitesaltogether.HisLordship’sproposalswererejectedimmediately.40
TothischorusinfavourofwhitesupremacyinSouthAfrica,thereweretwodissentingvoices–thebrotherandsisterduoofW.P.SchreinerandOliveSchreiner.W.P.SchreinerwasaformerprimeministerofCapeColony,aliberalbyinstinctandahumanistbyconviction.AttheNationalConventionheurgedthatmembersofnon-EuropeandescentbeallowedatleasttositintheSenate,orupperhouse,oftheUnionParliament.WritingtoGeneralSmuts,hesaidthat‘tomymindthefundamentalquestionisthatofourpolicyregarding“colour”.’ToembodyintheUnionConstitution‘averticallineorbarrierseparatingitspeopleuponthegroundsofcolourintoaprivilegedclassorcasteandanunprivileged,inferiorproletariatis,asIseetheproblem,asimprudentasitwouldbetobuildagrandbuildinguponunsoundandsinkingfoundations’.41
WhenhefailedtomovehiscolleaguesinSouthAfrica,SchreinertravelledtoEngland,tolobbyBritishopinion.TheActofUnionbeingprepared,saidSchreiner,wasbetterviewedas‘anActofSeparationbetweentheminorityandthemajorityofthepeopleofSouthAfrica’.Underit,‘thecolouredinhabitantsarebarredfromtheopportunitytoriseandevolvenaturally,whichistherightofeveryfreemaninafreecountry’.42
Onthisquestion,thewriterOliveSchreinerwasevenmoreradicalthanherbrother.RaisedintheCapecountryside,shewasanautodidact,whoreadHerbertSpencer,JohnStuartMillandDarwin,whilealso(likeGandhi)beinginspiredbytheSermonontheMount.Writingstoriesfromanearlyage,OlivewasbestknownforTheStoryofanAfricanFarm(1883),anovelsetintheKaroofeaturingabrutaloverseernamedBonaparteand,tocounterhim,awomanwhosoughtfreedomoutsidemarriage,laterdescribedas‘thefirstwholly
feminist’characterintheEnglishnovel.OlivehadlivedinLondonforseveralyearsinthe1880s,whereshebefriendedleft-wingthinkerssuchasGeorgeBernardShawandEleanorMarx.Thisexperienceinformedherbook,Dreams,publishedin1890,whichpresentedaseriesofallegoriesexcoriatingtherichandadvocatinganethicalsocialism.43
InDecember1908,OliveSchreinerwasaskedthisquestionbyaTransvaalnewspaper:‘WhatformofCloserUniondoyoufavour–FederationorUnification;andforwhatreasons?’Sheansweredthat‘allpersonsborninthecountryorpermanentlyresidenthereshouldbeoneintheeyeoftheState’,andallshouldenjoytheFranchise,regardlessofraceorcolour.Shethenofferedthisarrestingvisionofthefuture:
Theproblemsofthetwentiethcenturywillnotbearepetitionofthoseofthenineteenthorthosewhichwentbeforeit.Thewallsdividingcontinentsarebreakingdown:everywhereEuropean,AsiaticandAfricanwillinter-lard.Theworldonwhichthetwenty-firstcenturywillopenitseyes,willbeonewidelydifferentfromthatwhichthetwentiethseesatitsawakening.Andtheproblemwhichthiscenturywillhavetosolve,istheaccomplishmentofthisinteractionofdistincthumanvarietiesonthelargestandmostbeneficentlines,makingforthedevelopmentofhumanityasawhole,andcarriedoutinamannerconsonantwithmodernidealsandmodernsocialwants.ItwillnotalwaysbetheEuropeanwhoformstheupperlayer.
TheSouthAfricathatOliveSchreinerstroveforwoulddrawdemocraticallyonallitsconstituentelements.ShespokethusofthespecialcharacteristicsoftheEuropeans–who,‘atleastforthemselves,havealwayslovedfreedomandjustice’;ofthenativesofthecountry,theBantuasshecalledthemfollowingcontemporaryusage–‘oneofthefinestbreedsoftheAfricanstock’;andoftheAsiatics–‘asectionofpeoplesober,industrious,andintelligent’.Shearguedthat‘itisoutofthisgreat,heterogeneousmassofhumansthattheSouthAfricannationwillbebuilt’.Mindfulofthedivisionswithin,shepointedlyandpropheticallyasked:‘Aslongasnine-tenthsofourcommunityhavenopermanentstakeintheland,andnorightorshareinourgovernment,canweeverfeelsafe?Canweeverknowpeace?’44
ThepreviousMay,speakingtotheYMCAinJohannesburg,GandhiputforwardtheideathatSouthAfricashouldbeanationformorethanwhitesalone.OliveSchreinernowprovidedasharper,morepassionatestatementofthatpointofview.OnedoesnotknowwhethershehadreadGandhi’sspeech,butherownreflectionswerereprintedinIndianOpinion,wheretheeditor(HenryPolak)said
thejournalagreed‘entirely’that‘apeoplekeptinastateofpoliticalhelotageareasourceofdangertotheState,soonerorlater’.WomensuchasOliveSchreiner,wrotePolak,‘areofgreaterpermanentvaluetotheworldthanacontinentofNapoleons’.45
Withinaweekofhisrelease,Gandhiwasbackincourtdefendingpassiveresisters.Oncethenew,amendedActcameintoforce,someIndianshadbegunqueueingupforcertificates.TheywerepicketedbyagroupofsatyagrahisledbyThambiNaidoo.On18December,appearingforagroupchargedwith‘causingtroubleamongAsiaticswhoaredesirousofcomplyingwiththelaw’,Gandhitoldthejudgethathisclients‘onlywanttoletthosewhoforgettheirmanhoodknowthatthereissuchathingasostracism’.(Thejudgeansweredthatitwasnotostracismbut‘awholesalefearofincurringgrievousbodilyharm’.)46
Thefactthatpicketinghadtoberecommencedspokeofarealriftinthecommunity.Exhaustedbythestruggle,hopingtogetonwiththeirlives,manyIndianswerereluctanttogotojailagainortolivewithoutcertificatesofresidence.NotingtherushtoregisterunderthenewAct,Gandhisaid‘thisneednotdepressus’.For‘thegreatThoreausaidthatonesinceremanis[worth]morethanahundredthousandinsinceremen.’Thecleavageswithinthemovementwereofclassandofethnicity.Hawkers,
andTamils,werenowmorelikelytobecomesatyagrahisthantradersorGujaratis.‘TheTamilshavesurpassedallexpectations,’wroteGandhiinIndianOpinion:‘Alltheirleadersarenowingaol.’AlsoworthyofpraiseweretheParseeswho,despitetheirsmallnumbers,hadmadeahugecontributiontothepoliticalfieldinIndia.InSouthAfricatoo,‘wedonotfindaParseewhohascompliedwiththeGovernment’ssenselesslaw.’Gandhithoughtthat‘MuslimsandGujaratiHindusshouldhangtheirheadsinshamebeforetheTamilsandtheParsees.’47
InthelastweekofDecember,GandhiwenttoDurbantobewithKasturba.Hestayedthreeweeksinall,withoneeyeonthehealthofhiswife,andtheotheronthefutureofthestruggle.On5JanuaryhewrotetoOliveDokethathehad‘notcometoNataltorestandamhavingnone.YouwishyouwereinPhoenix.SodoI.YouwouldthenhaveassistedmeinnursingMrs.Gandhi.Nowthatyoumaysayisveryselfish.Butselfplaysaveryimportantpartinourlives.’48
GandhimovedKasturbafromPhoenixtoDurban,whereshestayedwithandwasattendedbyaDrNanji.HewasthebestIndiandoctorinNatal,andalsoaclosefriendwhohadsupportedthesatyagrahastruggleandspokenoutinpubliconitsbehalf.On16JanuaryGandhileftfortheTransvaal.Thatnighthewrotealetterto
ChanchalGandhiaskingherto‘giveuptheideaofstayingwithHarilalforthepresent’.‘Itwilldogoodforbothofyou’,saidthepatriarch.‘Harilalwillgrowbystayingapartandwillperformhisotherduties.Loveforyoudoesnotconsistonlyinstayingwithyou.’Asthelettersuggests,itappearedthatGandhi’ssonHarilalwasfacinga
conflictbetweentheneedsofhisselfandtheclaimsofhissociety.ByJanuary1909,thetwenty-year-oldhadbeentojailtwicealready.Henowpreparedtocourtarrestforathirdtime.InbetweenjailtermshewasbasedinJohannesburg,assistinginthecampaign.HiswifeChanchal,atPhoenix,missedhimterribly.Theynowhadababygirlwho–ifthingswentonthesameway–wouldgrowupwithanabsentfather,muchasHarilalhimselfhaddone.Inavividmemoir,Harilal’syoungestbrotherrecalledthecompetingclaims
onthefirstofGandhi’ssons.DevadaswassomethirteenyearsyoungerthanHarilal,andjustalittleolderthanhisbrother’schild.HeadoredHarilal,withhischeerymannerandhishandsomeface,hishairpartedinthemiddle‘withbeautifulcurlsovertheforehead’.BeforeoneofhisdeparturesfromPhoenixtocourtarrest,Harilaltoldtheboy,‘Yes,Devadas,IwillsendyouyourtopfromDurban.’‘Iforgetthetop,’wrotetheboy,decadeslater.‘ButIremembersharingsweetswithmyniecethenextday,whilemysister-in-lawshedtearsoveraletter.’49
Harilalwastornbetweenhiswife,whomheloveddearly,andwithwhomhehad(byallaccounts)acompanionablemarriage,andhisobligationstohisfatherandthemovementheled.Atthistime,HarilalwasbrieflybackatPhoenixwithChanchal.Howlonghewouldstaytherewasnotcertain,sincehemightatanymomentbeaskedtore-entertheTransvaalandseekarrest.Hecommunicatedhisconfusionstohisfather,whoansweredthathecould
seethatyouareunhappy.Ihavegottoacceptyouropinionastowhetheryouwouldbeunhappyornotonaccountofseparation.However,Iseethatyouwillhavetoundergoimprisonmentforalongperiod…Thestruggleislikelytobeaprolongedone.Therearesomeindicationsofitsbeingashort
onealso.ThereisalikelihoodofLordCurzoninterceding.LetmeknowwhatarrangementshouldbemadeinregardtoChanchalduringyourabsence.
Theletterendswiththisintriguingline:‘Ihavenotbeenabletofollowwhatyousayabouttakingastoneinexchangeforapie.Inwhatcontexthaveyouwrittenthat?’ItseemsreasonabletoassumethatHarilalwascontrastingthepieofmaritalblisswiththestoneofphysicalseparation.50
InthefirstweekoftheNewYear,TheTimesprintedalettersignedbytwenty-sixEuropeanslivingintheTransvaal.ThefirstsignatorywasW.Hosken.Theothersincludedsevenclergymen(amongthemJosephDokeandCharlesPhillips),severalaccountants,thejewellerGabrielIsaacs,thedraperW.M.Vogl,andthemissionary-turned-advocateA.W.Baker,alloldfriendsofGandhi.TheletterremindedtheBritishpublicthat‘thereisanimportantbodyofsympathizersintheEuropeansectionofthecommunitywhoaregrievedandhurtatthetreatmentbeingmetedouttotheAsiatics[intheTransvaal]fornoapparentpurposeatall.’Thesignatoriessalutedthe‘courageandself-sacrifice’ofamovementinwhich‘allfaithsandcastesarerepresented’.MoralityandtheImperialinterestmandatedthattheirdemandsbeconceded.ForpassiveresistersdeportedtoIndiafromtheTransvaalwould‘notbeslowtoventilate[theirgrievances]amidstthesympatheticsurroundingsoftheirnativeland’.51
Atthistime,Gandhihimselfwasunsureastowhetherthestrugglewouldbelongorshort.Hehad,asheindicatedtoHarilal,somehopethattheformerViceroyofIndia,LordCurzon,wouldhelpbringaboutasettlement.AsViceroy,Curzonhadwrittenwithfeelingaboutthe‘invidious’and‘odious’handicapsfacingIndiansintheTransvaal.52HewasnowinSouthAfrica,onaprivatevisit.GandhiaskedtomeethimwhenhepassedthroughJohannesburg;Curzonsaidthiswouldnotbepossiblesincehehad‘soshortatimehere’.However,heaskedtheIndiansto‘givemeasfullastatementoftheircaseastheycan’;hewouldreadthisonthetraintoCapeTown,wherehewasduetomeetGeneralsBothaandSmuts.53
On29January,GandhiwrotearemarkablelettertohisnephewMaganlal.SomeGujaratimerchantswereturningawayfromthestruggle,andthePathanshadbeenscepticalofGandhiinanycase.Withearlierattemptsonhislifeinmind,hetoldMaganlalthat
ImayhavetomeetdeathinSouthAfricaatthehandsofmycountrymen.Ifthathappensyoushouldrejoice.ItwillunitetheHindusandMussalmans…Theenemiesofthecommunityareconstantlymakingeffortsagainstsuchaunity.Insuchagreatendeavour,someonewillhavetosacrificehislife.
IfImakethatsacrifice,Ishallregardmyself,aswellasyou,mycolleagues,fortunate.54
TheletterwaspostedfromNatal,whereGandhihadcomeagaintospendtimewithhiswife.DrNanjihaddiagnosedherassufferingfromperniciousanaemia,forwhichthetextbooktreatmentincludedahealthydoseofbeefextract.WhenGandhidiscoveredwhatKasturbahadbeengiven,hedecidedtotakeherbacktoPhoenixandtreatherbyhisown,naturopathicmethods.Thedoctorremonstrated;hewasamanofscience,aswellasaParsi,forwhomtherewerenotaboosasregardsbeef.HearguedthatKasturbawastoosicktobemoved.Besides,itwasrainingheavily.Gandhiwasunmoved;hesentamessagetoPhoenixtomakepreparationsfortheirarrival.AlbertWestmetthematthestationwithhotmilk,umbrellas,andsixmentocarryKasturbahomeinahammock.55
‘DrandMrsNanjiweremuchgrieved’byhisremovingKasturbafromtheircare,wroteGandhitoKallenbach.‘Theydonotbelieveinwatertreatment.TheyconsidermetobeabrutalhusbandandDrNanjicertainlyconsidersmetobeeithermadoroverconceited.Ihaveriskedfriendshipsforthesakeofaprinciple.’AtPhoenix,GandhigaveKasturbaaseriesofcoldbaths.Healsoputherona
dietoffruit.‘Sheappearstobenonetheworseforit,’hereportedtoKallenbach:Sheisprobablybetter.Butshehaslostheart.Shecannotbeartheideaofmyleavingherbedsideforasingleminute.Likeababysheclingstomeandhugsme.Ifearthatmydeparturenextweekwillsendhertohergrave.Itisagreatconflictofdutyforme.YetthereisnodoubtinmymindthatImustleavehernextweekandaccepttheKing’shospitality.
Itwasacurioussequenceofphrasesandsentiments:recognizingthathefaced,yetagain,aseriousconflictbetweenfamilydutiesandsocietalobligations,Gandhihad‘nodoubt’that(yetagain)hewouldchoosetogotoprisonratherthanstaywithhisailingwife.56
On2February,CurzonwrotetoGandhireportingonhismeetingwiththeBoersoldier-politicians.BothaandSmutshadpromised‘totreattheBritishIndiansintheTransvaalinaspiritofliberalityandjustice’.Butnospecificpromisesweremadewithregardto,forexample,therepealofthe1907ActortheadmittanceofeducatedIndians.Curzon’sownviewwasthat‘afinaland
satisfactorysettlementofthevexedproblem’wouldhavetoawaitthecreationofasingle,unifiedgovernmentofalltheSouthAfricancolonies.57
TheletterwaspostedtotheJohannesburgaddressoftheBritishIndianAssociation,whosentitontoPhoenix.Itsnon-committal,evenunhelpful,contentsmadeGandhidecidetorenewthestruggle.HemayalsohavebeenprovokedbyderisivecommentsintheTransvaalpress,suggestingthatpassiveresistancewasonitslastlegs.‘MrGandhihasbeenbeaten,’wroteonepaper,‘andthesoonerheadmitsitandtellshisdeludedfellow-countrymenfranklythattheyhavenottheghostofachanceofalteringtheopinionsofthepeopleofthisColony,somuchthebetterforallconcerned.’58
InthesecondweekofFebruary,GandhidispatchedHarilalacrosstheborderfromNatal,toseek(andobtain)histhirdtermofimprisonment.Thefatherfollowedtendayslater.Likehiseldestson,hewasarrestedforrefusingtoproduceavalidregistrationcertificate,andremandedinpolicecustody.On25FebruaryGandhiwasbroughttotrialbeforeamagistrateinVolksrust.
Hetoldthecourtthathewould‘continuetoincurthepenaltiessolongasjustice,asIconceiveit,hasnotbeenrenderedbytheStatetoaportionofitscitizens’.Sentencedtopaya£50fineoracceptthreemonthsinprisonwithhardlabour,heoptedforthelatter.Afterwards,hereleasedtwolettersthathehadcomposedbeforegoingtocourt.Thefirst,inGujarati,wasaddressedtotheweak-kneedwhohadsuccumbedtotheGovernment’sdemands.Itreflectedacertainresignation;whereoncetheblacklegswerefiercelychastised,nowtheywereaskedtodowhattheycould.‘Thosewhoarefallencanriseagain,’saidGandhi.‘Theycanstillgotogaol…Eveniftheycannot,theycanoffermonetaryhelp,andsendstatementstonewspaperstosaythat,thoughtheyhavesurrendered,theyareinfavourofthefightandwishitsuccess.’Thesecondletter,inEnglish,wasaddressedtohis‘Tamilbrethren’,whomhepraisedforhavingdischargedtheirduties‘brilliantly’andborne‘thebruntofthebattle’.59
Tohis‘greatpleasure’,inVolksrustprisonGandhiwasplacedinthecompanyofsomefiftyfellowsatyagrahis.TheyincludedHarilal,andhisoldandvaluedfriendParseeRustomjee.Thefoodthistimewas‘niceandclean’andincludedlargehelpingsofghee.The‘hardlabour’theywereputtoinvolvedrepairingroadsandweedingfields.
Adayafterhewassentenced,GandhiwrotetoChanchalaskinghertoread‘goodwritingandpoems’toKasturba,totakecareofherownhealth,andtobreastfeedherchildforsomemoretime.Thenheadded:‘HarilalandIarequitewell[inVolksrustjail].Besurethatwearehappierherethanyou.’(Hespokeforhimself,butperhapsnotforHarilal.)60
AfteraweekinVolksrust,GandhiwasshiftedtoPretoria.Hetravelledwithescort,andatnight,shiveringunderablanket.Hiscellinthisjailwasmarked‘isolated’;thebedwashard,therewasnopillow,andgheewasservedonlytwiceaweek(butthedreadfulmealiepapeveryday).TheotherprisonerswereallAfricans;oneaskedGandhiwhetherhiscrimewastheft,anotherifitwastheillegalsaleofalcohol.TheworkhewasputtoinPretoriawasdreary,namely,polishingthefloorof
hiscellandthecorridor.HewasalsodeniedpermissiontowritelettersinGujarati.Hepleadedthathiswifewasrecoveringfromaseriousillness,andthathisletters‘servedasmedicinetoher’,buttheauthoritieswereunyielding.61
Sincehecouldnotcommunicatedirectlywithhiswife,GandhisentheramessageviaAlbertWest.‘PleasetellMrsG.thatIamallright,’hewrotetoWest.
Sheknowsthatmyhappinessdependsmoreuponmymentalstatethanuponphysicalsurroundings.Lethercherishthisthoughtandnotworryaboutme.Forthesakeofthechildren,sheshouldhelpherselfgetbetter.Sheshouldhavethebandagesregularlyandaddhip-bathsifnecessary.Sheshould
adheretothedietIusedtogive.Sheoughtnottostartwalkingtillsheisquiterestored.62
ItwasbraveandunselfishofGandhinottodrawattentiontohisowncondition.Forthis,withoutquestion,washisharshestprisontermyet.Hecouldwriteonlyoneletteramonth,andtherewerestrictcurbsonvisitors.HenryPolakappliedthreetimestoseehim,butwasrefusedpermission.However,Gandhi’sagentinPretoriawasallowedtovisit.ThiswasM.Lichtenstein,themanwho,backinSeptember1906,hadofferedthevoteofthanksattheEmpireTheatremeetingwhichfirstproposedpassiveresistance.Now,visitingtheleaderofthesatyagrahainjail,hewasdismayedtofindhiminsolitaryconfinement,wherehiswarders‘regularlyabuseandhumiliatehim’,whilegivinghim‘aworsedietthanthatofaKaffirprisoner’.LichtensteincommunicatedwhathesawtoPolak,addingashisownviewthat
hethoughtGandhi‘wasverynearabreak-down’.Polakthenwroteananguished
letterofcomplainttoDavidPollock,aJusticeofthePeaceandawellrespectedresidentofJohannesburg.Hefoundit‘heart-breaking’that‘thishigh-mindedgentleman,whohasallalongconductedacampaignwithcleanhandsandaloftyspirit,isbeingtorturedinthisway’.Knowingtheprisonerashedid,Polakwascertainthat
whatisinMrGandhi’smindtoday,inthemidstofthesedegradingcircumstancesbywhichhefindshimselfsurrounded,isnothoughtforhimselfandhisownpersonalsufferings,butthefeelingthat,ifthistreatmentismetedouttohim,aculturedman,abarrister,amemberofanobleIndianfamily,amanwhohasrefusedtheChiefJusticeshipofhisnativeState,whatmustbetheattitudeoftheAuthoritiestohislesshighly-equippedbrethrenintheTransvaalwhoarevoiceless…
Inapostscriptwhosetonematchedthatoftheletteritself,PolaksaidhedarednotcommunicatethesethingstoGandhi’swifeKasturba.For‘thepoorlady’slifeissufficientofatragedyasitis,withherhusbandingaolandhereldestsoningaol…Sheisnowjustmanagingtodragherselfaboutafteralongandpainfulillness,anditwillalmostcertainlymeanarelapseforher,ifIsomuchaswhisperwhatisgoingon.’63
DavidPollockpassedonthislettertotheGovernoroftheTransvaal,withanotemarkinghisowndismaythatGandhi,‘ofallpeopleinSouthAfrica’,wasmarchedinhandcuffs‘likeacommonfelonthroughthestreetsoftheCapital’whenconveyedfromtheprisontothecourtstotestifyinacase.HeurgedLordSelbornetoinstituteanenquiry‘intothespecificallegationthattheconsideratetreatmentaccordedtopoliticalprisonersincivilizedterritorieshasnotbeenextendedtoMrGandhi’.Pollockreceivedabrusquereply,statingthat‘MrGandhi,whenhevoluntarilysoughtimprisonment,did[so]ofcourseknowingthathecouldnotexpecttreatmentinanywaydifferentfromotherprisoners.’64
ThissuggeststhatwhereastheTransvaalGovernmentthoughtGandhitobeacommoncriminal,intheeyesofhisfriendsandsupportershewas(asHenryPolakputit)‘apoliticalprisoner,fightingforconscience’ssakeandtheself-respectofhispeople.’TheircomplaintsreachedLondon,andfromLondonwerere-directedtoPretoria.Thishadsomeeffect,fortheTransvaalPrimeMinistersentDavidPollockatersenotesayingthat‘PrisonerM.K.GandhiisconfinedatPretoriaGaol,wherehehasbeenshownspecialconsideration.Hewasofferedgheebutdeclined.HehashoweveracceptedthesleepingoutfitreservedforEuropeansandiswellsuppliedwithbooks.’65
ThatconditionsmarkedlyimprovedaftertheinterventionsofPolakandPollockisconfirmedbyGandhi’sownaccount.Theprisondirectornowallowedhimtheuseofanotebookandpencil,andsubstitutedthestitchingandmendingofclothesforthescrubbingoffloors.Asagestureofgoodwill,GeneralSmutsalsosenthimtwobooksonreligion.66Gandhiansweredinkind,askingtheboysatPhoenixtomakehisadversarywhattheGeneral’ssondescribedasa‘stoutpairofleathersandals’.67
Smuts’gesture,andthemorelenienttreatmentGandhiwasnowgettinginjail,mayhavebeeninfluencedbythefactthathehadrecentlybeenissuedwithaglowingtestimonialintheHouseofLords.Speakingon24March,aformerGovernorofMadras,LordAmpthill,drewtheattentionofhisfellowpeerstotheplightofIndiansintheTransvaal.ApreviousspeakerhadspokenofGandhiasamere‘agitator’andoftheprotestsas‘simplysentimental’.Ampthillvigorouslydisagreed.ThelawstheIndianshadopposedwere,hesaid,‘humiliatingandoffensiveandunnecessary’.Theirleader,‘thesonofanIndiangentlemanofgoodbirthandhighposition’,andaLondon-trainedbarristerhimself,hadundergonethreetermsofimprisonmentwithhardlabour‘forthesakeofhisopinionsandbecauseheisdefendingwhatheregardsasthehonourofhiscommunity’.Despitehisprivilegedbirthandprofessionalqualifications,Gandhi
devotesallhismeansandmostofhistimeandenergytopublicserviceandtothepurestphilanthrophy…Thisisthemanwhoisleadingthismovement,andwithhimthereareseveralhundredsofotherswho,IcanassureyourLordshipsfromtheknowledgeIpossess,willprotesttothebitterend,whateverbetheextremityofruinormiseryitbringsuponthem.Inthesecircumstancesit
issimplyfatuoustosaythattheyhavenogoodreasonforundergoingsufferingsofthiskind.68
Thiswasanimpressivespeech;evenmoreimpressive,perhaps,wasaprivateletterthatSmutsreceivedfromhisCambridgefriendH.J.Wolstenholme,adonatChrist’sCollegedescribed(bySmuts’biographer)as‘alapsedChristianwhoretainedhisChristianconscience’.69Thetwohadbeenclosefromtheirdaysatuniversity–exchangingnotesonworksofphilosophyandliterature,andcommentingoneachother’smanuscripts.Now,readingabouttheprotestsby,andthearrestsof,IndiansintheTransvaal,WolstenholmeremindedSmutsthatthosehehadjailed
belongtoarace,orcomplexofraces,withanancientcivilizationbehindthem,andamentalcapacitynotinferiortothatofthehighestWesternpeople,whoaredevelopingrapidlyafeelingofnationalityandacapacityforthemoreactiveandpracticallifeofthemorematerializedWest…[The]Indians
withwhomyouhavetodealmayhavelittleshareinthiscivilizationoftheirrace,throughlackofeducation,andthisthroughnationalpoverty,buttheyarechampionedbyleaderswhoidentifythemselveswiththem,andresentkeenlywhattheyregardasunjustandinsultingtreatmentoftheirpeople,themorekeenlybecauseitisdirectedagainstthemasarace,aracemarkedoutas‘inferior’,likethe‘niggers’ofAmericaandthe‘heathenChinese’,ascoloured.
TheCambridgescholarsawan‘epoch-making’changetakingplaceinrelationsbetweenEastandWest,wherebytheJapanese,theChineseandtheIndianswouldnolongeracceptexclusionanddisabilityonthegroundsofrace.ItwasincreasinglyclearthatthosewhomEuropeanshaddismissedas‘inferiorpeoples’werenotinferiorincapacity;theyclaimed,demanded,anddeservedequalrights.WolstenholmetoldSmutsthat‘itwouldsurelybewisestatesmanship,aswellasgoodhumanfellowship,toconcedeintimeandwithagoodgracewhatissureeventuallytobewonbystruggle.’70
Thesewereradicalideas,evenbythestandardsoftheCambridgeofthe1900s.IntheTransvaalofthedaytheywerecompletelyheretical.Smuts’answertothisletterisunavailable;perhapshehadnone.
Inthelastmonthsof1908,asasteadystreamofsatyagrahisenteredprison,IndianOpinionbegancarryingpoemswritteninGujaratipayingtributetothem.AprolificwriterofthesesalutaryverseswasSheikhMehtab,Gandhi’sformerschoolfriendandhousemate.ApoemofJanuary1909saidParseeRustomjeewasasbraveas(thesixth-century)ArabpoetHatemand(theeleventh-century)HindumonarchRajaBhoja.M.C.AngliaandSorabjiShapoorjiwerealsopraised,whileThambiNaidoowasdescribedas‘thelampofIndia,therealfighter!’.‘Ifyouremainunitedlikethis,’Mehtaburgedthesatyagrahis,‘youwillseeSmuts’resignation.’Inanotherpoem,hesaid‘welostIndia[totheBritish]duetodisunityand
quarrels’.Herecalledanolderandmorehallowedepoch,when,‘withunityRamandLaxmangotSitaback’.Inyetanother,hewrote,
IfthewholecommunityisbraveEidandDiwalicanbecelebratedOtherwise[the]UnionJackwilltearusapartAndfirewillbeablaze.
HeretheMuslimpoetinvokedaHinduidiom;meanwhile,fromtheotherside,aversifiernamedJayshankerGovindjisalutedtheheroismofthetraderA.M.Cachalia,whohadseenhisbusinesstumblebygoingtojail.Cachaliawas‘the
lightofhisfamily’,‘atruegemofIndia’.Hissacrificehad‘drenched[him]inmanycolours’.71
Gandhi’sownstoicisminjailismanifestinthemonthlyletterhewaspermittedtowrite.InthelastweekofMarchhewrotetohissonManilalenquiringaboutKasturba’shealth.‘Doesshenowwalkaboutfreely?’heasked:‘Ihopesheandallofyouwouldcontinuetotakesagoandmilkinthemorning.’AHinduswami,Shankeranand,wasthentouringNatal.Theswamiwasfrom
theAryaSamaj,abrandofmilitant,adversarialHinduismwhichwasatoddswithGandhi’smorepluralandaccommodatingfaith.WhenhefirstheardofShankeranand’smilitantproselytizing,GandhiwrotetoMaganlal,‘itisveryregrettable.ItisbecauseofsuchresultsthatthevenerableKavi[Raychand]usedtosaythatinmoderntimesweshouldbewareofreligiousteachers.’72
TheNatalMercurythoughtthatShankeranandwas‘flatteningoutMrGandhi’inthecolony,winningthelawyer’sfollowersovertohisside.TheAfricanChronicledisagreed:‘TheresponsiblesectionoftheTamilandHindoostanipeople,’itinsisted,‘standbyMrGandhitoonemandespitewhatSwamiShankeranandmaysay.’73
TheSwaminowdecidedtocarrythebattleintotheenemycamp.VisitingPhoenixwhileGandhiwasinjail,hetoldManilalthat,asaboyofhighcaste,heshouldwearasacredthread.Gandhiwrotetohissonthathe‘respectfullydisagree[d]withtheSwamijiinhispropaganda…Asitis,wehavetoomuchofthefalsedivisionbetweentheshudras[lowercastes]andothers.Thesacredthreadisthereforetodayratherahindrancethanahelp.’74
ThenextmonthitwasPolak’sturntoreceivetheonesanctionedletter.Gandhiwasworriedabouttheirfinancialsituation:‘IhatetheideaaboutPhoenixbeingindebt,’hewrote.Hesuggestedthedebtbeclearedbysellingjewelleryandtheirlawbooks.TurningtotheeducationofthechildrenatPhoenix,headvisedthemtoreadTolstoy’sLifeandConfessionsandtheworksofRaychandbhai.‘ThemoreIconsiderhislifeandhiswritings,themoreIconsiderhimtobethebestIndianofhistimes,’remarkedGandhiofhislatementor.‘Indeed,IputhimmuchhigherthanTolstoyinreligiousperception.’Then,turningtopersonalmatters,heasked:‘IsChanchicheerful?Ordoesshe
broodoverherseparationfromHarilal?DoesMrs.Gnowtakepartinhouseholdwork?’75
InFebruary1909,whenGandhiwasinbetweenprisonterms,hissecretarySonjaSchlesinhadarticledherselfasaclerkinhisoffice.MissSchlesin’sapplicationwaswitnessedbyGandhi,Polakandherfather.Normally,afterthreeyearsasaclerkonecouldqualifyfortheBar.ThisMissSchlesinwasverykeentodo–shewishedtobecomethefirstwomanlawyerinSouthAfrica,justasheremployerhadbeenthefirstcolouredlawyer.Shewasextremelyintelligentandwellread,andafterfiveyearsinGandhi’sofficehadbecomecloselyacquaintedwiththelaw,especiallyasitappliedtoIndians.MeetingGandhi’swiderangeofclients,andobservinglawyersandjudgesat
work,hadturnedtheonce-shygirlintoanassured(andoccasionallycombative)youngwoman.MissSchlesin,wroteheremployer,‘wouldnothesitateeventothepointofinsultingamanandtellinghimtohisfacewhatshethoughtofhim.Herimpetuosityoftenlandedmeindifficulties,butheropenandguilelesstemperamentremovedthemassoonastheywerecreated.’GandhiindulgedMissSchlesin’sidiosyncrasiesbecauseofhercompetenceandhercommitment.‘Colourprejudicewasforeigntoher,’herecalled,adding,‘Ihaveoftensignedwithoutrevisionletterstypedbyher,asIconsideredherEnglishtobebetterthanmine,andhadfullestconfidenceinherloyalty’.76
ThewomanwhocontributedmosttoGandhi’sworkandcareerwashiswifeKasturba.Next,albeitbysomedistance,washissecretarySonjaSchlesin.ShehadanaturalsympathywiththeIndiansandgreatrespectfortheirleader.YetdespiteheradmirationforGandhi,MissSchlesinwaskeentodomorethandraftandtypeletters.Herintelligenceandpassionneededmorechallengingoutlets,whichqualifyingfortheBarcouldprovideherwith.Inpreparationforherchangeinprofession,MissSchlesincutherhairshortandbeganwearingashirtandtie.InApril1909,theTransvaalLawSocietywrotebackrejectingherapplication.‘Thearticlingofwomen,’theysaid,‘isentirelywithoutprecedentinSouthAfricaandwasnevercontemplatedbytheLaw.’MissSchlesinsuppressedherdisappointmentandreturnedtoherregulardutiesinGandhi’soffice.77
GandhiwasreleasedfromPretoriaPrisonon24May1909.Theauthoritiessethimfreeearlyinthemorning,inthehope‘ofpreventingademonstration’.However,whenhecameoutat7.30a.m.severalhundredIndianswerewaitingattheprisongate,withbouquetsandgarlands.TheyconveyedhimtothehomeofG.P.Vyas(aprominentlocalresister),wherehehadbreakfast.78
GandhiproceededtotheIndianmosqueinPretoria,wherehemadeapleafordonations.‘Whileingaol,IlearntfromMrPolak’sletterthattheBritishIndianAssociationhasbecomebankrupt…Therefore,thosewhohavebeencarryingontheirbusiness[whileothershavebeeninjail]mustlightentheirpockets.’HecarriedontoJohannesburg,wherehewasreceivedatParkStationbyalargecrowd–mostlyIndians,withafewChineseandEuropeanfriendssuchasJosephDoke.HewasgarlandedandtakeninaprocessiontotheHamidiaMosque.Gandhiexpressedhisdispleasureatbeingcalledthe‘KingofHindusandMuslims’bythecrowd.Hewasmerelyaservantofthecommunity.Urgingmorepeopletovolunteerforthemovement,hesaidthat‘ataskthatneedsathousandmencannotbeaccomplishedbyten,asitwere.Thestruggleisbeingprolongedbecausenotenoughmenjoinit.’79
Twoweeksaftercomingoutofprison,Gandhispokeon‘TheEthicsofPassiveResistance’totheGermistonLiteraryandDebatingSociety.TheSocietywasrunforandbyliberal-mindedwhites.Here,thepractitioner-turned-theoristofsatyagrahaarguedthathismethodofprotestinginjustice,basedon‘soul-force’,wassuperiortorivalmethodsbasedonphysicalforce;notleastbecauseit‘nevercausedsufferingtoothers’.Therefore,arguedGandhi,thecolonistsshouldnottakeexceptiontoIndians‘makinguseofthis[soul]forceinordertoobtainaredressoftheirgrievances.Norcouldsuchaweapon,ifusedbytheNatives,dotheslightestharm.Onthecontrary,iftheNativescouldrisesohighastounderstandandutilizethisforce,therewouldprobablybenonativequestionlefttobesolved.’80
On16June1909,ameetingofabout1,500IndianswasheldoutsidetheFordsburgMosque.ItresolvedtosendadeputationtoLondontopresenttheirviewstotheImperialGovernment.Therewasaheateddiscussiononthecompositionofthedelegation.SomearguedthataknowledgeofEnglishwasessential.Othersinsistedthatthosewhohadnotbeentojailbeexcluded.
TheBritishIndianAssociationnominatedfivemen:itschairman,AhmedMahommedCachalia;V.A.Chettiar,chairmanoftheTamilBenefitSociety;theEnglish-andGujarati-speakinglawyer,Gandhi;theParsi,NadeshirCama,whohadlefthisjobasapostmastertocourtarrest;andthePretoriamerchantHajeeHabib,whohadpreviouslystayedawayfromthemovementbutnowdeclaredhimselfa‘passiveresister’.Cachalia,ChettiarandCamawereallinprison,soonlyGandhiandHabibwerefreetogo.ThemeetingalsodecidedthatHenryPolakwouldtraveltoIndiatodrumupsupportfortheircause.81
BeforeleavingforLondon,GandhispoketoajournalistinJohannesburg,whosentareportontotheDailyRepublican,publishedoutofSpringfield,Massachussets.ThearticledescribedthesufferingsoftheIndians,andtheirsatyagrahasagainstharshlaws,insympatheticterms.OfGandhi–whomhehadmet‘anumberoftimes’–thejournalistwrote:
Thestrugglehasreducedhimtopoverty,butthishedoesnotregret,norishediscouraged.Ultimatesuccessheregardsassure.Passiveresistanceheconsidersmorepotentthantheexerciseofanyphysicalforce.Itsstrengthisspiritualandmustprevail.‘Iamabsolutelyconvinced,’hesays,‘oftheinvincibilityofpassiveresistance.ItwillbethedeliveranceofIndiansinSouthAfricaandIndiaas
well.’82
In1909,asin1906,GandhihadashiscompaniontoLondonarepresentativeofthemerchantcommunity.ThetwomenleftJohannesburgforCapeTownon21June.Onthetrain,GandhiscribbledaseriesofletterstoHenryPolak.TheplanwastosendPolaktoIndia,tolobbytheGovernmentandtoraisefunds.Thelettersprovidedspecificinstructionsonwhattosayinthepressandwhomtocontactforsupport.ArticleswrittenbyPolak‘shouldbetranslatedinalltheprincipallanguagesandwidelycirculatedinIndia’.PolakwasatPhoenix;hewasadvisedthat‘unlessyoufindcompleteencouragementfromthepeople[inDurban]donotgotoIndia.’Inanintriguingpostscript,Gandhiaskedhim,incasehedidgotoIndia,tocomebackwithacopyofabookonSaddarshanSamuccaya,thesixschoolsofIndianphilosophy.83
OnreachingCapeTown,Gandhiwasinterviewedbyalocalnewspaper.TheIndians,hesaid,hopedtheImperialGovernmentwouldactbeforetheunionofthefourcolonieswasfinalized.Their‘greatfear’was‘thatundertheConstitution,itwillbeaunionofwhiteracesagainstBritishIndiansandtheColouredraces’.84
Boardingshiponthe23rd,GandhiandHabibwereseenoffbyagroupofCapeIndians.ThenovelistOliveSchreinerhadcometobidgoodbyetoarelative;seeingGandhi,sheinsistedoncomingonboardshiptoshakehishand,hergesturewatchedbymanywhites.Gandhi,whoknewofherwork,andwhohadcertainlyreadhermeditationsonracereprintedinIndianOpinion,wasimmenselyflattered.AshewrotetoPolak,‘Fancytheauthorof“Dreams”payingatributetopassiveresistance’.85
Meanwhile,atributeofadifferentkindwasbeingconveyedtoGandhibymeansofalettersentfromIndia.ThewriterwasMeerAllamKhan,themanwhohadassaultedGandhibackinFebruary1908.ThePathanandtheGujaratihadsincemendedfences,somuchsothatKhanhadjoinedthesatyagraha.Hewasarrested,andalongwithseveraldozenotherresisters,deportedtoIndia.ArrivinginthemotherlandinthemiddleofJune,hewroteGandhialetter,inEnglish,whoseerrorsofgrammarandconstructioncannotmaskitsmanifestsincerity:
IarrivedinBombayandhopingyouarewell.IhavepublishedallnewsofTransvaal’soperationsinBombayGujaratinewspapers,andIshallpublishalsoinPunjabwhenIwillgothere.Please,sir,letmeknowabouttheGovernmentlawsettlementandIhopingyouwillletmeallthenewsofthecase.BesidesIshallattendtoLahoreAnjumaniIslammeetingandIshallspeakatthemeetinginLahorealltheaboveoperationatTransvaalandshallseetoMrLalaLajpatraiatLahoreandIshalltakehisopinionontheabovematterandpublishinalltheAnglo-Indiannewspapers.AndwhenIshallapproachtofrontierthenalsoIshallpublishtoallofourfriend,andIshalltrymybestanddaresaythatyoumaynotfearanddon’tafraidIshalltakemucheffectinthiscaseandIshallgotoAfghanistanandwillinformeachandeveryone.
TheletterreachedJohannesburgjustafterGandhileftforLondon.ItwasreadbyHenryPolak,whoimmediatelyprinteditinIndianOpinion.HesentonacopytoGandhi,whowouldhavereaditwithinterest,pleasure,and,onethinks,acertainsenseofvindication.86
15
BigLittleChief
WhenGandhitravelledtoLondonin1906,hiscompanionwasthelarger-than-lifeH.O.Ally.Hispartnerthistime,HajeeHabib,wasalsoaMuslimmerchant;theretheparallelsended.Habibdidnotsmokeordrink,andsaidhisprayersfivetimesaday.HewashappytoshareGandhi’sdietoffruitandvegetables,althoughheoccasionallyindulgedhimselfwithfish,and(againunliketheabstemiouslawyer)drankteaandcoffee.TheBritishIndianAssociationhadsenttheirdelegatesbyfirstclass,where
Gandhifoundhimself‘lookedafterbyservantsasthoughtheyweresomanybabies.Thereissomethingtoeateverytwohours.Wecannotevenliftaglassofwaterwithourownhands.’Thepassengers,hewrotetoafriend,are‘toomuchpampered’.Onship,hehad‘tolivehedgedinonallsides.Myprayersherelackthedepth,theserenityandconcentrationtheyhadwhenIwasingaol.’Hewrotethisnot‘inafrivolousmood,butafterdeepreflection…[W]ewouldallprofitfromthekindofsimplicityandsolitudewefindingaol.’1
GandhiandHabibdisembarkedinSouthamptononthemorningof10July.TheyproceededtoLondon,wheretheylefttheirbagsattheirhotelandwenttoseeL.W.Ritch.Afterlunch,theygottowork,oratleastGandhidid.In1906,aladysentbyPolak’sfatherhadservedashissecretary;thistime,Henry’sunmarriedsister,Maud,hadagreedtotakedictationandtypehisletters.Onthis,thefirstday,appointmentsweresoughtwithLordAmpthill,theformerGovernorofMadraswhonowservedastheChairmanoftheSouthAfricaBritishIndianCommittee,andwithotherfriendsandsympathizersinLondonandaround.2
Onthe14th,GandhiwrotetoPolakthathewas‘verypleased’tohaveMaudworkingwithhim;shehadcomequitewillingly,asshewasjoblessathomeand‘doesnotlikeherowncompany’.PolakhimselfwasnowinGandhi’shomeland,promotinghisfriend’scause,whichwasalsohisown.Hewasinstructed‘tosee
mostoftheleadingAnglo-IndiansandIndians…Youwillrequireallthepatienceandtactyoucancommand.’GandhigavePolaktheLondonnews.MrsRitchwasill,afterhisoldest
Englishfriendhad‘bungled’anoperationonher.‘Dr[Josiah]Oldfield,’hecomplained,‘hasentirelyfallen–evenhissupposedsurgicalskillisnownomore…IthurtsmetohavetowriteofamanIhaveheldinhighestimation,butwehaveoftentobreakouridols.’Ontheotherhand,otherfriendsweregaininginesteem–suchasLordAmpthill,who,whenhemethim,had‘transparenthonesty,courtesyandgenuinehumilitywrittenonhisface’.Gandhi’scompatriotPranjivanMehtawasalsoinLondon,wherehehadcomefromRangoontoadmithissontoschool.Fortunately,andprobablynotbyaccident,hewasstayingatthesamehotel,theWestminsterPalace.3
GandhifoundtheIndiansinLondoninafeverpitchofexcitement.On1July1909,shortlybeforehearrived,astudentnamedMadanlalDhingrahadshotSirCurzonWyllie,whohadbeenaseniorarmyofficerandcivilservantinIndia.TheincidentoccurredatapartyattheImperialInstitute,wherealargenumberofIndianstudentsandBritishguestshadgathered.Shortlybefore11p.m.,astheguestswereleaving,DhingrawentuptoWyllieandfiredfourshotsathimatcloserange.Hediedinstantly.Atthetime,DhingrawasstudyingengineeringatUniversityCollege,London.
AnativeofAmritsar,hehadmatriculatedfromthePunjabUniversity.HetoldhisfellowstudentshehopedtoqualifyfortheIndianCivilService.Thatwasaredherring;butofhisintelligencetherewasnoquestion.Thedoctorcalledtoexaminehimafterthemurderfoundhim‘welleducated,andofanintellectualtype’,if‘somewhatreticentinconversation’.Heshowed‘nosignsnorsymptomsofinsanity’.4
Athistrial,on23July,Dhingrasaidhedid‘notthinkthatanyEnglishLawCourthasanyauthoritytoarrestmeordetainmeinprison’.HeheldtheEnglishresponsibleforhanging,deportingandstarvingtodeathmillionsofhiscountrymen,andfordrainingwealthoutofIndiaestimatedat£100millionayear.Itwasthus‘perfectlyjustifiableonourparttokillanEnglishmanwhoispollutingoursacredland’.Heofferedthistellinganalogy:
IncasethiscountryisoccupiedbyGermans,andanEnglishmannotbearingtoseetheGermanswalkingwiththeinsolenceofconquerorsinthestreetsofLondon,goesandkillsoneortwo
Germans,thenifthatEnglishmanistobeheldasapatriotbythepeopleofthiscountry,thencertainlyIamapatriot,too,workingfortheemancipationofmymotherland.
Dhingrahopedtobesentencedtodeath,‘forinthatcase,thevengeanceofmycountrymenwillbeallthemorekeener’.5
AmongtheIndiansmostmovedbyDhingra’sactwasastudentfromMaharashtranamedVinayakDamodarSavarkar.DeeplycommittedtothefreedomofIndia–byanymeanspossible–Savarkar,wroteanEnglishfriendofhis,wasimbuedwith‘acuriousandsingle-mindedrecklessness’.6ThejudgedidnotallowDhingra’sstatementtobepartoftheofficialrecord,butSavarkargotholdofacopyandleakedittothepress,butnotbeforeembellishingit.HereIndianpatriotismwasgivenareligiouscolouring,withDhingrainvokingthosedivineslayersofevil,RamaandKrishna,insupportofhisownact.Hisoneprayer,headded,wasthathe‘mayberebornofthesamemother[Goddess,India,]andmayIre-dieinthesamecausetillthecauseissuccessful’.7
SavarkarandDhingrawerebothassociatedwithIndiaHouse,theinstitutionfoundedandfundedbyShyamajiKrishnavarma,whowasnowinexileinFrance.TheTimesnotedthatDhingrahad‘imbibedwithdisastrouseffecttheteachingofMrKrishnavarmaandotherswhomoreorlessdirectlyfavourandcommendpoliticalassassination.’8WhenhemetKrishnavarmainLondonin1906,Gandhihadfoundhimbothinterestingandintriguing.However,thesatyagrahasheledinSouthAfricain1907–8hadconvincedhimofthemoralsuperiorityofnon-violentresistance.Now,backinLondon,GandhiwashorrifiedbytheoutcomeofKrishnavarma’spreachings.Dhingra’sviolentandvengefulact,hewrote,‘hasdoneIndiamuchharm;thedeputation’seffortshavealsoreceivedasetback…MrDhingra’sdefenceisinadmissible.Inmyview,hehasactedlikeacoward.Allthesame,onecanonlypitytheman.Hewaseggedontodothisbyill-digestedreadingofworthlesswritings.’Wyllie,notedGandhi,hadcomeasaguestamongtheIndianstudents.‘Noact
oftreacherycaneverprofitanation,’heinsisted:EvenshouldtheBritishleaveinconsequenceofsuchmurderousacts,whowillruleintheirplace?Theonlyansweris:themurderers.Whowillthenbehappy?IstheEnglishmanbadbecauseheisanEnglishman?IsitthateveryonewithanIndianskinisgood?…Indiacangainnothingfromtherule
ofmurderers–nomatterwhethertheyareblackorwhite.9
Thefall-outoftheDhingracasewasthetopicofdailydiscussionbetweenGandhiandhisfriend,thedoctor-jewellerfromRangoon,PranjivanMehta.AsharpcriticofBritishcolonialrule,Mehtawasatfirstpredisposedtothemethodsofarmedstruggle.However,afterlongargumentsintheirhotel,hecameroundtoGandhi’spointofview.TheseshiftsarecapturedinaseriesoflettersGandhiwroteHenryPolak.On
20August,GandhitoldPolakthatDrMehtanow‘understandsthestrugglemuchbetter…[H]ehasbeguntoseethatpassiveresistanceisasovereignremedyformostoftheillsoflife.’Aweeklater,hereported‘furtherimportantchatswithDr.Mehta.Ithinkheisconvincednowthatoursistherightplan.’Inanotherweek,DrMehtahadagreedtofundascholarshiptoEnglandforoneoftheboysbeingschooledatPhoenix.HewantedthistobeoneofGandhi’sownsons,butthelatter,mindfulofpropriety,saidhewouldsendhisnephewChhaganlalinstead.ChhaganwouldenrolhimselfatanInnsofCourt,takeavowofpoverty,staywithavegetarianfamilyinLondon,andduringhisstay‘seekcontactwitheveryIndianstudent,infact,forcehimselfontheirattentionand,afterinsinuatinghimselfintheirfavour,shouldpresentbothinhislifeandbyconversations,thePhoenixidealstothem’.10Theidea,evidently,wastouseaconvincedfollowerofnon-violencetoconvertyoungIndiansawayfromthepathlaiddownbyMadanlalDhingra.Meanwhile,astudenthewastalkingtoinLondonhadcleareduponeof
Gandhi’soldconfusions.GandhihadoncetoyedwiththeideaofcomingtotheUnitedKingdomtostudymedicine.Now,ayoungIndianfromCapeTown,studyingtobeadoctor,toldhimthatintwoyearshehadhadtokillfiftyfrogs.‘Ifthisisso,’wroteGandhitoPolak,‘Ihaveabsolutelynodesiretogoinformedicalstudies.Iwouldneitherkillafrog,noruseonefordissecting,ifithasbeenspeciallykilledforthepurposeofdissection.’11
FromLondon,GandhialsowroteregularlytohisotherJewishfriend,HermannKallenbach.Wedon’t,alas,haveKallenbach’sletters,butGandhi’smixaffectionwithinstruction.Kallenbachwasaskedtoreadabookonthemoralsofdiet,andtoldto‘countyourpennies’and‘holdyourpossessionsintrustforhumanity’.WithGandhifaraway,Kallenbachsoughtconsolationbyvisitinghisfamilyat
Phoenix.Kasturbaandhegotonfamously.Hepassedonanaccountofhisvisit
toGandhi,whowroteback:ThatyoushoulddescribeMrs.Gandhiasyourmother,showsyourultra-regardforme…Thatyoucanmakeyourselfcomfortableinmyhome(haveIone?)withoutmeandwithalltheawkwardwaysofMrs.Gandhiandthechildrenshowstheheightyouhaveattained.Youremindmeoffriendshipsof
bygoneagesofwhichonereadsinhistoriesandnovels.12
WhileDhingrawasbeingtried,andthenexecuted,Gandhiturnedhisattentiontohisowncauseandhisownmethods.HehadcometoLondontolobby,peacefully,fortherightsofIndiansintheTransvaal.‘Thebestpartoftheday,’hewrotetoOliveDoke,‘hastobedevotedtointerviewingpeopleandexplainingthesamethingtothemoverandoverandwritingtothem.Attimesonehastoenterintoelaborateexplanationsofthingswhichmayappeartoonetobeperfectlysimple.’Thenheadded:‘Ihavedonenosightseeing.Iseemtohavelostalldesireforit.’13
Thelawyer’smainadviserinLondonwasLordAmpthill.BornthesameyearasGandhi,1869,Ampthillwas–asdescribedintheDictionaryofNationalBiography–an‘instinctiveliberal’,descendedonbothsidesfromfamousWhigpoliticians.HehadhopedtosucceedCurzonasViceroyofIndia;buttheSecretaryofState,LordMorley,foundhimtoopro-Indianforhistaste.14HecertainlydisplayedmuchvigourintakingupGandhi’scase.Thetwomenwroteeachotheralmostdaily,theIndiansendingtypedmissives(sincehehad‘averyindifferentandillegiblehand’),theEnglishmanwritingbypen,inanelegant,cursivehand.TheParsigrandee,SirMancherjeeBhownaggree,hadadvisedGandhitoissue
astatementtothenewspapersabouttheirmission.Ampthilldemurred,sayingthat‘nopublicpressurewouldbeopportuneorwiseatthemoment’;itmightmerely‘maketheauthoritiesagainhardentheirhearts’.15Thechoice,forGandhiandtheIndians,lay‘betweenthe“diplomatic”andthe“political”method’.Iftheychosetheformer,thentheymustleavetheconductofthenegotiationsentirelytoLordAmpthillandnotgotothepress,since‘diplomacyisonlypossiblethroughindividualagencyandbyprivateaction’.HetoldGandhi‘nottopublishorcirculateanythingwithoutfirstconsultingme.Itwouldbefatalifanyoftheresponsiblestatesmenwereoffendedorputoutatthepresentjuncture.’OnlyifAmpthill’snegotiationsfailedshouldGandhitrythepublicrouteadvocatedbyBhownaggree.
AmpthillaskedGandhitwoquestions.IftheAsiaticActwasrepealedandsixeducatedIndiansadmittedannually,wouldthat‘finallyremovethesenseofinjusticeandindignityunderwhichtheIndiancommunityintheTransvaalissuffering’?Headdedthattherewas‘muchprejudiceinhighquartersonaccountofabeliefthat“PassiveResistance”intheTransvaalisbeingfomentedandfinancedbythepartyofseditioninIndiawhodonotdesirethatthequestionshouldbesettled.PleasetellmehowIamtomeetthischarge.’Gandhirepliedthatifthetwoconcessionsweregranted,‘Iwouldcertainlybe
contented.’TothechargeofbeingapawnortoolinthehandsofrevolutionariesinIndia,heanswered,
IknowofnoIndianwhetherhere,inSouthAfricaorinIndia,whohassosteadily,evendefiantly,sethisfaceagainstsedition–asIunderstandit–asIhave.Itispartofmyfaithnottohaveanythingtodowithit,evenattheriskofmylife…ThemovementintheTransvaal,withwhichIhaveidentifiedmyself,isaneloquentandstandingprotestinactionagainstsuchmethods.Thetestofpassiveresistanceisself-sufferingandnotinflictionofsufferingonothers.Wehave,therefore,notonlyneverreceivedasinglefarthingfromthe‘partyofsedition’inIndiaorelsewhere,butevenifthere
wasanyoffer,weshould,ifweweretruetoourprinciples,declinetoreceiveit.16
TheCapepoliticianJ.X.MerrimanwasalsoinLondonatthistime.SowasGeneralSmuts.Knowingthefriendshipbetweenthetwomen,GandhiaskedtheliberalBritontopressthehardlineBoerintomakingthenecessaryconcessions.Hehad,hetoldMerriman,justreceivedacablefromSouthAfrica‘sayingthatthestrugglehastakenitsfirstvictim.AyoungIndianwhowasservingimprisonmentasapassiveresister,wasdischargedinadyingconditionanddiedsixdaysafterhisdischarge.Thereareatpresentabout100IndiansintheTransvaalgaolsandduringthestruggle,over2,500Indianshavepassedthroughthem.’Thesituationwasdire,yetthesolution,saidGandhitoMerriman,was
‘exceedinglysimple’.AllGeneralSmutshadtodowasrepealtheAsiaticAct,while‘placinghighlyeducatedIndiansonafootingofequalityundertheImmigrationAct’.TheGovernmentcouldmaketheeducationtestassevereasitwished;andrestrictthenumberofIndianswhocameineveryyear.But‘whatweresent,’saidGandhi,‘istheracialbar,involvingasitdoesanationalinsult.’17
Merrimandeclinedtointervene,soGandhinowmetLordMorley,whowasSecretaryofStateforIndia,aswellasLordCrewe,SecretaryofStateforthe
Colonies.Bothgavehima‘sympathetichearing’,butwithoutanyspecificassurances.CrewehadspokenwithGeneralSmuts,whosaidhewaspreparedtoallowsixeducatedIndiansayearintotheTransvaal,butasanadministrativeconcession,notalegalright.If‘equalityisconcededinprinciple,’saidSmuts,then‘thepracticewouldultimatelyhavetoconformtotheprinciple,andintheendtheAsiaticimmigrantwouldbeonthesamefootingastheEuropean’–adenouementwhichwas,ofcourse,quiteunacceptabletothecolonists,whetherBoerorBritish.18
SmutsalsometAmpthill,whotoldhimthatGandhiwas‘asclear,convincing,andunyieldingfromhispointofviewasyouarefromyours’.BeforetheTransvaalActsof1907,IndianshadenjoyedthetheoreticalrightofentrytoanypartoftheBritishEmpire.Gandhi,wroteAmpthilltoSmuts,
iscontendingforaprinciplewhichheregardsasessentialand,sofarasIcanjudge,heisnomorelikelytoabandonacausewhichheconsidersvitalandjustthananyofusarelikelytoabandonourlife-longprinciplesofpoliticsorreligion…Itisimpossiblenottoadmiretheman,foritisevidentthatherecognisesnocourtofappealexceptthatofhisownconscience.
SmutsansweredthathewaswillingtorepealAct2of1907–theoriginallegislationaimedatAsiatics,thathadsooffendedGandhiandhiscolleagues–andtoadmitacertainnumberofeducatedIndians,butwithoutconcedingtheprincipleoftheoreticalequality.AmpthillnowadvisedGandhitoaccepttheseconcessions.‘Iamanxious,’hesaid,
forthesakeofyourcommunity,thatthestruggleshouldcease,becauseIthinkyouhavealreadydoneenoughforthesakeofhonour.YouwillbegainingsomethingverysubstantialintherepealofAct2of1907andyoucanmakeitquiteclearthatyouropinionsonthequestionofrightremainunaltered
eventhoughyoufeeljustifiedingivingupaquixoticstruggle.19
Astheword‘quixotic’suggests,aftersixweeksofintenselobbyingonhisbehalf,AmpthillwasalittleexasperatedwithGandhi.TheIndianwasgettingincreasinglyimpatienttoo.JosephDokereportedtoKallenbachthathehadreceivedaletterfromtheirmutualfriendwrittenina‘resigned-hopelessstrain’.20Soon,GandhimadehissentimentspublicinadispatchtoIndianOpinion.‘ThemoreexperienceIhaveofmeetingso-calledbigmenorevenmenwhoarereallygreat,’hewrote,
themoredisgustedIfeelaftereverysuchmeeting.Allsucheffortsarenobetterthanpoundingchaff.Everyoneappearspreoccupiedwithhisownaffairs.Thosewhooccupypositionsofpowershowlittleinclinationtodojustice.Theironlyconcernistoholdontotheirpositions.Wehavetospendawhole
dayinarrangingforaninterviewwithoneortwopersons.Writealettertothepersonconcerned,waitforhisreply,acknowledgeitandthengotohisplace.Onemaybelivinginthenorthandanotherinthesouth[ofLondon].Evenafterallthisfuss,onecannotbeveryhopefulaboutthisoutcome.Ifconsiderationsofjusticehadanyappeal,wewouldhavegot[whatwewanted]longbeforenow.Theonlypossibilityisthatsomeconcessionsmaybegainedthroughfear.Itcangiveno
pleasuretoasatyagrahitohavetoworkinsuchconditions.21
GandhispentmostSundayswithMilliePolak,whowasnowlivinginLondonwithheryoungchildren.Herenewedcontactswith‘EsotericChristians’hehadfirstbefriendedinthe1880s.22Hesoughtanappointmentwith,andmayevenhavemet,Tolstoy’sBritishbiographerAylmerMaude.HetookPranjivanMehtaandMaudPolaktoafarmoutsideLondon,runbyaTolstoyannamedGeorgeAllen.Theyallenjoyedthevisit;however,whenGandhisuggestedtheywalkbacktoLondoninthespiritoftheoccasion,Maudprotested,andtheyhadtotakethetraininstead.23
TheseencountersemboldenedGandhitowritedirectlytoTolstoy.Hehad,ofcourse,beenreadinghisworkformanyyearsnow.HewasaneagerconsumerofbooksandpamphletswrittenbyTolstoyandpublishedbyhisacolytesinEnglishtranslation.HealsoreadbooksabouttheRussianmaster:amongthevolumesinhislibrarywereErnestHowardCrosby’sTolstoyasaSchoolmaster(1904)andPercyRedfern’sTolstoy–AStudy(1907).24
GandhiwasnotthefirstIndiantowritetoTolstoy.ThiswasmostlikelyaMadrasjournalistcalledA.Ramaseshan,whoin1901wrotetothenovelistdescribingthepitifulconditionofIndiaunderBritishrule.Tolstoyansweredthatthesesufferingswouldcontinue‘aslongasyourpeopleagreetoserve[therulers]assepoys…[Y]oumustnothelptheEnglishintheirrulebyviolenceandyoumustnotparticipateinanywayinthegovernmentbasedonviolence.’Inthefollowingyears,TolstoywassentlettersbyIndianMuslimsandIndianHindus,eachurginghimtostudytheirscriptures.Mostrecently,inJune1908,aBengaliradicalnamedTaraknathDas(theninexileinAmerica)askedTolstoytosupportthemintheirfightagainsttheBritish.Dashadaskedforanendorsementofarmedstruggle;inreply,Tolstoywrotedespairinglyof‘theamazingstupidityindoctrinatedinyoubytheadvocatesoftheuseofviolence’.HeaskedtheIndiantoresisttherulernotbyarms,butbynon-violentnon-cooperation.IfIndianstooknopart‘eitherintheviolentdeedsoftheadministration,inthelaw
courts,inthecollectionoftaxes,oraboveallinsoldiering,nooneintheworldwillbeabletoenslaveyou’.25
SomeoftheselettershadbeenreproducedintheIndianpress,whereGandhimayhavereadthem.Inanycase,hehadhisownreasonsforwritingtoTolstoy.InaletterpostedfromLondonon1October1909,GandhisaidtheRussian’slifeandworkhad‘leftadeepimpressiononhismind’.HeexplainedthegenesisofthesatyagrahainSouthAfrica.HenowplannedanessaycompetitionontheethicsandefficacyofPassiveResistance,andwantedtoknowwhetherTolstoythoughtthisconsistentwithhisideaofmorality.Gandhialsoaskedforpermissiontoreprint,inIndianOpinion,theletterwrittentoTaraknathDasdeploringtheuseofviolenceinpoliticalmovements.IfTolstoyagreed,hewishedtodeletetheslightingreferencetoreincarnation,whichtheRussiandidnotbelievein,butwhich‘isacherishedbeliefwithmillionsinIndia,indeed,inChinaalso…Itexplainsreasonablythemanymysteriesoflife.WithsomeofthepassiveresisterswhohavegonethroughthegaolsoftheTransvaal,ithasbeentheirsolace.’Tolstoywrotebackimmediately.Hewaspleasedtohearofthestruggleof
‘ourdearbrothersandco-workersintheTransvaal’.InRussia,‘thesamestruggleofthetenderagainsttheharsh,ofmeeknessandloveagainstprideandviolence,iseveryyearmakingitselfmoreandmorefeltamongusalso’,asinthegrowingrefusalstoundertakemilitaryservice.However,hethoughtthat‘acompetition,i.e.,anofferofamonetaryinducementinconnectionwithareligiousmatterwould,Ithink,beoutofplace.’HeagreedtothereprintingofhislettertoTaraknathDas.Lefttohimself,hewouldnotdeletethesentenceGandhidisagreedwith,‘for,inmyopinion,beliefinreincarnationcanneverbeasfirmasbeliefinthesoul’simmortalityandinGod’sjusticeandlove.Youmay,however,doasyoulikeaboutomittingit.’26
Gandhireproducedthemodified‘LettertoaHindu’inIndianOpinion.Heintroduceditastheworkof‘oneoftheclearestthinkersinthewesternworld,oneofthegreatestwriters,onewhoasasoldierhasknownwhatviolenceisandwhatitcando’.TothoseIndiansathome(andabroad)whosawarmedstruggleasthenecessaryroutetonationalsalvation,Gandhipointedoutthat‘theassassinationofSirCurzonWylliewasanillustrationofthatmethodinitsworstandmostdetestableform.Tolstoy’slifehasbeendevotedtoreplacingthe
methodofviolenceforremovingtyrannyorsecuringreformbythemethodofnon-resistancetoevil.Hewouldmeethatredexpressedinviolencebyloveexpressedinsuffering’.27
JosephDoke’sbiographyofGandhihadjustbeenpublishedinLondon.Thiscoveredthemaineventsofhislifethusfar–theupbringinginKathiawar,thestudentyearsinLondon,theinsultinthetrainandtheattackonthePoint,theraciallawsinNatalandtheTransvaalandGandhi’soppositiontothem–whileinterpretinghismissioninaChristianidiom.InDoke’seyes,thesimplicityofGandhi’slifeandthetruthfulnessofhisconduct,hisreadinesstocourtdeathinpursuitofjustice,madehimcomecloserto‘theJewofNazareth’thanmostpractisingChristians.GandhihadhimselftoldDokethattheNewTestament,andtheSermonontheMountinparticular,hadawakenedhim‘totherightnessandvalueofPassiveResistance’.Forallthis,ifGandhiwasnot‘aChristianinanyorthodoxsense’,then
‘orthodoxChristianityhasitselftoblame’.Christiansinthecoloniesdeniedthefaithintheirlawsandtheirpractice.This‘discrepancybetweenabeautifulcreedandourtreatmentoftheIndianatthedoor,’wroteDoke,‘repelsthemanwhothinks’.TorecognizethejusticeofGandhi’sstruggle,tosalutethesufferingofthesatyagrahis,wouldbetheproperChristianthingtodo.Dokeaskedthusforarepealoftheraciallaws,apreludetotheconstructionof‘anewJerusalem,whosebeautifulgatesareeveropentoallnations;whereno‘colour-bar’ispermittedtochallengetheIndian,andnoracialprejudicetodaunttheChinese;intowhosewallsevenanAsiaticmaybuildthosepreciousstoneswhich,oneday,willstartleuswiththeirglory.’28
TolstoywasmentionedinDoke’sbiography,asasignificantinfluenceonitssubject.GandhinowsentthebooktotheRussianwriter,withthisglossonitscontents:
ThisstruggleoftheIndiansintheTransvaalisthegreatestofmoderntimes,inasmuchasithasbeenidealisedbothastothegoalasalsothemethodsadoptedtoreachthegoal.Iamnotawareofastruggleinwhichtheparticipatorsarenottoderiveanypersonaladvantageattheendofit,andinwhich50percent.ofthepersonsaffectedhaveundergonegreatsufferingandtrialforthesakeofaprinciple.IthasnotbeenpossibleformetoadvertisethestruggleasmuchasIshouldlike.Youcommand,possibly,thewidestpublictoday.IfyouaresatisfiedastothefactsyouwillfindsetforthinMrDoke’sbook,andifyouconsiderthattheconclusionsIhavearrivedatarejustifiedbythefacts,mayIaskyoutouseyourinfluenceinanymanneryouthinkfittopopularisethemovement?
Thisletterissomewhatself-promoting.Yetitspeaksofanextraordinaryself-confidence.ThestruggleintheTransvaalinvolvedafewthousandIndiansinasinglecolonyofasinglecountry,andyetGandhiwasalreadyseeingitinworld-historicterms–as,indeed,‘thegreatestofmoderntimes’.29
EvenasGandhiaskedTolstoytopublicizehisstruggle,heusedTolstoy’snametolegitimizethemovementinSouthAfricaitself.HepublishedtheircorrespondenceinIndianOpinion,saying,‘itisamatterofdeepsatisfactionthatwehavethesupportofsuchagreatandholyman.Hislettersshowsusconvincinglythatsoul-force–satyagraha–isouronlyresort.Deputationsandthelikeareallvainefforts.’HespokeofTolstoy’sfearlessnessattheageofeighty,asmanifestinhiscontinuingcriticismsoftheRussianstate.HequotedpassagesfromTolstoy’swritingschastising‘thosewhooppress,imprisonorhangthousandsofmen’,andwhichdared‘thetyrannicalofficers’toarresthim.
Amanwhocanwritethis,whohassuchthoughtsandcanactuptothemhasmasteredtheworld,hasconqueredsufferingandachievedhislife’send.Truefreedomistobefoundonlyinsuchalife.ThatisthekindoffreedomwewanttoachieveintheTransvaal.IfIndiaweretoachievesuchfreedom,
thatindeedwouldbeswarajya.30
TheproductionofJosephDoke’sbookonGandhihadbeenunderwrittenbyPranjivanMehta.MehtanowofferedtofundtheprintingandcirculationofTolstoy’s‘LettertoaHindoo’aswell.HewouldpayforitspublicationasapamphletinGujaratiandEnglish,andforitsdistributioninEnglandandSouthAfrica.MehtathoughtthatGandhi’snephewChhaganlalshouldtravelthroughIndiapromotingthesebooksandbooklets.Hewouldpayforthat,too.Further,hesuggestedthatGandhihaveafriend(perhapsaBritishTolstoyan)writeanindependentessay‘followingTolstoy’sthoughts’andoutliningtheEuropeanwriter’sinterestinIndia.‘Itwillbegreat,’wroteMehtatoGandhi,‘iftheessayreachesthose[Englishpeople]whobelievethatIndiaisharmfulforpeopleofEngland(exceptfortherichandthosewhomaketheirlivinginIndia).Ifwefindapersonwithsuchthoughtstowritetheessay,itwouldbegood.’31
Mehta’sgenerositywaspromptedbyhispatriotism,andbyhisaffectionforGandhi.FromveryearlyintheirrelationshiphehadseeninhisfriendafutureleaderofIndiaandIndians.InthisLondonautumnof1909,MehtaandGandhispentmanyeveningsattheWestminsterPalaceHotel,discussingIndia’sfutureandGandhi’splaceinit.Thejewellerwascertainthatthelawyerwouldplaya
centralroleintheemancipationoftheirmotherland.HewantedGandhitocomebacktoIndiasoonerratherthanlater.IfthismissiontoLondonwassuccessful,andtheconstitutionofthenewUnionofSouthAfricaadequatelysafeguardedIndianrights,thelawyerwouldbefreetoreturnhome,toactasapoliticalleader(andmoralexemplar)inamuchlargerterritoryandamongmanymoreofhisownpeople.ThatMehtacouldinsomewayaidintheelevationofGandhiwasamatterof
pride.AletterwrittenashewasleavingLondonindicateshowheviewedtherelationship.‘Iforgottoreturntoyou6penceIborrowedfromyoufromthehotelstairs,’wroteMehtatoGandhi,‘Iwillsendacheckforitandotherexpensestomorrow.’MehtawouldlooktoGandhiformoralandpoliticalguidance,solongasfinancialtransactionsranstrictlyandalwaysintheotherdirection.32
InthemiddleofSeptember,aftertenfruitlessweeksinLondon,GandhiwroteaskingforafurtherinterviewwithLordMorley,thecelebratedliberalthinkerwhowasnowservingasSecretaryofStateforIndia.‘Wecannotbelieve,’wroteGandhi,‘thatLordMorley,whoisregardedallovertheworldasthetypeofBritishLiberalismwouldregardwithindifferencesoreactionaryandilliberalapolicyasthatwhichhasbeenadoptedbytheTransvaalGovernment.’HavingappealedtoMorley’sreputation,henowappealedtothedutiesofhisoffice,byspeakingofthesupportthatHenryPolakwasreceivingonhistourthroughthesubcontinent,whichshowedthat‘Indiaisdeeplyhurtbytheinsultthatisputuponherbytheracialdisqualificationimportedforthefirsttimeintocoloniallegislation,andismuchmovedbythesufferingsthathavebeengonethroughbyhundredsofBritishIndiansintheTransvaal.’Theletterreceivedanarchreply,whichnotedthat‘thepointwhichyouwish
topressuponLordMorleyisnotnewtohim’.Morleywouldnotgrantanotherinterview.GandhiandHabibweretoldtomeettheSecretaryofStatefortheColonies,LordCrewe,instead.Whentheydid,Creweasked:‘CanyounotacceptthesubstantialthingthatGeneralSmutsiswillingtogive?’GandhiansweredthatSmuts’proposaltoadmiteducatedIndiansbyadministrativediscretion‘stillleavestheracialtaintontheStatute-book’.Creweresponded,
‘Whatyousayisjustandproper,butGeneralSmutsisnotanEnglishmanand,therefore,doesnotliketheideaevenoftheoreticalequality.’Atthisstage,HajeeHabibplayedtheImperialcard,notingthat‘thematter
wasexcitingaverygreatdealofcommotioninIndia.’Gandhiaddedthat‘theracialquestionisbeingverykeenlyresentedinIndia.’CrewesaidhehadalreadyspokentoSmutsofthewiderrepercussions,buttheGeneralfeltthat‘iftheoreticalequalitywerekeptup,itmightbeusedforfreshagitationinordertoincreasethedemands.’Gandhiclarifiedthatiftheprincipleofrightwasconceded,‘weshouldnotraiseanyfurtheragitation.’Crewesaid,inclosing,thathewoulddiscussthequestionagainwithSmuts.33
HenryPolak’scampaigninIndia–mentionedmeaningfullytoLordsMorleyandCrewe–hadindeedbeenbearingfruit.LandinginBombayinthefirstweekofAugust,hemetnewspapereditors,leadingindustrialists(suchastheParsi,JehangirPetit),risinglawyers(amongthemtheLondon-educatedGujaratiMuslim,MohammedAliJinnah)andveterannationalists,notablyDadabhaiNaoroji,who,despitebeingveryoldandveryfrail,readIndianOpinionregularlyandsaidheadmiredGandhi’s‘persistenceandperseverence’.‘Allmytimehasbeenoccupied,’wrotePolaktoGandhi,‘inseeingpeople[and]beinginterviewed.’Hisfriend’smentor,GopalKrishnaGokhale,hadplaced‘thewholeofhisorganisation[theServantsofIndiaSociety]atmydisposal’.AlthoughGokhalewas‘killinghimselfwithoverwork’,andhadjustreceived‘amostdepressingreport’fromhisdoctor,hehadfoundtimetoreadadraftofapamphletPolakhadwrittenonthesituationinSouthAfrica.TheProfessor‘thinksitgood,hasreadit,andwhilsthethinksitmuchtoostronginparts(Ihavesincetoneditdownsomewhat),haspassedit.’Polakwasnowinsearchofapublisher,armedwithanassurancefromJehangirPetitthathewouldunderwritethecostofprinting20,000copies.34
HavingacquiredasmatteringofHindustani,PolakhadtakentoaddressingGandhias‘Bhai’,orbrother(helateramendedthisto‘BadaBhai’,elderbrother).HearingofthestonewallingbythebigmeninLondon,Polakwrotethat‘yoursissplendidpatience.Ienvyyou.IseemoreandmorethebeautyoftheGitateaching–act,anddon’tworryaboutresults.ButIseemoreandmorehowdifficultitistodothisandadmirethemanwhocan.’
ThreeweekstalkingtoIndiansinIndiahadonlyconsolidatedPolak’srespectforGandhi.‘TheconclusionIhave[come]toafteralltheseconversationsandinterviews,’hewrote,
isthatIndia,evenatitsmostintelligent,ismanymilesbehindusintheTransvaal.Thepeoplehereadmitthevalueofpassiveresistance,butsaythatyouwouldn’tgetanyonetogotogaol.Idon’tknowwhatmycountrymenareworryingaboutIndiafor.Itseemsaharmlessenoughcountry.Providedtheydon’tsendanotherCurzonoranyone…approachingonehere,thecountryissafeforapparentlyhundredsofyears.TheywantacoupleofhundredGandhishere.Doyouknow,Ihaven’tmetamanherewhoapproachesyouspirituallyorinintensityofdevotion.MrG[opal]K[rishna]G[okhale]isthenearest,andthoughheisprobablyaheadofyouintellectually,inpublicexperience,andinadministrativepower,heisnotintherunningsofaraspurereligionisconcernedandhe
himselfadmitsit.35
On14September,alargepublicmeetinginsupportoftheTransvaalIndianswasheldinBombay’sTownHall.PolakandsundryServantsofIndiadidtheorganizing.Anarrayofknightswereinattendance,ofdifferentfaiths–SirJ.B.Petit,SirV.D.Thackersey,SirCurrimbhoyIbrahim.AmongtheuntitledgrandeeswerethelawyerM.A.JinnahandtheeditorK.Natarajan.ThemainspeakerwasGokhale,who,afterrehearingthefactsofdiscriminationandthecourseofthestruggle,salutedtheleadershipof‘theindomitableGandhi,amanoftremendousspiritualpower,onewhoismadeofthestuffofwhichgreatheroesandmartyrsaremade’.Gandhiandhiscolleagueswere‘fightingnotforthemselvesbutforthehonourandfutureinterestsofourmotherland’.‘Iamsure,’saidGokhale,that‘ifanyofushadbeenintheTransvaalduringthesedaysweshouldhavebeenproudtorangeourselvesunderMrGandhi’sbannerandworkwithhimandsufferinthecause.’Thiswasextraordinarypraise,fromamanwhowasperhapsthepre-eminentIndianstatesmanofhisday.Polak,speakingafterGokhale,stressedtheunitythathadbeenforgedbythestruggle.TheIndiansintheTransvaalhadthrownaside‘allancientmisunderstandings.Hindu,Mahomedan,Parsi,Christian,andSikhhave…stoodinthesameprisoner’sdockandstarvedinthesamegaol.’Classaswellascommunitydifferencesweretranscended,as‘themerchantandthehawker,thelawyerandthepriest,theBrahminandthemanoflowcaste,havealldrunkthesamebittersweetdraught,havealleatenfromthesamedishofbitterexperience.’Polakthennamedsomestalwarts,suchastheTamilThambiNaidoo,‘whogoestojailwithasmileonhisface’;theMuslimA.M.Cachalia,who‘losthiswholefortuneratherthanbreakhissolemnoath’(togotojail);theParsi,Rustamjee,who
would‘giveallhecouldhimself,inthecauseofhiscountry’;and,notleast,‘MohandasKaramchandGandhi,saintandpatriot,whowouldgladlyallowhisbodytobetornasunderbywildhorsesratherthancompromisehishonourandthatofhiscountry.’36
ThepressreportsofthismeetingreachedGandhiinLondon,tocheerandconsolehimafterthefailuretogettheImperialGovernmenttoseehispointofview.LaterlettersfromPolak,whohadbeentostaywiththeIndianleaderinPoona,passedonconfirmationofGokhale’sadmiration.HeheldGandhiup‘asanexampleofpatriotism,moderation,endurance,self-sacrificeandpracticalendeavour’.‘Hisprofoundestregret,’continuedPolak,‘isthatyouarenotheretojoinhimandinspirehiminhiswork.Wereyoutwotogether,itwouldbeararecombinationofsoulforces.’37
FromBombay,PolakproceededtoGandhi’shomeland,Gujarat,wheremeetingswereheldinSurat,KathoreandAhmedabad,allpassingresolutionscondemningthe‘unjustanddegradinglegislation’inTransvaalandsalutingthesacrificeofthosewhoopposedit.38
PolaknowmovedsouthtoMadras,tothelandoftheTamilswhohadbeeninthevanguardofthesatyagrahaintheTransvaal.HishosttherewasG.A.Natesan,anenergeticeditor,printerandpublisherknowntohisfriendsasan‘Americanhustler’.Polakspokeatapublicmeeting,where,ashetoldGandhi,‘Ihadafineovation,andpeopletoldmeitdrewtears.Isn’titwonderful!Andyet,theTransvaalstoryisenoughtobringtears.’ThepeoplehemetinMadraswere,likeGokhale,impressedaboveallbytheinter-religiousharmonythatunderlaythestruggleinSouthAfrica.‘EverybodytowhomIhavespoken,’hereported,‘Hindu,MahomedanandParsialike,feelsthatwearefaradvancedpoliticallyoverthemajorityofIndianshere.Theyallfeelthatwehavesentalessonwhichtheyoughttofollowbutthattheywillhavethegreatestpossibledifficultyinfollowing.’PolaktravelledfromMadrastothemofussil,totheinterioroftheTamil
countrywheresomanyoftheindenturedlabourersinNatalhadtheirroots.AmongthetownsPolakvisitedandspokeinwereMadurai,Tirunelveli,TrichyandTuticorin,drawingthecommentfromGandhithathehadseen‘practicallythewholeofIndia–aprivilegeIhavemyselfnotyetbeenabletoenjoy’.39Notthe‘wholeofIndia’,actually,for,asPolakcheekilytoldhisfriend,hestillhoped
to‘goovertoMalabarbeforeIleavehere,inordertoseetheNairwomen,whoIamtold,takeonehusbandafteranother.Thatbeatsyouall,whotakeonewifeafteranother.Iaminclinedtothinkthewomenareright!’40
InthelastweekofOctober,G.A.NatesanbroughtoutHenryPolak’spamphletTheIndiansofSouthAfrica:HelotsWithintheEmpireandHowTheyAreTreated.Thiswasdividedintotwoparts,thefirstprovidinganoverviewofIndianmigrationintoSouthAfrica,themigrants’workaslabourersandtraders,andtherestrictionstheyfacedindifferentprovinces;thesecondfocusingontheTransvaalandtheresistancemovementthere.Writtenwithpassionandclarity,itdescribedindentureasasystemof‘heartlessnessandcruelty’,andthefreeIndianasalwaysliving‘inperilofhavinghisfeelingsoutragedandhissenseofdecencyoffendedinanumberofways’.Theanti-AsiaticprejudicesofcolonialstatesmenlikeLordMilnerandGeneralSmutswereexposedanddocumented.ThestruggleoftheIndians,whohad‘deliberatelypittedsoul-forceagainstbrute-strength’,wasnarratedandcelebrated.WhilePolakspokeatlengthoftheheroismofordinaryfolk,hedidnotfailto
drawattentiontoGandhi’sownsufferings.Hementionedaprotestbyhimwhichledtobetterfoodbeingservedtotheprisoners.Hewroteinvivid,evenlurid,detailofhowaChineseprisonerattempteda‘bestialact’onanAfrican,withGandhi,inthesamecell,‘dread[ing]everymomentthattheChinese,foiledofhishorriblepurposewiththepowerfulKaffir,woulddirecthisattentionstohimself(MrGandhi)’.Onanotheroccasion,Gandhi,reachingforaclosettoanswernature’scall,‘wasseizedbyaburlyKaffir,liftedhighintheair,anddashedviolentlytotheground.Hadhenotseizedholdofadoor-postashefellhewouldundoubtedlyhavehadhisskullsplitopen!’Polakendedhispamphletwithapointed,passionatewake-upcalltoIndiaand
Indians:DothenamesofGandhi,DawoodMahomed,RustomjeeJeevanjee,Cachalia,Aswat,ThambiNaidoo,Vyas,ImamAbdulKadirBawazeer,andahostofothers,notcallforththeflushofshameandindignationuponthecheekoftheleadersofIndianthoughtandlife,thatthesemenshouldhavedonesomuchforIndia,andtheysolittlefortheirhumblesufferingbrethrenintheTransvaal?Mahomedan,Hindu,Parsee,Christian,Sikh,lawyer,priest,merchant,trader,hawker,servant,soldier,waiter,poorman,richman,grey-beard,child,man,andwomanhavesufferedalikeinthisgiganticstruggletomaintainthenationalhonourunsullied.TheTransvaalIndianshaveunderstoodthatupontheireffortsdependedwhetherornotthisrace-virusshouldinfecttherestofSouthAfricaandtherestoftheEmpire,whetherIndiaherselfwouldnothavetosufferanddrinkdeepofthecup
ofhumiliation.WhatofallthishasIndiarealized?HavethebittercriesfromtheTransvaalIndianspenetratedtotheearsoftheirbrethrenintheMotherland?
WhatpatrioticIndiansshoulddo,saidPolak,wastoformanationalbodywithbranchesineverymajorcity,whichwouldmake‘powerfulrepresentations’totheGovernmentontheconditionoftheircompatriotsinSouthAfrica.Simultaneously,‘thepressshouldagitatethequestioninseasonandoutofseason.’Surelyitwasnot‘beyondthepowersoftheaccumulatedintelligenceofIndia…tokeeptheshipofStateofftherocksofracialism’.41
Polak’spamphletwasdeemeddangerousenoughfortheSouthAfricanauthoritiestopubliclydenounceit.42Ontheotherhand,hispublisher,G.A.Natesan,wassoimpressedthathenowaskedPolaktowriteashortlifeofGandhi,inaseriesthathadpreviouslyseenprofilesofDadabhaiNaoroji,M.G.Ranade,G.K.Gokhale,LajpatRaiandotherleadersoftheIndiannationalmovement.ModestlytitledM.K.Gandhi:ASketchofHisLifeandWork,thissecond
pamphletwaspublishedanonymously.PolakbeganbyspeakingofGandhi’s‘extraordinaryloveoftruth’,his‘proverbial’generosity,his‘senseofpublicduty’.The‘majesticpersonalityofMohandasGandhi’,wrotethisfriendandfollower,‘overshadowshiscomparativelyinsignficantphysique.Onefeelsoneselfinthepresenceofamoralgiant,whosepellucidsoulisaclear,stilllake,inwhichoneseesTruthclearlymirrored.’Thesepersonalqualitieswereorientedtowardsalargecause.‘MrGandhihad
appointedforhimselfonesupremetask–tobringHindusandMussalmanstogetherandtomakethemrealisethattheywereonebrotherhoodandsonsofthesameMotherland.’Polakmadethelarge,daring,claimthat‘perhaps,inthisgeneration,Indiahasnotproducedsuchanobleman–saint,patriot,statesmaninone.’Gandhi,saidhisEnglishadmirer,‘livesforGodandforIndia’.His‘onedesireistoseeunityamonghisfellow-countrymen’.ByforgingunityamongHindusandMuslimsinSouthAfrica,Gandhihaddemonstrated‘thepossibilityofIndiannationalunityandthelinesuponwhichthenationaledificeshallbeconstructed’.43
Polakwrotetohisfriendthat‘withyourgreatmodestyyouwillprobablybeunabletoappreciatethefactthatyouareregardedasoneofIndia’sgreatestmentoday.ButIamafraidIshallplaybutapoorBoswelltoyourJohnson.’In
anotherletterhewasslightlylessmodest.‘IhaverevealedtotheIndianleaderswhatsortofmanyouare,’wrotePolaktoGandhi.‘Doyouknow,Ihavenotmetonemantoequalyouinmeekness,spirituality,devotion,andpracticalenergy.Idon’tbelieveanyothercountrycouldhavegivenyoubirth.’Throughhisconversations,speechesandwritingsinIndia,Polakhadhelped
makeGandhifarbetterknowninhisowncountry.Theadmirationwasmanifestandgenuine,andthesubjectwassuitablygrateful.WhenanAnglo-IndianpaperdismissedPolakasa‘paidagent’oftheTransvaalIndians,Gandhiwroteaspiritedrejoinder,praisinghiscommitmentandsacrifice,andsaying,withuncharacteristicsharpness,that‘ifasoninajointfamilydyingintheperformanceofhissonshipmaybedescribedasapaidagent,becauseheisclothedandfedoutofthefamilyfunds,thenMrPolakisundoubtedlyapaidagent,butnotuntilthen.’44
TheGovernmentofIndiaknewhowimportantandeffectivePolak’sworkwas.Hewasfollowedeverywherebypolicespies,whotamperedwithhismail,andaskedquestionsofthoseworkinginthehomesandinnswherehestayed.Polaknoticedthiswithamusementatfirst,butwithtimealsowithirritation.‘Theauthoritiesmustbemad,’hetoldGandhi,‘tofollowthatdamnableRussianSystem[ofspying]whichinEnglandweaffecttocondemnbutapparentlyitisallliesandhypocrisy!’45
Whentoldofthespies,GandhitoldPolakthathecould‘understandmyletterstoyoubeingopened,butthatMillie’sletterstoyouaredeliberatelyopened,passesmycomprehension.Letushopetheyarewiserforhavingreadtheletters,andalsothattheyhavelearntthemeaningofwifelydevotion.’46Polak’sreplyunderscoredthedifferencebetweenthemarriageoftheGandhis,basedasitwasonobligationandtradition,andhisown,basedratheronloveandromance.‘YoutaketheopeningofMillie’slettermorephilosophicallythansheandIdo,’heremarked.‘Iseethatyourdaysofwritinglove-lettersareover!Iamsorryforyou!Ihaven’tyetauthorisedMillietostartclassesinmaritaldevotion!’Polak’sextendedtriptoIndiawasitselfanobjectlessonindevotiontoa
friendandacause.TherealnatureofhissacrificeisrevealedinaletterthatthankedGandhi,withsincerityandalsoenvy,forspendingsomuchtimewithhisfamilyinLondon.‘Don’tyoufindMilliemorelovableastimepasses?’hewrote,adding,‘Ido!!!(Amazingdiscovery,isn’tit?)’47
FromMadras,PolaktookaboattoRangoon.HewasmetatthewharfbyPranjivanMehta–nowbackfromLondon–andbyMadanjitVyavaharik,oneofGandhi’soriginalcollaboratorsonIndianOpinion,whowasalsobasedhere,editingajournalcalledUnitedBurma.48PolakstayedwithMehta,discussing,amongotherthings,thepastandfutureoftheirmutualfriend.Eitheroffhisownbat,orinconsultationwithPolak,MehtawroteGopalKrishnaGokhalearemarkableletterwhichbegan:
DearSir,
DuringmylasttriptoEuropeIsawagreatdealofMrGandhi.Fromyeartoyear(Ihaveknownhimintimatelyforovertwentyyears)Ihavefoundhimgettingmoreandmoreselfless.Heisnowleadingalmostanasceticsortoflife–notthelifeofanordinaryasceticthatweusuallyseebutthatofagreatMahatmaandtheoneideathatengrosseshismindishismotherland.ItseemstomethatanyonewhodesirestoworkforhiscountryoughttostudyGandhiandhis
latestinstitution–PhoenixColonyandPhoenixSchool.ThepassiveresistanceascarriedonintheTransvaalunderhisGuidancecanalsobebetterstudiedonthespot.MrPolakwhoisnowhereandlivingwithme,tellsmethatthe‘ServantsofIndia’aredoing
excellentwork;itseemstomethatthestudyofeveryworkerforIndiaisnotcompleteunlesshehasstudiedMrGandhiandhisInstitutions.
MehtawentontooffertofundanassociateofGokhale’stogotoSouthAfrica‘andputhimselfabsolutelyatthedisposalofMrGandhi’.Heevensuggestedaname–thatoftheMadrasscholarandorator,V.S.SrinivasaSastri.49
ThiswasaprecociouspronouncementofMohandasK.Gandhi’sgreatness.ParticularlystrikingisMehta’suseofthehonorific‘Mahatma’,‘greatandholysoul’,normallyreservedforspiritualfigureswhoseinfluenceresonatesdownthecenturies,hereconferredonamerelawyerandactivist.TheconventionalwisdomhasitthatitwasthepoetRabindranathTagorewho,around1919,firstbegantocallGandhi‘Mahatma’,afterhehadbecomeamajorfigureinIndianpolitics.AnalternateclaimhasbeenmadeonbehalfoftheGujarattownofGondal,whichseemstohaveconferredthetitleonGandhiwhenhevisiteditonhisreturnfromSouthAfricain1915.PranjivanMehtaprecededthemboth–although,ofcourse,inaprivateletterratherthanapublicdeclaration.WedonotknowwhetherPolakreadMehta’sletterbeforeitwassent,andit
appearsthatGandhineversaworknewofitatall.Therecipientoftheletter,althoughamanofgreatwisdomandselflessness,musthavereaditwithmixedemotions.GandhiprofessedGokhaletobehismentor;butherewasMehtatellingtheteacherthathecouldlearnalessonfromthestudentinSouthAfrica,
thatthestrugglefortheemancipationofmillionsinIndiacouldprofitfromaclosestudyofthestruggleofafewthousandmigrantsinNatalandtheTransvaal.AfterstayingwithMehtainRangoon,PolaksailedtoCalcuttatocarryonhis
campaignfortheSouthAfricanIndians.Alargepublicmeetingwasheldhereon3December,‘toprotestagainstthetreatmentofIndiansintheTransvaal’.Thegatheringwasecumenical–itincludedtheprominentHinduliberalsBhupendranathBasuandSurendranathBannerjee,leadingBengaliMuslims,aswellassomeMarwaribusinessmenofthecity.50
FromCalcutta,Polakproceededtothenorthofthecountry,speakingattownsacrosstheUnitedProvincesandPunjab.InBanarasthemeetingwaschairedbyAnnieBesant,theformerBritishsocialistwhowasnowanIndianspiritualist.Besant,saidPolak,‘deliveredthefinestaddressthatIhaveheardformanyyears.Therewasnoplayactinginit.Whatshesaidwasfromtheheartandshespokeverystrongly.’MrsBesantsubscribedRs30forafundfortheSouthAfricanIndians,whichhadcollectedRs1,000bytheendofthemeeting.ThispleasedPolak,asdida‘mostrefreshingdip’thenextdayintheriverGanges,ariteofpassageforaHindu,butpurelyoptionalforthismostlylapsedJew.51
Polak’stalksandwritingswerenoticedby,amongotherpeople,thebrilliantBengaliradicalAurobindoGhose(laterknownasSriAurobindo).InApril1907,GhosehadwrittenaseriesofessaysonthepossibilitiesofpassiveresistanceinIndia.52Hehadnot,itappears,readGandhiatthatstage;nor,itseems,hadGandhireadhim.Now,Polak’svisitspurredtheBengalirevolutionarytowriteafascinatingessayonthesituationinSouthAfrica.‘ThegreatgloryoftheTransvaalIndians,’wroteGhose,
isthatwhilemenundersuchcircumstanceshavealwayssunkintotheconditiontowhichtheyhavebeencondemnedandneededotherstohelpthemoutofthemire,thesesonsofBharatavarsha,inheritorsofanunexampledmoralandspiritualtradition,havevindicatedthesuperiorityoftheIndianpeopleanditscivilisationtoallotherpeoplesintheglobeandallothercivilisationsbythespiritinwhichtheyhaverefusedtorecognisethedominanceofbruteforceoverthehumansoul.Strippedofallmeansofresistance,ahelplesshandfulinaforeignland,unaidedbyIndia,putoffwithemptyprofessionsofsympathybyEnglishstatesmen,they,ignoredbyhumanity,arefightinghumanity’sbattleinthepurestrengthofthespirit,withnoweaponbutthemoralforceoftheirvoluntarysufferingsandutterself-sacrifice…ThepassiveresistancewhichwehadnotthecourageandunselfishnesstocarryoutinIndia,theyhavecarriedtotheutmostintheTransvaalunderfarmorearduouscircumstances,withfarlessrighttohopeforsuccess.Whethertheywinorloseinthe
struggle,theyhavecontributedfarmorethantheirsharetothefuturegreatnessoftheircountry.53
Indianpoliticswasthendividedinto‘Moderate’and‘Extreme’camps,theformerpolitely,evenapologetically,askingforconcessionsfromtheBritish,thelattermilitantly,evenangrily,demandingthem.AurobindoGhosewasinpoliticaltermsan‘extremist’,indeed,anextremeExtremist.HehadclosecontactswithterroristgroupsinBengal,andinMay1908heandhisbrotherBarindranathwerearrestedinwhatbecameknownastheAliporeBombCase.Barinwassentencedtolifeimprisonment;Aurobindo,however,wasreleasedafterayearinprison.54
ThepartyoftheGhoseshad(thewordisinescapable)extremecontemptforModerateslikeGandhi’smentor,Gokhale.ItisameasureofPolak’ssuccessasapublicistthathecouldobtain,fortheircauseintheTransvaal,theendorsementofbothGopalKrishnaGokhaleandAurobindoGhose.
WithGandhiinLondonandPolakinthesubcontinent,theEnglishpagesofIndianOpinionwerebeingeditedbytheReverendJosephDoke.Asbefore,thejournalcarriedweeklyupdatesonthestruggle.OneissuenoticedthedeathofayoungTamilnamedNagappen,whohadcontractedpneumoniainjail.Thirtyhorse-drivencabsaccompaniedthecortègetothecemetery.TherewasawreathfromtheBritishIndianAssociation,andanother‘fromLeungQuinnwithdeepestsympathy;hediedforconscience’ssake.’AneditorialinIndianOpinionpraisedthecontributionsofTamilwomen.‘Theyhaveseentheirhusbandsandsonsimprisoned,theyhavetakenupthedutiesoflifewhichdonotusuallyfalltoawoman’slotandhavebornetheheaviestburdenstomakeitpossibleforthosetheylovetobetruetoconscience.’55
Gandhi’sjournalalsowroteaboutafailedassassinationattemptontheViceroyofIndia.‘Aspassiveresisters,’commentedthepaper,
wehaveabsolutelynosympathywiththeemploymentofbombsandsuchlikesymbolsofforcetoachieveNationalistobjects…Wearethankfultobelievethattheupholdersofbombthrowingareasmallminorityoftheresponsiblemen,whoareworkingfortheupliftingofIndia,andwetrustthattheethicsofpassiveresistance,whicharenowprominentinourMotherlandthroughtheinterestwhichsheistakinginourwelfare[inSouthAfrica],maylayholdofthejudgmentofourpeople.
Thiswaswrittenbythestandineditor,JosephDoke,whohadtoventriloquizeintheabsenceofGandhiandspeakthusofIndiaashis‘Motherland’,too.56
Inotherissues,Harilal’sfourthterminprisonwasnoticed,asalsothefreshincarcerationsofParseeRustomjee,ThambiNaidooandothers.Inotherplaces
andpasttimes,remarkedIndianOpinion,jail-going‘broughtshame,humiliationandthecriminaltaintwithit.’Inthisplaceatthistime,however,‘thegloryofheroismrestslikeahalouponit–andintheTransvaalthemanwhohasnotbeentogaolisthequestionablecharacter.’57
Asbefore,meetingswereheldeverySundayattheHamidiaMosqueinJohannesburg,wherethelatestbatchofsatyagrahisreleasedwerewelcomedandthelatestbatchofsatyagrahiswhohadcourtedarrestweresaluted.Atonemeeting,inearlySeptember,JosephDokemadeaspecialpointofpraisingtheChineseresisters.HetoldhisIndianfriendsthatthey‘oughttobedelightedhowloyallytheywerestandingbytheirAsiaticbrethren,sothatMrQuinnand74Chinesehadjustbeenarrested,andwouldhavetofaceimprisonment.’58
GandhiwaskeepingintouchwithSouthAfricathroughIndianOpinionandvialettersfromfriends.OneofthesewasThambiNaidoo,nowtemporarilyoutofjail.Whenheemergedfromhismostrecentprisonsentence,IndianOpinionwrotethat‘MrThambiNaidoolookswellandhardy,andhehascomeoutagiantinpurpose.Hisisanuncrushablespirit.’59InearlyOctober,ThambiwrotetoGandhithat‘allTamilprisonersdischargedfromtheprisonduringyourabsencearereadytogotojailagainandagainuntiltheGovernmentwillgrantto[sic]ourrequest.’TheTamilleadertravelledtoPretoriainthelastweekofSeptember,receivingabatchofresisterswhohadrecentlybeendischarged.Hefoundthem‘thinandweak’owingtothe‘insufficiencyoffoodandtheabsenceofghee’intheprisondiet,andyet‘theyareallprepare[d]togobacktogaol.’Thambisalutedtheirhumanwill,addinghoweverthat‘IdependuponnootherthanBhagawan[God],heistheonlyonewhocanbringtheGovernmentdowntodotheirdutytowards[the]weak.’60
ByOctober1909itwasclearthatthediplomaticmethodadvocatedbyLordAmpthillhadfailed.GandhinowwrotetotheColonialOfficethatsinceasettlementwasnotforthcoming,heintendedtoaddressaseriesofpublicmeetingsbeforereturningtoSouthAfrica.HespoketoagroupofParsisinLondon,wherehesalutedthesacrificeoftheirco-religionists–ParseeRustomjee,ShapurjiSorabjee,etal.–inSouthAfrica.On24October,hespoketoamixedgatheringofIndians,sharingaplatformwithV.D.Savarkar.ItwasVijayaDashami,thelastdayoftheDasehrafestival,markingthevictoryonthe
battlefieldofRamoverRavan.Themoderateandtheextremistwereastudyincontrast.Gandhiworeatailcoatandadressshirt.Savarkarwasdressedmorecasually.Gandhiwrotelaterthat‘MrSavarkardeliveredaspiritedspeechonthegreatexcellenceoftheRamayana.’Savarkarhadinsistedthatjustas,inancienttimes,HindugodshadvanquishedLankandemonswiththeforceofarms,sowiththesamemethodswouldmodernHindusnowputtheirBritishconquerorstoflight.61
Ayoungstudentwhowaspresentremembered–fortyyearslater–thecontrastbetweenthetwomen.Savarkarwas‘byfarthemostarrestingpersonality’atthemeeting;for‘aroundhimhadbeenbuiltaflaminggalaxyofviolentrevolutionism’.Gandhi,ontheotherhand,seemedshyanddiffident;thestudentshadto‘ben[d]theirheadsforwardtohearthegreatMrGandhispeak’.Hisvoiceandspeechwereofapiecewithhismanner–‘calm,unemotional,simple,anddevoidofrhetoric’.62
ItfelltoGandhitointroduceSavarkarattheDasehrameeting.Inpublichewaspolite,sayinghedidnotwanttostandbetweenthespeakerandhisaudience.HisrealfeelingswerecommunicatedinalettertoLordAmpthill,whichnotedtheunmistakable‘awakeningofthenationalconsciousness’amongIndiansinLondon,tarredsomewhatbyan‘impatienceofBritishrule.Insomecasesthehatredofthewhole[white]raceisvirulent.’Gandhihadbeenindiscussionwiththeextremists,tryingto‘convincethemoftheerrorsoftheirways’.Oneextremist(whomhedoesnotname,butwhomostlikelywasSavarkar)spoketoGandhi‘withaviewtoconvincemethatIwaswronginmymethodsandthatnothingbuttheuseofviolence,covertoropenorboth,waslikelytobringaboutredressofthewrongstheyconsidertheysuffer.’Gandhiansweredthathewishedtotakehisown‘humbleshareinnationalregeneration’,albeitwithgentler,moreincrementalmethods.63
Gandhiwasalarmedbythehostilityoftheextremiststowardshismentor,GopalKrishnaGokhale.Theirhousejournal,BandeMatram,haddismissedthePoonaleaderas‘meanandcowardly’.Inapublicrejoinder,GandhisalutedGokhale’sdecadesofservice,remarkingthat‘itisthedutyofboththeextremistsandmoderatestoseethattheydonotpulldowntheworkofthosewhohavebeencalledthepillarsofIndia;theyarewelcometobuildfurtheronit.Otherwise,theywillbecuttingofftheverybranchonwhichtheyaresitting.’64
GandhialsowrotetoGokhale,reportingthe‘extremebitterness’againsthimamongSavarkarandcompanyinLondon.Thecriticismcouldbestbeanswered,hethought,byGokhalevisitingtheTransvaalandidentifyingwiththemovement.‘IclaimthattheTransvaalstruggleisnationalineverysenseoftheterm,’wroteGandhi.‘Itdeservesthegreatestencouragement.Ihaveconsideredittobethegreateststruggleofmoderntime.ThatitwillsucceedintheendIhavenottheslightestdoubt.ButanearlysuccesswillbreakuptheviolencemovementinIndia.’GandhiwantedGokhaletocome‘totheTransvaal,publiclydeclaringthatitwasyourintentiontoshareoursorrowsand,therefore,tocrosstheTransvaalborderasacitizenoftheEmpire’.Hiscomingwouldgivethecausea‘world-widesignificance,thestrugglewillsoonendandyourcountrymenwillknowyoubetter.Thelastconsiderationmaynotweighwithyou.Butitdoeswithme…Ifyouarearrestedandimprisoned,Ishouldbedelighted.Imaybewrong,butIdofeelthatitisastepworthtakingforthesakeofIndia.’65ThiswasaletterasconfidentlypresumptuousasthatwrittentoTolstoy.Tobesure,itwaswrittenoutofconcernforhismentor,andforhisreputation.Gokhale’sreplyisunavailable.Buthecouldscarcelyhavegonebackontheprinciplesandprejudicesofalifetime.Hisstylewastoreasonandappeal,todraftpetitionsandmakesonorous–ifoccasionallyalsoponderous–speechesintheImperialCouncil.TocourtarrestwasasforeigntohistemperamentasthefiringofagunwastoGandhi’s.
InLondon,Gandhicontinuedtomonitor,fromlongdistance,themoraleducationofhissonManilal.Theboywasnowfifteen,andhisfatherwasdeterminedthathispassageintoadulthoodwouldbesmoother–oratanyratelessrocky–thanhisbrotherHarilal’s.Theexcerptsbelowarerevealing.
GandhitoManilal,10August1909:Thinkingofthestateofaffairsinthecountry,IbelieveveryfewIndiansneedmarryatthepresenttime…Apersonwhomarriesinordertosatisfyhiscarnaldesireislowerthaneventhebeast.Forthemarried,itisconsideredpropertohavesexualintercourseonlyforhavingprogeny.Thescripturesalsosayso…IwantyoutounderstandthepurportofwhatIsaidabove;and,understandingit,conqueryoursenses.DonotbescaredbythisandthinkthatIwanttobindyounottomarryevenaftertheageof25.Idonotwanttoputunduepressureonyouoranyonewhatever.Ijustwanttogiveyouadvice.Ifyoudonotthinkofmarriageevenattheageof25,Ithinkitwillbetoyourgood.
GandhitoManilal,17September,onhearingthattheboyhadbeennursingtheailingAlbertWest:
Todogoodtoothersandservethemwithoutanysenseofegoism–thisisrealeducation.
GandhitoManilal,27September,inreplytoanapparentlyanxious,confusedletter:
Yougetnervousatthequestion,‘Whatareyougoingtodo?’IfIwastoansweronyourbehalf,Iwouldsaythatyouaregoingtodoyourduty.Yourpresentdutyistoserveyourparents,tostudyasmuchasyoucangettheopportunitytodoandtoworkinthefields…Youmustbedefiniteonthispointatleast–thatyouarenotgoingtopractiselawormedicine.Wearepoorandwanttoremainso…OurmissionistoelevatePhoenix;forthroughitwecanfindoursoulandserveourcountry.BesurethatIamalwaysthinkingofyou.Thetrueoccupationofmanistobuildhischaracter…Hewhodoesnotleavethepathofmoralityneverstarves,andisnotafraidifsuchacontingencyarises…WhilewritingthisIfeellikemeetingandembracingyou;andtearscometomyeyesasIamunabletodothat.BesurethatBapu[Father]willnotbecrueltoyou.WhateverIdo,IdoitbecauseIthinkitwillbeinyourinterest.Youwillnevercometogrief,foryouaredoingservicetoothers.
GandhitoManilal,22October:Iseethatyouhaveagainbeguntobeworriedaboutyoureducation.Canyounotgiveananswertothequestion,‘Whatclassareyouin?’Hence-forwardyoumaysaythatyouareinBapu’sclass.Whydoestheideaofstudyhauntyouagainandagain?Ifyouwanttostudyforearningyourlivelihood,itisnotproper;forGodgivesfoodtoall.Youcangetenoughtoeatevenbydoingmanuallabour…I
wantyoutoshedallfear.Dohavefaithinme.66
Manilalappearsfromtheseletterstobelesstruculentorquestioningthanhiselderbrother,iflikewiseconcernedwithhiseducationandhissexuality.Asforthefather,hecannotbutbehortatory,yetonenoticesanundercurrentoftenderness,absentintheoftenunfeelingletterstohiselderson.Aletterwrittentohisthirdson,Ramdas,alsodisplaysasoftnessthatisnew.‘DonotbeangrywithmeifIhavenotbroughtanythingforyou[fromLondon].TherewasnothingIliked.WhatcouldIdoifnothingEuropeanappealedtome?’wroteGandhi.Thenheadded,‘DonotbeupsetwithmeifIgotogaol;ratheryoushouldrejoice.IshouldbewhereHarilalis.’67
ItdoesappearthatGandhiwas,albeitslowly,growingintofatherhood.
On3November1909,theColonialOfficewrotetoGandhithat‘MrSmutswasunabletoaccepttheclaimthatAsiaticsshouldbeplacedinapositionofequalitywithEuropeansinrespectofrightofentryorotherwise’.68Therejectionwasdefinitive.Twodayslater,GandhiandHajeeHabibreleasedastatementtothe
press,summarizingtheirvisit,theirmeetingswithImperialofficials,therefusalofGeneralSmutstointroduceanon-raciallaw.TheTransvaallegislation,theysaid,‘cutsattheveryroot’oftheprincipleof‘elementaryequality’ofallBritishsubjects.InterviewedbyReuters,GandhisaidHabibandheexpectedtobearrestedwhentheysoughttore-entertheTransvaal.Theircampaignwouldbe‘continuedmoststrenuously’inIndia,theUnitedKingdomandSouthAfrica.69
Aweeklater,theNonconformistministerF.B.MeyerhostedafarewelldinnerforGandhi.InattendanceweretheParsistatesmanM.M.Bhownaggree,severalservingMembersofParliament,andtherisingIndianpoliticianMotilalNehru.Somewhocouldnotcomesentheart-feltlettersofsupport.GertrudeToynbee,daughterofthereformerArnold,wrotetoGandhithattheIndianstruggleintheTransvaal‘raisesone’sconceptionofthepossibilitiesofhumanity’.AChristianfromFifewrotetotheReverendMeyerthat
althoughthecausethey[Gandhiandcolleagues]representispassingthroughadarkhour,Iamnotdismayed.Inthehistoryofthehumanraceithasalwaysbeendarkestbeforedawn…NeverdidthecauseoftheNegroseemmorehopelessthanduringtheyearsthatprecededtheabolitionofslavery…MayIaddwithallreverencethatthesaviouroftheworldhimselfseemedlostinthemomentthatbroughtaboutourredemption?AndsoIjoinyouinspiritinwishingGod-SpeedtoMessrsGandhi
andHajiHabib.70
AlsopresentatthepartyforGandhiwasSirFrederickLely,who,backin1888and1889,hadrefusedtoprovidetheaspiringlawstudentwithascholarshipfromtheStateofPorbandar.Twentyyearslater,nowlivinginretirementinLondon,theonceunfeelingAdministratorissuedapartialmeaculpa.RememberinghisyearsinKathiawar,andhisfriendshipwithKabaGandhi,SirFredericktoldthegatheringthat‘hewasquitesurethathisoldfriendMrGandhi,hadhebeenalivenow,wouldhavebeenproudofhisson’.71
AsforGandhihimself,hespokeatthisreceptionofhowtheirstruggleturnedonaquestionofnationalhonour.Theyhadrefusedtomeetviolencewithviolence,andinsteadadoptedpassiveresistance.HeexplainedthismethodwithreferencetotheBible,namelythechapterwhereDanielrefusedtoacceptthelawsoftheMedesandthePersians.72Afterwards,L.W.RitchsentareporttohisfellowGandhiworshipperHenryPolak:
OurbiglittlechiefleftforS.AfricaonMonday.AbigcrowdwasattheSt[atio]ntowishthelittlemanfarewell,andhisgoingcreatesagapinourcircleofworkers…Gandhi’smagnificent
personalityattractedabouthimthebestspiritsamongtheIndiansresidenthere,andthoseEuropeans
whoarecapableofquietsolidwork.73
ThepersonwhomissedGandhimostwasMaudPolak.Withhisdeparture,shewouldworkunderL.W.RitchontheSouthAfricanBritishIndianCommittee.‘Sheisthrowingherselfheartandsoulintothework,’wroteRitchtoherbrother.‘GandhihasinfluencedherwonderfullyandIamlookinguponherasasister.’Preciselyhowwonderfulthechief’sinfluencewasisdescribedintwolittle-knownletterswrittenbyGandhihimselftoHenryPolak.On11November,thedaybeforeMeyer’sparty,hewrotethatMaudwas‘veryseriouslythinking’ofcomingtoSouthAfrica.‘Lasteveningshecouldnotrestrainherself,andtoldmeshewantedtogotoSouthAfricaverybadlyandworkforthecause.’GandhisaidthatwhileMaudwas‘verysweet-natured’and‘capableofgreatself-sacrifice’,hedid
notknowhowfarthePhoenixlifewouldsuither…IhavetoldherallIcouldaboutthings.IhavetoldheraswellasIcouldaboutthejarringnotesthere,andIhavetoldher,too,thatthereisnomoneyinit.IhavefurthertoldherhowMillieherselffindsitdifficulttoreconcile…tolifeatPhoenix…Ihavetoldher,too,thathowevermuchshemayregardmyview,andlikeit,Iconsidermyselfincompetenttoenterintoallawoman’sfeelings,andwhenshehasaccessibletoherMillie’s
lovingassistanceandadvice,shecannotdobetterthanrelyuponherjudgment.74
Fourdayslater,whileonboardship,GandhiwrotetoPolakagainabouthissister’sgrowingattachmenttohimselfandhiscause.‘Shecannottearherselfawayfromme,’heremarked:
Iwaswatchinghercloselyatthestation.Shewasonthepointofbreakingdown.Shewouldnotshakehandswithme.Shewantedakiss.Thatshecouldnothaveatthestation,notthatsheorIwasafraidbutitwouldbemisunderstood.Soshestoodrightontheplatform…Ifallshehasshowntobegenuineshemayeclipseyou[indevotiontome].
MaudPolakhadbeendesperatelykeentoaccompanyGandhitoSouthAfrica.Hersister-in-lawMillie,probablyathisurgings,filledherinonthe‘jarringnotes’:namely,‘beetleseverywhere,spiders,antsinthemilk,nobaths,waterbad,peoplehalfnaked,filthtoo,liftaplateandyouwillfindaninsectunderneath,snakeshangingfromthetree,youhavenotonlytotoleratethisbutlovetheinsectlife,youmaynotdestroyanylife…’MaudPolakwasundeterredbythesedescriptions–shestillwantedtogowhereGandhiwas.SouthAfricawastoherterranova.Jobless,unmarried,stuckwithherparentsinLondon,itwasalandwithenormousappeal,notleastbecauseGandhilivedthere.Thepast
fourmonthshadbeenspentalmostcontinuouslyinhiscompany.Maud’sfeelingsforGandhiwereintense,andprobablyromantic.(Yearslater,withhissister’sattachmenttohisfriendinmind,PolakrecalledthatwhileGandhi‘wasbynomeansgood-lookingbyIndianstandards…throughouthislifemanynotablewomenweregreatlyattractedbyhispersonality,andhealwayshadwomenfriends,bothBritishandIndian.’)75
MaudPolakwasattractedbyGandhi’spersonality,andperhapsalsobyhisprofile–asuccessfullawyer,aleaderofapopularmovement,anIndianwhoparleyedwithSecretariesofStateandMembersofParliament.Hisfeelingsforher,ontheotherhand,werepaternal.Gandhi’slettertoherbrotherHenrythuscontinues:
Ihavetoldher[Maud]thatIconsiderIndiancivilizationtobethebestintheworldandtherefore[what]itmeansforhertobemoreIndianizedthanyouare.Sherevelsinthethought.SuchistheconditioninwhichIhavelefther.Mrs.G[andhi]usedtodescribeyouasmyfirstbornlovingly.ShewouldacceptMaudasmyfirstbornlovingly.SheIthinkwillfillherlife.Markafather’sselfishness.Youaretome–ChhotaBhai–ayoungerbrotherandyetmorethanabrother…Maudontheotherhandcanbemyfirstbornandthereforeinsomewaysmorethanyouaretome.Shewillclaimmoreofme.CanIgiveit?AmIworthyofallaffection?Issheworthyofitfromme?Unlesssheisadownrightimpostorwhichsheisnot,sheisquitecapableofit.Theothertheoryisthatthewholethingisaninedayswonderduetotheglamourofmypersonality.Ifso,Ishouldbeshotonsight.Forifpeoplecanbesofalselyenthusedbyme,Iamuseless–apowermoreforharmthangood.Howeverthatmaybe,thereisahugeproblemforyouandmetosolve.MayMaudgotoPhoenix?Ifheraffectionisrealitwillbeasinforanybodytopreventthat.Ileaveitatthat.76
GandhialsowrotetoMillie,who,inLondon,hadseenhisfriendshipwithhersister-in-lawdevelopatratherclosequarters.The‘intensityofaffection’thatMauddisplayed,herinsistencethatshewouldgowhereverGandhiwas–was‘allthisreal’,hewondered,‘orisittheglamourofmypresence?’GandhiaskedMillienow‘toobserveMaud,analyseher,cross-examineherandfindoutwheresheis.ThereisnopresentneedofanybodyatPhoenix.AndyetifMaudiswhatshesayssheis,shewillalwaysbewanted.’77
ToMillie,GandhilikewisedescribedMaudas‘myfirst-borndaughter’.Herdevotiontohimwasapparentlyunconditional–sounliketheattitudetowardshimofhisfirst-bornbiologicalson.InLondon,MaudcouldattendtoGandhifromdaybreaktodusk,butinSouthAfrica,ofcourse,therewereotherclaimantsonhistime.HenryandMilliePolakseemtohaveadvisedhertotreatthefriendshipasanineweeks’wonder,andnottopursueGandhiacrosstheoceans.
MilliePolakhasleftavividportraitofGandhientertaininghisguestsintheWestminsterPalaceHotel.Atlunchtime,hisfriendsandassociateswouldcomeintodiscusstheprogressofthenegotiations.Asthegueststroopedin,
thetableinthecentre,normallycoveredwithanicevelvetcloth…wouldbecleared.Booksandpaperswouldgetstackeduponthefloor.Thennewspaperswouldbespreadoverthetable,andpilesoforanges,apples,bananas,perhapsgrapes,andabigbagofunshelledmonkey-orpea-nuts,wouldbeputready.MrGandhiwouldringforthewaiter,andwhenanattendant,resplendentinwhiteshirtandtailcoat,appeared,hewouldorderteaandtoastforthosewhodesiredit…Soonthesilvertea-tray,beautifullyappointed,wouldbebroughtin;thenwewouldsettowork,eating,drinking,talkingandlaughing.Somewouldwalkaboutorstand,andthenut-shellswouldflyaroundtheroom,orangejuicewouldrunoverthepaper-coveredtable,andattheendofthemealtheroomlookedratherasifanill-bredpartyofschoolboyshadbeenletlooseinit…MrGandhiwouldbetotallyuntroubledbyallthemessandmuddleintheroom,andthewaiterneverlosthisdignifiedgravityasheclearedawaytherubbish.78
IthadbeenanintensefourandahalfmonthsinLondon,inwhichGandhihadarguedwithIndianextremists,exchangedcourtesieswithBritishBaptists,andexchangedletterswiththemostfamousRussiannovelistofhistime(oranyother).Hehaddevelopedarelationshipofrare,ifwhollynon-sexual,intimacywithayoungEnglishwoman.Evenso,thevisithadtobereckonedafailure,fortheconcessionshehadsoughtforIndiansintheTransvaalweredeniedhim.LetterswrittenbyhisassociatesintheweekofGandhi’sdeparturekeenlycapturethedisappointment.LordAmpthill,writingtoLordCurzon,lamentedthatitwasaLiberalGovernmentthat,forthefirsttimeinthehistoryoftheEmpire,hadinstituted‘anactual“colour”bar’.HeplannedtomoveamotionintheHouseofLords,andexpectedCurzontosupporthim.The‘spiritoftheTransvaalIndianshasnotbeenbroken,’notedAmpthill.‘Meanwhile,thequestionhasbecomethoroughlyunderstoodinIndiaandtherewillbeirreparablemischiefifthesituationisnotsavedatonce’.79
16
TheContestofCivilizations
On13November,1909,MohandasGandhiandHajeeHabibboardedtheSSKildonanCastle,boundforCapeTown.ForthenextweekGandhiscarcelysawhiscompanionatall.Thiswasbychoice,forhewasoccupiedwithwritingatextwhosecontourshadbecomeclearinhismindthosemonthsinLondon.HewroteitinGujarati,byhand,andatsuchafastclipthathecompletedadraftinninedays.Hewastired–turningnowtohislefthandtowriteletters–butsatisfied.In275pagesofmanuscript,onlyadozenlinesseemtohavebeenscratchedoutandrewritten.1
TheGujaratieditionofthebookwaspublishedinJanuary1910,withthetitle,HindSwaraj.TheEnglishversion,dictatedbyGandhitoHermannKallenbach,wascalledIndianHomeRule,andappearedtwomonthslater.(BothwereprintedonthepressatPhoenixthatalsobroughtoutIndianOpinion.)Ineitherlanguageitcarries,ahundredyearslater,asingularstatusasthefirstbookGandhipublished,andastheonlyextended,ifnotwhollyconsidered,statementofhispoliticalandmoralphilosophy.Althoughmanythematiccollectionsofhiswritingsappearedinhislifetime,Gandhipublishedonlythreebooksquabooks.Sincetheothertwowereworksofautobiography,HindSwarajcarriesevenmoreweightasrepresenting,sotospeak,hismostimportantpoliticaltestament.2
HindSwarajwasprofoundlyshapedbyGandhi’srecentstayintheUnitedKingdom.Whatheheard,sawandsaidinthosefourmonthsfeddirectlyandimmediatelyintothewritingofthebook.Therewere,inparticular,twoprovocations.ThefirstwasthemurderofCurzonWyllieandtheflurryofexcitementitprovoked.Dhingra’sact,anditsendorsementbyyoungIndianssuchasSavarkar,alertedGandhitotheappealofviolenceamongtheyoung.Tocombatthis,heneededtostate–orrestate–thecasefornon-violence.Thesecondprovocationwasmorecurious.InthethirdweekofSeptember
1909,theIllustratedLondonNewspublishedawitheringattackontheideaof
Indiannationalism.ItsauthorwasG.K.Chesterton,whowasthenwritingaweeklycolumnforthemagazine.ChestertonwasnotespeciallyknownforhisinterestinBritain’scolonies;indeed,thismayhavebeenhisonlyessayonthesubject.ChestertonhadbeenreadingIndianSociologist,thejournalpublishedby
ShyamajiKrishnavarma,andkeenlyfollowedbyIndianstudentsinEnglandandtheContinent.Hethoughttheirideasunoriginal;ashewrote,‘theprincipalweaknessofIndianNationalismseemstobethatitisnotveryIndianandnotverynational’.Therewasaworldofdifferencebetween‘aconqueredpeopledemandingitsowninstitutionsandthesamepeopledemandingtheinstitutionsofaconqueror’.TheIndiannationalistsChestertonwasreading(andmeeting)
simplysaywithever-increasingexcitability,‘Givemeaballot-box.ProvidemewithaMinisterialdispatch-box.HandmeovertheLordChancellor’swig.IhaveanaturalrighttobePrimeMinister.Ihaveaheaven-bornclaimtointroduceaBudget.MysoulisstarvedifIamexcludedfromtheEditorshipoftheDailyMail’,orwordstothateffect.
If,ontheotherhand,oneofthesemenhaddemandedareturntoapre-Britishpast,onthegroundsthat‘everysystemhasitssins,andwepreferourown’,Chestertonwouldhaveconsidered‘himanIndianNationalist,or,atleast,anauthenticIndian’.ThiskindofIndianwouldhavechosenMaharajasovercivilservants,onthegroundsthat‘IpreferonekingwhomIhardlyeverseetoahundredkingsregulatingmydietandmychildren.’AdmittingtheexistenceofsectariandifferencesinIndia,hewouldnonethelesshaveinsistedthat‘religionismoreimportantthanpeace’.‘Ifyoudonotlikeoursortofspiritualcomfort,’thisauthenticNationalistwouldhavetoldthealienruler,‘weneveraskedyouto.Goandleaveuswithit.’3
GandhireadChesterton’sarticle,anditsmessageresonatedwithhim.HesentapiecetoIndianOpinionwhichcontainedlongexcerptsfromthisarticlewrittenbyone‘readbymillionswithgreatavidity’.Hethought
IndiansmustreflectovertheseviewsofMrChestertonandconsiderwhattheyshouldrightlydemand.MayitnotbethatweseektoadvanceourowninterestsinthenameoftheIndianpeople?Or,thatwehavebeenendeavouringtodestroywhattheIndianpeoplehavecarefullynurtured
throughthousandsofyears?4
TheviewsofDhingraandSavarkar,andtheglossonthembyChesterton,persuadedGandhithatheneededtowriteamanifestoforthefreedomofIndia
thatwasnotderivative;thatwasbasedonthetraditionsofthesubcontinentratherthanonreceivedmodelsofEuropeannationalism.
InlateSeptember1909,whenChesterton’sarticleappeared,itwasclearthattheIndiandeputationtoLondonwouldreturnempty-handed.Gandhiwasnowfreetomakepublicstatementsabouttheirmission–andaboutothermatters.TwospeecheshemadeformanimportantpartofthebackgroundtothewritingofHindSwaraj.On5October,someexpatriatesinLondonheldameetinginsupportofthethirdGujaratiLiteraryConference,beingheldinRajkot.TheyaskedGandhitospeak.Heurgedhisaudiencetocultivateprideintheirmothertongue,notingthat‘onestrongreasonwhytheBoersenjoyswarajya[freedom]todayisthattheyandtheirchildrenmostlyusetheirownlanguage.’As‘thebasisofmyprideasanIndian’,hesaid,
ImusthaveprideinmyselfasaGujarati.Otherwisewewillbeleftwithoutanymoorings…IfonlywemakeonIndianlanguageshalftheeffortthatwewasteonEnglish,thankstocertainnotionsofours,thesituationwillchangealtogether…Itis,therefore,averygoodsignthatGujarati,Bengali,
UrduandMarathiconferencesarebeginningtobeheld.5
Aweeklater,GandhispoketotheHampsteadPeaceandArbitrationSociety.ThewriterC.E.Maurice(aheterodoxChristian)wasinthechair.RejectingKipling’sclaimthatEastandWestcouldnevermeet,Gandhiobservedthat
therehadbeenindividualinstancesofEnglishandIndianpeoplelivingtogetherunderthesamerulewithoutajarringnote,andwhatwastrueofindividualscouldbemadetrueofnations…[Atthesametime]toacertainextentitwastruethattherewasnomeetingplacebetweencivilisations…Itseemedtohimthatthechiefcharacteristicofmoderncivilisation[wasthatit]worshippedthebodymorethanthespirit,andgaveeverythingfortheglorifyingofthebody.Theirrailways,telegraphsandtelephones,didtheytendtohelpthemforwardtoamoralelevation?
GandhidrewforhimselfandhisaudienceacontrastbetweentheholyHinducity‘Benaresofold,beforetherewasamadrushofcivilization’andtheBanarasoftoday,whichwasan‘unholycity’.‘Unlessthismadrushwaschanged,acalamitymustcome.Onewaywouldbeforthemtoadoptmoderncivilization;butfarbeitforhimtosaythattheyshouldeverdoso.Indiawouldthenbethefootballoftheworld,andthetwonations[IndiaandBritain]wouldbeflyingateachother.’6
ThedayafterhisHampsteadspeechGandhiwrotetoHenryPolakaboutit.Thetalkandthediscussionthatfollowedhadprovokedinhimaseriesof
reflectionsandconclusions.Hehadcomeroundtotheviewthat‘thereisnoimpassablebarrierbetweenEastandWest’;rather,therewasonebetweenancientandmoderncivilization.Thus‘thepeopleofEurope,beforetheyweretouchedbymoderncivilisation,hadmuchincommonwiththepeopleoftheEast.’Indiawasnowbeingdamagedbymodernartefactssuchastherailwayandtelephones,withcitieslikeBombayandCalcuttabecomingthe‘realplaguespots’.If‘BritishrulewasreplacedtomorrowbyIndianrulebasedonmodernmethods,’saidGandhitoPolak,‘Indiawouldbenobetter’;infact,then‘IndianswouldonlybecomeasecondorfiftheditionofEuropeorAmerica.’Therefore,‘India’ssalvationconsistsinunlearningwhatshehaslearntduringthepastfiftyyears.’AmongthereformsproposedbyGandhiinthisletterwasthatIndiansshouldstopwearingmachine-madeclothing,whethermanufacturedinfactoriesownedbyEuropeansorbyIndiansthemselves.Gandhialsofeltthat‘itwassimplyimpertinenceforanymanoranybodyof
mentobeginorcontemplatereformofthewholeworld.’Rather,allofuswhothinklikewisemusttakethenecessarystep;andtherest,ifweareintheright,mustfollow.Thetheoryisthere:ourpracticewillhavetoapproachitasmuchaspossible.Livinginthemidstoftherush,wemaynotbeabletoshakeourselvesfreefromalltaint.EverytimeIgetintoarailwaycar,oruseamotor-bus,IknowthatIamdoingviolencetomysenseofwhatisright.
HistimeinLondonhadconvincedhimthat‘IwasentirelyoffthetrackwhenIconsideredthatIshouldreceiveamedicaltraining.’Henowfeltthatmodernhospitals‘perpetuatevice,miseryanddegradation’;hadtherebeennohospitalsforthecureofvenerealdiseases,therewouldbe‘lesssexualviceamongstus’.Soit‘wouldbesinfulformeinanywaywhatsoevertotakepartintheabominationsthatgooninthehospitals’.7
ThespeechestoGujaratisandpacifistswerethroat-clearingexercises,hesitant,abbreviatedanticipationsofthefull-blownpolemicthatwasHindSwaraj.Thebookwaswritteninthedemoticmode,withanabundantuseofmetaphors.Itwasconstructedaroundanimaginaryconversationbetweena‘Reader’,whowasalmostcertainlymodelledonPranjivanMehta,andan‘Editor’,who,ofcourse,wasGandhihimself.8Thesanctionforthisdevicecamefromtradition,foritwaswidelyusedinclassicalIndianliterature,abovealltheBhagavad-Gita,whereKrishnaanswersandclarifiesthedoubtsandanxietiesofArjuna.
ThetwentyshortchaptersofHindSwarajdealtwithsuchsubjectsasthemeaningsoffreedomandpassiveresistance,andthedefinitionof‘truecivilization’.Onechapterdealswith‘theconditionofEngland’;fivechapterswiththe‘conditionofIndia’.ThebookbeginsbyrehearsingthehistoryofIndiannationalismsincethe
foundingoftheCongressin1885.GandhideploredthedismissalbyyounghotheadsofNaorojiandGokhaleaslackeysofEmpire.Thesemoderateshadpreparedthewayforwhatfollowed,and‘itisamarkofwisdomnottokickagainsttheverystepfromwhichwehaverisenhigher.Theremovalofastepfromastaircasebringsdownthewholeofit.’Thepartisanshipoftheradicalsdistressedhim;itwas,heremarked,‘abadhabittosaythatanotherman’sthoughtsarebadandoursonlyaregood,andthatthoseholdingdifferentviewsfromoursaretheenemiesofthecountry.’ThechapterontheconditionofEnglandissevereonBritishpolitical
institutions.‘ThatwhichyouconsiderthemotherofParliaments,’theeditortellsthereader,‘islikeasterilewomanandprostitute.TheParliamenthasnotyetofitsownaccorddoneasinglegoodthing,henceIhavecomparedittoasterilewoman.ThenaturalconditionofthatParliamentissuchthat,withoutoutsidepressure,itcandonothing.Itislikeaprostitutebecauseitisunderthecontrolofministerswhochangefromtimetotime.’Still,Gandhididnotthinkthattherulerswerebeyondredemption.The
English,hesaid,‘ratherdeserveoursympathy…Theyareenterprisingandindustrious,andtheirmodeofthoughtisnotinherentlyimmoral.’Thebook’scoreconsistsoffivechapterson‘theconditionofIndia’.These
condemnrailways,lawyersanddoctorsforspreadingpovertyanddisease,andforintensifyingsocialconflict.Therailways,claimedGandhi,hadpromotedfamine(byencouragingashifttocashcrops),carriedplague,andingeneral‘accentuate[d]theevilnatureofman’.Lawyershadstokeddivisions,fomentedquarrelsfromwhichtheyalonebenefited(throughclientfees),andhelpedconsolidateBritishrulebyallowinglawcourtstoactasarbitersofthedestinyofIndians.Fortheirpart,doctorsmadepatientsdependentonpills,andencouragedthemtotaketoalcoholandunhealthyfoods.GandhimadethecaseforananteriorIndiannationhood,existingfromlong
beforecolonialrule.ThepresenceofMuslimconquerorsdidnot,hethought,
invalidatehisclaim.For‘Indiacannotceasetobeasinglenationbecausepeoplebelongingtodifferentreligionsliveinit.Theintroductionofforeignersdoesnotnecessarilydestroythenation,theymergeinit.’HavingdefendedtheideaofIndiaasanation,GandhinowexaltedtheIndian
wayoflife.Heinsistedthat‘thecivilizationIndiahasevolvedisnottobebeatenintheworld.’For
thetendencyofIndiancivilizationistoelevatethemoralbeing,thatoftheWesterncivilizationtopropagateimmorality.Thelatterisgodless,theformerisbasedonabeliefinGod.Sounderstandingandsobelieving,itbehooveseveryloverofIndiatoclingtotheoldIndiancivilizationevenasachildclingstoitsmother’sbreast.
Thisloveoftheoldwascoupledwithadistasteforthenew.‘Machineryisthechiefsymbolofmoderncivilization,’saidGandhi.‘Itrepresentsagreatsin.’And,again:‘Icannotrecallasinglegoodpointinconnectionwithmachinery.’MachineshadimpoverishedIndia,bythrowingcraftsmenoutofworkandencouragingadivisionbetweencapitalistsandlabourers.Hethought‘itwouldbefollytoassumethatanIndianRockefellerwouldbebetterthantheAmericanRockefeller.’IfsuchpassagesseemadirectengagementwithG.K.Chesterton,otherparts
ofthebookansweredotherprovocations–thoserepresented,forexample,bytherecentlyexecutedMadanLalDhingraandthestillactiveV.D.Savarkar,whobelievedthatfreedomfromcolonialsubjectionwouldcomeaboutonlythrougharmedstruggle.Tothosewholived(anddied)bythegun,Gandhisaidtheclaimthat‘thereisnoconnectionbetweenthemeansandtheendisagreatmistake’.Hespokeofhowthewrongmeansproducedanescalatingcycleofviolenceandcounter-violence.Heofferedtheexampleofarobberwhocametoone’shouse.Ifonemobilizedone’sneighbours,therobberwouldinturncallonhismates,andthetwofactionswouldfightandfight.If,ontheotherhand,onekeptone’swindowsopenforhisnextvisit,therobbermightbeconfusedandrepent,andstopstealingaltogether.Gandhididnotwanttosuggestthatallrobberswouldactlikethis,but‘onlyto
showthatonlyfairmeanscanproducefairresults,andthat,atleastinthemajorityofcases,ifnot,indeed,inall,theforceofloveandpityisinfinitelygreaterthantheforceofarms’.
ForGandhi,thosewhowrotehistorywerepreoccupiedwithwarsandbloodshed.Thus,iftwobrothersquarrelled,theirneighboursandthenewspapers,andhencehistory,wouldtakenoticeofit;butiftheypeaceablysettledtheirdispute,itwouldremainunrecorded.Extrapolating,Gandhisaid,inastrikingpassage,that‘hundredsofnationsliveinpeace.Historydoesnot,andcannot,takenoteofthisfact.Historyisreallyarecordofeveryinterruptionoftheevenworkingofloveorofthesoul.’Contrarytowhatwaspopularlybelieved,non-violencehadbeenafarmoreactiveforceinhumanaffairsthanviolence.The‘greatestandmostunimpeachableevidenceofthesuccessofthisforceistobefoundinthefactthat,inspiteofthewarsoftheworld,itstillliveson’.Gandhiarguedthatnon-violentresistancerequiredgreatercouragethanarmed
struggle.‘Whoisthetruewarrior,’heasked:theperson‘whokeepsdeathalwaysasabosom-friendorhewhocontrolsthedeathofothers?’Heinsistedthat‘passiveresistanceisanall-sidedsword;itcanbeusedanyhow;itblesseshimwhousesitandhimagainstwhomitisused.Withoutsheddingadropofblood,itproducesfar-reachingresults.’HindSwarajisalsonotableforitsadvocacyofinter-faithharmony.The
Britishclaimedthereexistedan‘inbornenmitybetweenHindusandMahomedans’.Gandhiansweredthat‘theHindusflourishedunderMoslemsovereigns,andMoslemsundertheHindu.Eachpartyrecognisedthatmutualfightingwassuicidal,andthatneitherpartywouldabandonitsreligionbyforceofarms.Bothparties,therefore,decidedtoliveinpeace.WiththeEnglishadventthequarrelsrecommenced.’InGandhi’sview,thedifferentreligionsweremerely‘differentroadsconvergingtothesamepoint.Whatdoesitmatterthatwetakedifferentroads,solongaswereachthesamegoal?Whereinisthecauseofquarrelling?’Inachapteroneducation,Gandhivigorouslyadvocatedtheuse,withinIndia,
oflanguagesotherthanEnglish.AllIndiansshouldknowtheirmother-tongue.Hindicouldbepromotedasalinklanguage,tobereadineithertheDevanagariorPersianscript,thusforgingcloserrelationsbetweenHindusandMuslims.Ifthisweredone,‘wecandrivetheEnglishlanguageoutofthefieldinashorttime’.
Thebookendedwithalistofnineteenprescriptionsforthereader,themiddle-classIndianwhowasGandhi’smainaudience.This,amongotherthings,urgedthevalueofsuffering,deploredthetendencyofblamingtheBritishforeverything,andaskedlawyers,doctorsandrichmeningeneraltotaketowearingandpromotingclothmadewithhandlooms.9
AtthetimeofthepublicationofHindSwaraj,Gandhihadbeenseeinghisworkinprintfortwodecades.However,thiswashisfirstpublishedbook,andalso,moreimportantly,hisfirstconsideredpieceofwritingonIndianpoliticsandsociety.Hisearlieressays,abundantthoughtheywere,wereonratherspecialized,specific,themes–suchasvegetariandiets,raciallawsinNatalandtheTransvaal,theoriginsandoutcomesofaparticularsatyagraha,thepleasuresandpainsofaparticularterminjail,thegreatnessandrelevanceofMazzini,Lincoln,FlorenceNightingale,DadabhaiNaoroji,etc.HindSwarajwasGandhi’sclaimtoalargerroleforhimselfinthehomelandtowhichhehopedonedaytoreturn.ThebookappearedattheendofadecadeofintensepoliticalagitationinIndia.TheSwadeshimovementof1905–7hadseentheliberalsintheCongressbeingovershadowed,andindeedoverwhelmed,bytheradicals.ThisModerate/ExtremistsplitwasformalizedintheSuratCongressofDecember1907,whenthefragileunityoftheorganizationcameapartamidstabarrageofshouting,sloganeering,andthethrowingofshoes.10
TheCongresshadpreviouslyconfineditselftoissuingappealsandwritingpetitions.Now,bonfiresofforeignclothandfieryspeechesbecametheorderoftheday.AndevenSwadeshiwastameincomparisonwiththeterroristgroupsthathadsprungupinBengalandMaharashtra,composedofyoungmenseekingtoassassinateBritishofficialsandtherebyfurtherthegloryoftheMotherland.11
OneconsequenceoftheSwadeshimovementwasthepolarizationofreligioussentiments.InBengal,themovementhadcoalescedwithastruggletoundothepartitionoftheprovince,whichtheBritishhadpromotedtoseparatetheMuslim-majoritydistrictsoftheeastfromtheradicalizinginfluenceoftheintellectualsofCalcutta.But,asGandhi’smentorGokhalenoted,the‘wildtalk’oftheleadersoftheSwadeshimovement,demanding‘SwarajyawithoutBritishcontrol’,hadsettherulersagainsttheHindus.TheypatronizedanewlyformedMuslimLeague,promisingitsgrandeesagreatershareofpublicpostsand
governmentappointments.Gokhalenowworriedaboutthe‘fierceantagonismbetweenHindusandMahomedans’.SomeHinduorganizationswere‘franklyanti-Mahomedan,astheMoslemLeagueisfranklyanti-Hindu,andbothareanti-national’.12
AnotherconsequenceoftheSwadeshimovementwasthemarginalizationoftheModerates.Youngpatriotswerefiredwiththedreamoffreedom,tobeachievednotbyincremental,constitutionalmeans,butbyspectacularactsofviolenceagainstprominentofficialsandproconsuls.Theserevolutionariesthought–orhoped–thatbymurderingpolicemenorsettingoffbombsingovernmentbuildingstheywouldawakenthemasses,catalyzingtheirnascent,suppressed,anti-colonialsentiments.TheModeratesbelievedthat,intheirownstruggleagainsttheoppressive
aspectsofcolonialrule,theyhadtheBritishpeopleandBritishinstitutionsontheirside.Harshlawsandpunitivetaxeswere‘un-British’,tobeliftedorwithdrawnwhentheirtruenaturewasrevealedtoHisMajesty’sdistantbutnotnecessarilyunfeelingGovernment.Theultimate,long-termgoalwasDominionStatus,whereIndiawouldhaveitsownelectedlegislaturesontheWestminstermodel,withtheBritishtiekeptalivebytheKingacting(ashedidinAustraliaandCanada)asheadofstate.TheExtremists,ontheotherhand,rejectedBritishrule,Britishinstitutions
andBritishexemplars.Theysawthestruggleinblack-and-white,akintobattlesinHindumythbetweengodsanddemons,devasandasuras.TheBritishwereallevil.GokhaleandhisilklikedtoquoteMillandBurke(approvingly).Ontheotherside,Gokhale’sgreatrival,BalGangadharTilak,idolizedthemedievalMarathawarriorShivaji,whohadconductedaseriesofguerrillabattlesagainstMuslimrulersbasedinDelhi.TilakhadalsostartedanannualfestivalinhonourofGanapati,thegodwhoseinvocationatthestartofanytask(orbattle)wasbelievedtoaidinitssuccess(orvictory).Acrossthesubcontinent,inBengal,youngradicalsformedsecretsocieties
wheretheylearnedtoassemblebombsanduseguns.TheywerefiredbytheexampleoftheGoddessDurga,wifeofShiva,knownandreveredforslayingtheforcesofevil.ShivajiandDurga,revengeandretribution–thesewerethemodelsandmethodsoftheExtremistsintheIndiannationalmovement.ThisinvocationofHindugodsandwarriorsinevitablydisenchantedMuslims,who
hadrecoursetotheirownholytexts,fromwhichvantagepointHinduswereseenasinfidelsandidolaters.13
Therewasamuscular,masculineedgetothepatriotismoftheExtremists.Britishrule(andMuslimrulebeforeit)hademasculatedtheHindu.Heneedednowtorecoverhisvigourandhisvirility,torenewitthroughdaringactsofheroismandsacrifice.OncetheBritishhadbeenevictedthroughterror,themotherlandwouldrebuilditselfalongclassicalHindulines.Inimaginingtheirpost-colonialfuture,somerevolutionariesputtheirfaithintheancientIndianvillagepanchayat;others,inapan-IndianHinduRashtrawhichwouldunite,inonesolid,strong,centralizedstate,Hinduscurrentlydividedbylanguage,casteandregion.ThemoodinIndiaatthetimeGandhicomposedandwroteHindSwarajwas
capturedintwobooksbyBritishjournalistsbasedinthesubcontinent.Bothnotedtheintensityandvigourofthenewpoliticalmovements,yettheyhadsomewhatdifferentunderstandingsofit.Themanfromthepro-EstablishmentTimesofLondonsaw‘anillusory“Nationalism”whichappealstonothinginIndianhistory,butwhichiscalculatedandmeanttoappealwithdangerousforcetoWesternsentimentandignorance.’Whileprofessingdemocraticvaluesandaspirations,thismovement,claimedtheTimesman,appealedontheonehandto‘theoldtyrannyofcasteandtotheworstsuperstitionsofHinduism’,andontheotherto‘themurderousmethodsofWesternAnarchism’.14
ThemanfromtheliberalManchesterGuardianwasmoresympathetic.Heobservedthatthepoliticalupsurgewasbothdeepandwidespread.‘Itistheconvictionofmany,’heremarked,that‘Indiaisnowstandingonthevergeofanationalrenaissance–anewbirthinintellect,sociallife,andtheaffairsofthestate.’Thisrenaissancewasinspiredbythe‘examplesettoallOrientalnationalitiesbyJapan’,butalsobyakeenunderstandingofthepoliticalheritageoftheconquerorsthemselves.TheGuardianmanthuswrotethat
thevisitsofhighlyeducatedIndianstoEngland,theuseofEnglishasacommontongueamongeducatedpeopleofallracesandreligions,theincreasingknowledgeofourhistoryandourhard-wonliberties,theincreasingstudyofourgreatLiberalthinkers–alltheseadmirableadvantageswehaveourselvescontributedtothenewspirit,anditisuselessforstartledreactionariestothinkof
withdrawingthemnow.15
Gandhi,inSouthAfrica,waskeenlyfollowingpoliticalandsocialdevelopmentsinhishomeland.ThepagesofIndianOpinionwerepepperedwithreportsonCongressmeetingsandSwadeshiprotests.GandhihimselfsubscribedtoavarietyofEnglishandGujaratipapers,whichcametohimthroughthepost.Now,inhisownlittlebook,writtenwithspeedontheship,hebroughttogetherhisviewsonwhatailedIndiaandwhatmightredeemit.AsrevealedinHindSwaraj,Gandhiremainedinsomerespectsclosetothe
Moderates.HedeploredthesavagecriticismsofGokhalebySavarkarandcompany.Likehismentor,hewasdeeplycommittedtoHindu–Muslimharmony.HesawthereligiousdivideasaproductofBritishrule(which,foritsowninterests,hadsetonecommunityagainsttheother),andnotasanessentialorperennialpartoftheIndiancondition.Inotherrespects,GandhiappearsinthisbooktobeclosertotheExtremists.
HisharshwordsontheBritishParliamentdistancedhimfromGokhaleandNaoroji.HisexaltationofancientIndianmoralandcivicvirtues,hisidealizationofapastwhereIndianslivedatpeacewiththemselves,hisinsistencethateducationshouldbeinthemothertonguealone–theseallmayhavebeencongenialtothepatriotwholookedtoindigenousratherthanWesternmodelsofprogressorredemption.Finally,inHindSwarajGandhisethimselfapartfrombothExtremistsand
Moderatesinhisadvocacyofnon-violentresistance.Hewasopposedtobothpetitioningandtobomb-throwing.Hesawtheformerasineffectiveandthelatterasimmoral.Therulerswouldnotconcedegroundunlesspressedtodoso.ButmurderingofficialswouldnotscaretheBritishintoleavingeither.Besides,violencetendedtobegetviolence–onceaimedattheforeigner,itwouldintimebeaimedatIndiansofrivalviewsorbackgrounds.TheTransvaalprotestsof1907–9hadconvincedGandhioftheefficacyandmoralsuperiorityofsatyagraha,amethodforwhoseapplicationIndiaofferedalargerandmoreinvitingstage.HindSwarajwasasummationofGandhi’spoliticalviews,andastatementof
hispoliticalambition.TheIndiannationalmovementhadthusfarbeendominatedbyBengalisandMaharashtrians.ValuablesupportingpartshadbeenplayedbyTamils,PunjabisandHindi-speakers.Now,throughthewritingandpublicationofthisbook,aGujaratibasedinSouthAfricasoughttoclearaspace
forhimself,andtomakehisvoiceheard.Hisexperiencesinthediaspora,unitingandmobilizingIndians,gavehim(hethought)auniquevantagepointfromwhichtoilluminateandinterveneindebateswithinthemotherland.
GandhihadhopedthatHindSwarajwouldbereadanddiscussedinIndia,itsparallelsanddepartureswithprevailingpoliticaltrendsnotedandactedupon.InFebruary1910,acertainChibbaPrabhuarrivedinBombayfromDurbanwith415copiesoftheoriginalGujaratieditionofthebook.However,thesewereseizedbyCustomsandacopypassedontotheOrientalTranslatoroftheBombayGovernment.Thebook,reportedthisTranslator,is‘ofadecidedlyobjectionablenature,especiallyconsideringthepresentdisturbedpoliticalconditioninthecountry’.HethenprovidedasummaryofHindSwaraj’scontentsinasingleextendedparagraph,thisconstituting(sofarasweknow)thefirstwrittenresponsetoatextthathasattractedhundredsofthousandsofreadersdownthedecades:
Itpurportstobeadialoguebetweenthe‘Editor’anda‘Reader’,inwhichtheformerinculcateshispeculiarviewsregardingthepresentpoliticalconditionandthepossiblefuture,ofIndia.The‘Reader’,representingprobablytheaverageIndian‘passiveresister’oftheTransvaal,isrepresentedasholdingfranklyExtremistviews,andindeedspeaksquitefranklyof‘drivingout’theBritishfromIndiaasaprincipalobjectofpoliticalagitationinthiscountry.The‘Editor’isnolessanxioustoseetheruleinIndiapassfromthehandsoftheBritishtothoseofIndians.Butheholdsviewsabouttheevilsofarmedresistanceofanykind,peculiartoTolstoy,whosefollowertheauthorMohanchand[sic]KaramchandGandhi,professestobe.HeascribesalltheevilsfromwhichIndiaissuffering,plague,famine,poverty,crime,etc.,totherailways,education,reforms,lawyers,doctors,infacteverythingintroducedbyEnglishmeninthiscountry.Indeed,inplacesthemanseemstobecrazyinhispassionatedesiretokeepIndiaandherlifeandwaysunpollutedbytheleastcontactwiththeWest.TheEnglishhavenoplaceinIndia,saysthe‘Editor’,iftheywanttobringtheirharmfulcivilisationwiththemintothiscountry.OnconditionthatthiscivilisationiskeptoutofIndia,theEnglishmaybeallowedtoliveintheland.The‘Reader’ismadetoexpressrevolutionaryideasandeventoapproveofpoliticalassassinations.‘Wewillfirstterrorise(theBritish)byafewmurders.Thenafewofourpeople,whowillhavebeentrainedup,willfightopenly.Ofcourse20or25lakhsofpeoplewilldieinthisfight.Butultimatelyweshallregainthecountry.WeshalldefeattheBritishbymeansofguerillawarfare’.The‘Editor’stronglycondemnstheseideasasborrowedfromtheWestandsaysthatbloodshedcannevermakeIndiaindependentthoughbythewayhecallsDhingraatruepatriot,‘buthispatriotismwasmad’.‘But’,saystheReader,‘youmustadmitthatwhatlittlehasbeengrantedbyLordMorleyisowingtothesepoliticalmurders’.‘Itisquitepossible’,saysthe‘Editor’,‘thatwhatLordMorleyhasgrantedhasbeengrantedthroughfear.Butwhathasbeengainedthroughfearcanberetainedonlysolongasthatfearlasts.’Thereforeheadvocatespeaceful
means,andamongthem‘passiveresistance’.16
Basedonthisreport,theBombayGovernmentformally‘forfeitedtohisMajesty’thebook,HindSwaraj,‘purportingtobeprintedattheInternationalPress,Phoenix,Natal’.Thebook,saidtheorder,contained‘wordswhicharelikelytobringintohatredandcontempttheGovernmentestablishedbylawinBritishIndiaandtoexcitedisaffectiontothesaidGovernment’.ThecirculationofthebookwasbannedunderthePressAct,anditsimportprohibitedundertheSeaCustomsAct.TheGovernmentofIndiaendorsedtheban,noting–onthebasisofmaterialssentitfromBombay–thatfromthecontentsofthis‘clearlyseditious’book‘itmaybefairlyconcludedthatMrM.K.Gandhiisnottheinnocentmartyraswhichheposestobe’.17
TheOrientalTranslatoroftheBombayGovernmenthadwrittenwhatineffectwasthefirstreviewofHindSwaraj.Gandhididnotofcoursereadthereview,northeglossesonitbyotherofficials.AllheknewwasthatcopiesoftheGujaratieditionhadbeenseized.Heimmediatelywrotealetterofcomplaint,whichisworthreproducingforitsintrinsicvalueandbecauseitescapedtheattentionoftheeditorsofhisCollectedWorks.Dated16April1910,andwrittenfromJohannesburg,itwasaddressedtotheHomeSecretaryoftheGovernmentofIndia.EnclosingtheEnglisheditionofthebook,thenjustoutinDurban,Gandhisaid:
IdonotknowwhytheGujaraticopieshavebeenconfiscated.IftheGovernmentwillkindlyfavourmewiththeirviewsandtheiradvice,Ishallendeavour,sofaraspossible,tocarrythemout.Inwriting‘HindSwaraj’ithasnotbeenmyintentiontoembarrasstheGovernmentinsofarasanywritingofminecoulddoso,butentirelytoassistit.ThisinnowaymeansthatInecessarilyapproveofanyoralltheactionsoftheGovernmentorthemethodsonwhichitisbased.Inmyhumbleopinion,everymanhasarighttoholdanyopinionhechooses,andtogiveeffecttoitalso,solongas,indoingso,hedoesnotusephysicalviolenceagainstanybody.Beingconnectedwithanewspaperwhichcommandssomeinfluenceandattention,andknowingthatmethodsofviolenceamongmycountrymenmaybecomepopulareveninSouthAfrica,andfeelingassuredthattheadoptionofpassiveresistanceasIhaveventuredtodoin‘IndianHomeRule’wasthesurestpreventativeofphysicalviolence,Ididnothesitatetopublish[thebook]inGujarati.TheEnglisheditionhasnotbeencirculatedbymeinIndiaexceptamongofficialsandtheleadingnewspapers.Atthesametime,IamawarethatsomebuyershavesentitontheirownaccounttoIndiaalso.Ineedhardlysaythattheviewsexpressedin‘IndianHomeRule’havenothingtodowiththe
strugglethatisgoingonintheTransvaalandinotherpartsofSouthAfrica,intimatelyconnectedthoughIamwithit;andIamnotinapositiontoknowhowmanyofmycountrymensharethoseviews.Atthesametime,nomatterwhereIamplaced,Iconsideritmydutytopopularizethemtothe
bestofmyabilityasbeinginthebestinterestsofIndiaandtheEmpire.18
Gandhiishereactingasbothloyalistandrebel:suggestingthathisadvocacyofnon-violencemaycometotheaidoftheRaj,butreservingtohimselftherighttosaywhathewishedabouttheRaj’spoliciesandactions.Theletterheldoutanofferofcompromise;thathemightconsiderrevisingpassagesconsideredexcessivelyprovocative.Gandhiwasextremelykeenthathisbook(andhisideas)bediscussedanddebatedwithinIndia,andbyIndians.Hewaswillingtomakesomechangestohistexttomakethispossible.Meanwhile,theGovernmenthadcommissioneditsownEnglishtranslationof
HindSwaraj,undertakenbytheGujaratiinterpreteroftheMadrasHighCourt.19
ComparingtheirversionwithGandhi’s,theHomeDepartmentfoundthemverysimilar–andequallydangerous.Thedistinctionmadebytheauthorbetweenwordsanddeeds,andbetweenpassiveresistanceandarmedviolence,wascharacterizedas‘curious’anddismissedasunsustainable.‘Preachinganddisseminatingsedition’,remarkedaseniorofficialintheHomeDepartment,wasasoffensiveanddangeroustopublicorderasactualphysicalviolence.20For,astheDirectoroftheCriminalIntelligenceBranchwroteonthefile,‘wemust,Ithink,aimatdestroyingtheopenmarketforimportedseditiouspublicationsofallkinds:wecannotaffordtopickandchooseverymuchaccordingtothedegreeandquantityofthesedition.’Hecontinued,tellingly,‘Morerealperversionofideasinthedirectionofseditioniseffectedbymoderateseditiouspublicationsthanbythosebreathingviolenceandrevolutionineveryline.’21
TheGovernmentofIndia’sdecisiontobanthebookwasthesubjectofascathingeditorialinP.S.Aiyar’sAfricanChronicle.‘Nowonder,’saidthepaper,that‘seditionisripeningdaybyday,anddiscontentisgrowingabroad.’For
iftheViceroyandhiscolleaguesweretobefrightenedatsuchasimplebookletas[Hind]Swaraj,andiftheycouldnottoleratetheexpressionofopinionofevenmenofMrGandhi’sstamp,wedonotknowwhatelsetheIndianGovernmentwouldtolerate.UnderthemostprovocatingcircumstanceswehavenotseenMrGandhiusingasinglecrosswordtoanyone,andasaleaderinpolitics,nocountrycouldfindabettermanthanMrGandhi.Shouldhisproductionbeunfitforcirculation,webelieve,fewmencouldbefoundinIndiawhocouldgiveexpressiontothepopularwillinasober
andadequatelanguage.22
TheGovernment’sargumentwasherebeingturnedonitshead.ParanoidpolicemenclaimedthatallowingmoderateslikeGandhitoopenlycriticizeaspectsofGovernmentpolicywouldprovidewantonencouragementtotheextremists.P.S.Aiyararguedexactlytheopposite:ifevenmoderatessuchas
Gandhicouldnotbeheard,thenordinaryIndianswouldcompletelylosefaithintherulers,andseekredemptionbythemethodsoftheextremists.
InMay1910,somecopiesoftheprintedEnglisheditionofHindSwarajreachedtheshoresoftheMadrasPresidency.AnearlyreaderwastheProvince’sHomeSecretary.Heconcludedthatwhiletheauthor‘affectstotreattheEnglishwithforbearance’,theargumentofthebookwas‘calculatedtolessentheesteeminwhichtheyhavebeenheld,andthewriter’swholeidealisbyimplicationatanyrate,inconsistentwiththecontinuanceofBritishrule,orindeedofanysettledadministrationinIndia’.Thecritichighlightedfourcontentiousclaimsmadebytheauthor:
(i)Englishpoliticiansaredishonestandunscrupulous,andEnglishnewspapersareimbuedwithapartisanspirit.(ii)EnglishadministrationinIndiarestsupontheCourts,andthenagainuponlawyers,whoare
corruptfromtoptobottom.(iii)ThemembersoftheEnglishnationwhohavesettledinIndiaareofaninferiorstamptotheir
countrymenathome.(iv)ThecontinuationoftheEnglishinIndiadependsentirelyupontheiradoptionofOriental
languagesandcivilisation.Iftheyfailtoconformtothiscondition,Indiawillbemadetoohottoholdthem.
TheHomeSecretaryinMadrasrecommendedabanontheEnglisheditionofthebookaswell.TheSecretaryoftheJudicialDepartmentconcurred.Then,againstpoint(i)above,hequotedAdamSmith:‘Thatcorruptandinsidiousanimalcalledapolitician.’Healsoexpressedhis‘regretthatextractsfromthisworkcannotbemorewidelyknown.Theadvicetolawyerstogiveuplawandtaketoahandloomwould,forinstance,beworthcommunicatingtotheLegislativeCouncil.’23
TheGovernmentofIndiahadmadesurethatHindSwarajwasnotcirculatedwithinthesubcontinent,ineitheritsGujaratiorEnglishversions.Therewerethusnoprinted,publicreviewsofthebookwithinGandhi’shomeland.ButitwasreviewedbysomenewspapersinSouthAfrica,wherethebookcirculatedfreely.InthefirstweekofMay1910,theTransvaalLeaderpublishedacriticalassessmentofthebookbyanacquaintanceofGandhinamedEdwardDallow.AnaccountantofBritishstock,aNonconformistbyfaith,DallowhadbeensympathetictotheclaimsoftheIndiansintheTransvaal.Hewasasignatoryto
theletterwrittenbyEuropeanstoTheTimesinJanuary1909.Laterthatsameyear,hewrotetotheColonialSecretaryurginghimto‘receivetheIndiandeputation[ledbyGandhi]withsympatheticregard’,andtouse‘theinfluenceofyourhighofficetoprocureforthemtheameliorationofthelawwhichtheydemand.’24
Dallowopposedlawsthatdiscriminatedonthebasisofcolour.However,hewasadefenderofEmpire,andinthiscapacitythoughtthebanningofHindSwarajinIndiabothprudentandnecessary.For‘undercoverofadissertationonmoderncivilisationthislittlebookletof104pagesisinrealitywritteninsupportofthepoliticalpropagandatofreeIndiafromEnglishrule,andassuchtheIndianGovernmentwereactingwiselyinendeavouringtopreventitscirculationinIndia.’Gandhimighthavekepthisargumentimpersonal,distinguishingbetweenmoderncivilization(whichheabominated)andtheEnglishpeople(whomhetolerated).Nonetheless,thefact
thatallhisillustrationsofthedegradingeffectsofmoderncivilisationaretakenfromEnglishgovernment,fromEnglishlife,fromEnglishMinisters,Parliamentandpeople,makesithighlyimprobablethatanybutacultivatedmanandascholarwillkeepthesubtledistinctioninmind.Totheordinaryreader…theeffectwillbetoraiseahatrednotonlyofmoderncivilisation,butoftheEnglishpeopleinIndiaasitsparticularexponents.
DallowchastisedGandhiforhisnarrowrangeofreading.Thelawyerhadconsultedtheworksofnovelistsandcritics,andexaltedthe‘mastersofIndianphilosophy’.Atthesametime,hehadoverlooked‘mastersofmodernphilosophy’suchasMill,Spencer,Goethe,Kant,HegelanddeTocqueville.Dallowendedthereviewwithhisownvisionofthepastandpossiblefutureoftheauthor’shomeland:
IndiaisnotsoimmovableasMrGandhiwouldhaveusbelieve;thecastesystem,whichisthebasis–theevilbasis–ofhercivilisationisshowingsignsofweakeningundertheinfluenceofmodernthoughtandexperienceacquiredbyIndiansvisitingotherlands.Thediscoveriesofmodernscience,whichshowtheplanttobeastrulyaliveastheanimal,haveunderminedoneofthechiefdogmasoftheirreligion.UndertheguidanceofEnglishrule,Indiaisgraduallyadoptingrepresentativeinstitutions,andherrulerslookforwardtothetime,asyetstillfardistant,whenIndiawilltakeuponherownshoulderstheburdenofgovernmentasanindependentandloyalappanageoftheImperial
Crown.25
ThereviewstungGandhi,whoimmediatelysentareply.Hebeganbysayingthathetoowasa‘loveroftheEmpiretowhichMrDallowandIbelong’.Thislove,heclarified,
proceedsfrommyfaithintheindividualswhocomposeit,whethertheybeEuropean,Kaffir,orIndian,butIdeclinetobowinidolatroushomagetotheterm.Tomeitsimplymeansthis:WhethertheEnglishandtheIndiansintenditornot,theyhavebeenthrowntogetherbytheDivinewillfortheirmutualgood;but,asfreeagents,theymayturntheconnectiontoevil.ThislatteractivityofoursIcallSatanic.IncommonwithmanyEnglishmen,aftereighteenyears’closeobservationand,shallIsay,practicallife,IhavecometobelievethatfortheEnglishpeopletoAngliciseIndia,eveniftheycoulddoso,wouldbeatragedy.
Dallowhadcondemnedthecastesystem;inGandhi’sview,however,ithad‘savedIndiafromtheruinousandbrutaleffectofthecompetitivesystemwhichhasbeenexaltedtothedignityofasciencebymoderncivilisation’.Tothechargethathewaspoorlyreadinmodernphilosophy,GandhiansweredthathewasacquaintedwiththeworksofMillandSpencer,butsawnoreasontoreadmoreglossesofmoderncivilizationwhenhesawthethingitselfunfoldbeforehiseyes.‘MustIreadacritiqueof“Hamlet”,’hesaidwithsomeasperity,‘whenIhaveonlytopayashillingandseetheplay?’Gandhisaidthathistractwasaimedattwodifferentaudiences:thepartyof
violencewithinIndia,towhomhesaidthat‘whateverevilsIndiaissufferingfromaremainlytoourowndefectsandtoourhavingworshippedthegoldencalf’;andtotheEnglish,towhomhisappealwas‘notnecessarilytodiscardmoderncivilisationthemselves,buttohelpIndiatoretainherowncivilisation’.Onbothpartieshepressedtheimmoralityofviolence.TotheBritishhesaidthat‘methodsofrepression…areabsolutelyuseless’.Totherevolutionarieshesaidthat‘violencecannotberootedoutofIndiaoranywhereelsebyviolence’.Itwasthusthathehad‘commendedinallhumilitypassiveresistance,thatis,soulforce,bothtotheGovernorsandtotheGoverned.Itisnotnecessarythatboththesidesshouldtakeitup.Eithermayadoptittotheadvantageofboth.’26
Meanwhile,Gandhiwascarryingonaprivate,ifequallyinstructive,debatewithhisfriendW.J.Wybergh.AsTransvaal’sCommissionerofMinesintheearly1900s,andlaterasaMemberoftheLegislativeAssembly,WyberghhadvigorouslypromotedthesegregationofAsians.27ButhemadeanexceptionforGandhi,theEnglish-educatedlawyer.ThetwometregularlyatmeetingsofJohannesburg’sTheosophicalSociety.SentHindSwarajbyGandhi,Wyberghcommentedthathedidnotthinkthat‘onthewholeyourargumentiscoherentorthatthevariousstatementsandopinionsyouexpresshaveanyrealdependenceupononeanother’.Hewasnotsurprisedthatthepamphletwasseenasdisloyal,since(andheseemstohavebeenreadingDallowhere)
theaverageplainignorantmanwithoutintellectualsubtletywouldsupposethatyouwerepreachingagainstBritishruleinIndia.Onthefarmoreimportantgeneralprincipleunderlyingyourbook,ImustsaydefinitelythatIthinkyouaregoingwrong.EuropeancivilisationhasmanydefectsandIagreewithmanyofyourcriticisms,butIdonotbelievethatitis‘theKingdomofSatan’orthatitshouldbeabolished.Itappearstomeanecessarystepintheevolutionofmankind,especiallymanifestedinandsuitableforWesternnations.WhileIrecognisethatthehighestidealsofIndia(andEuropetoo)areinadvanceofthiscivilisation,yetIthinkalso,withallmodesty,thatthebulkoftheIndianpopulationrequiretoberousedbythelashofcompetitionandtheothermaterialandsensuousaswellasintellectualstimuliwhich‘civilisation’supplies.
WyberghconcededthatnotallformsofWesterncivilisationaresuitableforIndia,andIdon’tdoubtthatweBritishhaveerred(inallgoodfaith)intryingtointroduceBritishinstitutionsindiscriminately.ButWesternidealsarenecessarytoIndia,nottosupersedebuttomodifyanddevelopherown.Indiaought,Ithink,tobegovernedonIndianlines,(whetherbyIndiansorEnglishmenisanotherquestion)but‘civilisation’isbothnecessaryanduseful,ifitgrowsnaturallyandisnotforcedanditcannotbeavoided.
Thecriticturnednexttothequestionofpassiveresistance.Onemighthavenoobjectiontoitsadoptionbyanindividualsaint,but
asapracticalpoliticalprinciplesuitableforadoptionbyordinarymenlivingtheordinarylifeofcitizens,itseemstobealtogetherpernicious,andutterlydisastroustothepublicwelfare.Itismereanarchy,andIhavealwaysregardedTolstoy,itsprincipalapostle,asverylikelyasaintpersonally,butwhenhepreacheshisdoctrinesaspoliticalpropagandaandrecommendsthemforindiscriminateadoption,asthemostdangerousenemyofhumanity.IhavenomannerofdoubtthatGovernmentsandlawsandpoliceandphysicalforceareabsolutelyessentialtoaveragehumanity,andareastruly‘natural’intheirstageofdevelopmentandastrulymoralaseatinganddrinkingandpropagatingthespecies…WhenallhumanityhasreachedsainthoodGovernmentswillbecomeunnecessarybutnotuntilthen.Meanwhilecivilisationmustbemended,notended.
Gandhi,characteristically,printedWybergh’scriticalassessmentinfullinIndianOpinionandthensoughtcourteouslytoanswerit.Hewas,hesaid,‘painfullyconsciousoftheimperfectionsanddefects’inpresentationthatWyberghpointedto.Thesemightmakeasuperficialreaderconcludethatthebookwas‘adisloyalproduction’.However,hehad‘thepositionofapublicistpracticallyforceduponmebycircumstances’.BoththetoneandcontentofthepamphlethadtheirgenesisinthefactthatitwaswrittenwithaviewtodrawingIndiansawayfrom‘theinsaneviolencethatisnowgoingoninIndia.’Asformoderncivilization,Gandhiarguedthosewhowereoutsideitsambit
andhaveawell-triedcivilisationtoguidethem,shouldbehelpedtoremainwheretheyare,ifonlyasameasureofprudence…IcannothelpmoststronglycontestingtheideathattheIndianpopulation
requirestoberousedby‘thelashofcompetitionandtheothermaterialandsensuousaswellasintellectualstimuli’;Icannotadmitthatthesewilladdasingleinchtoitsmoralstature.
Finally,hesaidthathisownreadingofTolstoy’sworkshasneverledmetoconsiderthat,inspiteofhismercilessanalysisofinstitutionsorganisedandbaseduponforce,thatisgovernments,heinanywayanticipatesorcontemplatesthatthewholeworldwillbeabletoliveinastateofphilosophicalanarchy.Whathehaspreached,as,inmyopinion,haveallworld-teachers,isthateverymanhastoobeythevoiceofhisownconscience,andbehisownmaster,andseektheKingdomofGodfromwithin.Forhimthereisnogovernmentthatcancontrol
himwithouthissanction.28
SomeofGandhi’sBritishfriendshadprofoundreservationsaboutHindSwaraj.TherearehintsthatevensomeIndiansinSouthAfricadidnotentirelyidentifywiththebook’scontents.MaganlalGandhiwrotehisunclealetteraskingwhyhehadsosharplyattackedrailways,doctors,andelectedParliaments.Meanwhile,GandhiwrotetoGokhale(whowouldcertainlyhavetakenevenstrongerexceptiontothedismissalofmodernprofessionsandmoderninstitutions)clarifyingthatthebookrepresentedhispersonalviews.Hehopedhismentorwould‘beable,shouldanyprejudiceariseagainstmepersonallyorthepamphlet,tokeepthemeritsofthestruggle[intheTransvaal]entirelyseparatefromme.’29
Therewere,ofcourse,responsestoHindSwarajthatrequirednoansweratall.OnesuchcamefromIsabellaFyvieMayo,aScottishwriteranddiscipleofTolstoywhoworked(inherownwords)for‘thebrotherhoodofallracesofmen,thecauseofinternationalpeace,andtherecognitionoftherightsofanimals’.30
InalettertoHermannKallenbach,MissMayosaidshewas‘lostinadmirationofMrGandhi’s“HomeRuleforIndia”’.WhensheheardithadbeenbannedinIndia,herfirstreactionwasthattheBibleitselfmightbeproscribed,since‘MrGandhionlymakespracticalapplicationofthepreceptsofthe“SermonontheMount”.’ThecentralthesisofthebookMissMayounreservedlyendorsed.For
aslongasIndiansdelightinbeingBritonised,solongas‘Swadeshi’meansonlymore‘factories’,solongasIndianambitionspointtoenteringGovernmentservice,solongwillIndiabeenslaved.Herfreedomisabsolutelyinherownhands,andtheproscriptionofMrGandhi’sbookshowsthattheauthoritiesknowthis–fornotonlydoesheopposeallrevolutionaryviolenceandbloodshedbuthewouldgiveanentirelynew,irresistibleandpeacablecharactertoallprogressivemovements
everywhere.31
ReadingHindSwarajtoday,onefindssomeportionsofthebookenormouslyappealing,otherpartsdisconcertingandevenbizarre.Thepolemicispowerful,butalsocrude.Thelinguisticinfelicitiesmaybebecauseitwasbothwrittenandtranslatedinahurry.TheEnglishversionwas,asnoted,dictatedtoHermannKallenbach.GandhisentatypescripttotheBaptistpastorJosephDoke,withtherequestthathe‘correctandcriticize’it.‘Someofthesimiles,’saidGandhi,‘readverycrudeinEnglish.’Hewas‘painfullyawareofthefact’thatthebook‘wasnota“finishedproduct”.Ihavesimplyjotteddownmythoughtsastheyhavecometome.’Theminister,takingthisjudgementatfacevalue,sentwhatseemstohavebeenalonglistofcriticisms.ButGandhiwaskeentoseethebookinprintatonce,andchosenottorewriteitonthelinessuggestedbyDoke.32
OnestrikingfeatureofthebookisitsextraordinarilypositiveportraitofancientIndiancultureandcivilization.ThiswasperhapsnotunrelatedtothefactthatGandhihadlivedforsomanyyearsoutofIndia.Fordiasporicnationalismtendstobeuncritical,eulogizingthefarawayhomeland,itshallowedandmostlyunsulliedpast,anditspristineandagelessculture.ThecelebrationofIndiancivilizationwenthand-in-handwitha
thoroughgoingcondemnationofWesterncivilization.Ironically,thiswasbasedmostlyonWesternauthorities.TheAppendixliststwentybooksorpamphletsconsultedbyGandhiinwritingthebook,ofwhichasmanyassixarebytheRussian,LeoTolstoy.OtherworksarebytheItalian,Mazzini;theAmerican,Thoreau;andtheEnglishmen,Carpenter,RuskinandMaine.OnlytwoofthetwentybooksarebyGandhi’sfellowcountrymen,thesebeingDadabhaiNaoroji’sandRomeshChunderDutt’sstudiesoftheeconomicexploitationofthesubcontinentunderBritishrule.GandhiwroteHindSwarajin1909,atatimehescarcelyknewIndiaatall.By
1888,whenhedepartedforLondonattheageofnineteen,hehadlivedonlyintownsinhisnativeKathiawar.Thereisnoevidencethathehadtravelledinthecountryside,andheknewnootherpartofIndia.Later,in1892andagainin1902,hecametospendseveralmonthsinthecityofBombay.In1896hevisitedCalcuttaandMadrastolobbyfortherightsofIndiansinSouthAfrica.However,atthetimeofthewritingofHindSwaraj,GandhimayneverhavespokentoasingleIndianpeasantorworker(orlandlordormoneylender)livingorworking
inIndiaitself.Hence,perhaps,theromantic(andtoamoderneyehopelesslyunreal)representationofindigenousIndiancultureinthebook.ItmaybeworthpointingoutthatwhileHindSwarajwasthefirstbookthat
Gandhipublished,itwasnotthefirstbookhehadwritten.Thiswashis‘GuidetoLondon’,draftedduringthosesolitaryeveningsinPretoriaduringhisfirstyearinSouthAfrica,whenhehopedstilltomakeacareerasanAnglicizedbarristerinBombay.Thisfirst,unpublished,bookwasapaeantoEnglisheducationandEnglishmanners,written,appropriately,inEnglish.ThebookthatGandhiwrotesomesixteenyearslaterwasconceivedandpennedinhisnativeGujarati,inwhichlanguagehevigorouslyupheldthevirtuesofhisowncivilizationwhilediminishingthatoftheconqueror.
17
SeekingaSettlement
JustbeforeheleftLondon,GandhiheardthatthefundsinhisPhoenixsettlementwererunningdangerouslylow.Thesatyagrahaof1908and1909hadseverelytestedthecommunity’swilltogive.Muchmoneyhadbeencollected,andspent,onsustainingthefamiliesofpassiveresisters.Nowthemainorganofthestrugglewasindangerofgoingunder.On27November1909–shortlyafterhehadcompletedthefirstdraftofHindSwaraj–GandhiwrotetohisnephewMaganlalthattheymustsomehowkeeptheirweeklymagazineafloat.Whateverhappened,theywould‘bringoutatleastaone-pageissueofIndianOpinionanddistributeitamongthepeopleaslongasthereisevenonepersoninPhoenix’.1
TheSSKildonanCastlearrivedinCapeTownon30November.Ondisembarking,GandhiheardthatthephilanthrophistRatanTatahadsentachequeforRs25,000toaidthestruggleinSouthAfrica.IndianOpinionhadbeensaved;sotoo,perhaps,thestruggleitself.RatanTatawasthesonofJamshedjiTata,thepioneeringParsientrepreneur
whohadstartedIndia’sfirststeelmillandendowedtheIndianInstituteofScience.TheyoungerTataspentagreatdealoftimeontheContinentandinEngland–hehadahomeinTwickenham–butmaintainedaninterestinIndianpolitics.Naturally,hepreferredtheModeratestotheExtremists.Gokhaleinparticularwasafriend.In1905,Gokhalehadstarteda‘ServantsofIndiaSociety’,whosememberswererequiredto‘workfortheadvancementofall[Indians],regardlessofcasteandcreed’.Theobjectivesofthesocietyincludedthepromotionofeducationandcommunalharmony,andtheadvancementofwomenandlowcastes.2TatawasanearlysupporteroftheServantsofIndiaSociety,whichhesentRs6,000ayearbecausehesawitas‘aconstitutionalandrationalalternativetotheviolentmethodswhichsomepeopleadoptfortheprogressofourpeopleandourcountry’.3
TatafolloweddevelopmentsintheTransvaalclosely.HewasdisappointedthatGandhi’striptoLondonhadendedinfailure.HenotedthepublicmeetingsheldinIndia,butfeltthatthetimehadcome‘whenourappreciation…musttaketheform,notmerelyofexpressionsofsympathybutalsoofsubstantialmoneyhelp’.InthelastweekofNovember,hesentGokhaleachequeforRs25,000(equivalent,roughly,to£1,650then,andto£131,000today),askinghimtoforwardittoGandhi‘tobespentinrelievingdestitution,andinaidofthestrugglegenerally.’Explaininghisgesture,Tatasaidhehad
watchedwithunfeignedadmirationtheundauntedanddeterminedstandwhichourcountrymenintheTransvaal–amerehandfulinnumbers–havemadeandaremakingagainstheavyoddsandinthefaceofmonstrousinjusticeandoppression,toasserttheirrightsascitizensoftheEmpireandasfreemen,andtovindicatethehonouranddignityofourmotherland…Theruinoussacrificeswhichmenmostlyofverymodestmeansarecheerfullymakinginthisunequalstruggle,thefortitudewithwhichmenofeducationandrefinementareungrudginglysubmittingtotreatmentordinarilyaccordedtohardenedconvictsandcriminals,thecalmresignationofmendevotedlyattachedtotheirhomestocrueldisruptionoffamilyties,andtheperfectlylegitimateandconstitutionalcharacteroftheresistancewhichisbeingofferedandwhichisinsuchstrikingcontrasttotheoccasionalactsofviolencewhichwedeplorenearerhome–allthesetomymind,presentaspectacleofgreatnobilityofaim,resolutenessofpurposeandstrengthofmoralfibrewithwhichweIndiansarenotusually
credited.4
Thiswasastrikingpassage,which(amongotherthings)stronglysuggeststhatRatanTatahadbeenreadingIndianOpinion.Itdisplaysanacuteunderstandingofthelargerissuesatstake,relatingtothestatusofBritishsubjectsacrosstheEmpire,totheprestigeandhonourofIndia,andnotleast,torivalmethodsofobtainingjusticeandredress.Onreceivingthenews,GokhalesentGandhiatelegramurginghimtowritedirectlytoTatathankinghimforhis‘munificent[and]timelyhelp’.HealsoissuedapublicstatementaskingotherpatronstofollowMrTata’slead.Theindustrialist’sgesturewould‘putfreshheartandhope’intoGandhiandhiscolleagues,whowere‘determinedtowininthisstruggleorperish’.Shouldnotthemothercountry,forwhosesakeallthissufferingisbeing‘undergone’,askedGokhale,now‘recogniseherresponsibilitiesinthematterandcometotheirassistance?MrTata’sexampleneedstobewidelyfollowedandthatwithoutdelay.’5
Itwas.InspiredbyRatanTata,hisfellowParsigrandeeJ.B.Petitsent£750fromBombay,andGandhi’sfriendPranjivanMehtaraisedasimilarsumin
Rangoon.OthersectionsoftheIndiandiasporaalsochippedin:£135camefromLondon,£61fromMozambiqueand£59fromZanzibar.6
DisembarkingatCapeTownontheirreturnfromLondon,GandhiandHajeeHabibtookatrainnorth-easttoJohannesburg.Atthecity’sParkStationtheyweremetbyalargecrowd,mostlyofIndians,withasprinklingofChineseandEuropeansupporters.Thenextday,GandhispokeatameetingofTamilladies,thankingthemforsupportingtheirbrothersandhusbandswhohadbeentojail.Onthe5th,headdressedanaudienceof1,500attheHamidiaMosque,wherehespokeofthelargerimportanceoftheirstruggleandthankedRatanTataforhisgift(aproduct,inGandhi’sview,of‘themagnificenteffortsthatwerebeingmade[inIndia]bytheself-sacrificingMrPolak’).Thestrugglewasnowtoberenewed.GandhisentalettertoIndianOpinion
announcingthis,saying,‘IhopeIshallfindmyselflodgedingaolbeforethisletterappears.’Hissecondson,Manilal,whohadturnedseventeeninOctober,wouldalsocourtarrest,inpursuitofhisfather’sbeliefthat‘togotogaolorsuffersimilarhardshipswithapuremotiveforthemotherlandisthetruestkindofeducation.’7
InthethirdweekofDecember,GandhiwenttoNatal.HearrivedatUmgenistationatnightandwalkedthreehoursinthedarktoPhoenixthroughthegrass,nervousthathemight‘treaduponasnakeorscorpion’.Kasturbawaspleasedtoseehim.‘MrsG.hasconsiderablyimproved,’hewrotetoKallenbach,‘sheissweet.ShehasbeenworkingregularlyatthePressforonehour.ShefoldsTolstoy’sletter.Whataprivilegeforher!’8
OnSunday,19December,GandhiwasduetospeakatameetinginDurban.Acrowdofmorethan1,000hadgatheredattheVictoriaStreetIndianMarket,butthemainspeakerdidnotcome.Thatwasnofaultofhis,however.ThejournalistP.S.AiyarhadgoneinacartopickupGandhifromhissettlement.ThatmodeoftransportwasverynewinSouthAfrica.EnroutetoPhoenix,thecargotstuckinastream(whetheritwasthevehicle’sorthedriver’sfaultthesourcesdonotsay).Noonewasinjured,butbythetimewordofthemishapgottoPhoenix,itwastoolateforGandhitocometoDurban.Thenextday,GandhiwenttoDurbanbythesaferroute,thatoftherailway.
ThemeetingthistimewasheldintheAlbertStreetHall.Afterbeinggarlanded
‘amidrousingcheers’,heannouncedthatsomeyoungmen,amongthemhissonManilalandtheCambridge-educatedbarristerJosephRoyeppen,would‘accompanyhimtotheTransvaaland[were]expectedwithhimtogotogaol.’9
GandhicrossedbackintotheTransvaalwithsixcompanions.Hehopedtheywouldbearrested;whentheywerenot,hesentRoyeppenandManilalbacktoNatal,askingthemtotravelafreshtoJohannesburgandhawkwithoutalicence,tosimultaneouslybreakthelawanddemonstratethatsellingfruitsandvegetableswasashonourableatradeasbeingaclerkorlawyer.Thistimetheyoungmenweredetained,andsentencedtotendayswithhardlabour.10
Inthisnewphaseofthecampaign,theTamilswere,asbefore,inthevanguard.GandhiwrotetoGokhalethatThambiNaidoowas‘perhapsthebravestandstaunchest’ofthepassiveresisters.
IdonotknowofanyIndianwhoknowsthespiritofthestrugglesowellashedoes.HewasborninMauritius,butismoreIndianthanmostofus.Hehassacrificedhimselfentirely,andhassentmeadefiantmessage,sayingthat,eventhoughImayyield…healonewillofferresistanceanddieintheTransvaalgaols.
TheTamilwomenwerenotfarbehind.Inaspectacularaffirmationofsolidarity,MrsAmacanooandMrsPackirsamy–whosehusbandswereinjail–cametoGandhi’sofficeinRissikStreet,removedtheirearrings,nose-rings,banglesandnecklaces,andsaidtheywouldnotwearthemagainuntiltheendofthestruggle.11
Themoststeadfastwomansupporterofthesatyagraha,however,wasGandhi’ssecretary,SonjaSchlesin.Intimesofpeace,shedealtpatiently–nottosayheroically–withheremployer’sindecipherablescrawl,hiseccentricworkandeatinghabits,andhismanyandvariousclients.Intimesofstrifeshewascalledupontourgeandmobilizethewomen.Ontheirbehalfshedraftedandsentmanypetitionstogovernment.TheformalhistoricalrecordhasfewtracesofMissSchlesin’scontributions.HenryandMilliePolakspokeoftheirinvolvementinbooks,essaysandletters.Kallenbach’scorrespondencewithGandhiandothersisveryextensive.ButsinceMissSchlesinwaswithGandhiallday,mostdays,therearefewlettersbetweenthem.FromstrayreportsinIndianOpinion,however,wegetasenseofhowmuchSonjaSchlesindidforthestruggle.Passiveresistersinjailwereallowedaweeklyvisit.Sometimesrelativesmadethetrip;whenthesewereunavailable,orinjailthemselves,Miss
Schlesinrushedaboutonherbicyclefromprisontoprison,carryingfoodandmessages.WiththemainIndianleadersgoinginandoutofjail,Gandhi’ssecretaryalsohandledthe‘PassiveResistanceFund’:monitoringandrecordingtheinflowofdonations,anddirectingthemoneytoindividualsandfamiliesinneed.ArareletterfromSonjaSchlesininthearchivesgivesglimpesbothofher
competenceandherindependenceofmind.GandhiwasspendingseveralweeksoutsideJohannesburg;inhisabsence,MissSchlesinwaskeepingtheofficegoing.HerletterbeginswiththequestionofsomescholarshipsPranjivanMehtahadendowedforIndianstudents.Applicationshadbeguncomingin,andMissSchlesinwasdecidingwhichyoungmanseemed‘clever’andwhichnot.Shemovesnexttoduesowedbytheofficetootherlawyers,thentotherenewalofGandhi’sandPolak’ssubscriptionstotheLawSociety.NewsoftheGujaratimerchantandactivistA.M.Cachaliafollows.Thelastparagraphturnstoherownself-education.HereshetellsGandhithatshehasbeen
justreadingabookrecentlyissuedcalled‘TheTruthaboutWomen’.Idon’tagreewiththeconclusionofthewriter,butshehasgatheredtogethermuchmaterialwhichisinterestingandinstructive.Amongstotherthings,shesaysthatchastityisnotamoralevolution,butthatthe
originationoftheideaisconnectedwiththequestionofproperty.12
Inthisletter,MissSchlesinaddressesheremployeras‘Bapu’,orFather.Shewas,inage,betweenHarilalandManilal,yetfarmorewillingtostanduptoGandhithantheywere.Thislastlineofherletterwassurelyatease,whichsuggested,toherfriend,employerandfictivefather,thatthebrahmacharyahesoexaltedhaditsbasisinthedesiretokeeplargeestatesfrombeingbrokenup.MissSchlesinthusimpliedthatyoungerbrothersbecamemonkstokeeptheeconomicstatusofthefamilyintact,ratherthan(asGandhimayhavefancifullyimagined)forelevatedspiritualreasonsalone.Forallhercheekiness,SonjaSchlesinwasdevotedtoGandhiandhiscause.
Herswasadoubleorperhapstripletransgression:awhite,JewishwomanexpressinghersolidaritywithpersecutedIndianmales.Muchlater,heremployergratefullyrecalledwhathisstruggleowedher.This‘younggirl,’hewrote,‘soonconstitutedherselfthewatchmanandwarderofthemoralitynotonlyofmyofficebutofthewholemovement’.Thus
Pathans,Patels,ex-indenturedmen,Indiansofallclassesandagessurroundedher,soughtheradviceandfollowedit.EuropeansinSouthAfricawouldgenerallynevertravelinthesamerailwaycompartmentasIndians,andintheTransvaaltheyareevenprohibitedfromdoingso.YetMissSchlesinwoulddeliberatelysitinthethirdclasscompartmentforIndianslikeotherSatyragrahisand
evenresisttheguardswhointerferedwithher.13
InFebruary1910,ParseeRustomjeewasreleasedafterayearinjail.Hetoldthepressofthedifficultieshehadfaced.Hewasaskedtobreakstones;whenhecomplained,theprisondoctortoldhimthat‘IwouldbeallrightwhenIhadthrownoffsuperfluousfat.’Theflyingchipsaffectedhiseyesight;whenhecomplainedaboutthattoo,thedoctorflippantlyremarkedthat‘Ishould,onbeingdischarged,spendfrom£10to£20,andbeoperatedupon.’RustomjeebelievedthatthepassiveresistershadbeensenttoDiepkloof,anotoriouslyharshprison,‘inordertobreaktheirspiritandresolution’.AfterhisreleasehehadcomebacktoNataltorestorehisbusinessandhishealth,bothinruins.Heremaineddefiant,tellingtheJohannesburgpress,andbyextensiontheTransvaalGovernment,that‘therearesomeIndiansleft,includingmyself,whowillnotbebroken,nomatterwhathardshipstheyaresubjectedto,andIshallsoonhavetheprivilegeofaffordingtheGovernmentanopportunityofsendingmetoDiepklooforanyotherplacetheychoose.’14
On18FebruarythepassiveresistersoftheTransvaalhostedabanquetforJosephDoke,whowasdepartingonatouroftheUnitedStates.Therewerethreehundredguests,amongthemsixtyEuropeans.KallenbachandThambiNaidoosupervisedthekitchen,whileGandhihelpedservethedishes.Themenuwaswhollyvegetarian:soup,macaronicheese,fruits,coffeeandmineralwater.ThemainspeakerwasDoke’sfellowNonconformistminister,CharlesPhillips.HisCongregationalChurchhad,fromveryearlyon,beensympathetictoGandhi’scause.WhentheAsiaticOrdinancewasfirstproposed,Phillipshadwrittenthat‘Indiansarejustasamenabletosanitaryregulations’asEuropeans,addingthat‘inmoralstheyareinnowayinferior;inmattersoftemperancetheyaredecidedlysuperior’.15Nowtheministerrecalledthe‘grandoldpassiveresisterJohnBunyan’,alsoaBaptistminister,whohadspenttwelveyearsinprisonforfollowinghisconscience.Rev.PhillipssaidThambiNaidoo‘showedsomethingofthespiritofJohnBunyan’.TherewasnowawindowinWestminsterAbbeyinhonourofBunyan;theministerhoped‘thatinthefuturetheywouldbeableto
erectamonumentinremembranceofIndiansandChineseintheTransvaal,whohadsufferedsobravelyandsplendidly’.16
Asever,Gandhileftopenthepossibilityofacompromise.TwoEnglishfriends,thelawyerJ.C.GibsonandtheministerCharlesPhillips,hadofferedtotalktotheGovernment.Gandhitoldthemthatiftheexistinglegislationwasrepealed,sothatallbonafideIndianresidentsofTransvaalwereallowedtoenter,liveandpractisetheirtrade,andthelawssomodified‘astoenableanyAsiaticimmigrantsofculturetoentertheColonyonpreciselythesametermsasEuropeans’,then‘thegrantingofthesetwoconcessionswillfinallyclosethestruggle,andremovethequestionfromthearenaofIndianpolitics.’17
InIndia,GopalKrishnaGokhaleintroducedabillintheViceroy’sLegislativeCouncilseekingtostoptheexportofindenturedlabourtoNatal.Thebillwastabledon25February1910,withGokhalespeakingeloquentlyonthehandicapsofIndiansindifferentprovincesofSouthAfrica.Indenturewastheoriginalsin;haditnotbeenintroducedthere‘wouldhavebeennoIndianprobleminthatsub-continenttoday’.Thesystemwasakintoslavery;itferried‘helpessmenandwomentoadistantland’tolabourunderharshconditionsandunderemployerswhoselanguage,customsandtraditionsweresoalientotheirown.Whenfreed,thelabourersweresubjecttoasavageandpunitivetax.Thetraderswhoservicedtheirneedswere,inturn,subjecttomanifoldrestrictions.SuchwasthesituationinNatal;thewhitesintheTransvaal,meanwhile,had
inflictedontheirIndianco-subjects‘gallinganddegradingindignitiesandhumiliations’ofakindunprecedentedinthehistoryoftheEmpire.Thesecumulativeinsultsmeantthat‘nosinglequestionofourtimehasevokedmorebitterfeelingsthroughoutIndia–feelingsinthepresenceofwhichthebestfriendsofBritishrulehavehadtoremainhelpless–thanthecontinuedill-treatmentofIndiansinSouthAfrica.’18
Gokhale’smotionwasresoundinglyendorsedbyothermembers.ThegiftedBombaylawyerM.A.JinnahsaidthetreatmentofIndiansinSouthAfricahad‘rousedthefeelingsofallclassesinthiscountrytothehighestpitch’.Yet,becauseoftheindifferenceoftheGovernmentofIndia,‘wearenotaweebitbetterthanwewereatthecommencementof1907whenthestrugglereacheditsveryheight’.AMrMudholkaraffirmedthatonthisquestiontherewas‘a
singularunanimityofopinionamongmenofalltheraces,creeds,castesandsectionswhoinhabitthisvastcontinent’.MazharulHaque,amemberfromBihar,comparedthe£3taxinNataltothejeziya,thefeeleviedonnon-believersinIslamicstatesaboutwhichEuropeanhistorianshadwrittensoharshly.Itsapplicationwasbothironicandshameful,since‘Buddha,ChristandMohammedwere[all]Asiatics.’19
Gokhalewasfollowedbymorethanadozenspeakers,withthedebatecoveringsixtycloselyprintedpagesofthelegislativerecord.Themotionpassedunanimously:witheffectfrom1July1911,nomoreIndianswouldbesenttoworkonthesugarplantationsorinthecoalminesofNatal.Followingtheproceedingsthroughthenewspapersthatcametohimbypost,Gandhithoughtthiswouldleadtoan‘immediateimprovement’inthestatusofIndiansinNatal.IntheTransvaal,thestruggleforjusttreatmentwouldcontinue,butnowperhapswithagreaterchanceofsuccess.20
Thehopeswereillusory.FromMarch,theTransvaalGovernmentinstitutedharshmeasurestobreaktheresistance.Manyprisoners(amongthemManilalGandhi)wereputinsolitaryconfinement.OtherresistersweresentoverlandtothePortuguese-controlledportofDelagoaBayandbackbyshiptoIndia.TheyarrivedinBombayandMadras,inneardestitution.ThestoriesofthedeporteeswerecirculatedintheIndianpressandpassedontotheColonialOfficebyL.W.Ritch.FromRitch’saccount,itappearedtheauthoritieshadpickedonthepoorestandmostvulnerable.ThosedeportedincludedGulamMahomed,amineworkerwhohadservedwiththeBritishintheAnglo-BoerWar;Kathia,awashermanwhohadoriginallycometoNatalunderindenture;NarajanaApanna,abottle-sellerwhohadlostanarmduringthewar;andRamsamyMoodlai,ahawkerwhohadlivedintheTransvaalsince1888.21
On1June1910,thefourColoniesofNatal,Transvaal,theCapeandtheOrangeFreeState–previouslyautonomousifnotindependent–becameconstituentsofalargerentity,knownofficiallyastheUnionofSouthAfrica.Therewouldbeanew,whites-onlyparliament,withaprimeministerandcabinetworkingunderthe(nominal)supervisionofagovernor-generalsentoutfromLondon.Superficially,theUnioninSouthAfricafollowedthepatternlaiddownby
otherBritishdominions.In1867thedifferentprovincesofCanadacame
togetherandformedacentralparliament.In1900theAustraliancoloniesdidlikewise.TheSouthAfricancase,however,differedinonecrucialrespectfromitspredecessors.AtthetimeoftheUnion,thewhitesettlerswereveryfarfrombeingamajorityinalandtheyclaimedastheirown.On2June,Gandhiissuedalettertothepress,notingthatforhispeoplethe
dayofUnionwasmarkedbyfresharrests.Thoseinjailincluded‘MrJosephRoyeppen,theBarristerandCambridgeGraduate’and‘aculturedIndianandrepresentativeParsee,MrSorabji’.TheIndianleaderpointedlyandpoignantlyasked:
WhatcanaUnionunderwhichtheabovestateofthingsiscontinuedmeantoAsiatics,exceptthatitisacombinationofhostileforcesarrayedagainstthem?TheEmpireissupposedtohavebecomestrongerfortheUnion.IsittocrushbyitsweightandimportanceAsiaticsubjectsoftheCrown?ItwasnodoubtrightandproperthatthebirthofUnionshouldhavebeensignalisedfortheNativesofSouthAfricabytheclemencyoftheCrowntowards[theZuluchief]Dinizulu.Dinizulu’sdischargewillnaturallyfiretheimaginationoftheSouthAfricanNatives.WillitnotbeequallypropertoenabletheAsiaticsinSouthAfricatofeelthatthereisanewandbenignantspiritabroadinSouthAfricabyconcedingtheirdemands,whichareheld,Imakeboldtosay,tobeintrinsicallyjustbynine
outofeverytenintelligentpeopleinthisContinent?22
TheUnionofEuropeansinSouthAfricawashostiletotheAsianswholivedinthecountry.However,individualEuropeansweresympathetic,nonemoresothanHermannKallenbach.On30May,thearchitecthaddonatedafarmoutsideJohannesburgtotheIndians.Solongasthestrugglelasted,‘passiveresistersandtheirindigentfamilies’couldliveonthefarm‘freeofanyrentorcharge’.23Thefarmwaslarge–morethan1,000acres–andhadmanyfruittrees,twowellsandasmallspring.Thegroundwasmostlylevel,butasmallhillockroseatoneedgeoftheproperty.Thepropertywastwenty-twomilesfromthecity,yetclosetoarailwaystationnamedLawley.Gandhi,withKallenbach’sendorsement,chosetonamethefarmafterTolstoy.Asavegetarianhimself,Kallenbachprohibitedshootingonthefarm.Healso
eschewed,asfaraspossible,theuseofmachineryandhiredlabour.AreporterwhovisitedshortlyafterthegiftdescribedTolstoyFarmas‘anearnestattempttobringEastandWestneareralong(shallIsay)rightlinesandbyeasythoughslowstages.’24
TolstoyFarmhadfurtherconsolidatedthefriendshipbetweentheEuropeanJew,HermannKallenbachandtheIndianBania,MohandasGandhi.Yetsome
otherWesternfriendsofGandhiwerenotequallyenamouredoftheexperiment.HenryPolakhadpresentedRuskin’sUntoThisLasttoGandhi,thinkingitwouldappealtohisfriend’sromanticruralism.Itdid,andthefoundingofPhoenixfollowed.ButthePolaksthemselvesdidnotspendmuchtimeatthesettlement.Theywereanti-racistegalitarianswithoutbeinganti-industrialpolemicists.MillieespeciallyhadfoundthefacilitiesatPhoenixprimitive,andthecompanyconfining.ThePolakswereallcitypeople,andquitehappy(andproud)tobeso.25
Likewise,someofGandhi’sclosestIndiancompanionswerenotasceticintheirdisposition.Hehimselfwasveryawarethatnotallprotesterswereseekers.Heknewthatfewsatyagrahiswouldbecomesevaks,servantsofsocietyinthedeepersense.HeknewthatGujaratimerchants,whetherHinduorMuslim,didnotlikeworkingwiththeirhands.So,forthisnewventure,heaskedthemmerelytocontributemoneyandmaterials.TheworkofsettlingandimprovingTolstoyFarmwouldbedonebytheGandhifamily,byIndiansfromcastesandcommunitiesmoreaccustomedtohardlabour,andbytheownerandpatronhimself.ThefirstresidentsofthenewsettlementwereGandhi,hissonManilal,and
Kallenbach.TheyweresoonjoinedbyagroupofTamils,amongthemThambiNaidooandhisfamily.TheIndiansworkedwithAfricanlabourersonconstructingnewbuildings,carryingstonesfromthehilltothesite.FriendsandsupportersinJohannesburgsentmattresses,blankets,towels,utensils,fruitsandvegetables.ThedonorswerenotallIndian;thusthewifeofaNonconformistministersentfortypoundsofhome-mademarmalade,whiletheCantoneseClubofJohannesburggaverice,sugar,monkey-nutsandparaffin.26
BytheendofJune,aschoolwasfunctioningonthefarm.Ithadfivepupils,includingManilalandRamdasGandhi.Theirfatherwasthemainteacher.InlateJuly,KasturbaGandhiarrivedtojoinherhusband.Thefamilyunithadbeenrestored,afterafive-yearperiodinwhichthefatherhadbeenmostlyinJohannesburg,themotherwhollyatPhoenix,andthesonsshuttlinginbetween.SinceKasturbahadthecompanyofotherwomen,shewasnotlonely.Andthe
experienceforherboyswastransformative.Cooking,cleaning,diggingtheland–hissons,GandhitoldhisnephewMaganlal,werenolonger
engrossedinthoughtas[they]usedtobeinPhoenix.Thisistheresultofmanuallabour.Inpamperingthecorpulentbodythathasbeengiventousandpretendingthatweearn[ourliving]byourintellect,wehavebecomesinnersandaretemptedtofallintoathousandandoneevilways.IregardtheKaffirs,withwhomIconstantlyworkthesedays,assuperiortous.Whattheydointheir
ignorancewehavetodoknowingly.InoutwardappearanceweshouldlookjustliketheKaffirs.27
WorkingalongsidetheAfricans,Gandhicametoaclearerrealizationoftheirpredicament.‘Thenegroesalonearetheoriginalinhabitantsofthisland,’hewroteinIndianOpinion.‘Wehavenotseizedthelandfromthembyforce;weliveherewiththeirgoodwill.Thewhites,ontheotherhand,haveoccupiedthecountryforciblyandappropriatedittothemselves’.Theformulationwasstriking,aswellasnew–onceaccustomedtopraisingBritishvaluesandBritishinstitutions,GandhinowpointedinsteadtotheillegitimacyoftheirpresenceandruleinAfrica.28Clearly,hehadprogressedconsiderablyfromtheunsympatheticandhostileattitudetowardsAfricanshehaddisplayedinhisfirstyearsinNatal.Whentheannualhighschoolexaminationsfor1910wereheldinPretoria,IndianOpinionaskedwhyAfricanswerenotallowedtositwiththeirwhitepeers.Inpreviousyears,allstudentshadtakentheexaminationtogether.Thistime,themanagementoftheTownHall–wheretheexamswereheld–passedaresolutionthatnoAfricanoranyotherpersonofcolourwouldbeallowedtoenterthebuilding.29Gandhithoughtthisprovocationenoughforpassiveresistance.‘Inacountrylikethis’,heremarked,
theColouredpeopleareplacedinanextremelydifficultsituation.Wethinkthereisnowayoutofthisexceptsatyagraha.Suchinstancesareanaturalconsequenceofthewhites’refusaltotreattheColouredpeopleastheirequals.ItisinordertoputanendtothisstateofaffairsthatwehavebeenfightingintheTransvaal,anditisnotsurprisingthatthefightagainstapeoplewithdeepprejudice
shouldtakealongtime.30
Shortlyafterwards,GandhireceivedaletterfromtwofriendsinNatal,whofeltthathishavingrecentlytravelledthird-classwasdemeaningtotheleaderandtotheprestigeofthecommunityherepresented.Gandhiansweredthathewishedtolivelikeapoorman;besides,he‘shudderedtoreadtheaccountofthehardshipstheKaffirshadtosufferinthethird-classcarriagesintheCapeandIwantedtoexperiencethesamehardshipsmyself.’31
AtTolstoyFarm,theGandhifamilyandtheAfricanlabourersbothworkedunderthedirectionofHermannKallenbach,whowasbothatrainedarchitectandasuperblyskilledmasonandcarpenter.Thebenefactorfoundrichfulfilment
inhisgiftandhiswork.‘Ihavegivenupmeat-eating,smokinganddrinking,andpractiseasceticism,’hewrotetohisbrotherSimon.‘WhatTolstoywantsandwhatItoostrivefor,istorecognisethecorrectthingwithoutdisturbingmyfellowman.’32
Gandhi,meanwhile,hadwrittentoTolstoy,tellinghimaboutthefarmnamedafterhimandworkedaccordingtohisprinciples.Theseerwroteback,saying,‘yourworkinTransvaal,whichseemstobefarawayfromthecentreofourworld,isyetthemostfundamentalandthemostimportanttous[in]supplyingthemostweightypracticalproofinwhichtheworldcannowshareandwithwhichmustparticipatenotonlytheChristiansbutallthepeoplesoftheworld.’HecomparedtheworkoftheIndianstomeninRussiarefusingtoserveinthemilitary.Thetwostruggleswerejoined,inTolstoy’smind,inacommon,heroicendeavour.Thus,‘howeversmallmaybethenumberofyourparticipantsinnon-resistanceandthenumberofthoseinRussiawhorefusemilitaryservice,boththeoneandtheothermayassertwithaudacitythat“Godiswithus”and“Godismorepowerfulthanmen”.’TwomonthslaterTolstoydied.IndianOpinionprintedacommemorative
issue,withalargeportraitandseveralappreciations.Gandhinoted,notwithoutpride,that‘inhislastdays’Tolstoyhadextended‘encouragementtothe[Transvaal]satyagrahis’,assuringthem‘justicefromGod,ifnotfromtherulers’.33
TheTransvaalGovernment’sattemptstobreakthemovementcontinued.InApril–May1910,severalhundredsatyagrahis,IndiansandChinese,wereplacedonshipsboundforMadrasandBombay.Thedeportationintensifiedtheresolveoftheresisters,andalsoconsolidatedsupportforthemwithinIndia.HenryPolakwasathandtoreceivethedeporteesastheydisembarkedinMadrasandBombay,sendingsomeofthemstraightbacktoSouthAfrica,whileorganizingreceptionsforthosewhochosetostaybehind.34
PolakwasaidedbytheliberalreformerG.A.Natesan,editorandpublisheroftheMadras-basedIndianReview.NatesanwasaTamil,andhencewellplacedtolookaftertheTamil-speakingsatyagrahiswhoarrivedinMadras.TheIndianReviewpublishedrepresentativeaccountsofthedeportees’suffering.OneSubramanyaAsarihadgonetoNatalinabout1900tojoinhisfather,whowasa
jeweller.JoiningthesatyagrahaoutofsolidaritywiththeTransvaalIndians,hewasarrested,deportedtoDelagoaBay,andthenputwithfifty-nineotherresistersonashiptoIndia.Theytravelledingreatdiscomfortondeck,withmeagrerations.AsatyagrahinamedNarayanaswamyfellsickanddiedonboard.Thespiritofhiscompatriotswasundaunted;afewdaysafterthesteamercarryingthemlandedinMadras,twenty-sixofthesixtydeportees,themselvesbornordomiciledinNatal,boardedashipbacktoDurban.35
ThereportsintheIndianReviewoftenspokeofthevenerationinwhichsatyagrahisfromSouthIndiaheldtheirGujaratileader.ConsiderthecaseofP.K.Naidoo.AbarberinJohannesburg,hewasanautodidactwhohadtaughthimselftospeakFrench,ZuluandHindiinadditiontohisnativeTelugu.ArrestedinJanuary1908fornotpossessingaregistrationcertificate,hewastriedandconvictedalongwithGandhi.Whenhearrivedatthejailafewhourslater,Naidoowas‘struckwithhorrortoseemyleaderattiredinthenativecriminalconvict’sgarb.Mywish,inthepresentinstance,wastomakeanoise,butMrGandhi,whowasacquaintedwithmydeportment,atonce,toldmeinamildtone:“Simplydowhatyouaretold,Naidoo.”’Thebarberwasputinprisongarbandtakentohiscell.Nextmorning,hewasappalledtofindthatthemealconsistedofmealieporridge.‘Noneofus,excludingMrGandhi,whowishedtoshowthatitwasgoodfood,relisheditas[wedid]ourbreakfastathome.’Naidoowasreleased,butrearrestedasecondtime,andthenathird.Atthis
pointhehadnotseenGandhiforeightmonths.‘WhenIwasouthewasin,andwhenhewasoutIwasin,andonthisoccasionhewasgonetoLondon.’InMay1910,onreleasefromhisfifthterm,P.K.Naidoowasmetattheprisongatebyalargecontingent,includingCachaliaandKallenbach.OfhisreceptioncommitteeNaidooremarkedthat‘MrGandhi,whomIhadnotmetfor17months,wasnaturallythemostattractive.’36
AmongthosedeportedtoMadraswastheChineseleaderLeungQuinn.InanessayforNatesan’sjournalheexplainedwhyheandhiscompatriotshadjoinedGandhi’sstruggle.ThelawsintheTransvaal,‘erectedbyreasonofracialantipathiesandjealousies’,weresuchthatevenChineseambassadorswelcomedinthecourtsofEuropewouldnotbeallowedintothecolony.Itwas,saidQuinn,‘notpossibleforus,whobelongtoanancientanddignifiedcivilisationtositsilentundersuchaflagrantinsult’.Judgingthatthe‘honourofAsiawasat
stake’,theChinesejoinedtheIndianresisters.QuinntoldhisIndianaudiencethat‘theTransvaalcolonistshavefoolishlythrowndownthegauntlettothewholeofAsia.NeithertheynorotherEuropeansshouldbesurprisedifAsiatics,asabody,takeitup.’37
ThepresenceofthedeporteesandthesympathiestheyarousedworriedofficialsoftheRaj,whothoughttheymightinflamenationalistsentimentsinIndia.TheMadrasGovernmentfoundtheirpresence‘veryembarrassing’.Thedeporteeswerebeingtreatedasmartyrs.TheirtroublesinSouthAfricaevokedfeelingsthatwere‘rapidlybecomingmorebitterandmorewidespread’.38InBombay,thearrivalofshiploadsofsatyagrahisfromtheTransvaalattractedtheattentionsoftheCommissionerofPolice.Hewenttomeetthedeportees,findingthemin‘fairlygoodspiritsandquitereadytoconverseamicably’.TheCommissionernonethelesswishedtheprocessofdeportationwouldstop,‘inviewofthecapitalwhichthelocalagitatorcanmakeofitifhechooses.’39
TheTransvaalGovernmenthadhopedthedeportationswoulddemoralizethesatyagrahisanddemolishthesatyagraha.Asithappened,theadversepublicityinIndiahelpedinfuseitwith,amongotherthings,anewsourceoffunds.Whenthedeportationsbegan,inApril1910,thebalanceinthe‘PassiveResistanceFundAccount’oftheNatalBankinJohannesburgstoodatslightlyover£3,000.This,GandhitoldGokhale,wouldonlylastthemtilltheendoftheyear.Henotedthathehadhimselfgiventhebulkofhisearningstothecause,ashad‘aEuropeanfriend’(Kallenbach).40Hearingofthedeportations,RatanTatawrotetoGokhaleinJuly1910thathewishedtomakeafurtherdonationofRs25,000.Heaskedthatthematterbekeptprivateforthemoment,inreserve
forthepsychologicalmomentwhenthepublicationofitinasimilarsensationalmannertomylastdonation,mightagaintouchtheemotionsofsomepeople,andgoadthemintomakingasecondefforttokeepalivethisstruggleofourcauseinSouthAfrica,whichisgettingsopainfullyfeebledayby
dayowingtothewantoffinancialsupport.41
GokhalewrotebackthattheatmosphereinIndiawasnotveryencouraging.HedidnotthinkthatapublicannouncementofTata’sbequestwouldstimulateotherdonations.Thephilanthrophistfoundithardtoacceptthat‘thefinerfeelingsaredeadamongstallourcountrymen’,butdeferredtothejudgementofthemanonthespot.Inthatcase,hewouldsendthemoneydirectlytoGandhi.Ashesawit,
oncethestruggleinSouthAfricaisgivenup,thewhiteswillseethatIndianshavenotgritenoughtofighttoafinishandthatwhereverIndiansarenotwanted,thewhiteshaveonlytopersistlongenough,todrivethemoutofanycountry.ItispitifultoseeahandfulofIndianssufferingandfightingfortherightsofawholenation,whilstthatnationsitsinertlyandwatchesthestrugglewith
absoluteindifference.42
RatanTatahadaskedGokhaleto‘embodymyviewsinalettertoMrGhandi[sic]’.43WhatGokhalewrotetoGandhiisunrecorded.Wedoknowhoweverthaton18November1910,RatanTatasentGandhiachequeforRs25,000,withabriefnotesayingthat‘theadmirationandgoodwishesofalltrueIndiansarewithyouinyournoblework.’44
Meanwhile,onhistouracrossIndia,byhisenthusiasmandhiseloquencePolakhadprovedTatarightandGokhalewrong.InninemonthsontheroadhehadraisedoverRs50,000,withcontributions,bigandsmall,comingfromHinduMaharajas,Muslimnawabs,Parsimillionaires,Christianclergymen,andsecularizedmembersofagrowingmiddleclass.45
InthelastweekofAugust1910,afternearlyayearinhisfriend’shomeland,HenryPolakreturnedtoSouthAfrica.AtafarewellmeetinginMadras,AnnieBesantpaidtributetohisworkfortheIndiansoftheTransvaal.‘Himselfofapersecutedrace,whosebloodhasbeenshedineverycountryinEurope,’Polakhadnot‘allowedhimselftobesouredandembitteredbythesufferingofhiskinsfolk.Hehasshownhimselftopossessaheartsoftened,and…hefindsinthesufferingofothersareasonfortakingthecauseoftheother.’46
FromMadrasPolaktookatraintoBombay,whereheboardedashipforSouthAfrica.HearrivedinDurbanatdaybreakon28September.Gandhiwastheretoreceivehim,alongwithsome400otherIndians.AfewatleasthadbeeninspiredtogotherebySheikhMehtab,Gandhi’sonce-estrangedfriendwhowasnowavigorouscheerleaderforhismovement.InapoeminIndianOpinionMehtabtoldhiscompatriotstocometothePointtogreettheirEnglishfriend.For
PolakawakenedIndiaHedeclaredthatnoindenturedlabourerswillcomeHehasconqueredacitadel[ofpower]Honourhim,puttingflowergarlandsonhisback.
Theirwelcome,continuedthepoet,shouldconfirmthespiritofinter-religioussolidarity.WhenPolakcameashore,theIndiansmust
SingthesongsofVandeMatramandAllahAkbarShowerhimwithbasketfulsofpearlsIndianswithshawlsorTurkishcapsPickupthearrowofunityand
Shootdisunitydown.47
AfterafewdaysatPhoenix,thefriendsreturnedtogethertothecity.Onthemorningof4October,GandhiandPolakwentdowntothePointtowelcomeashiploadofNatalIndianspreviouslydeportedtoMadrasandBombayforillegallyenteringtheTransvaal.HerePolaktoldareporterthat‘ourprogrammewillremain,asithasalwaysbeen,notoneofviolenceorattemptstodisturb,butoneofsufferingonthepartofourpeople,whointendtogoonenduringthesehardshipsuntiltheymaketheauthoritiesashamedofthemselves.’48
Thatsameevening,theIndiansofNatalthrewalargereceptionforPolak.AlittleTamilgirlpresentedhimwitharosebuttonhole‘amidcontinuouscheering’.Anaddresswasreadoutonbehalfofthehosts:thissalutedPolak’s‘nobleandself-sacrificingwork’inIndia,bywhich,hewastold,‘youhaveidentifiedyourselfwithourtroublesandsorrowsinamannerinwhichveryfewEuropeansorIndianshave.’49
AmongtheIndians,HenryPolakwasknownas‘Keshavlal’,sincehehadlong,uncutlockslikeLordKrishnahimself.Butthenamealsosuitedhiminotherrespects,sincehewaslikewiseplayful,mischievous,aromanticatheart,andyetpossessedofasharppoliticalintelligence.Gandhi’sothergreatEuropeanfriend,Kallenbach,wasknownas‘Hanuman’,todenotehisunquestioningdevotiontohisLord(hereGandhiratherthanRam)andhiswillingnesstoputhismuscles(inthiscase,financialaswellasphysical)athismaster’sservice.50
ThereceptionforHenryPolakinDurbanwasfollowedbyameetingtodiscussthecurrentstateofthemovement.WhenGandhibeganspeaking,inEnglish,thecrowdshouted:‘Tamil!Tamil!’GandhiansweredthatifGeneralSmutssenthimtojailagainhewouldhavethetime,andleisure,tolearntheirlanguage.Meanwhile,hepassedontheresponsibilitytohisnephewMaganlal,whowasnowmanagingPhoenixandIndianOpiniononGandhi’sbehalf.SincehiselderbrotherChhaganwasinLondon(onascholarshipfundedbyPranjivanMehta),
Magan,inNatal,wouldstudyTamilseriously,andthusbecomeabridgebetweenhisuncleandthemostcommittedofhissupporters.GandhiwroteregularlytoMaganaskingabouthisprogress.‘DonotgiveupyourstudyofTamil,’beganoneletter.‘IhaveaconstantfeelingthatyoualoneandnoneelsewillbeabletomasterTamil,’saidanother.51
Gandhiwasnowverykeentobearrested.Everymonth,hewouldvisitNatalandcrossbackintotheTransvaalwithoutregistrationpapers.Theauthoritiesstayedtheirhand,butwhen,inearlyNovember,hebroughtwithhimsomeotherIndians,theydetainedawomannamedMrsSodha,whosehusbandwasalreadyinprison.Thepolicedeclaredhertobeanillegalalien.Gandhiwasabletogetthecaseadjourned,andtoproceedwithMrsSodhaandherchildrentoTolstoyFarm.HewiredtheMinisteroftheInterior,GeneralSmuts,seekingpermissiontokeepthemonthefarmtillMrSodhahadservedouthisterm.Hepointedoutthat‘hithertoIndianwomenhavebeenleftunmolested.’WhenSmutsansweredthatthelawwouldtakeitscourse,Gandhitoldthepressthatwhilethe‘GovernmentareatwarwithIndianmales’,the‘communitywas,however,unpreparedforanunchivalrousattackonitswomanhood’.MrsSodhawasnotacompetitorintrade;indeed,‘ameekerwoman’couldnotperhapsbefoundanywhereinSouthAfrica.‘WhatevermaybetheirviewsonAsiaticimmigrationoronthequestionofgeneralpassiveresistance,’askedGandhi,‘willnottheChristianmenandwomenofthisUnionriseinunanimousprotestagainstthislatestparodyofadministrationonthepartoftheGovernment?’52
Theinvocationoftherulers’faithwasincharacter.GandhiwascallingonthemtorecognizethedivineratherthandevilishaspectsofChristianity,andtohaveempathyforthesufferingofallreligions(andnationalities).ToshowthemthePath,Gandhiorganizedaninter-faithpicniconChristmasDay,turningTolstoyFarm,otherwiseaplaceofworkandcontemplation,intoatheatreofjoyandcelebration.ThreehundredguestsfromJohannesburgjoinedthefifty-oddsettlersforthefestivities.Thechildren‘wereletlooseonMrKallenbach’sfruittrees,which…theydidnottreatwithanyverygreatconsideration.Theypluckedbothripeandunripefruit,andwhattheycouldnoteattheytookforfutureconsumptionintheirkerchiefs.’Atnoon,lunchwasserved,khichriandvegetablesfollowedbyplumpudding.Afterwardsaseriesofrunningand
jumpingcompetitionswereheld.TheeatingandplayingwassupervisedbytwoJewishladies,SonjaSchlesinandMrsWilliamVogt.53
Fivedaysafterthisparty,thecaseofMrsRamabhaiSodhacameupforhearinginJohannesburg.Theaccusedhadwithhertwosmallchildren,agedeightmonthsandthreeyearsrespectively.Gandhiservedasherlawyerandinterpreter.Theproceedingswerewatchedbyafullhouse,mostlyofIndians,butalsoincludingGandhi’sEuropeanfriends(andfollowers)JosephDoke,HermannKallenbach,MrsVogtandSonjaSchlesin.TheprosecutionclaimedthatMrsSodhawasbroughttoTransvaal‘forthe
purposeofagitatingagainsttheAsiaticAct’.Gandhisaidthiswas‘entirelywrong’.InNatal,‘MrsSodhawaslivinginalonelyplace.AndshecouldbebestprotectedatTolstoyFarm.’ThejudgesentencedMrs.Sodhatoa£10fineandonemonth’simprisonment,butshewasreleasedonbailpendinganappeal.54
TheechoesoftheSodhacasereachedLondon,wheretheColonialOfficereceivedapetitionofprotestfromtheAllIndiaMuslimLeague.GandhiwassaidtohaverescuedMrsSodhaandherchildrenfrom‘astateofdestitution’.Herprosecutionwasthus‘particularlyharsh,ifnotactuallycruel’.SentthispetitionbyLondon,theTransvaalMinistersansweredthatGandhihadcrossedtheborderwithMrsSodha‘withthedeliberatepurposeofembarrassingtheGovernment’.Inviewofthefactthat‘manythousandsofpoundssterlinghaverecentlybeencollectedinIndiaandelsewherebytheemissariesoftheTransvaalBritishIndianAssociationinsupportofresistancetothelawsandtheGovernment,’saidtheMinisters,‘itisdifficulttounderstandwhyMrsSodhashouldbeinthedestituteconditionalleged,orwhythecostofherremovalfromJohannesburgshouldhavebeenundertakenunlessthereexistedanulteriormotive.’55
Theclaimswereinconflict,butnot,infact,irreconcilable.Gandhimayhavehadbothobjectivesinmind.ByprovidingsuccourtotheSodhafamily,hewasissuingafreshchallengetotheauthoritiesaswell.
Inthefirstweeksof1911,thegovernmentgazetteprintedaproposednewImmigrationBill.Thiswouldrepealtheexistinglegislation,butdidnotexplicitlyprotectthewivesandchildrenofdomiciledAsiatics.ItspecifiedalanguagetestfornewentrantstotheTransvaal,butwasambiguousabout
whetherIndianswhopassedthetestwouldbeallowedin.PolakwrotetoGokhalethatthelastclausewascrucial;onitsinterpretationwoulddependtheIndians’response.‘Gandhiisfairlyoptimistic,’heremarked.‘Iamnotsosatisfied.’56
GandhiaskedaseniorEuropeanlawyerinJohannesburgtoanalysethebillonhisbehalf.HealsowrotetotheMinisteroftheInterior,whoansweredthat,yes,educatedAsiaticsadmittedunderthenewbillwouldnotbemadetoregister.GandhinowsaidthatiftheGovernmentclarifiedthepositionofwomenandchildren,hewould‘advisethecommunityintheTransvaaltosendaformalacquiescence[tothebill],andpassiveresistancewillthennaturallyend.’57
On3March,GandhiwrotetoMaganlalthat‘itappearsthatthestrugglewilldefinitelycometoanend.’Inthatcase,mostIndianswouldleaveTolstoyFarm,butGandhiandKasturba,andtheirsons,wouldstayon.‘HowcanIleaveMrKallenbachimmediatelyafterthestruggleisover?’hesaid.Hisfriendhadspent£600onthebuilding,andGandhiandhissonswouldtry‘andmakegoodasmuchofthelossaspossiblebyphysicallabour’.Preoccupiedwiththenegotiations,GandhihadneglectedKasturba.Shewas
sufferingfrombleedingandacutepain,andmayhavebeenpassingthroughmenopause.OnedayGandhifoundherintears.Hejokedthatifshedied,therewasplentyofwoodontheFarmtocremateher.Thatgotherlaughing,and‘halfthepaindisappearedwiththelaugh’.Thereafterthetwoofthemdecidedtogoonasalt-freediet,andherhealthimproved.‘Thebleedingstoppedimmediately,’hetoldMaganlal.58
Gandhicouldnowreturntothenegotiations,whichhadturneddifficultagain.AstheImmigrationBillpassedthroughitssecondandthirdreading,GeneralSmutsmetwithstiffoppositionfromMPsbelongingtotheOrangeFreeState.AnylawnowframedhadtoberelevanttotheUnionasawhole.ButtheFreeStatersinsistedthatwhatevertheconcessionsinotherprovinces,noAsianswouldbepermittedtoentertheirterritory.GandhisentSmuts’secretaryaseriesoftelegramsinprotest.Theywerenotconcerned,hesaid,with‘individualmaterialgain’,orwith‘whetherasingleAsiaticactuallyenters[the]FreeState’,buttheymust,onamatterofprinciple,opposearacialbarinanylegislationintendedtoreplacetheTransvaallawsagainstwhichtheirstrugglehadbeenaimed.Hepointedoutthatthe‘absenceofanysubstantialIndianpopulation’in
theFreeState‘effectivelybar[the]entranceofeducatedIndians’.However,iftheUnionParliamentratifiedtheFreeStatepolicy,theywerethen‘sayingtotheworld[that]noIndianeventhoughapotentatecanlegallyenterandresideinaProvinceoftheUnion’.Smutsrepliedthatthiswasan‘absolutelynewcontention’onthepartofthe
Indians,whichwould‘exasperatetheEuropeancommunityandcomplicatethepositionevenfurther’.GlossingthislettertoJosephDoke,GandhisaidthattheGeneral’sremark‘remindsmeofwhatthedemonstratorsdidtoinflamethecrowdintheDecemberof1896andtheJanuaryof1897.TheEuropeancommunityiscertainlynotexasperated,butGeneralSmutsis,andhewantstoimparthisownexasperationtothecommunity.’59
Gandhiwasnotfarwrong.InaconversationwiththeGovernor-General’sPrivateSecretary,Smutsoutlinedhisviewsonthequestion.‘IfSouthAfricaweretobeawhiteman’scountry,’saidtheGeneral,thenmoreEuropeanshadtobebroughtin.AtpresentwhiteimmigrationwasmostlyJewish.Jews(inhisview)were‘apttotakeupactivitiesofaparasiticalnature’;‘althoughethnicallyandsociallytheyremainedadistinctentity’,theywereatleastwhite.Smutswas‘notpreparedtofacethealternativeofthewholeretailtradeofthecountryfallingintoAsiatichands.AsbetweenthetwoevilsoftheundesirablebusinessmethodsofwhitetradersontheonehandandtheunlimitedextensionofAsiatictradingontheother,hedidnothesitatetochoosetheformer.’60
Meanwhile,thePrimeMinister,LouisBotha,hadreceivedapetitionaskingthatallAsiaticsbedeportedfromSouthAfrica.BothaansweredthathewouldpersonallyliketheIndianstobesentaway,butoperatingastheydidundertheBritishflagtheyhadtobemorecareful.ThemattercontinuedtovexhisGovernment;ashejokedinaspeechtohisconstituents,‘GeneralSmutshadwastedawaytoashadow(laughter)whenasaresultofhisincessanteffortstosettlethequestion,thegaolswerefilled.’61
L.W.RitchwasnowinCapeTown,fromwherehesentareportonthemoodintheUnionParliament.‘Thefeelingagainsttheadmissionofanymoreofourpeopleisoverwhelming,’heremarked:
Therewasonlyonechorus[inParliament].DifferentrepresentativesofdifferentinterestsopposedtheBillbecauseitappearedtothreatentheparticularinterestsoftheirclass,buttherewasundoubted
unanimityaboutexclusion.Wehave,Ithink,beenwisetorestrictourdemandstoexistingrightsof
personsalreadydomiciled.62
Thelastsentenceiscrucial–itdifferentiatedthepositionofGandhiandcompanyfromradicalswhowishedtheretobenobartoimmigrationatall.AmongtheseradicalswasP.S.Aiyar,theDurbanjournalistandeditoroftheTamil-orientedAfricanChronicle,whobynowhadbeguntomoveawayfromtheincrementalmoderationofGandhi.InMarch1911,AiyarcomplainedtoGokhalethat‘GandhiandPolakdonotwishtopressforwardourclaimsforfreedomofmovementthroughouttheUnion.’Ifprovincialbarrierswerenotremoved,arguedAiyar,then‘thelastfouryearsofterrificsufferingandthegreatsacrificemadebyourMotherlandtowardstheircausewouldresultinnopracticalmaterialbenefits’.63
Aiyar’sproposalimpliedawholesaleredistributionoftheIndianpopulationthroughoutSouthAfrica.Butwouldthewhiteresidents(andrulers)ofTransvaal,theCapeandtheFreeStatehavepermittedthousandsofIndiantradersandcraftsmenfromNataltocometotheirstatesseeking‘practicalmaterialbenefits’?Gandhiunderstoodtheimpossibilityofsuchademandandhencesethissightslower,onsecuringtherightsofindividualsandtheirfamiliesintheprovincesinwhichtheyalreadylived,andonopeningthedoorforasmall,incrementalimmigrationofafeweducatedIndiansayear.However,theextremedemandsoftheradicalsprejudicedeventhemodestclaimsofthemoderates.‘Asiaticdemands,’wroteaninfluentialwhitepaperinJohannesburg,‘oftendisplayatendencytogrowbiggerwheneveranypartofthemisconceded.’Thiswas‘oneofthedangersofthenewpolicy.Thereisnofinalityaboutit.Onceyoubegintoallowacertainnumbertoenter,youinviteanapplicationforincreasingthenumber.’Thepaperwasin‘nodoubt[that]ifthefigurewasfixedatonehundredandtwentytomorrow,theywouldbeaskingfortwelvehundrednextweek.’64
GandhiandPolakwereactuallyaskingonlyforsixnewentrantsayear.EventhismanyMPswereunwillingtoconcede.Seekingtobreakthedeadlock,GandhimetGeneralSmutsinCapeTownon27March,andimmediatelyafterwardssetdownarecordofthemeeting.ItopenedwiththeGeneralsayingthattoaskfor(theoretical)entrytotheFreeStatewasboth‘veryunreasonable’and‘absolutelynew’.Gandhisaidwhatexistedwasaracialbar,andtheyhad
alwaysopposedthat.Asheputit,‘thecombinedeffectoftheFreeStateLawandtheNewBillwillbetoshutouttheNizamofHyderabad[therichestIndianpotentate],andIassureyouthepassiveresisterswillfightagainstit.’Smutsansweredthat‘theFreeStaterswillneverconsent’tothechangeproposedbytheIndians.Gandhirespondedthat‘itisyourdutytopersuadethem’.SmutssaidthathewouldtalkagaintoFreeStateMPs.Asthemeetingcametoaclose,SmutsaskedGandhiwhathewasdoingin
Johannesburg.Gandhiansweredthathewaslookingafterthefamiliesofpassiveresisters.Smutssaidthat‘ithashurtmemorethanyoutoimprisonthesepeople.Ithasbeentheunpleasantestepisodeofmylifetoimprisonmenwhosufferfortheirconscience.’TothisGandhiriposted,‘AndyetyouarepersecutingMrs.Sodha.’Thenotesendhere,withthenote-writerhavingthelastword.TheredoesnotappeartobeanotherversionintheSmutspapers.65
InApril1911,GandhiwentagaintoCapeTown.Thistimehestayedfourweeks,furiouslylobbyingMPstomakethechangeshedesiredintheImmigrationLaw.IntheabsenceofSonjaSchlesin–whohadstayedbehindinJohannesburgtokeeptheofficegoing–Gandhihadtotypehiscorrespondencehimself.Andtherewasplentyofthis:lettersseekingappointments,lettersseekingclarifications,lettersstatinghisownpointofview.Hisfingersweresotiredthatheusedhislefthandtowritetohisfamily.InCapeTown,GandhimetMPsofdifferentpartiesandprovinces.Twoweeks
intohisstay,GeneralSmutsgrantedhimafurtherappointment.Theymetat11.30a.m.on19April,andspokeforfortyminutes.Oncemore,Gandhiwrotedown,byhand,hisrecollectionsofthemeeting.SmutssaidtheFreeStaterswerestillopposedtoadmittingAsiatics.HecoulddefeatthemintheAssemblybutnotintheSenate,sothoughtitbesttopostponethebilltothenextsessionofParliament.Meanwhile,hewantedGandhitowithdrawhisagitation.‘Iwanttime,’saidtheGeneral.‘IshallyetbeattheFreeStaters.Butyoushouldnotbeaggressive.’Inthecourseoftheconversation,Smutssaidthat‘thiscountryistheKaffirs’.
Wewhitesareahandful.WedonotwantAsiatocomein.’Thenhepaused,andcontinued:‘Idonotknowhowyourpeoplespread.Theygoeverywhere.Ihavenowmorepetitionsagainst[Indian]dealers.Mydifficultyofthefuturewillbe
regardingthem.’Hethenchangedthesubject,andthefollowingconversationensued:
S. Gandhi,whatareyoudoingforaliving?G. Iamnotpractisingatpresent.S. Buthowthenareyouliving?Haveyouplentyofmoney?G. No.Iamlivinglikeapauper,thesameasotherpassiveresistersonTolstoyFarm.S. Whoseisit?G. ItisMrKallenbach’s.HeisaGerman.S. (Laughing)Oh,oldKallenbach!Heisyouradmirer,eh?Iknow.G. Idonotknowthatheismyadmirer.Wearecertainlyverygreatfriends.S. ImustcomeandseetheFarm–whereisit?G. NearLawley.S. Iknow–ontheVereenigingline.Whatisthedistancefromthestation?G. Abouttwentyminutes.Weshallbepleasedtoseeyouthere.S. Yes,Imustcomeoneday.
Thesameevening,GandhiwrotetoSmutsconfirmingthat,tousemilitaryterms,ourconversationimpliesatruceforayearorlonger,i.e.,untiltheParliamentmeetsagain…Iamsincerelyanxioustohelpyou,butIdonotknowhowIcouldpromiseinactivityonthepartofthepassiveresisters.Whatyou,theImperialGovernmentandIwanttoavoidistheferment.Ifearthat,inthenatureofthings,itiswellnighimpossibletoavoiditifthematterisnotclosedduringthisseason.
Gandhiwassuggestingthathedidnothavefullcontroloverhissometimesmilitantfollowers.Bywayofcalmingtempers,heaskedSmutstomakethreeassurances:thatinthenextsessiontheexistinglegislationwouldberepealed,thatpassiveresisterswhohadtherightdosocouldnowfreelyregisterinTransvaal,andthat,pendinglegislation,uptosixeducatedpassiveresistersinTransvaalwouldbeallowedtoremainas‘educatedimmigrants’.Ifthisweredone,hedid‘notanticipateanydifficultyinpersuadingmycountrymentosuspendpassiveresistance’.TheGeneral’ssecretarywroteback,agreeingtotheseconditions,and
conveyingSmuts’hopethatthistemporarysettlement‘willleaveallconcernedfreetodevotetheirenergiestosecuringamorelastingone’.On24April,withthetruceinplace,GandhileftCapeTowntoreturnto
Johannesburg.Onthewayback,herememberedthathehadforgottenonecrucialconcession.Theprovisionalsettlementenvisagedthereleasefromprison
ofallpassiveresisters.ButhehadomittedtospecifythattheseshouldbeChineseaswellasIndian.HerangupSmuts’secretary,E.F.C.Lane,tomakethisclear,andthensetitdowninwriting.‘Therearenow,’hesaid,‘moreChinesethanIndianpassiveresistersingaol.IamquitesurethatGeneralSmutswillnotexpectIndianpassiveresisterstodeserttheirChinesefellowsufferers.TheynaturallyaskforthesameprotectionfortheChinesepassiveresistersasforthemselves’–namely,thattheybereleasedfromjail,beallowedtovoluntarilyregister,andtosecuretheirownrightsofdomicileandlivelihoodinTransvaal.WithLeungQuinnawayinIndia,GandhihadtakenituponhimselftorepresenttheinterestsoftheChinese,too.66
On27April1911ameetingofIndianswasheldinJohannesburg’sHamidiaHalltodiscussthecorrespondencebetweenGandhiandSmuts.Coovadia,ThambiNaidoo,JosephRoyeppen,ImranKadir,Sodha,AdajaniaandGandhihimselfspokeinfavourofacceptingthesettlement.However,‘thegreatestdifficultythattheIndianleadershadtoface[was]thealmostineradicablesuspiciontherankandfileentertainregardingtheGovernment’smotives.’Therewas‘averyheatedcontroversy’,but‘calmnessultimatelyprevailed’,withthemeetingdecidingtoaccepttheprovisionalsettlement,onlyfivemembers(ofanestimated500present)dissenting.67This,Gandhitoldareporter,‘wouldsimplymeanthattheBritishIndians,asalsotheChinese,wouldceasetocourtarrestandimprisonmentpendingtheforthcominglegislation’.68
GandhiwashopefulthatSmutswouldseesuitablelegislationthroughthenextsessionofParliament.TheStarofJohannesburghadlikewiseconcludedthattheIndianquestionintheTransvaalwasnowclosed.ThedayafterthemeetingintheHamidiaHall,itranalongarticlerehearsingthehistoryoftheconflict.TherightsofdomicileoftheIndianswere,itrecalled,rejectedby‘practicallythewholewhitecommunity’.Indeferencetotheirwishes,theGovernmentpassedAct2of1907.Then
MrGandhiappearedonthescene.Hetookupahostileattitudetothislaw,andhispersonalitywassomarkedthatfromthestarthesecuredpracticallytheundividedsupportoftheentireIndiancommunityoftheTransvaal,andmaterialassurancesofhiscountrymeninIndiaandelsewhere.Thecontroversyhasgonethroughmanyphasessincethen,andthroughthemalltheauthoritieswereconfrontedwithanunflinchingresolutenessandimplacablepassivityonthepartofGandhiandhisfollowers.Rathersmallinstatureandfrailinconstitution,GandhihasboundtheIndianstogetherbyhisearnestnessandhisbeliefinthejusticeofhiscause.Therewasnorigorouspledgeorblind
obediencedemanded,andtheappealtoconsciencehasbeensufficienttoenablehimtocarryhiscampaignfromtheCommonstotheLordstotheveryfootoftheThrone.ThecrythatacolourbarwasenactedbytheforceoflawinaBritishColonyagainstthepeopleofthegreatDependencyoftheEastwhichacknowledgestheKingEmperorwassufficienttorousedeepfeelingsofanimosity.TheIndiansintheTransvaalplayedtheirpartinaremarkablemanner.LikethereligiousvaliantsofHuguenottimes,theyembracedthehardshipsandtasksthatwereinthepoweroftheauthoritiestoenforce.Somethreethousandfivehundredhavebeenimprisoned.Gandhihimselfhasbeeninjailthreetimes,hissoneighttimes,andmostoftheprominentIndianmerchantshaveexperiencedtherigoursofconfinement.
TheStarwentontosaythat‘bothpartiestothestrugglebelievedthattheywereintheright,andifthetwocentralfigures,GeneralSmutsandMrGandhi,cannowcloseanunpleasantchapterthereliefthatwillbeexperiencedwillextendfarbeyondthelimitsoftheTransvaalandSouthAfrica.’TheJohannesburgStarwas,bySouthAfricanstandards,aliberalpaper.Still,
itsappreciationofGandhi’scharacterandleadershipwasnoteworthy.Gandhiwouldcertainlyhavereadthearticle,andmayespeciallyhavelikedthephrase‘implacablepassivity’,perhapsanunintendedpun,butwhichfinelycapturedthedistinctivemoralforceofhispracticeofnon-violentresistance.Havingoffereditsassessmentofthepresentandthepast,theStarthenlet
Gandhispeakonhowhesawthefuture.HetoldthenewspaperthathewashandingoverhislegalpracticeinJohannesburgtoL.W.Ritch.Hesaid‘hisimmediateintention’nowwas
toprovideforthecareandeducationofthechildrenwhoseparentsarenowinnecessitouscircumstances,andthenheintendstoretiretohisfarminNatal,andinthespellsofleisurenodoubttocomeinclosertouchwiththephilosophicmusingsofTolstoyandtoreapinspirationfromthe
savantsofhisbelovedIndia.69
WithinafewweeksGandhiwasnotsocertainabouthisretirement.On27May–exactlyamonthafterthemeetingintheHamidiaHall–IndianOpinioncarriedaneditorialonthesettlement,whichhadputSmuts‘uponhishonour’tohavethenecessarylawspassedinthenextsessionofParliament.Ifhedidnot,then‘thesamestubborn,calmanddignifiedresistancethatwasofferedtoGeneralSmutscouldnextyearwithequalcertaintyofsuccessbeoffered,ifneedbe,tothemightyUnionParliament.’70
ThedilutionofGandhi’soptimismmayhavebeenaconsequenceofthepressureoftherank-and-file,whonaturallyandinstinctivelydistrustedthe
Government.Onesupposesthathehadalsobeentalkingtotheever-scepticalHenryPolak.
WiththesettlementbetweenGandhiandSmuts,theworkloadofHenryPolakwasnowlightened,andhelefttoseehisfamilyinEngland.HetookwithhimthreeboxesofgrapesgivenbytheIndiansofJohannesburgtosustainhimduringthevoyage.71
ByleavingforLondon,PolakmissedabanquetheldattheMasonicLodgeinhonourofthewhiteswhohadcrossedracialboundaries.Therehadbeen,since1908,anactivecommitteeofEuropeanswhoraisedfundsforthestruggle.ItschairmanwasWilliamHosken,whohadabandonedhisinitialscepticismtotakeupan‘open,consistentandpersistentadvocacyofthecauseofpassiveresistance’.ThisadvocacylostHoskenhisparliamentaryseatintheelectionsof1910.Yethissupportcontinued.Sodidthatofotherwhitedissenters.ThepartyattheMasonicLodgewasacollectivetributetothemall.ThereweresomesixtyEuropeanspresent,amongthemtheDokes(father,motherandchildren),Kallenbach,Ritch,SonjaSchlesin,Hosken,thejewellerGabrielIsaac,thedraperWilliamVoglandhiswife,DavidPollock,andthecriticofHindSwarajEdwardDallow.Thecookingofthemeal(vegetarian,naturally)wassupervisedbyGandhi.Reportingtheevent,IndianOpinionsaidthecommitteechairedbyHosken
representedtheeffectiveindividualsupportthathundredsofEuropeansontheRandgavetothepassiveresistancehawkers;thefewwardersandothergaolofficialswho,outofsympathy,madethelivesofpassiveresistersintheTransvaalprisonsasfreefromdifficultyaspossible,whilstthehandofperhapsthemajorityofthemwasagainsttheseprisoners.ItrepresentsMissSchlesin,atthementionofwhosenameatthebanquetanenthusiasticapplauserangthroughthehallandwhohasbeenworkingforthecauseasnoothermanorwoman,EuropeanorAsiatic,hasworked.Itrepresentsanunknownrailwayrefreshmentwaitresswhowasgladtoservebreadandcheeseforapassiveresister,whowasbeingtakenundercustodytoVolksrust,forwhichshewouldnotacceptpayment.ItrepresentsMrs.Voglwho,asadirectresultofthestruggle,has,asalabouroflove,establisheda
sewingclassforIndianwomenandgirls.72
ThesewordsdonotappearintheCollectedWorks,buttheymustsurelyhavebeenwrittenbyGandhi.Thelanguageishis,asarethesentiments,nurturedthroughtwentyandmoreyearsoffriendshipwithEuropeans(fromthe
vegetariansofLondononwards),friendshipsthatsurvivedhissocialobjectionstotheirlawsandhismoralobjectionstotheircivilization.
18
ASonDeparts,AMentorArrives
Inthelastmonthsof1910,Gandhi’srelationshipwithhiseldestsonhadoncemorecomeunderstrain.Harilalwasnowtwenty-two,andhadadaughterofhisown.HiswifeChanchiandtheirchildwereduetovisitIndia,andHarilalwantedtoaccompanythem,butGandhirefusedtogivepermission,saying,‘Wearepoorandcannotspendmoneylikethat.Moreover,amanwhohasjoinedthestrugglecannotgoawaylikethatforthreemonths.’SomeoneelsewouldescortChanchihomeinstead.1Harilalstayedbehindandcourtedarrest,buthisresentmentwouldnotgoaway.InMarch1911heaccusedGandhiofshiftingKasturbatoTolstoyFarmagainstherwill.Hismother,heclaimed,wishedtostayonatPhoenix.Withtheprovisionalsettlementinplace,HarilalwantedtoreturntoIndiaandtakethematriculationexamination.Hekeenlyfelthislackofproficiencyinmathematicsandliterature;besides,hewishedtojoinhiswife,whohadjustgivenbirthtoababyboy.2
HarilalwasatPhoenix,soGandhiaskedhisnephewMaganlaltotaketheboyinhand.‘ThemoredefectsyoudiscoverinHarilal,themoreloveyoushouldhaveforhim.Onerequiresagreatdealofwatertoputoutabigfire.ToovercomethebaserelementsinHarilal’snature,youhavetodevelopinyourselfandpitagainstitamorepowerfulforceofgoodness.’3
Maganlalfailed,asGandhihadfailedbeforehim.InthefirstweekofMay,HarilalcametoJohannesburgtoattendafunctioninhonourofhisfellowsatyagrahis.Thenhecollectedhisbelongings–andapparentlyalsoaphotographofhisfather–andtookatraintoDelagoaBay,fromwhereheplannedtotakeashiptoIndia.Beforeheleft,hetoldJosephRoyeppenthatwhenbackinIndiahewishedtoliveinthePunjabratherthaninAhmedabad.ThismayhavebeenbecausethePunjabwasthentheepicentreofIndiannationalism,orbecausehis
fatherknewnooneinthatprovinceandcouldnotmonitorhismovementsorsuppresshisambitions.4
WhenHarilallefthome,twofriendsweredeputedtofindhim.TheyscouredallofJohannesburg,invain.AParsifriendtoldGandhithatHarilalhadrecentlyborrowedtwentypoundsfromhim(presumablyforthejourney).Asnewsoftheboy’sdisappearancespread,friendsandclientsrushedtoGandhi’sofficeinRissikStreet.SomeMuslimmerchantsremonstratedwithGandhi:hadheonlytoldthemofhisson’sdesires,theywouldhavepaidforHarilaltostudylawinLondon.Thatevening,agroupincludingGandhileftforTolstoyFarm.Onthetrain,GandhitoldtheothersnottotellKasturbawhathadhappened.Hewouldwaittilltheywerealone,andthentellher‘inmyownway’.5
Harilalhadleftbehindalongletterexplainingtohisparentswhyhehadleft.ToGandhihesaid,
Ihavedonewhatmyheartdictated.Ihavedonenothingwithevilmotives.PleasedonotconsiderthatIhavefledaway.IamstillthesameobedientHarilal.Youmaynotthinkso,butyouhaveandwillalwaysremainthesameformetorespect.PleaserestassuredthatIshallendeavourtofollowyourteachingsandcopyyouractions…PleasetellmotherthatIhavegoneforthesakeofearning.IshallfeeltheseparationfromherbutIhavedonethisconsideringittobemyduty.Therewasnohelpformebuttodothiswithoutdelay.
TherewasalsoamessageforKallenbach,towhomalltheGandhiboysweredeeplyattached,asanaffectionateuncleor‘Kaka’(father’sbrother)whoindulgedthemwithloveandpresents.‘PleasetellMrKallenbach,’saidHarilal,‘thatIhopehewillnotharbouranyangeragainstmefornothavingreturnedtothefarm,andthathewillblessme.IshallneverforgettheobligationthatIamundertohim.’HarilaltoldGandhithatwhenhereachedIndia,‘forthemomentIintendonly
tostudy.Ishallcertainlyneedmoney,andifyoucansenditpleasesend.AfterIamsettled,ifIam[to]succeedinmyambition,Ishallwritetoyou.’Headdedatelling,andmoving,postscript:‘AlthoughIamleaving,ifthestruggleistoberevived,nomatterinwhatpartoftheworldImaybeIshallpresentmyselfthereandseekimprisonment.’6
Theletterwasdeeplyfelt,itstextandsubtextswirlingwithcontradictoryemotions–affection,anger,anguish,ambition.Harilal’sfeelingstowardshisfatherwereconfusingandcomplicated;so,too,hisreasonsforleavingSouthAfrica.HewishedtobreakfreeofGandhi,yetremaineddependentonhim.Not
satisfiedwiththeschoolinghehadreceivedinIndia,HarilalhadaskedhisfathertosendhimtoLondontoqualifyasabarrister.Gandhisaiditwasnotnecessarytoqualifyasabarristerordoctortoservethepeople.ThesaintRamakrishna,thereformerDayanandaSaraswati,thewarriorsShivajiandRanaPratap–nonehadthebenefitofEnglisheducation,andyetadmirablyservedthemotherland.HarilalcounteredwiththenamesofRanade,Gokhale,TilakandLajpatRai,well-educatedmenwhohadservedIndianoblyaswell.7
TheargumentswererenewedwhenPranjivanMehtaendowedtwoscholarshipsforPhoenixboystostudyinLondon.Ratherthannominatehisson,GandhihadfirstchosenChhaganlal,andthenaParsistudentnamedSorabjiAdajania.Mehtanowagreedtofundathirdscholarship,butHarilal’spridewouldnotallowhimtoaccept.8Hisdesiretoeducatehimselfremained;thishenowwishedtofulfilinIndia,withhiswifebyhisside,andwithasubsidyfromanoverbearingyetindispensablefather.WhenhereachedDelagoaBayfromJohannesburg,Harilalwalkedintothe
BritishConsulateandsaidhewasapoorIndianinneedofafreepassagetoBombay.TheofficialsrecognizedhimandsentwordtoGandhi,whowiredHarilalaskinghimtocomebacktoJohannesburg.9Harilalreturnedtothecityon15May.Fatherandsontalkedthroughthenight,eventuallyagreeingthathecouldcontinuewithhisplansandreturntoIndia.Gandhi’saccountoftheirconversationiscontainedinaletterwrittenimmediatelyafterwardstoMaganlal:
ItisjustaswellthatHarilalhasleft.Hewasmuchunsettledinmind…Hebearsnoill-willtowardsanyofyou.Hewasangrywithme,really.Hegaveventtoallhispent-upfeelingsonMondayevening[the15th].HefeelsthatIhavekeptallthefourboysverymuchsuppressed,thatIdidnotrespecttheirwishesatanytime,thatIhavetreatedthemasofnoaccount,andthatIhaveoftenbeenhard-hearted.Hemadethischargeagainstmewiththeutmostcourtesyandseemedveryhesitantashedidso…Unlikeotherfathers,Ihavenotadmiredmysonsordoneanythingspeciallyforthem,butalwaysputthemand[Kastur]Balast;suchwasthecharge.Heseemedtohavecalmeddownafterthisoutburst.Ipointedouthiserrorinbelievingwhathedid.Hesawitpartly.Whatremains,hewillcorrectonlywhenhethinksfurther.Hehasnowleftwithacalmmind.HeisresolvedtolearnmoreaboutthosethingsonaccountofwhichIwasdispleased[withhim].HeisstronglyinclinedtostudySanskrit.Thinkingthat,sinceGujaratiisourlanguage,hiseducationshouldforthemostpartbeinGujarat,IhaveadvisedHarilaltostayinAhmedabad.Ibelievethatiswhathewilldo.However,I
havelefthimfree.Ifeelitwillallturnoutwell.10
Harilal’sversionoftheconversationsisshorter,andwrittensomeyearsaftertheevent.Itdivergesonsomecrucialpointsofdetailandinterpretation.‘IwasdelayedatDelagoaBay’,recalledtheson,
youcametoknowofmywhereaboutsandcaughtupwithme.ObeyingyourordersIreturned.Iremainedsteadfastinmyviews.Therefore,insteadofgivingmeapatienthearingyoumutilatedmythoughtsandclippedmywings.YoumademegiveuptheideaofgoingtoLahoreandinsteadmademestayinAhmedabad.Youpromisedtogivemethirtyrupeesformonthlyexpenditure.Youdidnot
allowmetomeasuremycapabilities;youmeasuredthemforme.11
‘Youdidnotallowmetomeasuremycapabilities;youmeasuredthemforme.’Thisisaharshbutaccuratejudgement,confirmed–albeitingentlerandmoreeuphemisticlanguage–byacloseobserveroftheGandhihousehold,MilliePolak.AtPhoenixandatTolstoyFarm,Gandhiwasoftenfoundcradlingababywhiletalkingpoliticswithanadult.JuxtaposingthiswithhistreatmentofHarilal,MillieconcludedthatitwaseasierforGandhi
todealwiththeneedsofyoungchildrenthanthoseofadolescence,withitswarringemotions,itsstruggleforlibertyandself-expression,anditsdevelopingmind.Duringthatperiodinthelifeofthedevelopingindividual,hedidnotsoeasilyrealisethestrengthofthestormsthatcansweepreason
aside.12
Theclashbetweenfatherandsonwasintensifiedbytheirclosenessinage.HarilalwasbornwhenGandhiwasonlyeighteen.Hisadolescentcrisisthuscoincidedwithhisfather’smidlifecrisis.AsHarilalsoughtacareerandeducationpathofhisown,Gandhiwasmovingawayfromthelawtowardssocialserviceandpoliticalactivism.Thedesiresoftheoneclashedwiththeconvictionsoftheother.Gandhiwouldnot,couldnot,recognizethatthereweretwosidestothestory.HeblamedHarilal’srebelliononhisrecentreadingofSarasvatichandra,aGujaratinovelbyGovardhanramTripathiwhosehero,disenchantedwithhisfather,leavestheparentalhometodiscoverhimself.13
ThereislittlequestionthatGandhiboredownheavilyonhiseldestson.Hedidnotrecognizehisgoodfortuneinbeingallowedtofollowhisownpathindependentofhisparents’wishes.HadhisfatherKabaGandhibeenalivewhenMohandasfinishedhisMatriculation,hemightneverhaveallowedtheboytoproceedacrossthekalapanitoLondon.Hadhismotherbeenalivein1893,shemightnothavepermittedhimtomakeanotherperilousoverseasjourneytoSouthAfrica.Onceinthediaspora,Gandhiwasabletocarveoutaprofessionalandactivistcareerofhischoice,withoutinterferencefromfamilyelders.Withhischildren,GandhiwasthetraditionaloverbearingHindupatriarch–
makingthemdowhatheintendedforthem.Becausehehadnowbecomedisenchantedwithmodernprofessions,hissonsmustnotbepermittedamodern
education.Becausehehadhimselfembracedbrahmacharyatheymustdolikewise.HarilalandManilal,asthetwoelderboys,wereexpectedtobeperfectandexemplarysatyagrahis,courtingarrestorlabouringonthelandaspertheirfather’swhimsanddesires.WhentheHindupriestRamSundarPandithadabandonedthestruggle,
Gandhidrylydismissedhimasa‘badcoin’.Thatdetachmentwasnotpossibleasregardshissons.Themoretheydisagreedwithhim,themoreintenseandimpatienthebecamewiththem.Thosewhosecretlysignedpermitsorfailedtocourtarrestwerenotworthyofredemption.Buthisownsonscouldneverbepermittedtobecome‘badcoins’.Thatwhatwasbadintermsoftheirconductandwhatgoodwasamatterofopinion,biasandprejudice,ratherthanparentalfiat,wassomethingthatGandhi–incommon,itmustbesaid,withmostorallIndianfathersofhisgeneration–didnotorcouldnotunderstand.Gandhi’sharshresponsetoHarilalmayhavehadadeeperbasis–thefactthat,
inSouthAfrica,hewasaccustomedtoenmityandsuppression,butnot,really,torebellionordisagreement.ThewhitereactionariesofDurbanandthemilitantPathansofJohannesburghadbothphysicallyattackedhim.TheregimeoftheBoershadseveraltimesputhiminjail.Butamonghisownflockandhisownfriendshewasaccustomedtobeingtheleader.Thementorsherecognized–Gokhale,Raychandbhai,Tolstoy–hadalllivedinothercontinents.Gandhihadarealgiftforfriendship–formakingconnectionsandconveying
affectionacrossracial,linguistic,religiousandgenderboundaries.Thelovehehadfor,andtheintimacyhesharedwith,HenryandMilliePolak,Kallenbach,SonjaSchlesin,Ritch,theDokes,LeungQuinn,ThambiNaidoo,A.M.CachaliaandParseeRustomjeewasvisibleproofofthis.Butallthesefriends(andotherslikethem)wereultimatelyinapositionofdeferencetohim.TheirloveforGandhihadstrongelementsofreverenceandadoration.OnlythePolakshadtheintellectualindependencetoarguewithGandhionmajororminormatters–andeventhey,intheend,recognizedhimastheirleader.HerelaythedeepersignificanceofHarilal’sself-assertion(‘defiance’would
betoostrongaword).Hiscardinalmistakewasinnotgoingallthewaydowntheroadmarkedoutforhimbyhisfather.Harilalhad,severaltimes,bravelyandunselfishlycourtedarrest.Butthedesiretostudy,tomakeacareerofhisown,remainedwithhim.Gandhiwas,bynow,accustomedtotheloyal,unquestioning
supportofmanyIndiansinSouthAfrica.(AndofmorethanafewEuropeanstoo.)Thatoneofhisownsonswouldchoosetorebelwasbothunexpectedand,forhim,inexplicable.Harilalknewthis,whichiswhyhehadleftinthefirstplacewithouttellinghis
fatherdirectly.HewastoofrightenedtofaceGandhi.HewasbroughtbacktoJohannesburg,butremainedtruculent.WhenGandhifailed,inthatall-nightconversation,topersuadeHarilaltoabandonhisplanstoreturntoIndia,hereluctantlyagreednottostandinhisway.Buthewasneverreallyreconciledtohisson’sgoing.WhenHarilalfinallyleft,on16May,somestudentsfromTolstoyFarm
accompaniedGandhitoJohannesburgStationtowishtheboygood-bye.Onestudentrecalledthat‘whenthetrainwasabouttostart,BapukissedHarilal,gaveagentleslaponhischeek,andsaid:“Forgiveyourfather,ifyouthinkhehasdoneyouwrong”.’14
TendaysafterHarilalleftforIndia,GandhiwroteurginghimtoreadIndianOpinion‘carefully’.HewassentalistofGujaratibookstostudy–amongthemtheworksofNarmadashankerandRaychandbhai.Hewasadvisedto‘makeitaregularpracticetoreadTulsidas’sRamayana’.Gandhiaddedthat‘mostofthebooksIhavelistedattheendofIndianHomeRuleareworthgoingthrough’,andendedbysaying,‘pleasewritetomeindetailandregularly’.15
HarilalwasgoingbacktoIndiatobreakfreeofhisfather.Followinghimbythenextboatwasthisletterofinstructionandcommand.Thebarragecontinued:inthefirstmonthsofhisreturn,HarilalwasdissuadedbyhisfatherfromlearningFrench,toldtogiveuphis‘infatuation’withthematriculationexam,andchastisedforhaving‘againsuccumbedtopassioninregardto[hiswife]Chanchal’.16
Throughthemiddlemonthsof1911,GandhiwasbasedatTolstoyFarm.Thedaybeganwithseveralhoursofphysicallabour.Hetaughtattheschoolfromten-thirtytofour.Thestudents,liketheirmaster,didnoteatsalt,vegetablesandpulsesbetweenMondayandSaturday.Theylivedonfruits(especiallyapplesandbananas),breadwitholiveoil,andriceandsagoporridge.Thecommunityhaddinnerearly,atfive-thirty,andGandhiattendedtohiscorrespondencebeforegoingtobed.HewentintoJohannesburgonlyonceaweek.L.W.Ritchwas
takingcareofhisclients,toGandhi’srelief;he‘fervently’hopedheneverhadtopractiselawagain.17
GandhiwasnowincreasinglythinkingofreturningtoIndia.Thatcountrypresentedafarwidercanvasforthekindofworkhewasdoing.Hewaskeentogoback;evenkeenertoseehimreturnwashisfriendPranjivanMehta.Gandhi,thoughtMehta,wasthe‘Mahatma’theircountrysodesperatelyneeded.MehtawasGandhi’soldestand–PolakandKallenbachnotwithstanding–closestfriend.TheyhadbecomeintimateasstudentsinLondon.MehtaspentseveralweekswithGandhiinDurbanin1898;someyearslater,Gandhihadvisitedthedoctor-turned-jewellerinRangoon,wherehewasaleadinglightoftheIndiancommunity.In1908,PranjivanMehtastartedtheBurmaProvincialCongressCommittee,
asabranchoftheIndianNationalCongress.Thiswasthefirstpoliticalorganizationinthatterritory,bringingtogetherIndianmigrantsofallclassesunderoneumbrella,andencouragingthenativeBurmesetofoundtheirownrepresentativeassociations.18However,thejeweller’spoliticalambitionswerenotsomuchforhimselfasforhisfriendGandhi,andfortheircountry.Intheautumnof1909hespentseveralweeksinLondon,arguingwithGandhilateintothenightastothemostplausibleroutetoself-governmentforIndia.ThoseconversationsweretofindtheirwayintoHindSwaraj,writtenasadialoguebetweentheoracularEditor(Gandhi)andthequestioningReader(Mehta).PranjivanMehtawastoMohandasGandhiwhatFriedrichEngelswastoKarl
Marx:atonceadiscipleandapatron,whosaw,veryearly,thatthefriendofhisyouthhadthemakingsoftheheroic,world-transformingfigurehewastolaterbecome.Theirfriendshipwasconsolidatedbyasharedlanguageandculture–itmatteredthatEngelsandMarxwerebothGermans,andthatMehtaandGandhiwerebothGujaratis.Thereweredifferences:EngelsbelievedMarxwouldredeemaclass(theproletariat);MehtabelievedGandhiwouldsaveanation,India.Both,however,hadadeep,almostunquestioningfaithintheircompatriot’sgenius.Bothwerepreparedtoreachdeepintotheirpocketstoactivateandenableit.19
MehtaveneratedGandhi.Hisvenerationwascommunicatedinprivateletterstomutualfriends,andinpublicthroughaseriesofarticleshepublishedin1911intheIndianReviewofMadras,laterpublishedasabook.HereMehtareprised
themainoutlinesofthestruggleintheTransvaal.Gandhi,heargued,hadendowedhiscomradeswiththethreecardinalvirtuesof‘Truthfulness,Fearlessness,andPoverty’.Thesacrificesofthesatyagrahiswere‘agoodauguryforthehighdestiny’ofIndiaitself.‘NoIndianinmoderntimes,’hepointedout,‘hassucceededsowellinbringingtheHindusandMahomedanstogetheronacommonplatformasMrGandhi.’OfmoreinteresttousareMehta’sobservationsonGandhitheperson.‘The
onevirtuewhichdistinguishesMrGandhifromallothers,’heremarked,‘isthatheneverputsforwardanideaorextolsanaction,whichhehimselfwouldnotbepreparedtoactuponwhencircumstancesrequiredhimtodoso.Infact,hepractiseshimselffirstwhathedesirestopreachtoothers.’OnceGandhihaddecideduponaparticularlineofconduct,wrotehisfriend,‘norisk,nothing,willdeterhimfromgoingon,onthatpathwithoutintheleastcaringwhetheranyoneelsebelievesinitatall,orispreparedtofollowhiminhisfootsteps.’‘Noearthlytemptations,’continuedMehta,were‘toostrong’forGandhi,and
‘noneofthemcanmakehimswervefromthenoblepaththathehaschalkedoutforhimself.ItisnoexaggerationtosaythatinthisageofmaterialismitisnotpossibletocomeacrossanothermanwholivestheIdeallifehepreaches.’20
GandhiandPranjivanMehtacorrespondedregularly,andwhilewemostlyhaveonesideofthecorrespondence,itisrevealingenough.GandhithuswrotetoMehtaon1July1911that‘itwouldbeamistakeifyouimaginedthatwewouldgettheyoungmenwewantedthemomentIgottoIndia.AsIunderstandit,weshallhavethesamedifficultieswehadtofaceinthiscountry.ItwilldouscreditifweleaveforIndiaonlyaftertheworkwehavebegunherehasbeenputonafirmfooting.’21
InAugust1911MehtawasinLondon,andsowasHenryPolak.Thetwohadanacrimoniousargument,anaccountofwhichwaspassedonbyMehta.Gandhiansweredthat‘IdonotthinkPolakwillbecomeanAnglo-Indianoutandout’(Mehtamusthaveimpliedhewould).MehtahadcalledPolak‘hot-tempered’;Gandhiagreed,butaddedthat‘hisheartisabsolutelyfrankandheisunswervinginhisduty’.MehtahadsuggestedthatPolakwasdevelopingaswollenhead;Gandhiansweredthat‘praiseiseveryone’senemy;how,then,canitbeotherwisewithhim?ButIdonotsomuchassuspectthathewouldbecorruptedbypraise.Heisashonestasheisfrank.’22
AmongthethingsMehtaandPolakhadarguedaboutwasGandhi’sfuture.ThedoctorwantedhisfriendandherotoreturntoIndiasoon–verysoon–toreviveandleadthenationalistmovementthere.PolakthoughtGandhistillhadmuchworktodoinSouthAfrica.MehtaansweredthatPolakhimselfcouldtakeontheresponsibilityofrepresentingtheIndiansinNatalandtheTransvaal.HeseemstohaveaccusedPolakofshirkinghisduties.PolakrepliedangrilythatnoonecouldkeepGandhifromdoingwhathewanted;Gandhi’sconsciencewashisown,andforthemomentittoldhimthathewastoremaininSouthAfricaratherthanreturntoIndia.23
Asithappens,HermannKallenbachwasalsoinEuropeatthistime.Beforeheleft,Gandhimadehimtakeavowthatwhilehewasaway,hewouldnotgetmarried,wouldnot‘looklustfullyuponanywoman’,wouldnot‘spendanymoneybeyondnecessariesbefittingthepositionofasimple-livingpoorfarmer’,andwouldonlytravelthirdclassbylandoronsea.Kallenbachwasenjoinednottoeatmeateither.ThevowwasuncannilysimilartothatextractedbyhismotherfromyoungMohandaswhenheleftforLondonin1888.Tosoftentheblow,GandhiandKasturbabakedtheirfriendseveraltins’worthofbiscuitsandcakeforthejourney.24
InEuropeKallenbachmetDrMehta,andspentadaywalkingwithhimintheArdennes.25Theygotalongwellenough,butwhenhereturnedtoEngland,Kallenbach,likeMehta,seemstohavequarrelledwithHenryPolak.HewrotetoGandhigivinghisversionofthedisagreement.Gandhirepliedthat‘youranalysisofPolakisinthemaintrue.Iwouldonlyaddthathisvirtuesfaroutbalancehisweaknessesandthatnotoneofusiswithoutweaknesses.Iknowthatyouknowthis.Stillitbearsrepetitioninordertoenableustoexercisethevirtueofcharity.’26
Mehta,PolakandKallenbachwereallcompetingforGandhi’sfriendship–andbenediction.Thattheywouldberivalrouswasnotsurprising.Mehtawascongenitallysuspiciousofwhitemen,perhapsbecausehelivedinRangoon,whereasmallgroupofBritonscontrolledthenativeswithanironhand.Characteristically,aftercriticizingPolak,MehtathencommentedadverselyonL.W.Ritch.HethoughtGandhiexcessiveinhispraiseofhisEuropeanassociates.Gandhiagreedthat
itislikelythatwhitesentertainmorehatredtowardsusthanwedotowardsthem.If,however,wemakeagreatshowofloveinreturnforthelittlethattheyshowus,thereisanotherreason.Itisthatwefearthem.Otherwise,sofarasmyexperiencegoes,manyIndiansdonotevendistinguishbetweengoodandbadandtakeallwhitestobebad.Ontheonehand,thisneedlessfearmustgo;ontheother,onemustlearntodistinguishbetweengoodandbad…IdonotlookuponRitch,Polakoranyoneelseasmydisciples.Theywillallworkwithusaslong
astheythinkfit.Thereisnoreasontobelievethat,aftermydeath,peoplewouldimaginethattheiractionswouldnecessarilyhavemyapproval.Thosewhohavecomeincontactwithmeknowthatdifferencesofopiniondoexistamongusonsubjectsotherthansatyagraha.However,Ishallnotdismissyoursuggestionsfrommymind.
HeconcludedbyaskingMehtatoreadTolstoy’s‘IvantheFool’.27
InOctoberGandhiwrotetoMehta,‘IknowyouareverykeenthatIshouldleaveforIndiaatanearlydate,andstaythereforgood.TheideaappealstomeandIshallgothemomentIcanbecomefreehere.’Mehtaseemstohavecomplainedthat,bystayingonforthetimebeinginSouthAfrica,hisfriendwasneglectingtheirhomeland.‘Pleasedonotthink,’answeredGandhi,‘thatIshallincurthesinoffallingintothedelusionthatIshouldservetheentireworld.IwellrealizethatmyworkcanonlybeinIndia.’28
Mehta,meanwhile,hadsentajournalistnamedManilalDoctortoworkwithGandhi.DoctorhadoncerunanewspaperinMauritius;thehopewasthathewouldtakeoverIndianOpinionwhenGandhireturnedtoIndia.HewasalsoMehta’sson-in-law,marriedtohisdaughterJayakunwar(Jeki).Gandhithoughttheyoungman‘pleasantandgood-natured’,butcomplainedthatheshirkedphysicallabour.Jeki,whofollowedsomemonthslater,wasmoreuseful;shewas,wroteGandhitohisdaughter-in-lawChanchi,‘agreathelptomeinteachingthechildren’.29
Gandhi’sverdictwasendorsedbyKallenbach,whowrotetoPranjivanMehtathat‘yourdaughterhasindeedbeenaverydesirableadditionatthefarm.Weallfeelthatshehasfalleninwithourideasandways,asifshehadbeenoneofusforyears.’Thearchitectnowhopedthatherfather,hisfellowGandhiworshipper,wouldcomevisitthemsoon.MehtavisitedEuropealmosteveryyear,anditwasnot,asKallenbachremindedhim,‘muchofadetour’togothereviaSouthAfrica.‘Weareallveryanxioustoseeyouhere,andsomanymatterswhichweallhaveincommon,couldthenbethoroughlythrashedout’.30
WithGandhibasedintheTransvaal,theDurbanjournalistP.S.AiyarofferedhimselfasastandinleaderfortheIndiansofNatal.Hisambitionswere,atfirst,
delicatelyworded.‘SinceMrGandhileftNatal,’wrotetheAfricanChronicleinJune1910,‘theIndianpublicworkinthiscolonyhasnotbeenconductedinthatsteadymannerwhichpredominatesinhimasoneoftheexcellentqualities.’31
Slowly,however,thelanguagebecamemorebold.Gandhiwasstillpraised,buthispoliciesquestioned.InMarch1911,AiyarcalledGandhi‘ourgreatleader’,‘thatnoblesoul’,the‘originatorandarchitect’oftheIndianstruggle,yetwonderedwhyheaskedonlyfortheformratherthanthesubstanceoftheoreticalequality.Thefight,thoughtAiyar,shouldbeforthefreemovementofallIndiansthroughouttheUnion,notmerelyfortheentryofafeweducatedprofessionalsintotheTransvaal.Gandhiwasurgedto‘fightforourbirthrightofBritishcitizenshiptoafinishinhonourandgloryofourmotherland.’32
InSeptember1911AiyargotentangledinabitterfightwithGandhi’sformerclerkandlong-timedevotee,JosephRoyeppen.NowbackwithalawdegreefromLondon,RoyeppenthoughtthatifanyoneshouldbeGandhi’ssecond-in-commandinNatal,itwashe.P.S.Aiyarnaturallydisagreed.RoyeppentauntedAiyarthathewasunwillingtogotojailforthecause;thejournalistaccusedhimofseekingfundsfromtheDurbanmerchantsforatriptoIndia.AiyarandAlbertWestalsoclashed;AfricanChroniclehadcarriedreportsofill-treatmentofindenturedlabourersthatWestbelievedwereuntrue.Aiyarnowsneeringlyasked,‘HastheglorydepartedfromPhoenix?Hastheswordgrownrustyinthescabbardandisthestrenuousfightagainstinjusticetobehamperedbytediousrivalry?’IndianOpinionitselfhedismissedas‘apparentlythevehicleofexpressionforMrRoyeppenandhisconfrères’.33
WhileRoyeppenwasconcernedwiththeentryofeducatedmenlikehimselfintotheTransvaal,Aiyarfocusedmoreontheabolitionofthe£3tax.Herehehadsupportfrom,amongotherbodies,theNatalIndianCongress,whichhadtermedthecess‘oppressive,unjustandimmoral’.34InDecember1911Aiyarwrotealongpamphletgivingfleshtotheseaccusatoryadjectives.Heestimatedthatthetaxconstituted25percentoftheaverageannualincomeofanIndianinNatal.Leviedonboyswhentheyturnedsixteen,andongirlsolderthanthirteen,thetaxhad‘beentheruinofmanyahome,andithasblightedthefuturecareerofmanygirlsandyouthsbydrivingthemtodestructionandimmorality’.Addressedtowhitevoters(andlegislators),thepamphletcharacterizedthetaxasmanifestlyunChristian.‘Itseemstome’,wroteAiyar,
thatwhateveropiniononemayholdregardingthecolourandAsiaticquestions,thedisabilitiesofthepeoplereferredtointhispamphletdonotbecomethesubjectofpartyorcolourcontroversy.Thousandsofpoor,illiterate,voiceless,creatures,grounddownbyaheavytax,cryaloudfor
relief.35
TheIndianssentthispamphletandothermaterialstotheColonialOffice.They,inturn,askedtheSouthAfricanGovernmenttoconsidertherequestsympathetically.ThePrimeMinister,LouisBotha,wrotebackthat‘inviewofthestateof[white]publicfeelinginSouthAfricaontheIndianquestion’,legislationrepealingthe£3taxwasnotpossibleat‘thepresentjuncture’.36
Despitetheirprofessional(and/orpersonal)rivalry,thePhoenixcrowdinfactagreedwithP.S.Aiyaronthequestionofthetax.Inlate1911,A.E.WestwrotetoGandhiproposinganimmediatesatyagrahaaskingforitsabolition.Gandhi,inreply,advocatedamoreincrementalistapproach.‘Withreferencetothe£3tax’,hetoldWest,
thefirststeptotakeisnottoadvisethementorefusetopaythetax,butforthe[NatalIndian]CongresstosendapetitiontothePrimeMinister,signedbyalltheIndiansinNatal–say15,000signatures.Thereshouldbeamassmeetingheld.TheCongressshouldthenasktheIndiansintheotherProvincestosupport.WemustthenawaitthereplyfromthePrimeMinister.ThenthereshouldbeapetitiontoParliamentnextyear,and,ifParliamentrejectsthepetition,thereshouldbeanappealtotheImperialGovernmentbytheCongressaidedbytheotherAssociationsinSouthAfrica.Finallytherefusaltopaythetax!Then,undoubtedly,theCongressshouldundertaketofeedthewivesandfamiliesofthosewhomaybeimprisoned.Themenwouldundoubtedlygotogaol,ifthereisabodyofearnestworkers.Forthispurpose,eitheryouwillhavetobeinDurbancontinuously,orsomeoneelsewill.Thethingcannotbetakenuphaphazard.Ifthemenwereaskedtogotogaoltoday,Idonotthinkyouwouldfindanybodytakingupthesuggestion,butifthepreliminarystepsasdescribedabove,aretaken,bythetimeafinalreplyisreceivedthemenwillhavebeenthoroughlypreparedtofacethemusic.Iknow,too,thatthethingisquitecapableofbeingdone,butonemanatleastmustbe
preparedtodevotethewholeofhistimetothematter.37
TheletterconciselycapturesGandhi’sphilosophyofnon-violentresistancetounjustlaws.Hewasastrategistofslowreform,ofprotestingbystages,ofsystematicallypreparinghimselfandhiscolleaguesratherthanspontaneously(or,ashewouldhaveit,haphazardly)rushingintoconfrontation.
InApril1912,GandhiwrotetoRatanTata,givinganaccountofthestrugglehehadsogenerouslysupported.Hedescribedtheteachingmethods,theregimeoflabourandthestudentprofileatTolstoyFarm.TherewerecurrentlyeighteenGujaratis,sixTamilsandoneNorthIndianintheschool.Thesestudentsweretaughtthat‘theyarefirstIndiansandeverythingelseafterthat,andthat,while
theymustremainabsolutelytruetotheirownfaiths,theyshouldregardwithequalrespectthoseoftheirfellow-pupils.’Withhisletter,Gandhienclosedastatementofaccounts.Theyhadreceived
£8,509(equivalenttoabout£680,000today).£6,723camefromIndia(abouthalfofthisfromTatahimself),£972fromRangoon,£59fromZanzibar,£61fromMozambique,£18fromMombasaand£159fromLondon.Turningtotheirexpenses,£2,335wasspentonreliefforpassiveresistersandfamilies,£1,490ontheLondoncommittee,£1,200onIndianOpinion,£530onsalaries,andlesseramountsonrent,legalexpenses,travel,stampsandstationery.38
Theaccount–andaccounts–pleasedRatanTata,somuchsothathepledgedathirdgiftofRs25,000.ThiswasannouncedatapublicmeetingheldinBombayon31July1912.TheParsimagnateSirJamshetjeeJeejebhoypresidedoverthemeeting,whichdiscussedthehandicapsfacedbyIndiansindifferentpartsoftheEmpire.AmemorialforwardedbySirJamshetjeeurgedtheImperialGovernmenttoputanendtodiscriminatorystatutesandpractices.‘SouthAfricahaslongbeentheworstoffenderagainstIndiannationalsentiment,’itdeclared;itwas‘hardlytobeexpectedthatthepeopleofthiscountrywillacquiesceinthetreatmentofIndiansasaninferiorraceinorderthattherightsofself-governmentaccordedtotheColoniesmayremainintact’.39
InthelastweekofJuly1911,IndianOpinionhadwrittenaboutaproposaltounitethevariousnativeassociationsinSouthAfrica.ItsprimemoverwasayoungZuluattorneyinJohannesburgnamedPixleySeme.SemetookafirstdegreeatColumbiaUniversityinNewYorkandlaterstudiedlawinLondon.Now,askedbyareporterabouttheaimsofthenewinitiative,
Semewasatpainstoremoveanysuspicionthatforceinanydegreewouldbecountenanced,butitisclearthatthelessonsoftheIndianagitationhavenotbeenlostonthenatives,andthoughnothingdefinitewassaidtoindicaterelianceonpassiveresistance,itisnotimprobablethatincertain
eventualitiesrecoursewillbehadtoit.40
TheselinksbetweentheIndianstruggleandthenewAfricaninitiativewerealsopersonal.Inanunpublishedmemoirthathasrecentlycometolight–writtenbyaladyofRussianextractionlivinginJohannesburg–itseemsthatPixleySemevisitedTolstoyFarmsometimein1911.Here,‘MrGandhitoldDrSeme
abouthispassiveresistancemovementandhowhehadsettledthewomenandchildrenonthefarm.Heremarkedonhowsatisfactorilyithadallworkedout.’41
InthelastweekofOctober1911,SemepublishedanarticleadvocatingtheformationofaSouthAfricannativecongress.‘Thedemonsofracialism,’hewrote,‘theaberrationsoftheXhosa–Fingofeud,theanimositythatexistsbetweentheZulusandtheTongas,betweentheBasutosandeveryotherNativemustbeburiedandforgotten…Weareonepeople.Thesedivisions,thesejealousies,arethecauseofallourwoesandofallourbackwardnessandignorancetoday.’42
OnhisvisittoTolstoyFarm,PixleySememayhavenoticedthatitsresidentsincluded,byethnicity,Gujaratis,Tamils,NorthIndiansandEuropeans–and,byfaith,Parsis,Muslims,Christians,JewsandHindus.Itishardtodecisivelyestablishachainofinfluence.Still,thereisnodoubtthattherewasafamilyresemblancebetweenwhatSemesoughttodowiththeAfricansandwhatGandhihadalreadydonewiththeIndians–thatistohelpthemovercomedistinctionsofsectandtribe,andpresentaunitedfronttotherulers.AsaresultofPixleySeme’sefforts,somesixtyAfricansmetinBloemfontein
inthesecondweekofJanuary1912.Theyincludedchiefs,journalistsandcommunitylawyers.ThemeetingledtotheformationofabodycalledtheSouthAfricanNativeNationalCongress.TheveteranZulureformerJohnDubewaselecteditsfirstpresident,inabsentia,sincepreviouscommitmentspreventedhimfromattendingthemeeting.ThenewCongresswasaresponsetothewhiteUnionofSouthAfrica,in
whichAfricanshadnovoiceinadministrationorlaw-making.TheirCongress,saidSeme,would‘togetherdevisewaysandmeansofformingournationalunionforthepurposeofcreatingnationalunityanddefendingourrightsandprivileges.’Theattorneynotedthatthiswas‘thefirsttimethatsomanyelementsrepresentingdifferenttonguesandtribeseverattemptedtoco-operateunderoneumbrellainonegreathouse.’43
JohnDube,thefirstpresidentoftheNativeNationalCongress,wasaneighbourandacquaintanceofGandhi’sinNatal.Thetwomenhadwrittenappreciativelyaboutoneanother.Congratulatinghimonhiselevation,IndianOpinionnowreproducedtwoparagraphsofthe‘excellent’manifestohehadissued‘tohiscountrymen’.Althoughthenativeswere‘thefirst-bornsonsofthis
greatandbeautifulcontinent,’remarkedDube,‘ascitizensofthegloriousBritishEmpire,wearethelast-bornchildren,justawakeningintopoliticallife’–afterthewhites,theIndiansandtheCapeColoureds.Theyhadthereforetotread‘softly,ploddingly,alongthebrightpathilluminatedbyrighteousnessandreason…thatwillsurelyandsafelyleadustoourgoal,theattainmentofourrightfulinheritanceassonsofAfricaandcitizensoftheSouthAfricanCommonwealth.’Dubeunderstoodthatthiswouldbean‘uphillfight’,with‘enemieswithout’
and‘dangerswithin’.Yetheinsistedthat‘bydintofourpatience,ourreasonableness,ourlaw-abidingmethodsandthejusticeofourdemands,alltheseobstaclesshallberemovedandenemiesovercome.’By‘thenobilityofourcharacter,’hesaid,‘shallwebreakdowntheadamantinewallofcolourprejudiceandforceevenourenemiestobeouradmirersandfriends.’44
DespitetheproximityofIlangaandPhoenix,DubeandGandhimetrarely,inpartbecauseintheseyearsGandhiwasbasedmostlyintheTransvaal.Theresemblancesintheirpoliticalviewsarestriking.TheAfricanreformerandtheIndianreformerbothpractised–andpreached–aprincipledincrementalism.Theiroppositiontoracialprejudicewasunswerving,yettheythought–orhoped–thatacombinationofpatienceandcourtesywouldmaketheiradversariesseereasonandfinallydispensejustice.
Gandhi’slawpracticewasnowinthehandsofL.W.Ritch.HisvisitstothecityweremostlytotakeadvantageoftheskillsofhissecretarySonjaSchlesin.Throughthefirsthalfof1912,GandhiwasincorrespondencewiththeMinistryofInteriorwithregardtoanewImmigrationBill.Theissuesheraisedincludedtherightsofdomicileofwomenandminorchildren,thearbitrarypowersofimmigrationofficers,therightofappealtocourts,andtherightofinter-provincialmigrationforeducatedIndians.45
InMay1912,GeneralSmutsintroducedafresh‘ImmigrantsRestrictionsBill’inParliament.TheGeneralsaidthattoworkoutasatisfactoryimmigrationlawwaslikea‘Chinesepuzzle’.For,‘whilst,ononehand,theyweremostanxioustofosterimmigrationofwhitepeople,theyweremostanxioustokeepAsiaticsoutofthecountry.(Hear!Hear!).’TheGovernmentwasthinkingofapplyinganeducationtestontheAustralianmodel,sincethattest‘admittedofbeingappliedwithrigourintheonecaseandtreatedwithsomelaxityintheother.Thewhite
peoplewouldthusbeencouragedtocomeintothecountryandtheAsiaticskeptout.’Inthedebatethatfollowed,amemberfromBechuanalandsaidtheexclusionofAsiatics‘wastheonequestionuponwhichDutchandEnglishagreed’.HeclaimedthatsincethecomingoftheIndians,
hundreds,hemightsaythousands,ofwhitepeoplewhousedtodoarespectablebusinesshadbeenentirelyousted.ThecompetitionoftheAsiaticwassuchthatnoEuropeancouldstandupagainsthim,andhewouldlikeittobelaiddownclearlythatinfuturenoAsiaticshouldbeallowedtocome
intothecountry.46
Thesignswereunmistakable,andthistimetoothebillfailedtopassthroughtheSenate.TheInteriorMinistrywrotetoGandhisayingtheyhopedstilltopassanamendedBillinthenextsession.47
InlateJune,GandhispentaweekinDurban.TheNatalIndianswerenowdivideddownthemiddle.OneK.D.NaidoowascanvassingsignaturesofpeoplewhoopposedGandhi;heallegedthelawyerrepresentedtheinterestsonlyofGujaratimerchants,ofthose‘BanyansinSouthAfricawhomakemoneyandmakecheapliving’.Ontheotherside,Gandhi’soldfriendParseeRustomjeechargedK.D.Naidooandhiscolleaguesof‘assumingtitlesofleadershipandundertakingpublicworkwithoutthepublicmandate’.48
SomeIndiansinNatalwereunhappywithGandhi’swait-and-seepolicy.Hehadnot,theythought,campaignedhardenoughfortheabolitionofthe£3taxonIndiansintheprovince.ThehostilityofthisfactionworriedGandhi’sfriends,whohadseenhimattackedforhisviewsbefore.On27June,KallenbachwrotetoChhaganlalGandhiaskinghimandhisbrotherMaganlal‘tobeonthelook-outandobservematters’duringGandhi’sstayinNatal.‘Oneofyou’,saidKallenbach,shouldalwaysaccompanyhimtoDurbanandnotlosesightofhim.AtthepresentmomentthefeelingrunsratherhighatDurbanandthereforebeonyourguard…[L]etuskeepoureyesopen.WeallknowMrGandhidislikesandrefusesbodyguards,butunderoneoranotherpretext,youandMaganlalwill,Ihope,beable,withoutattractingMrGandhi’sattention,toaccomplishtheabove.
Maywejointlybeabletoguidehimfromsomefanaticinthiscountry.49
GandhireturnedtotheTransvaalunscathed.Meanwhile,hehadaskedGokhaletovisitSouthAfrica.Tohaveanestablished‘Imperial’statesmanlobbyfortheIndiansmightfinallygetthemtheconcessionstheydesired.Gandhimustalso
havehopedthatthearrivalofGokhalewouldtameandshamehiscriticsinDurban.GokhalehadinfactplannedtocometoSouthAfricathepreviousyear,onhis
waybackfromtheUnitedKingdom,buthisdoctorshadadvisedagainstit.SohadGandhi’sfriendPranjivanMehta.MeetinghiminLondoninAugust1911,Mehtareportedthat‘MrGokhale’sbodylookslikeapaperbag’.Achronicdiabetic,hehadrecentlybeendiagnosedwithanexcessofalbumin,andhewasalsooverweight.MehtatoldGandhithatwhileGokhalewasindeedverykeentovisitSouthAfrica,heworriedthatthemyriadpublicfunctionshewouldhavetoattend(andspeakat)wouldstrainhimfurther.Asthingsstood,itwas‘necessaryforhishealththathegetsasmuchrestaspossible’.50
Thetripwasaborted,butayearlaterGokhalewasinsomewhatbettershape.InLondonforthesummer(asusual),hebookedapassagetoCapeTownforOctober.Heaskedforoneoftwoberthsinafirst-classcabin;theshippingcompanyansweredthatifhepaid£10extrahecouldhavethecabintohimself.GokhaleansweredthathehadmadeninevoyagesbetweenIndiaandtheUnitedKingdombyship,
andneverhassuchaninsultbeenofferedtome…IfeelitisgrosslyunjustthatIshouldbepenalisedandcompelledtopaymorethanmyfarebecausesomeEuropeanshaveaprejudiceagainsttravellingwithIndians.IthinktheCompanyshouldgivemeoneberthandthenleaveittothosewhocome
aftermetotakethesecondornotastheylike.51
GokhalehadmademanyvoyagesbetweenIndiaandEngland;butnone,beforethis,toSouthAfrica.TheexperiencewiththeshippingcompanypreparedhimforthesortofracismthatIndiansinthatcountryexperiencedonadailybasis.Beforemakingthebooking,hehadsuggestedtoGandhithatMaudPolakalsocometoSouthAfrica.HehadbeenimpressedbytheworkshewasdoingfortheSouthAfricanBritishIndianCommittee,andthoughtsomefirst-handexperiencewouldenablehertolobbyevenmoreeffectively.Gandhiwaslukewarmabouttheproposal,perhapsbecauseheknewwhatGokhaledidnot–namely,thatMaudPolak’sinterestwasprincipallyinoneIndianinJohannesburgratherthaninIndiansinSouthAfricaingeneral.52
WhenthenewsofGokhale’stripbecamepublic,aliberaleditorinCapeTownwrotetotheSouthAfricanPrimeMinister,GeneralBotha,urgingthatthevisitorbetreatedwithcourtesy.TheeditorhadmetGokhaleinIndia,andthusknew
thathewasnot‘acoolieoramereagitator’,but‘amanofthehighestbirth,characterandintellect,amemberoftheCounciloftheViceroyofIndia,andperhapsthestrongestindividualforceinIndianpoliticsatthepresenttime.’Bothaagreedthattheguestshouldbetreatedwell.Nonetheless,therisksassociatedwithGokhale’svisitwere‘considerable’.Forinstance,themunicipalauthoritiesinJohannesburg,CapeTownandothercitiesdidnotallowColouredpeopletotravelintrams.‘WhatwouldMrGokhalesay,’askedBotha,‘ifheweretoenteratramandbeaskedtogetout!’53
InthelastweekofAugust1912,PranjivanMehtawrotetoGokhaleaboutwhathemightexpecttoseeinSouthAfrica.Mehtaworriedthat‘toomuchstrain’wouldbeputonGokhale’s‘mindandbodybythegatheringsandceremoniesthatmayhavetobeunavoidablyheldinyourhonour’.Hethencontinued:
So,youwillsoonhaveanopportunityofmeetinganddiscussingthingswithhim.Fromwhatlittleconversationwehavehadabouthim,IwasledtobelievethatyouhadnotstudiedG[andhi]quitewell.Inmyhumbleopinion,menlikehimarebornonveryrareoccasionsandtheninIndiaalone.AsfarasIcansee,itseemstomethatIndiahasnotproducedanequallyfar-seeingprophetlikehim,duringthelastfiveorsixcenturiesandthat[if]hewasbornintheeighteenthcentury,Indiawouldhavebeenafardifferentlandfromwhatitisnowanditshistorywouldhavebeenaltogetherdifferentlywritten.Ishallbeanxiouslywaitingtohearfromyouthatyourpresentviewofhiscapacityhasalteredconsiderablysincecomingingreaterpersonalcontactwithhimandthatyouseeinhimoneofthoseraremenwhoareoccasionallyborntoelevatehumanityinthelandoftheir
birth.54
Gandhiwasbeingplacedbyhisfriendinveryelevatedcompany.AlthoughMehtamentionednonames,itisclearthathewascomparingGandhitothemedievalsaintsNanakandKabir,and,goingfurtherback,toMahaviraandGautamaBuddha,foundersofJainismandBuddhismrespectively.HesuggestedthathadGandhibeenbornintheeighteenthcentury,IndiawouldnothavebeencolonizedbytheBritish.Toplaceamerelawyeranddiasporicleaderinthispantheonwasanactof
faith,andfriendship.Gokhale’sanswerisunavailable.HowmighthehavereactedtoMehta’sletter?Hewasagenerousman,andhadpraisedGandhiinprivateandinpublic.HeprobablyconsideredGandhihismostableprotégé.HehopedthatGandhiwouldcomebacktoIndiaandtakeovertheServantsofIndiaSociety.Butsurelyhemusthavebeenpuzzled,ifnotoffended,bythisimplicitreversaloftheirrolesandplaceinIndianhistory.Gokhalewaswidely
acknowledgedtobethe‘strongestindividualforceinIndianpolitics’;itwasinthatcapacitythathehadbeenaskedbyGandhitovisitSouthAfrica.ButherewasPranjivanMehtatellinghimthatamanheconsideredhisfollowerwasactuallyfargreaterthanhimself.
InSeptember1912GandhiexecutedadeedtransferringownershipofPhoenixFarmtofivetrustees,thesebeingtheDurbanmerchantOmarHajeeAmodJohari,ParseeRustomjee,Kallenbach,RitchandPranjivanMehta–aMuslim,aParsi,twoJewsandaHindurespectively.ThedocumenttransferredtothesefiveothersGandhi’sright,titleandinterestinthelandandmachineryofPhoenix,andlistedeightaimsbywhichtheFarmwouldberun:namely,toearnalivelihoodasfaraspossiblebyone’sownlabour;topromotebetterrelationsbetweenIndiansandEuropeans;to‘followandpromotetheideas’setforthbyTolstoyandRuskin;topromote‘purityofprivatelifeinindividualsbylivingpurelivesthemselves’;tostartaschooltoeducatechildrenmainlyintheirownvernaculars;toestablishasanitationandhygieneinstitute;to‘trainthemselvesgenerallyfortheserviceofhumanity’;andtopublishIndianOpinionfortheadvancementoftheseideals.Gandhiwastobemanagerofthetrustduringhislifetime,andhavetwoacres
andabuildingfortheuseofhisfamily.Hewoulddrawthesameallowanceasothersettlers,whichwas£5amonth.Ifhedied,orleftthesettlement,thetrusteeswouldappointamanagerfromamongthemselves.55
Atthesametime,GandhiannouncedthatIndianOpinionwouldnolongercarryanyadvertisements.Hehadcomeroundtotheviewthat‘thesystemofadvertisementisbadinitself,inthatitsetsupinsidiouscompetition,towhichweareopposed,andoftenlendsitselftomisrepresentationonalargescale’.Inthepast,thejournalhad‘alwaysusedourdiscriminationandrejectedmanyadvertisementswhichwecouldnotconscientiouslytake’.Nowitwouldstoptakingadsaltogether.56
TheaffairsofPhoenixsorted,GandhiturnedhisattentiontowelcomingGokhale.Hehadnotseentheoldermanfortenyears,buttheyhadbeeninregularcorrespondence.Morerecently,Gandhi’snephewChhaganlalhadvisitedPoona.WhilestudyinglawinLondon,Chhaganhadfallenillwithtuberculosis,andhadtoaborthisstudiesandreturntoIndiatorecover,beforerejoininghis
uncleinSouthAfrica.WhileinPoonahehadwrittenofGokhale’sworkinless-than-flatteringterms.WritingtoMaganlal,Gandhisaid,
IfeltsadwhenIreadChi.Chhaganlal’sdescriptionoftheServantsofIndiaSociety.ItisamatterofregretthatagreatmanlikeProf.Gokhaleisengrossedinit.Ibelievehewillcomeoutofit,forheishonest.ItissimplyanindifferentimitationoftheWest.Isitproperfortheservantstohaveservants?Andwhoaretheservants?Whywasitnecessarytoengagethem?Whydotheyhaveotherscookforthem?WhyshouldtherebelargebuildingsinIndia?Whyshouldnothutsbeenough?…WhatasuperstitionthatonlyanM.A.orB.A.couldbecomea‘servant’?…Idofeelthattheaimsof
Phoenixaswellasthewayoflifetheresurpassthoseofthe[ServantsofIndia]Society.57
Thereisaclearsenseherethat,asaperson,socialworkerandpoliticalactivist,Gandhihadequalled,ifnotsurpassed,Gokhale.Butrespectwasduetothelatter’sstatusinIndianpoliticsandhisearlyencouragementofthethenunknownGandhi.SowhenGokhalecametoSouthAfrica,hisone-timedisciplemadesurehewouldgetastirringreception.Heknewhismentortohaveafetishaboutetiquetteandattire;so,tohumourandhonourhim,hewould,forthefirsttimeinyears,wearaformalKathiawariturbanwhenmeetinghimofftheshipinCapeTown.58
TheshipcarryingGokhale,theRMSSaxon,landedatCapeTownonTuesday,22October1912.AlargecrowdofIndianshadgatheredatthequayside,makingwhatKallenbach(whowaspresent)called‘peculiarscenes’,areferencetotheraisingofflagsandtheshoutingofslogans.59GandhiandaseniorMuslimcleric,ImamBawazeer,boardedtheshiptoescortthevisitorashore.TheythentookGokhaletothehomeofhislocalhosts,theGools,inaprocessionoffiftycarriages.GokhalewaspresentedanaddressonbehalfofthelocalIndians.Thiswas
suitablyecumenical,withHindus,MuslimsandParsis,andGujaratis,TamilsandHindi-speakersallsigningon.Later,atapublicmeeeting,hewaswelcomedbytheleadingwhiteliberalofthecity,SenatorW.P.Schreiner.Inhisspeech,SchreinerpraisedGandhiforhisunselfishnessofspirit;Gandhi,speakingnext,doffedhishatinturntothevisitor,his‘politicalteacher’,whosenamewassacredtoallIndians.ItwaslefttoGokhaletodealwiththesubstantiveissues.Heremindedthe
Europeansthatsince‘everythinginIndiawasopentoall’,they‘couldnothopetoshuttheIndianoutoftheirterritoryaltogetherwithoutinflictingaveryseriousblowontheprestigeoftheEmpire’.HehadnotcometoSouthAfrica‘tolighta
flame’;hehadcomeina‘spiritofcompromise’,withthedesireto‘aidthecauseofjustice’.Henotedhoweverthat
Indiaisnowwatchingwhatisbeingdonetohersons.ThereisanewawakeningthroughouttheEast,notmerelyinIndia,butallthroughEasternlands.Youfeelanewlifethrobbing,anewnationalconsciousnesseverywhere;andhoweverindifferentIndiamayhavebeeninthepasttothesufferingsofherchildrenandtoherownhumiliations,therewillbemoreandmoreself-respectinthefuturein
herdealingswithsuchmatters.60
GokhalealsomettheleadingCapepoliticianJ.X.MerrimanatCapeTown.UnlikeSchreiner,MerrimanhadbeentootimidtoattendthepublicreceptioninGokhale’shonour.Buthemethimprivately,laterwritingtoSmutsthattheIndianhad‘impressedmeveryfavourably–aneducatedgentlemanwhospeaksEnglishaswellaswedo,isnotaBaboobutaHighCasteMahratta,whowere,asyouknow,afightingracewhogaveusmanyatwister’.InGokhale,Merrimansaw‘thenewspiritthathasarisenintheEastofdisgustatWesterndomination’.HeurgedSmutsto‘doawaywithalltheodiousandilliberalmachineryofrepression’againsttheIndians,torecognizethat‘thereareotherandsurelygreaterinterestsatstake[inSouthAfrica]thantheconveniencesof[white]tradersandtheprejudicesofthe[white]community’.61
Forthenextfourweeks,asGokhaletravelledthroughSouthAfrica,Gandhiwasathisside.Everywhere,mentoranddisciplemadesimilarspeeches,withGandhiprofessinghisadmirationforGokhale,andGokhaleaskingtheEuropeanstolookatthequestionnotfromtheirnarrowcommunalinterestbutfromthestandpointofJusticeandEmpire.Everywhere,Indiansturnedoutinnumberstoreceivehim,andtopassonmessagesfromcommunitygroupstowhichtheybelonged–whichincludedtheMadrasIndians,theUnitedHinduAssociation,theHamidiaIslamiaSociety,thePatidarAssociation,theTransvaalIndianWomen’sAssociation,theBrahmanMandal,theZoroastrianAnjuman,eventheOttomanCricketClub.FromCapeTown,GokhalecarriedontoKimberley,whereamongthosewho
receivedhimwasthenovelistOliveSchreiner.62IndiansandEuropeanssatdowntogetherforamealforthefirsttimeinthehistoryoftheminingtown.Here,GandhipraisedGokhalefor,amongotherthings,having‘broughtwithhimthemuch-neededrainwhichtheparchedlandofKimberleyrequiredsobadly’.63
GokhaleandGandhicarriedonnorthwards,haltingatthesmalltownsoftheRand–Bloemhof,Klerksdorf,Potchefstroom,Krugersdorp,etc.–toallowthelocalIndianstopaytheirrespects.AtKrugersdorpthemayorturnedupatthestationtoreceiveGokhale,earningtheireofhisfellowwhites,whodemandedwhyhehadgonetomeetthe‘CoolieGentleman’whohad‘evidentlycomeherewiththeexpresspurposeofstirringupstrife’.JustbecausethemayorofCapeTownhadmetGokhale,‘itwasnotnecessarythattheMayorsoftheTransvaaltownsshouldfollowsuit.’Ameetingofwhitesaffirmedthat‘theyinKrugersdorpwoulddotheirsharetohelptokeepthisawhiteman’scountry.’64
On28October,Gokhale’spartyarrivedatJohannesburg’sParkStation,whose‘sombregreyofcorrugatedironandgirders’hadbeen‘transformedforthetimeatleastintoabrilliantblazeofcolours’.Gokhaleexitedthestationthroughagiantarchofflowers,designedbyKallenbach,whichhad‘HeartyWelcome’writteninGujarati,andtwindomesshapedintheformoftheMuslimcrescentandtheHindutrident.AmongthespeakersattheJohannesburgmeetingweretwoEuropeans.
WilliamHoskensaidthattherecentincarcerationof2,700outof9,000IndiansintheTransvaalwas‘ahorribledisgracetoourChristianityandourcivilisation’.JosephDokeaskedthatundertheBritishflag‘thereshouldbejusticeforeverymanasaman,whetherhewasanIndianoraChinese,orwhateverhisnationality’.Inhisspeech,GokhalepraisedGandhiintermsthatmightnothavedispleased
PranjivanMehta.TheIndiansinSouthAfrica,hesaid,‘hadself-relianceandtheyhadagreatleader’.Gandhi,‘hisfriend,theirfriend,thefriendofeveryoneintheroom’,was‘agreatandillustrioussonofwhomshe[India]wasproudbeyondwords,andhewassurethatmenofallracesandcreedswouldrecogniseinhimoneofthemostremarkablepersonalitiesoftheirtime’.65
On30October,GandhiwasinterviewedbytheTransvaalLeaderontheprogressofGokhale’svisit.Hismentor,hesaid,had‘cometothegeneralconclusionthattheIndiansresidenthereareentitledtocivicequality.Thatistosay,theirmovementwithintheUnionshouldnotbehamperedand,underrestrictionsofageneralcharacterapplyingtothecommunityatlarge,theyshouldbeallowedfreedomoftrade.’Thecaveatwascrucial:civic,notsocialorpoliticalequality:thefreedomtopractiseone’stradeandtolivewhereone
wished,nottherighttovoteorbetreatedasequalinallrespectswiththerulingrace.GandhiwasalsoaskedabouttheattitudeoftheOrangeFreeState.Inhisview,
itwas‘partofthecompromisethatunderthenewActthefewfreshimmigrantsthatwillbeallowedtocomeinwillbefreetomoveinanypartoftheUnion’.Inotherwords,IndianswouldorshouldbeallowedtoentertheFreeState,butnotperhapstotradeorfarminit.‘Butsomedayorother,’addedGandhi,‘theFreeStatebarrier[toholdingpropertyortrading]mustentirelydisappear.OtherwisetheUnionwillbeafarce.’66
On1November,GokhalewashostedforbreakfastbytheChineseAssociationofJohannesburg.HewaswelcomedbyLeungQuinn,nowbackintheTransvaal.QuinnspokeofhowtheChinese‘stoodshouldertoshoulderwiththeirbrotherAsiatics’.Theirswas‘afraternitylargerthanthatofcommonreligionandrace…TheyhopedforthepassingofBritishantagonism,andlookedforwardtothereignofsweetreasoninsteadofstupidprejudice.’Gokhale,inreply,spokeofthetwocommunitieshavingmuchincommon,‘bothbeingoldpeoplesandIndiahavinggivenChinaoneofheroldestreligions’.67
GokhalethenspentafewdaysrestingatTolstoyFarm.Onthe6thGandhiandheleftforNatal.Theystoppedatthesmallerminingandplantationtowns,suchasNewcastleandDundee,beforearrivinginDurbanonthemorningofthe8th.AcrowdedmeetingwasattendedbyverymanyIndians,‘who,atleastforthatnight,feltthattheTownHallreallybelongedtothemandthattheyenjoyedtherightsofcitizenship’.AmongthosewhospokewasF.A.Laughton,KC,hewhohadbravelystoodbyGandhiwhenthewhitemobattackedhimin1897.Thenextday,Gokhalepresentedtheprizesatasportsmeetingandthenheard
grievancesagainstthe£3tax.Somesixtyindividualsfiledup,onebyone,andspokeofhowtheirinabilitytopaythetaxhadledtotheirimprisonment.Theywereheardbyacrowdofseveralthousand,whohadcomefromtheoutlyingdistrictsbytrain,cycle,cart,wagonoronfoot.ThetestimonieswereofferedinTamilandGujarati,andthentranslatedforGokhale’sbenefit,thenarrationofteninterruptedbycriesof‘Shame!Shame!’.68
OnSunday,10NovemberGokhaleandGandhivisitedtheOhlangeIndustrialSchooland‘spentsometimediscussingtheNativequestionwiththeRev.JohnDube’.ThestudentssangZulusongsforthevisitors.69LaterthatweekGokhale
returnedtotheTransvaal.OnThursday14NovemberhetravelledtoPretoriatomeetthePrimeMinisterandtheMinisteroftheInterior.GeneralBothahadfollowedGokhale’sprogressthroughthecountrywithdismay.HewasoffendedthattheIndianleaderhadnotcometoseehimsoonafterlanding.ThatGokhalewaswarmlyreceivedinmostplacesdidnotpleasehimeither.Gokhale’sstatements,grumbledPrimeMinisterBothatotheGovernor-General,hadraised‘falsehopesamongourIndianpopulation’.Theyhad‘putupthebacksofourEuropeanpopulation–DutchaswellasEnglish-speaking,andmadethemmorethaneveropposedtoanykindofconcession’.But,saidBothatotheGovernor-General,hewouldstill‘meethiminthemostreasonablespirit’.70
GokhalehadaskedthatGandhibeallowedtocomewithhim,buttherequestwasrefused.71Meetingtheministers,heurgedtheabolitionofthe£3taxandtheadmissionofaselectnumberofeducatedIndianstotheTransvaal.ThenextdayGokhaleandthePrimeMinisterindependentlymetthe
Governor-General,LordGladstone(asonofthegreatLiberalprimeminister,whohadservedashomesecretarybeforecomingouttoSouthAfrica).Later,GladstonesentLondonthisreport:‘Asregardsthe£3tax,thePrimeMinistertoldmethathethoughtitwouldbepossibletomeetMrGokhale’sviews,thoughtheremightbestrongoppositioninNatal.FromwhatMrGokhalesaidIgatheredthatthePrimeMinisterhadgivenhimasatisfactoryassurance.’TheGovernor-GeneralwasalsohopefulthattheImmigrationBillwouldfinallybepassedinanacceptableform.Hewas‘convincedthatthePrimeMinisterandGeneralSmutsaresincerelyanxioustoputitthrough’.72
GokhalecameawayfromthesemeetingsconvincedthattheIndians’demandswouldbemet.‘YoumustreturntoIndiainayear,’hetoldGandhi.‘Everythinghasbeensettled.TheBlackActwillberepealed.Theracialbarwillberemovedfromtheimmigrationlaw.The£3taxwillbeabolished.’73
InafarewellspeechinPretoria,Gokhaleappealedto‘thebettermindofthetwocommunities,EuropeanandIndian’.Totheformerhesaid,‘theGovernmentmustexistforpromotingtheprosperitynotoftheEuropeancommunityonly,butofallitssubjects.’Tothelatterhesaid,‘yourfutureislargelyinyourownhands.’HehopedthatastruggleofthekindwagedintheTransvaalbetween1907and1910wouldnothavetobefoughtagain.But‘ifithastoberesumed,’saidGokhale,‘orifyouhavetoenteronotherstrugglesofalikenaturefor
justicedeniedorinjusticeforcedonyou,rememberthattheissuewilllargelyturnonthecharacteryoushow,onyourcapacityforcombinedaction,onyourreadinesstosufferandsacrificeinajustcause.’74
OverlappingwithGokhale’striptoSouthAfricawasthevisitofarathermoreobscurefriendofGandhi’s.ThiswasMaudPolak,whohadmanagedtotraveltoSouthAfricaafterall.ShehadcometostudytheIndiansituationatfirst-hand–thebettertoaidherlobbyingworkinLondon–andperhapsalsotospendtimewithMohandasGandhi.Shesucceededinthefirstendeavourbutnotinthesecond.IndianOpinionreportedhermovements–ateapartyforherinJohannesburgon14October,anotheronthe19th,bothhostedandattendedbywomen,EuropeansaswellasIndians.ThenshecrossedovertoNatal,whereshespenttwoweeks,speakingtolabourersandmerchants,andattendingatleasttwopartiesinherhonour.75HerarrivalandstayinSouthAfricawasdrownedoutbythevisitofGopalKrishnaGokhale.Gandhihimselfwascriss-crossingthecountrywithhismentor,andappearstohavehardlyseenMaudatall.Whetherthiswasbyaccidentordesignthesourcesdonotsay.InLondon,GokhalehadbeenimpressedbyMaudPolak’scommitment;now,
inSouthAfrica,hewasevenmoreimpressedbySonjaSchlesin,ayoungwomanwhoworkedforGandhiwithouthavingaromanticinterestinhim.InhistravelsthroughNatalandtheTransvaalhemetmanyamongGandhi’sfriendsandassociates–thosewhoranhisjournalandhisashrams,thosewhowenttojailwithhim,thosewhoraisedmoneyforhim.Havingseenthemall,andseensomeadmirablesocialworkersinIndiaandEnglandtoo,GokhaletoldGandhi,‘Ihaverarelymetwiththesacrifice,thepurityandthefearlessnessIhaveseeninMiss[Sonja]Schlesin.Amongstyourco-workers,shetakesthefirstplaceinmyestimation.’76
GokhalespenthislastweekendinSouthAfricaatTolstoyFarm.Ontheeveningof17November,heleftJohannesburgbytrainforthePortugueseportofLourençoMarques.GandhiandKallenbachaccompaniedhim.Atareceptioninthetownhall,Gandhiusedthechancetofloghisideasondiet,healthandreligiouspluralism.Hesaidhe
rememberedLourençoMarqueswhenithadthereputationofbeingamalariousplace,butitwasalmostsuperfluoustodrinkthehealthoftheEuropeanguestsinatownsoadmittedlyhealthyasthetownwasto-day.Theyalsohadpartakenofavegetarian,non-alcoholicrepast–thesethingswere
alsoconsideredconsistentwithgoodhealth.Heconsideredthegatheringunique;theyhadwiththemChristians,Jews,Hindus,Mahomedans,andParsees.
TheBritishConsulGeneral,speakingnext,‘referredtothetroublethissameMrGandhihadgiventotheConsulateindayspast[withregardtopermits,etc.],butherememberedthattheproposerofthetoasthadalsodonegoodservicetotheEmpireduringthe[Boer]War,andafterallloyaltywasthechiefthing’.77
Gokhalenowproceeded,hisdisciplesintow,toDar-es-Salaambyship.Onboard,GandhipromisedGokhalethathe‘wouldnotleaveforI[ndia]withoutmakingarrangementsfortheworkinS[outh]A[frica]tobecarriedoninmyabsence.MostprobablythemanagementofaffairswillbeleftinPolak’shands.’78
Enroute,theystoppedatZanzibar.TheislandhadanactiveIndiancommunity,who,itturnedout,knewallaboutthesatyagrahainSouthAfrica,anditsleader,whosestruggledeeplyresonatedwiththem.‘Remarkablehowthemen’sfaceslightupwhentheyhearthename“Gandhi”,’wroteKallenbachinhisdiary,‘andhoweagertheyaretoshakehands.’79
TherewasonelastpublicmeetinginAfrica,this‘thelargestgatheringIndiansatDar-es-Salamhaveeverhad’,80beforeGokhaletookleaveofhiscompanionsandheadedeasttoBombay.Thenextday,GandhiwrotetoGokhalethat‘Iwanttobeaworthypupilofyours.ThisisnotmockhumilitybutIndianseriousness.IwanttorealizeinmyselftheconceptionIhaveofanEasternpupil.Wehavemanydifferencesofopinion,butyoushallstillbemypatterninpoliticallife.’Afterthisexpressionofqualifieddevotion,hecontinued:
Onewordfromthequackphysician.Amplefasting,strictadherencetotwomeals,entireabsenceofcondimentsofallkindsfromyourfood,omissionofpulses,tea,coffee,etc.,regulartakingofKuhnebaths,regularandbriskwalkinginthecountry(notthepacingupanddownforstimulatingthought),ampleallowanceofoliveoilandacidfruitandgradualeliminationofcookedfood–andyouwillgetridofyourdiabetesandaddafewmoreyearsthanyouthinktoyourlifeofserviceinyourpresent
body.81
Inamonthspentineachother’scompany,GokhaleandGandhimusthavemademanifesttheirmanydifferencesofopinion–withregardtotherespectivemeritsofpetitioningversusprotest,modernversustraditionalcivilization,allopathicversusnaturopathicsystemsofmedicine.SpeakingtoGandhi,watchinghimatworkamonghiscompatriots,Gokhalenonethelesscameawaywithadistinctlyelevatedviewofhisprotégé’spersonalityandachievements.In
apublicmeetingonhisreturntoBombay–heldon13December–GokhalesaidGandhiwas‘withoutdoubtmadeofthestuffofwhichheroesandmartyrsaremade.Nay,more.Hehasinhimthemarvellousspiritualpowertoturnordinarymenaroundhimintoheroesandmartyrs.’HetoldtheassembledIndiansofGandhi’ssacrfices,ofhowhebuiltupthemovementinSouthAfrica,andhowheinspiredotherstofollowhim.Someamongtheseveralthousandsatyagrahiswhowenttojailathisbehestwereestablishedtradersandprofessionals,butthebulk,observedGokhale,
werepoorhumbleindividuals,hawkers,workingmenandsoforth,menwithouteducation,mennotaccustomedintheirlifetothinkortalkoftheircountry.Andyetthesemenbravedthehorrorsofgaol-lifeintheTransvaalandsomeofthembravedthemagainandagainratherthansubmittodegradinglegislationdirectedagainsttheircountry…[T]heyweretouchedbyGandhi’sspiritandthathadwroughtthetransformation,thusillustratingthegreatpowerwhichthespiritofmancanexerciseoverhumanmindsandevenoverphysicalsurroundings.
GokhaledefendedGandhiagainsthiscriticsathomeandabroad.SomeradicalsthoughtGandhishouldhavearguedforan‘opendoor’policy,wherebyIndianscouldfreelymigratetoSouthAfrica.But,saidGokhale,itwasprecisely‘thefearofanindiscriminateinfluxwhichhauntedtheEuropeanmind’.Thedemandforfreemigrationwouldhavemade‘theEuropeansmoreimplacableintheirdeterminationtogetridoftheIndiansatallcostsandtheeventualexpulsionoftheIndiansfromthe[SouthAfrican]sub-continentwouldonlyhavebeenhastenedbysuchamove’.Heclaimedthatthe‘theoreticalrights’thatGandhihadsovaliantlyfoughtfor‘wouldnodoubtsteadilygrowmoreandmoreintorightsactuallyenjoyedinpractice,butthatwasamatterofslowgrowthanditdependedonalargemeasureupontheimprovementoftheirpositioninIndiaitself.’82
Saints,itappears,couldorshouldbepragmatistsaswell.ThusarguedGokhale,inwhoseviewGandhi’sdistinctivecombinationofpersonalsaintlinessandsocialmeliorismwasnecessarytosafeguardthepositionofIndiansinSouthAfrica.
Gokhale’svisit,importantinitself,alsohelpedconsolidateGandhi’spositionwithinthecommunity.ThatthegreatIndianleaderplacedhimselfentirelyinGandhi’shands,thatGandhiaccompaniedhimwhereverhewent,thatGandhi’spublicwordsofpraiseforGokhalewereoftenansweredbyGokhale’spublic
wordsofpraiseforGandhi–noneofthiswaslostonthevariedaudiencesinNatal,TransvaalandtheCape.Gokhale’sendorsementofGandhiirritatedandangeredtheDurbanjournalist
P.S.Aiyar.Forsometimenow,Aiyarhadpressedforamoreprominentplaceforhimself.InhiscallforattentionhehadattackedGandhi’sfollowers,butnot,asyet,Gandhihimself.AslateasJune1912hewaswritingthatwhileSwamiShankeranandwas‘theleaderofthereactionarygroup’amongIndians,‘MrGandhiisandhasbeenrecognisedastheleaderoftheprogressiveparty’.83
WhenGokhalearrivedinSouthAfricalaterintheyear,andGandhiwasalwaysathisside,Aiyarwasnotpleased,althoughhewasnotyetwillingtoconfrontGandhidirectly.AnessayofNovember1912startedbyexpressing‘thehighestadmirationandrespectforMrGandhi’,whileclaimingtherewasnonetheless‘aconsiderablebodyofopinionoutsidetheTransvaalwhichdonotapparentlyfallinlinewithallhisviewsandconclusions’.AiyarthensetouthisownviewoftheIndianpredicamentinSouthAfrica.As
inheritorsofanancientcivilization,theycouldnotallowthemselvestobesubmergedby‘materialisticwesterncivilization’;nor,however,couldtheyidentifywiththe‘savagery’oftheAfricans.Thewayforwardwasto‘improvethemselvesontheirtraditionallinesofcivilisation.Fordoingso,theymusthavesocialandcommercialintercoursewiththecountryoftheirorigin’.ThiscontinuousintercoursewaswhattheproposedAsiaticActforbade.84
Aiyar’spositionwasnotdissimilartothatheldbyGandhibeforetheAnglo-BoerWar,whenhehadlikewisearguedforequalrightsforallBritishsubjects,whichimpliedthefreemovementofIndiansinto(andacross)SouthAfrica.Aswhiteattitudeshardened,however,Gandhimodifiedhisstand,nowaskingonlyforguaranteedrightsofresidenceandworkforIndiansalreadyinSouthAfrica.ThatwaswhatheaskedLordMilnerforin1904,andwhathehadaskedGeneralSmutsforbetween1906and1911.AiyaralsogrumbledthatGokhale’sitineraryinSouthAfricawasdictatedby
Gandhiandcompany.Thejournalistwasabletogetonlyahalf-hourappointmentwiththevisitor,whichlefthimdeeplydissatisfied.Gokhaletoldhimthatthedemandforfreeimmigrationandfreemovementwasimpractical,andthefurtherdemandforanIndianfranchisehighlypremature.Aiyarwrotebitterlythat‘insteadofendeavouringtofindaremedytoputourcountrymenon
ourlegshe[Gokhale]simplyevadedtotackletherealandlecturedonthemaintenanceofEuropeancivilisationandpraisedMrGandhiasawonderfulpersonageandallendedthere.’85
GokhaledepartedforIndia,withAiyar’scomplaintsfollowinghimacrosstheocean.AiyarnowwantedadeputationtoproceedtothemotherlandandstiruptheIndianpublic.‘Ofcourse,’hewrote,‘suchadeputationmustbeabsolutelyfreefromtheinfluenceofMessrsGandhi,Polak,RustomjeeandCo.’WhenGokhalepraisedGandhiinapublicmeetinginBombay,Aiyareruptedagain.It‘isanationalmisfortune,’saidtheangryjournalist,
thatamanofGokhale’sintellectualcalibreshouldhavebeenhypnotisedbyMessrsGandhiandPollock[sic]whoarenotoriouslylackinginthoseingredients[necessary]forpoliticalwork,andbutfortheregrettableinfluencethatthesetwomenpossessoverMrGokhale,hewouldhavebeenable
todomoresolidworkfortheIndiansofSouthAfrica.86
P.S.Aiyar’sanimuswasinpartbornoutofjealousy.HewouldhavelikedGandhitoconsulthim,toworkwithhim,tosubstitutePolakwithhimashissecond-in-command.WhileAiyarhimselfhadmarginalinfluence,forthebiographerhemeritsattentionastheonlyarticulateopponentofGandhiwithintheIndiancommunity.From1895orthereaboutsthewhitesofNatalhadpouredasteadystreamofabuseatGandhi.From1907orthereaboutstheyhadbeenjoinedbytheircolleaguesintheTransvaal.Polak,Kallenbach,DokeandSonjaSchlesinnotwithstanding,GandhiwasanobjectofhateandridiculetothemajorityofEuropeans.Conversely,hewastheacknowledgedpopularleaderoftheIndiansinNatalandtheTransvaal.Tobesure,therespecthecommandedamonghispeoplewasnotuniversal:somePathanshadattackedhimphysicallywhenhesoughttocompromisewiththerulers,somemerchantshadrefusedtofollowhimintojailwhenheresumedthestruggle.P.S.Aiyar,however,wassuigeneris–theonlyIndianinSouthAfricawhoexpressedhisdisagreementswithGandhiinprintandinsometimessplendidlyvituperativeprose.
19
APhysicianatPhoenix
WiththeUnionofSouthAfricainplace,therewasnoreasonforGandhitoremainintheTransvaalanymore.Immigrationlawswerenolongercolony-specific:anysettlementGeneralSmutsandhearrivedatwouldapplytoSouthAfricaasawhole.Andso,atthebeginningof1913,GandhimovedtoNatal,tolivewithhisfamilyandhisdisciplesonthefarmhehadfoundedeightyearspreviously.WhenhewasbasedinJohannesburg,GandhihadstillconsideredPhoenixhis
home.Itwaswherehisfamilylived,wherehisjournalwasproduced,wherehisideasformoralregenerationwereenacted.Thesettlerslookedforwardtohisvisitswithkeenanticipation.Thechildrenpreparedwelcomearchesforhim;or,ifhearrivedatnight,lightedthepathtohishutwithcandles.Theaffectionwasreciprocated;solongastheywerenothisown,andnotyetteenagers,Gandhidelightedinthecompanyofchildren.Chhaganlal’ssonrecalledhowthepatriarchcarriedthemacrosshisshoulder,rolledthemdownaslopinggardenplot,showedthemhisteethfillingsand–notleast–curedtheirailmentsby,inthiscase,prescribingrawtomatoesforboils.‘Anotherthingthatattractedme,’rememberedtheboy,‘wasthathelaughedmoreoftenthananyoneinPhoenixinspiteofbeingsuchanimportantperson.’1
WhenGandhimovedtoPhoenixinJanuary1913,theschoolhadthirtychildren.Teachersandstudentsworkedonthefarmfrom6to8a.m.AfterbreakfastGandhitooktheboystotheclassroom,whilethemenwentofftothepress.Intheafternoons,whilesomeoneelsetookclass,Gandhiworkedatthepresshimself.Dinner,at5.30,wasfollowedbysongsandprayer.From7.30to9p.m.GandhisupervisedManilal’slessons,inabelatedrecognitionofthespecialobligationsofbiologicalparenthood.Inthenineyearssincethesettlementwasfounded,ithadmadesteady
progress.Thehedgesweretrimandneat,markingoutfieldsthatproducedan
arrayofvegetablesandfruits,amongthemsucculentpineapples.Thehomeswerefurnished;someevenhad(asMilliePolaknotedappreciatively)‘attractivecurtainsatthewindows’.Thecommonareasincludedtheriver,opengrounds,shrubsandtrees,andalargeone-roomstructurethatservedasaschoolinthedayandasameeting-placeintheevening.EverySundaytheresidentsofPhoenixgatheredforaninter-faithprayer
meeting.PassagesfromtheGitaandtheNewTestament(amongothertexts)wereread,andhymnsinGujaratiandEnglishsung.Thefounder’sownfavouritesincluded‘Lead,KindlyLight’and‘TheHymnofConsecration’.Anadmittedlypartisanobserverwrotethat‘perhapsinnoplaceintheworld’werethesehymns‘sungwithgreaterfervourandmeaningthaninthatlittlelamp-litcorrugated-ironroom,whereMrGandhiwasthecentreofthelifeofanassembledcongregationofabouttwentypeople,fromEastandWest’.2
WithIndianOpinion’sfirstissuefor1913,GandhibeganaweeklyseriesinGujaraticalled‘GeneralKnowledgeaboutHealth’.Thisdrewonwidereadingand,evenmore,onhisownexperimentsandexperiences.This‘quackphysician’(touseGandhi’sself-description)wascriticalofthemoderndependenceondrugs.‘Oncethe[medicine]bottleentersahouse,’hecomplained,‘itneverleaves.’Hethoughtbadairtobethecauseofmostdiseases.Dirtylatrinesandopen-airurinationfouledtheatmosphere,asdidthecasualdumpingoffoodpeelingsandgarbage,andspitting–allpracticescommontoIndians.Hespokeofthedangersofdrinkingcontaminatedwater,andexplainedhowwatercouldbecleanedandpurifiedinhomes.Theself-taughtphysicianturnednexttosubstancestobeeschewedor
encouraged.‘Drink,tobacco,hemp,etc.,notonlydamagephysicalhealth,’hesaid,‘butalsoimpairmentalfitnessandentailwastefulexpenditure.Weloseallourmoralsenseandbecomeslavestoourweakness.’Chillies,spicesandsaltwerealsotobeavoided.Gandhioutlinedahierarchyofidealandpreferreddiets.Apurelyfruitdietwasthebest,thenfruitandvegetableswithnosaltorspices,thenamixofvegetablesandmeat.Last,andmostdeplorable,wasapurelycarnivorousdiet.‘Thosewho…subsistexclusivelyonflesh,’remarkedGandhi,‘neednotdetainushere.Theirstateissovilethattheverythoughtofthem
shouldbeenoughtoputusoffmeat-eating.Theyarenothealthyinanysenseoftheterm.’3
InthelastweekofJanuary1913,GandhiwrotetohissonHarilalsayingthathehopedtoreturntoIndiaquitesoon.WithhimwouldcomesomeoftheboyshewasschoolingatPhoenix.‘Ishouldcertainlybeabletogoifalawsatisfyingtoourdemandsispassed,’heremarked,‘soitappears.IhavethereforesettledinPhoenix.Idon’twishtostiroutfromhereforfivemonths.’4
Asbefore,Gandhi’soptimismwasmisplaced.InFebruary,hecomplainedtoGokhalethattheassurancesgivenhimbytheministerswerenotbeinghonoured.‘TheImmigrationActsarebeingadministeredwithanever-growingseverity.WivesoflawfullyresidentIndiansarebeingputtogreattroubleandexpense.’5
InthethirdweekofMarch,ajudgmentinaCapeTowncourtcalledintoquestionthevalidityofIndianmarriages.OneHassanEsop,abarberworkinginPortElizabeth,had,whileonholidayinIndia,marriedaladynamedBalMariam.Afterhisreturn,heappliedforapermitforhiswifetojoinhim.AlthoughBalMariamwashisonlywife,thecourtrefusedtoallowhertojoinherhusband,onthegroundsthatIslampermittedpolygamy.‘Thecourtsofthiscountry,’saidthejudge,aJusticeSearle,‘havealwayssettheirfacesagainstrecognitionoftheseso-calledMahommedanmarriagesaslegalunions’,sinceawomanadmittedasawifecould‘berepudiatedthenextdayafterthearrivalbythehusband’.Totheargumentthatatleastonewifeshouldbeadmitted,thejudgesaidsarcastically,‘Idonotknowwhetheritistobethefirstthatcomes,orthefirstthatismarried.’6
Hindulawdidnotbanpolygamyeither.DidthismeanthatonlyChristianmarriageswouldberecognizedasvalidinSouthAfrica?ThejudgementalarmedtheIndians,whoseconcernswereforcefullyarticulatedbyGandhiinaneditorialinIndianOpinion:
ThisdecisionmeansasfromtodayallHinduorMuslimwiveslivinginSouthAfricalosetheirrighttolivethere…aHindu,MuslimorParsiwifecanliveinthiscountryonlybythegraceoftheGovernment.ItisquiteonthecardsthattheGovernmentwillnotpermitanymorewivestocomeinorthat,ifitdoes,itwillentirelybeamatteroffavour…Theremedyisentirelyinourhands.EveryAnjuman,everyDharmaSabhaandeveryoneofthe[community]associationsmustrespectfullysubmittotheGovernmentthatthelawshouldbeamendedandthatmarriagessolemnizedundertheritesofIndianreligionsshouldberecognizedaslegal.Anynationthatfailstoprotectthehonourof
itswomen,anyindividualwhofailstoprotectthehonourofhiswifeisconsideredlowerinlevelthan
abrute.7
Gandhi’sownmarriagehaditsgoodperiodsandbad.Hischildrenandhiswifehadtobearthebruntofhissocialandethicalexperiments.Butofhiscommitmenttomarriageasasocialinstitutiontherecouldbenodoubt.TheSearlejudgment,ifinterpretedliterallyandimplementedvigorously,threatenedtosunderhusbandfromwife,motherfromchildren.ThiswouldseriouslydamagethelifeoftheIndiancommunityinSouthAfrica.Gandhimayalsohaveworriedthat,intheabsenceoftheirwives,Indianmenwouldpatronizeprostitutes.HencehiscalltocommunityorganizationstomobilizeinprotestagainsttheSearlejudgment.Hewasheeded,andquickly.Thejudgmentwasdeliveredon21March;eightdayslater,amassmeetingofIndianswasheldattheHamidiaHallinJohannesburg.Themeetingexpressed‘deepdistressanddisappointment’atthecourtverdict,whichwascalculated‘todisturbIndiandomesticrelations,tobreakupestablishedhomes,toputhusbandandwifeasunder,todeprivelawfulchildrenoftheirinheritance…’TheIndianswantedremediallegislationthatrecognizedasvalidanymarriagesolemnizedundertheritesof‘thegreatreligionsofIndia’.Ifthiswasnotforthcoming,thenitbecame‘theboundendutyofthecommunity,fortheprotectionofitswomanhoodanditshonour,toadoptpassiveresistance’.8
Thismeetingwasattendedonlybymen,butthewomenwerelikewiseoutragedbytheSearlejudgment.KasturbaaskedGandhiwhetherthismeant‘thatIamnotyourwifeaccordingtothelawsofthiscountry’.Whenheansweredintheaffirmative,shesuggestedthattheyshouldperhapsreturntoIndia.Gandhisaidthatwouldbecowardly,whereuponKasturbaasked,‘CouldInot,then,jointhestruggleandbeimprisonedmyself?’Kasturba’sofferwasamarkofherdeeployaltytoherhusband,andofher
acquiredunderstandingofhiscause.Despitetheirverydifferenttemperaments,GandhiandKasturbahad,overthirtyyearsofmarriage,developedarelationshipofunderstandingandcompanionship,towhichtheword‘love’mayalsobeapplied.Backin1901,KasturbahadresistedGandhigivingbackjewelspresentedtohimforhiswork.Now,twelveyearslater,shewasherselfvolunteeringtogotojail.Thussheunderlinedhercommitmenttoamarriagethe
newlawchosetoregardas‘invalid’;thusalsosheshowedhersolidaritywiththeIndiancommunityasawhole.ReportingtheirconversationtoGokhale,Gandhisaid,‘thistimethestruggle,
ifitcomes,willinvolvemoresufferingsthanbefore.’HedidnotwanttoaskthepublicinIndiaforsupport;rather,‘theplanwouldbetobeginS[outh]A[frica]fromdoortodoor.’Hethought‘mostofthesettlers[atPhoenix]includingthewomenfolkwilljointhestruggle.Thelatterfeeltheycannolongerrefrainfromfacingthegaolnomatterwhatitmaymeaninaplacelikethis.Mrs.GandhimadetheofferonherowninitiativeandIdonotwanttodebarher.’9
TheresentmentagainsttheSearlejudgmentwasfeltequallyinNatalandtheTransvaal.Inrecentyears,theIndiansinthesetwoprovinceshadtendedtoconducttheiraffairsseparately.Themarriagequestionboundthemtogetheroncemore.TheNatalianswerealsoveryexercisedbythecontinuanceofthe£3tax.TheDurbanjournalistP.S.Aiyarhadconvenedseveralmeetingsaskingforitsremoval.AiyarwrotetothePrimeMinister,GeneralBotha,thatarepealofthetaxwouldbe‘hailedwithunboundedjoy’and‘haveafar-reachinginfluenceontheconsolidationandstabilityoftheEmpire’.10
Therequest,orplea,wasdisregarded.InApril1913theGovernmentreleasedthedraftofanewImmigrationBill.Thishaddistinctly,andperhapsdeliberately,failedtotakethesentimentsofIndiansintoaccount.Itretainedthe£3tax,whilemakingthequalificationsfordomicilemorestringentandinter-provincialmigrationforIndiansmoredifficult.Itdidnotallowappealstocourts,andrenderedthestatusofwivesandchildrenuncertainandinsecure.TheBillgavewidediscretionarypowerstoofficials,allowingthemtokeepout‘anypersonorclassofpersonsdeemed…oneconomicgroundsoronaccountofstandardorhabitsoflifetobeunsuitedtotherequirementsoftheUnionoranyparticularProvincethereof’.11
InthethirdweekofApril,theNatalIndianCongresswiredtheGovernor-Generalinprotest.Unlesstheamendmentsitaskedforweremade,itsaid,the‘Indiancommunitywillbeobligedstrenuouslytooppose[the]Billwithall[the]resourcesinitspower’.12Thesameweek,GandhitravelledfromPhoenixtoJohannesburg,toattendameetingattheHamidiaHall.AlargeandexcitedcrowdheardhimsaythatsincetheUnionBillincorporatedtheworstfeaturesofprovinciallegislation,thistime‘thestrugglemightbeprolongedandfierce’.L.
W.Ritch,speakingafterhim,saidthat‘ifheasanEnglishmanweresettledinanycountryandfoundhimselftreatedashisIndianbrotherswere,hewouldfightuntodeath’.13
TheInteriorMinisternowwasAbrahamFischer,aFreeStaterwho,ontheIndianquestion,wasevenmorehardlinethanGeneralSmuts.FischerdefendedtheharshnessoftheBillinParliament.Forthe‘self-preservationofthewhiteman’,hesaid,it‘wasconsideredundesirablethatthiscountryshouldbeencroacheduponbyAsiatics’.Hispredecessor,Smuts,hadoncecomplainedtoGandhiabouttheintransigentattitudeoftheMPsfromtheOrangeFreeState.Fischernowpraisedthemforhaving‘shownfromthestartwhatwasgoodforthecountry’.AsforthecontentiousquestionofIndianmarriages,theMinistertoldParliamentthat‘amanwasentitledtohaveonlyonewife,whichsomepeoplemaintainedwasquitesufficient.(Laughter.)AEuropeanwasnotallowedtheprivilegeofhavingmorethanonewife,andsurelywewerenotgoingtogivethatprivilegetonon-Europeans?(Laughter.)’14
AfewliberalpoliticiansopposedtheBillinParliament.TheCapelawyerMorrisAlexandercalledita‘seriousinfringement’oftherightsofAsiatics.W.P.Schreinerthoughtthiswasreallyan‘ImmigrantsRestriction[ratherthanRegulation]Bill’;itsprovisionswerecontrarytotheassurancesgiventoGokhale,whomSchreinerdescribedas‘oneofthegreatestmenofthetime’.Themajorityopinion,however,wassolidlybehindtheMinisterandhisBill,whichwasnecessaryfor‘theself-preservationofthewhiteraceinSouthAfrica’.AsoneBoerMPputit,apartfrom‘afewcranks’the‘unanimousopinionof[white]SouthAfricawasagainsttheimportationofAsiatics’.Someofthemwantedtogofurther,anddeporttheAsiaticsalreadyinthecountry.15
AsInteriorMinister,SmutshadatleastbeenpreparedtotalktoGandhi.Hissuccessor,however,treatedGandhiasaninterloper.Thelawyer,saidAbrahamFischer,was‘representingonlythatsectionoftheIndiancommunityintheTransvaal,whichwasknownsomethreeorfouryearsbackasthe“PassiveResisters”.’HissecretarytoldGandhithattheMinisterdidnotacceptthathewas‘actingonbehalfoftheentireAsiaticpopulationoftheTransvaal’.Later,whenGandhiaskedfortheSearlejudgmenttobeoverturned,theMinisteransweredthat‘fromtheearliesttimes,followingtheintroductionofEuropeancivilizationintoSouthAfrica,thelawofthelandhasonlyrecognisedasavalid
unionthemarriage,byarecognisedmarriageofficer,ofonemantoonewoman,totheexclusion,whileitlasted,ofanyother.’16
Theimplicationswereenormous,andominous.MarriagesbetweenHindusandMuslimsweresolemnizedinprivateceremoniesconductedbypriestsandimams,notbeforearegistrarormarriageofficialappointedorrecognizedbythestate.TheMinister’sinterpretationwouldmakethousandsofIndianmarriagesinSouthAfricaillegal–amongthemGandhi’sandKasturba’s.17
InlateApril,GandhitravelledfromPhoenixtoJohannesburgforameetingoftheTransvaalIndians.Heaskedwhethertheywere‘readytoundergotheordeal’ofpassiveresistance.Hetrustedthat,‘asself-respectingmen,theycouldnotshirkit.Theymustbepreparedtoriskallforthehonouroftheirwomanhood,forthesakeoftheirreligionsandforthegoodnameofthecountryoftheirbirth.’Thesameweek,hewroteinhisnewspaperaskingIndiansintheCapeandNatalto‘wakeup’.Theytooshouldcomeforwardandbepreparedtogotojail.18
Meanwhile,HenryPolakwaspepperingtheGovernmentofIndiaandtheColonialOfficewithlettersaskingthemtointervene.HeoutlinedtheBill’sflaws,andsuggestedhowtheycouldbeovercome.GandhiwouldgodowntoCapeTownifrequiredtotalkwiththeministers.Butifnegotiationsfailed,thenarevivalofpassiveresistancewas‘certain’,andGandhihimselfwould‘nothesitatetoputpersonalinclinationononesideinordertotakehispartinthestruggle.’19
Polak’sinterventionangeredtheInteriorMinister,whoassertedthathehadinthepastcarriedoutan‘activecampaignofmis-statement’againsttheGovernment.Fischerhadhoped‘thatbythistimetheColonialOfficewouldhaveformedacorrectestimateofcommunicationswrittenbyPolak;butapparentlyhishighlycolouredandsensationalcommunicationsstillfindcredence,oratleastmoreconsiderationthantheyoughttohaveinthatquarter.’20
Twoweekslater,theInteriorMinisterreceivedaletterforwardedbyanotherEuropeansupporteroftheIndians.SentbySonjaSchlesinonbehalfof‘overfortyIndianladiesofJohannesburgprofessingtheHindu,theMahomedanandtheChristianfaiths’,thissaidthatifthelawwasnotamendedtorecognizeIndianmarriages,thewomenwouldofferpassiveresistancealongwiththeirmenfolk.Schlesinwashereacting,andwriting,astheHonorarySecretaryofthe
TransvaalIndianWomen’sAssociation.Reproducingherlettter,IndianOpinioncommentedthatMissSchlesinheldthatofficebecauseoftheknowledgeofEnglishandofSouthAfricanpoliticsthather‘Indiansisters’lacked.‘MissSchlesin,likethemaleEuropeanworkersinSouthAfricafortheIndiancause,demonstratestheunityofhumannature,whetherresidinginabrown-skinnedorawhite-skinnedbody.’21
Thetributetothewhite-skinnedSonjaSchlesinwaswrittenbythebrown-skinnedGandhi.Tounderscoretheunityofhumannature,Polakreturnedthecomplimentinanothersectionofthenewspaper,bypraisingIndianwomenfordaring‘tofighttheGovernmentratherthansubmittotheinsultofferedbytheSearlejudgment’.Polakhopednowthatthemenwouldriseasquicklytothechallenge,since,asheputit,‘“thelargerthenumberofpassiveresistersthequickertheterminationofthestruggle”isamathematicalformula.’22
UnlikePolakandSonjaSchlesin,HermannKallenbachwastoomildandnotpoliticalenoughtolobbytheGovernmentonbehalfoftheIndians.However,inaseriesofprivateletterswrittenatthistime,helaidbarehisownunderstandingofthecharacterandpersonalityoftheirleader.Healsorevealedhisownplans,whichweretoaccompanyGandhitoIndiaasandwhenhisfriendmovedthereforgood.TheletterswereaddressedtoBritishfollowersofTolstoy,whomKallenbachhadbefriendedonhisvisittothatcountryin1911.Here,inpart,iswhatthearchitecttoldthemabouttheirfellowTolstoyan.23
HermannKallenbachtoGeorgeFerdinand,3March1913:Icannotdescribetheman’scharactertoyoubyletter,butIcanonlysaythatthemoreIhavehadtheprivilegeofbeingwith,andnearhim,theclearerIhaverecognizedtheutterunselfishnessofhischaracter.True,itissometimeshard–veryhard–tolivenearandwithhim,butitisalsotruethathecannotserveGodandMammon…MywishingtogotoIndiaisnotreallyapilgrimageintherightsenseoftheword.ItismorethatI
clearlyrecognizehowverydeficientmycharacterisinmanyrespects,andthatIamhopingthatthelifetherewillgivememoreenergytothrowoffthisdefectiveness.
HermannKallenbachtoIsabellaFyvieMayo,3March1913:AslongasIknowMrG[andhi]hehasalwaysloadeduponhimselfworkandresponsibilities,whichnoordinarytenmenwouldundertake…Ibelievethatonaccountofthisdesiretobeofsuchgreatservicetoall,hecannotinmyopinionpaysufficientattentiontohisfamilyandhisnearerfriends,andinstilldoingsohehastocurtailhismeals,dowithlesssleepandtomaketimehereandtherewhennecessityarises.
HermannKallenbachtoIsabellaFyvieMayo,10March1913:Ifyouwouldknowhimbetteryouwouldalsorecognisethatitisindeedsomewhatdifficulttobenearhimandwithhim,unlessonecoversthewholedistancewithhim…[H]eissoseverewithhimselfthathesimplygoesahead,anditisaquestionofeitherbeingwithhim,ornotbeingabletobenearhim.
HermannKallenbachtoIsabellaFyvieMayo,21April1913:YourjudgementaboutMrG[andhi]placinghimnext[to]RuskinandTolstoyisatrueone,andifhelives,posteritywilloncerecognizeit.
Thedevotionwasintenselypersonal.LikePranjivanMehta,Kallenbachwasclearthathisfriendwouldonedayberecognizedasamoralexemplartohiscountryandtheworld.ButwhereMehtasawinGandhi’squalitiesandpersonalitytheredemptionofIndia,Kallenbachsawinthemtheroutetotheimprovementofhisownanguished,flawedself.EvenashisEuropeanfriend(ordevotee)waspraisingGandhiinprivate,
GandhiwasbeingattackedinpublicbyhisIndianrival,theDurbanjournalistP.S.Aiyar.AfricanChronicle’sissueof19April1913carriedanessaywiththebaldtitle:‘WhyMrGandhiisaFailure’.Thelawyer’spolitics,claimedthecritic,have‘resultedinnotangiblegoodtoanyone’.Ontheotherhand,theyhadcaused‘endlessmisery,lossofwealth,anddeprivationofexistingrights’.AiyaraccusedGandhiofthinking‘thatheisanimmutable,omnipotentCzar’,
andPolakofseeinghimselfasa‘whiteDinizulu[theZuluchief]fortheIndians’.Hechargedbothmenwith‘rankarroganceandinordinateambition’.HeurgedGandhinow‘toclimbdownfromhishighpedestal’,andto‘makesomesacrificeofhispersonalantipathiesandprejudices’.Insteadof‘sulkinginthetentatPhoenix’,andbeing‘asshytofaceanaudienceasanIndianbride’,Gandhishould‘cometoDurbanandconveneacaucusmeetingoftheleaders,and…haveafreeandfrankexchangeofideaswiththepeople’.Thescreedreekedofanimosity,butalsoofambition–Aiyarwaspleading,
ratherdesperately,tobeheard.ThechallengetoGandhiwasfollowedbyameaningfulremarkabouthischieflieutenant:‘AsforMrPolak,alargebodyofIndiansdonotseemtocaremuchtobeledbythisgentleman.’24
DidGandhireadAiyar’schallenge?Didhereaditaswhat–thebilethatcovereditnotwithstanding–itreallyseemstobe,acryforattention,anappealtobeconsideredworthierthantheEnglishmanPolakinbeingthesecond-in-
commandoftheIndianleader?ThenameofP.S.AiyardoesnotfigureinGandhi’smemoirsofhisSouthAfricandays.Wedoknow,fromstrayreportsinIndianOpinion,thatthetwomenkneweachother,andhadsharedacommonplatformseveraltimesinDurban.ButatleastinprintGandhisteadfastlydisregardedthetaunts,thecomplaints,thechallengesandtheabusiveremarksthatcamehiswayfromtheeditoroftheAfricanChronicle.ThiswasAiyar’smoststronglywordedattackyet;andalthoughGandhi
ignoredithisadmirerswerecompelledtorespond.SomefortyTamilswrotetotheAfricanChronicledeclaringthat‘whateveryourattacksmaybeuponMrGandhi,itwillnotdeterusfrombeinghisfaithfulandstaunchfollowers’.Theeditorprintedtheirletter,appendingacommentofhisown,whichurgedtheTamilsnotto‘subjectthemselvestobeledbycattle,notknowingwheretheleaderleadsthemwhethertoHeavenortoHell’.25
Astheprivatepraiseandpublicinvectivepouredin,Gandhicarriedonwithhisseriesonhealth.PartXIVpaidattentiontowhatleavesthebody.‘Fromtheappearanceofourfaeces,’remarkedtheauthor,‘wecanmakeoutifwehaveeatentoomuch.’Thefaecesofonewhohadeaten‘onlyasmuchashecancomfortablydigest’wouldtendtobe‘small,wellformed,darkish,sticky,dryandfreefrombadodour’.PartXVII,entitled‘AnIntimateChapter’,wasonbrahmacharya,here
deemed‘themostimportant’thingtopromotegoodhealth.Itimpliednot‘merelyrefrainingfromcontactwitheachotherwithsuchenjoymentinview,butalsokeepingthemindfreefromtheverythoughtofit–onemustnotevendreamaboutit’.InGandhi’sview,theviolationofbrahmacharyawas‘thebasiccauseofpleasure-hunting,envy,ostentation,hypocrisy,anger,impatience,violenthatredandothersuchevils’.Onceacouplehadchildren,theymustdesistfromsexualrelations.‘I,whowasmarriedinchildhood,’recalledthisconvertedcelibate,‘wasblinded[bylust]inchildhoodandhadchildrenwhileamerechild,awokeaftermanyyearsandseemtohaverealizedonawakeningthatIhadbeenpursuingadisastrouscourse.Ifanyonelearnsfrommymistakesandmyexperienceandsaveshimself,Ishallbehappytohavewrittenthischapter.’26
Kallenbachmay,amongotherthings,havehadthisparagraphinmindwhenhewrotethatGandhi‘issosevereuponhimselfthathesimplygoesahead,andit
isaquestionofeitherbeingwithhim,ornotbeingabletobenearhim.’
InMay1913,theImmigrationBillpasseditssecondreading.GandhiwrotetoMPsandtheMinisteroftheInterior,askingthatthe£3taxbewithdrawnandthemarriagequestionsatisfactorilysettled.TheMinisteransweredthatthetaxwouldberemovedforwomenbutnotformen,andthatmarriageswouldberecognizediftheywereregistered.Theconcessionsweremeagreand,unsurprisingly,rejected,withGandhipointingoutthatGokhalehadbeenassuredthatthetaxwouldberemovedformenaswell,andthatvirtuallynoIndianmarriageswereregistered.27
TheBillpassedthroughtheSenate,andreceivedRoyalAssenton14June.LordGladstonecomplainedtoLondonof‘thetruculentandminatoryattitudeoftheIndiancommunitygenerally,andofMrGandhiinparticular’.Hewasconfidenttheresistancewoulddissipate,tellingtheColonialOfficeinLondonthat‘attemptonthepartoftheIndiansinthiscountrytoextortconcessionsbythreatsandchargesofbadfaith’was‘foredoomedtofailure’.28
ThebreakdownofnegotiationswasreportedtoGokhalebyHenryPolakviaaseriesofmelancholymissives.InearlyJunehewrotethat‘therelationsbetweentheGovernmentandtheIndiancommunityarealmostasseriouslystrainedasevertheyhavebeen.’InlateJune,afterthepassageoftheBill,heremarked,‘thebetrayalhasbeencomplete.’Polakfelt‘thoroughlyashamedtohavetocallmyselfanEnglishmantoday’.29
Gokhale,whowastheninLondon,wrotetotheGovernmentofIndia,warningthat‘unlessthecompromiseagreedtobetweenthetwosidesisscrupulouslycarriedoutthereissuretoberenewalofabitterstruggle.’Hecomplainedthat‘theUnionGovernment,underpressurefromBoerExtremists,hasagainbrokenfaithwiththeIndians.’Ifpassiveresistancebrokeoutoncemore,GokhalewouldreturntoIndiaandmovearesolutionsupportingitintheImperialCouncil.30
AlsomakingthecaseforGandhiwashisoldEnglishpatronLordAmpthill.AmpthillhadbeenbriefedbyMaudPolak,whopreparedforhisscrutinya78-pagedocumentlistingthehandicapsunderwhichIndiansinSouthAfricastillsuffered.SpeakingintheHouseofLords,Ampthilllaunchedawide-rangingattackonthenewImmigrationBill.Itdidnotmaintainexistingrightsofentryandre-entry;itdidnotrecognizeHinduandMuslimmarriages;itdidnothonour
theSouthAfricansministers’promisetoGokhalethattheywouldabolishthe£3tax.LordAmpthillrecalledhow,between1907and1910,undertheleadershipof
the‘devotedpatriot’Gandhi,theIndiansinSouthAfrica‘wereobligedtoresorttopassiveresistanceandtovoluntarilyundergountoldsacrifices’.‘MyLords,’askedAmpthillofhisfellowpeers,‘howareyougoingtomeettheuntoldscandalwhichwillbecreatedifthereshallbearenewalofpassiveresistance?’31
InthethirdweekofJune1913,GandhiwrotetoGokhalethat‘theBillissobadthatpassiveresistanceisanecessity.Bythetimethisisinyourhands,someofusmayalreadybeingaol.’Helistedthedefectsinthebill:namely,thepersistenceoftheracialbarintheOrangeFreeState,themerelypartialreliefinthetaxandmarriagequestions,thetakingawayoftherightofIndiansinotherprovincestoentertheCape.HethoughtpassiveresistancemightbeginasearlyasJuly,witheducatedanduneducatedIndiansalikeenteringprovincesandrefusingtoshowanypapers.‘SofarasIcanjudgeatpresent,’hewrote,‘100menand13womenwillstartthestruggle.Astimegoes,wemayhavemore.’Foodandclothingwouldbecollectedbybegging.‘Ifweallgotogaol,Kallenbachhasundertakentodothebegginghimself.Hecanbethoroughlyreliedupontoseethatnofamilyisstarvedsolongashehaslifeinhim.’Headded:‘SomeofmyprivateburdensarebeingfoundbyDr.Mehta.’Gandhiexpectedthe‘struggle…tolastayearbutifwehavemorementhanIanticipate,itmaycloseduringthenextsessionoftheUnionParliament.Wearemakingprovisionsforanindefiniteprolongation.’32
TheimminentrevivalofpassiveresistanceworriedGokhale’sclosefriendWilliamWedderburn.AformermemberoftheIndianCivilService,WedderburnhadplayedakeyroleinstartingtheIndianNationalCongress.AfterservingtwotermsasCongresspresident,hehadreturnedtoEngland,wherehebecameaLiberalMemberofParliament.GokhalespentmuchtimewithWedderburnonhisvisitstoEngland,discussingimperialpoliciesandIndia.WhenGokhalearrivedinLondoninMay1913,hewassufferingfromdiabetesanditscomplications.Hisearswerepainfulandhecouldnotsleep.Thedoctorshadadvisedthreemonths’rest.WedderburnwrotetoGandhithat‘unfortunatelythesadcrisisinS.Africa…hasgotuponhisnerves.’Gokhalenowplannedto
returntoIndiainAugust,placetheSouthAfricanquestionbeforetheImperialCouncil,andraisemoneyforthecause,buthisfriendsfeltthathishealthwouldnotstandthestrainoftheseajourney–theRedSeawouldbeboilinginAugust–ortheburdenoforganizingacampaigninIndiaintheheatandhumidityofSeptemberandOctober.Giventhe‘vitalimportancetoIndiaof[Gokhale’s]lifeandhealth’,Gandhi
wasaskedtorequesthimtodelayhisjourney.Andperhapsthestruggleitselfcouldbepostponed.‘My(private)suggestion,’wroteWedderburntoGandhi,
isthatifpassiveresistanceisresolvedon,itshouldnotcommencebeforetheendoftheyear,theintervalbeingemployedinnegotiations,withanultimatumthatitwillbeginonthe1stofJanuary.Passiveresistance,includingwomenandchildren,isaseriousmatter,andshouldnotbeundertaken
hastily,noruntilallmeansofcompromisehavebeentried.33
GandhiwassensibleoftheimportanceofGokhale’shealth.Herecognizedtheenormoussufferingthatafreshboutofsatyagrahawouldentail.Andsoheexploredthelastremainingavenuesforasettlement.HavingfailedwiththenewInteriorMinister,hetriedhisluckwithGeneralSmuts.SmutswasnowDefenceMinister,buthadalongconnectionwithIndianaffairs,andwithGandhihimself.InthelastweekofJune,GandhiwentdownfromNataltoTransvaalandsoughtaninterviewwiththeGeneral.Thechangesthatwouldsatisfythem,hesaid,wouldbethosepermittingIndiansborninSouthAfricatoentertheCapeasbefore;allowingex-indentureswhohadlivedthreeyearsinNatalasfreementore-entertheprovinceeveniftheyhadgonebacktoIndia;legalizingallmonogamousIndianmarriagescelebratedwithintheUnion;andallowinginonewifeofanIndian‘solongassheistheonlyoneinSouthAfrica,irrespectiveofthenumberofwiveshemighthaveinIndia’.HewaswaitingforthesummonsinKallenbach’shomeinJohannesburg.‘Ifyourequiremeatthetelephone,’GandhitoldtheMinister,‘youhaveonlytoringup1635,andIshallbeatthetelephonefromwhereverImaybe.’34
Atthesametime,GandhideputedPolaktoLondonforalast-ditchefforttolobbytheImperialGovernment.GokhalewasalreadyintheUnitedKingdom.Theyboth–theonecourteously,theotherinsistently–wrotetoandmetvariousofficialsoftheColonialandIndiaOffices.35TheSouthAfricanInteriorMinister,AbrahamFischer,wasinLondontoo,andmetGokhale.Hesaid‘furtherlegislationwasoutofthequestion’;however,hewaspreparedtoseethatthelaw
wouldnotbeimplementedharshly.Gokhalepointedoutthat‘Indiansentimentattachedgreatimportance’tothemarriagequestion.TheMinisteransweredthat‘SouthAfricacouldnotalterhermarriagelaw’;Indianswouldhavetoregistertheirmarriagesiftheywishedthemtobelegal.36
WhileinLondon,HenryPolakgaveaninterviewtotheJewishChronicle,inwhichhesaidIndiansinSouthAfricahadbeen‘fightingtheJewishfight’.For‘notasingleargumentthatwasadvancedagainstIndiansbuthadalreadybeenurgedagainstJewsinoneorotherEuropeancountry’.Theywereaccusedofunfaircompetition,ofbeinganinsanitarynuisance,ofbeingstrange,different,aninferiorrace.Outofan‘unworthyfear’ofbeingclassedwithdark-skinnedIndians,manyJewsinSouthAfricahadtakentheBritishside.Butsomewouldnot–PolakheresingledoutRitch,Kallenbach,andtheCapepoliticianMorrisAlexander.HonourableJewseverywherehadtostandwithGandhiandcompany,insistedPolak,for‘theIndianprobleminSouthAfricais,atbottom,neitherpoliticalnoreconomic.Itisethical,andIfeeljustifiedinaskingfortheheartyco-operationofourcoreligionistsinendeavouringtoseekanethicalsolutionofit.’37
InearlyJuly,therewasamajorstrikeintheminesaroundJohannesburg,provokedbymanagersextractingextraworkforthesamepay.Militantswentfromminetomine,askingmentostopwork.Some20,000whiteworkerslaiddowntools,andwhentheownerscalledinthepolice,turnedviolent.TheyburnttheofficesoftheStarnewspaper,lootedshops,andattackedrailwaystations,pullingstaffofftrains.TheythenmarchedontheRandClub,thewatering-holeoftheminemanagersandowners.Theyweremetbyarmedpolice;intheensuingbattle,adozenminersdied.Theywereburiedthenextdayafterafuneralprocessioninwhichmorethan30,000peopleparticipated.38
OnthedayoftheRandClubaffray,GandhiandKallenbachwereindowntownJohannesburg.TheIndianwantedtohelpnursethewounded,buthisfriendsaidthey’dbetterstayoutofthetrouble.TheythenwalkedthefivemilestoKallenbach’shomeinMountainView.Ontheway,Gandhi‘proposedthatweshouldinthefaceofsomuchsuffering,whichwehadjustwitnessed,haveonlyonemeal[aday]’.Kallenbachdissuadedhim,sayingthattheyshouldsticktothe
dietthatwasthenormatPhoenix.Thatwasaustereenough:twoscantmealswithnorice,nobread,nosalt,nospicesandnosweets.39
AsDefenceMinister,GeneralSmutswasinthethickofthebattlebetweentheGovernmentandtheminers.Gandhirecognizedthis,butstillpressedhiscaseforanappointment.‘ItiscrueltoworryGeneralSmutswhilsthisattentionisengrossedintheall-importantstrikematter,’hewrotetotheMinister’ssecretaryon11July.‘Butpoliticsareacruelgame,andIamafraidImustbeapartytoitsolongasImusttoobtainallIwantthroughthatchannel,ratherthanPassiveResistance.’HestillhopedforacompromisewhichwouldsatisfytheconcernsoftheGovernmentaswellasthehonourandprestigeoftheIndians.40
Smuts’secretarywiredbacktosaythatowingtothecrisiscausedbytheminers’strikehehadnotimetogointothesettlementproposedbyGandhi.Asitturnedout,Gandhi’sownattentionsnowemphaticallyturnedfromthepoliticaltothepersonal.On12July–thedayafterhewrotetoSmuts–aletterarrivedfromPhoenixwhichhasnotsurvived,butwhoseexplosivecontentsarehintedatinKallenbach’sdiary:
Roseat6.45a.m.GotletterfromManilalwithenclosedforMrG[andhi]inwhichhemakesseriousconfession.MrG.cametomyofficeand[I]brokethenewstohimandgavehimtheletter.Hefeltit
mostkeenly.WebothwiredtoManilal.IdecidedtoaccompanyMrGandhitoPhoenix.41
Manilal’s‘confession’waswithregardtohisaffairwithagirlatPhoenix.Butthiswasnoordinarygirl;shewasJeki,daughterofPranjivanMehta.Inanyevent,hisson’sviolationofbrahmacharyabeforemarriagewouldhaveangeredGandhi;thathehaddonesowiththemarrieddaughterofhisclosestfriendandoldestpatronmadethetransgressionevenhardertoforgive.TheonlytracesofthisincidentinGandhi’sCollectedWorksareabrief
referenceintheAutobiographyto‘themoralfalloftwooftheinmatesoftheashram’.Thefallenfolkarenotnamed,noristheirsinspecified.42ThedetailsoftheincidenthavehoweverbeenpainstakinglypiecedtogetherbyManilal’sbiographer,UmaMeshtrie.43ThereisalsoanaccountinthememoirofMilliePolak,whowasawitness,ifnottotheactualevent,toitspainfulaftermath.Milliedoesnotrefertothecouplebyname:Jekiiscalled‘Lila’andManilalreferredto,equallymisleadingly,as‘N.’,andwithouthisrelationshiptoGandhibeingmentioned.SinceJekiwasbothmarriedandolderthanManilal,Milliethoughtitwas‘acaseofdeliberateseductiononherpart’.44
Thismayhavebeenunfair.Phoenixwasunusualinthatitbroughtunderoneroofboysandgirlswhowerenotrelatedtogether.ThiswouldnothavehappenedinanIndianhomeinGujarat(orDurban,orJohannesburg).AlthoughGandhidoesnotseemtohaverealizedit,theriskofsexualattractionwasinherentinthisexperimentincommunalliving.Manilalhadseen,atfirsthand,thelovingandevenpassionaterelationshipbetweenhisbrotherHarilalandhiswifeChanchal.Attheageoftwentyitwasentirelynaturalthathewouldbeopentosucharelationshiphimself.AtPhoenix,heandJekiwerethrowntogetherinthehouse,inthefields,intheschool,ontripstothecity.OnJeki’sside,shehadstayedonatPhoenixtobementoredbyherfather’s
friend.LivingapartfromherhusbandManilalDoctor(whowasnowbackinMauritius),sheprobablywelcomedtheattentionsandcompanyofGandhi’ssonManilal.Thattheydevelopedamutualattractiondoesnot,inretrospect,appeartobesosurprisingorshocking.Infact,fromanessaywrittenbyManilalfortyyearslater–bywhichtimehewasafatherofgrown-upchildrenhimself–itappearsthatGandhihadforsometimeharbouredsuspicionsabouthisson’sfeelingsforJeki.Inthisrecollection,Manilalwrotecrypticallythat
ImustconfesstomyuttershamethatIwasthecauseoffatherhavingtoundergoafastforsevendaysin1912[sic].Ihadtriedtodeceivehim.HewantedanadmissionfrommebutIpersistedindenyinguntilatlastIreceivedaletterfromhimwhichwassigned‘BlessingsfromyourfatherinAgony’.Icouldnolongerbearit.IwantedtoconfessbutIhadnotthecouragetoapproachhimdirect.I,therefore,enclosedtheletterinalettertoMrKallenbachwhowastouslikeamemberofafamily.Iaskedfathertoforgivemeintheletter.Ireceivedatelegramfromhim:‘Iforgiveyou.Ask
Godtoforgiveyou.’45
OnrecevingManilal’sletter(viaKallenbach)GandhirushedbacktoPhoenix.Hespoketotheboysinthesettlement,who–toshieldtheircomrades–toldfirstonestory,thenanother.Aftereveningprayers,Gandhitoldthegatheringthathewasupsetwiththemfor‘keepingthetruthfromme’.FromManilal,Gandhi‘extractedasolemnvowthatheshouldnotmarryforsomeyearsandthathewouldliveastrictlycelibatelife,untilsuchtimeashe,MrGandhi,shouldreleasehimfromhisvow’.Jeki,apparentlyofherownvolition,chosetorepentbycuttingherbeautifullonghair,dressinginwhite(traditionallywidow’sgarb),andtakingtoasaltlessdiet.46
Forseveralyearsnow,Gandhihadsensedthathiseldestson,Harilal,wastakingapathsomewhatdifferenttothatmarkedoutforhimbyhisfather.
Disenchantedwithoneson,Gandhihadpinnedhishopesontheothers.HehadgreatexpectationsofManilalespecially,traininghimtobeabrahmachari,toworkwithhishands,toturnhisbackontherewardsandcomfortsofaconventionalcareer.Hisexhortationshadhad,itnowappeared,limitedeffect.AlthoughManilalworkedhardonthefarmandatthepress,althoughhehadcomeforwardtocourtarrest,hehadfailedthetrueandultimatetestbysuccumbingto‘basal’passionsandhavinganaffairwithJeki.Manilal’stransgressionwasinsomewaysevenhardertotakethanhis
brother’srebellion.Gandhi’sresponsewastofastforawholeweek;afteritended,hewouldhaveonlyonemealadayforayear.Thatlattervowhehadwantedtotakeafterwitnessingtheviolenceagainsttheminers;dissuadedbyKallenbach,henowtookitasamarkofhispainatbeingletdownbyhissonandhisward,andalsoasatonementforwhathefeltwashisinadequateandincompletesupervision.
Againstthisbackdropofpoliticalturmoilandpersonalstrife,theseriesonhealthpublishedbyGandhiinIndianOpinioncontinuedserenelyon.Laterpartsdealtwithwatertreatmentsandearthcures,withfruitsthatcouldcureconstipationandwith‘thehusband’sdutynottoagitatethewifebystartingquarrelswithher’duringpregnancy.Thethirty-fourthinstalmentcarriedthedefinitivetitle,‘Conclusion’.Gandhioncemoreclarifiedthathewasnotatraineddoctor;yet,hethought,hehadwrittenthisguide‘fromaworthymotive.Theintentionisnottorecommendwhatmedicinestotakeaftertheonsetofadisease.Themoreimmediatepurpose,rather,hasbeentoshowhowsicknessmaybeaverted.’47
Evenashewrotethis,Gandhiwasaugmentinghisalreadyconsiderableexperienceofnaturecuresandnaturopathy.LivingatPhoenixwasayoungGujaratiwhosufferedfromacuterheumatism,tocontrolwhichhetook‘largedosesoforalmedication’.Gandhitookhimoffthetabletsandputhimonadietoffruitandtomatoes.Thepatientwasgivenaseriesofsteam-baths,oneeveryotherday.Hesat,coveredwithblankets,onachairbeneathwhichwasapotofboilingwater.Whenthewaterhadboiledover,hissweatingbodywaswipedclean.Afterseveralweeksofthistreatment,recalledGandhi’syoungpatient,‘thepaingotreducedbutbecamemobileandbegancirculatinginmysystem–onedayintheknees,theotherdayinthewrists,andthenextdayeithertheback
orthefingerjointswouldbestiff.’Withthepainhaving‘lessenedcomparatively’,hecouldnowparticipateintheactivitiesoftheashram.48
ThelasttwoinstalmentsoftheseriesonhealthhadappearedinthesameissueofIndianOpinion:thatdated16August1913.Gandhiwrotethatifhegottimelater,hewouldtellreadersofthe‘qualitiesandusesofanumberofsimplematerials’.49Fornow,theauthor,andhisperiodical,wouldhavetofocusonother,thoughnotnecessarilymoreimportantquestions.Afreshsatyagrahaloomed,andtheleaderhadtoprepareforit.AmongthelettersofsolidarityreceivedbyGandhiatthistime,themost
curious(andperhapsalsothemostcharming)camefromJohnCordes,hissomewhaterrantdisciplewhowasstillinthralltoTheosophy.CordeshadrecentlybeeninIndia,wherehemetbothAnnieBesantandtheboyshehadchosenastheRepresentativeofGodonEarth,JidduKrishnamurti.‘Ihavenotmetyourequalregardingoutwardvirtues,’wroteCordestoGandhi.‘Youareamystic.ButinneatnessJ.Krishnamurtisurpassesyou.’50FromIndia,CordesproceededtoVienna,toseehismother.HenowhopedGandhiwould‘findmoneytocarryon[your]nextcampaign’.TheTheosophisthadbeen‘mentallyarguingwithfriendSmutsimaginingmyselfinpossessionof£100,000whichItenderedhimasbribetotrytobehonestforoncebuthesaiditwasforeigntohisnatureandquiteimpossible,soIhandedthisfundtoyouforP[assive]R[esistance].’51
InthemiddleofAugust,theBaptistministerJosephDokedied.GandhiwrotetributestohiminbothEnglishandGujarati,andalsotravelledtoJohannesburgtospeakatamemorialservice.Theministerwas‘agreatandaltruisticman’withnotraceofclassorcolourprejudice,inwhosehouse‘everyIndian,whetherrichorpoor,wasgiventhesameconsideration’.GandhirememberedDoke’seffortstoconverthimtohisfaith.TheIndianhadansweredthatthe‘fullnessofChristianitycouldonlybefoundinitsinterpretationofthelightandbytheaidofHinduism.ButMrDokewasnotsatisfied.Hemissednooccasiontobringhometohim(thespeaker)thetruthashe(MrDoke)knewitandwhichbroughthimandhissomuchinwardpeace.’52
ThememorialserviceforJosephDokewasheldinJohannesburg’sBaptistChurchon24August.Twoweekslater,GandhiinformedtheGovernmentthatduetothecontinuanceofthe£3tax,theracialbarintheImmigrationLaw,and
theuncertainstatusoftheirmarriedwomen,theIndianshad‘mostreluctantlyandwiththeutmostregretdecidedtorevivepassiveresistance’.53Theyhadwaitedlongenoughinanycase.
20
BreakingBoundaries
In1913,itwastwentyyearssinceMohandasGandhihadfirstcomeouttoSouthAfrica.InthattimetheIndiancommunityhadbecomelargerandmorevariedinitscomposition.ThepopulationinNatalhadtripled,fromjustover40,000intheearly1890stoabout135,000now.Alargenumberwereindenturedlabourers,workinginsugarplantationsandcoalmines.Intheyear1911theimportoflabourwasstopped;wellbeforethat,Indianshadmovedoutofthefieldsintoothertradesandprofessions.TheywereavisiblecomponentofthepopulationofNatal,presentinthetensofthousandsinthemaincity,Durban,streetsandsectionsofwhichweredominatedbythem.Indianfamilieswerealsoscatteredthroughthecountryside,workingasfarmersandtradersinthetownsandvillagesoftheprovince.Therewereroughly10,000IndiansintheTransvaal.Theseincludedsome
prosperousmerchants,alargernumberofpettytradersandhawkers,andasignificantsectorofclerks,hotelworkersandothermembersofthesalariat.TheCapehadabout6,500Indians,amongthemsomesuccessfultradersandprofessionals.Therewere,accordingtothe1911census,amere106IndiansintheOrangeFreeState.OfthemainprovincesofSouthAfrica,onlytheFreeStatehadnoreal‘Indianproblem’atall.1
AkeydifferencefromthetimeofGandhi’sfirstarrivalwasthatmanymoreIndianswerenowbornandraisedinSouthAfrica.Therewasevena‘Colonial-Born’IndianAssociationinNatal.Thiswastheirhomeand,increasingly,theirhomeland.TheirconnectionstotheIndiansubcontinentnowweremoresentimentalthansubstantial.ItwasinSouthAfricathattheywouldraisefamiliesandmaketheirfuture.YoungerIndiansespeciallywerekeentomoveoutoftheworkingclassintomoresecureandhighlyregardedprofessionssuchasmedicine,thelawandgovernmentservice.
DespitehisownextendedstayinSouthAfrica,GandhistillconsideredhimselfIndian.Yetherecognizedtheprofoundchangeintheorientationofthecommunityheworkedwith.HewouldreturntoIndia,buttheotherswouldstayon,toliveandlabourunderagovernment–andrulingrace–thatwasoftenstronglyprejudicedagainsttheirinterests.ThisiswhyGandhiwassokeentoarriveatasettlementwithGeneralSmuts,wherebytherightstoworkandresidenceofIndiansinallprovincesoftheUnionweresafeguarded,existingpoliciesthatboredownunfairlyonthem(suchasthe£3taxinNatal)removed,andproposedpoliciesthatthreatenedtheintegrityofthecommunity(suchasthemarriagerestrictionsimpliedbytheSearlejudgment)withdrawn.Evertheincrementalist,GandhihadappealedtoSmutsandhiscolleaguesto
havethesechangesinthelawsmade.Through1912andmuchof1913hehadwrittenhundredsofletters,printeddozensofappeals,soughtaudienceswithSmuts,andlobbiedMPs.BySeptember1913,thisseriesofpreliminarystepshadgotnowhere.Withthegovernmentstilldisinclinedtoconcedetheirclaims,theIndiansnowprepared,underGandhi’sleadership,tousetheirfinalrecourseandreserveweapon,thatofsatyagraha.
OnMonday,15September1913,apartyofsixteenIndiansleftthesettlementatPhoenixtoillegallyentertheTransvaal.Suchtransgressionsofprovincialboundarieshadbeencommonlypractisedduringpastsatyagrahas.Whatwasnovel,thistime,wasthatsomeoftheprotesterswerewomen.TheywerebreakingaboundaryfarmorerigidorsacrosanctthanthatdividingoneprovinceofSouthAfricafromanother.WhileinLondonin1906and1909,Gandhihadseenthesuffragettesat
work–andadmiredthem.Theircourageandsuffering,hethought,couldinspireIndiansfacingdiscriminationinSouthAfrica.Apartfromthesuffragettes,GandhihadalsobeeninfluencedbyhisfriendshipwithMilliePolak.Milliebelievedthat‘allthequestionsrelatingtolifereallybelongtowomen’.Shearguedthatfor‘thousandsofyears,menhaveusedwomenandthegreatestbeautiesintheirnaturerathertotheirdetrimentthanherglory’.Sheinsistedthat‘onlywhenthefinerforcesoflifearerealisedcanwomancomeintoherown.’2
InIndiaitself,theideathatwomencouldparticipateinpopularsocialmovementswasoutofthequestion.Middle-classwomen,whetherHinduor
Muslim,werenotexpectedtomixsociallywithmembersoftheothersex.Theonlymentheyspoketowerefamilymembers,orservants,oritineranttraderswhocameknockingattheirdoor.Theywerenotsupposedtoleavethehouseunescorted.TheSwadeshimovementinBengalandMaharashtrahadbeenanall-male
affair.TheterroristswhoassassinatedBritishofficialswereallmen.Bythe1910s,asprinklingofupper-classwomenhadbegunattendingthemeetingsoftheIndianNationalCongress.Butnonehadgonetojail.Thepossibilitydidnot,couldnot,entertheirheads–notleastbecauseitwouldhaveappalledtheirhusbands.Howevermuchtheydislikedcolonialrule,Indianpatriots(bothHinduandMuslim)sawstruggleandsacrificeinexclusivelymaleterms.ThemostprogressivenationalistinIndia,c.1913,couldscarcelyhavecountenancedhiswifebeingfedandorderedaboutbymalejailorsnotofherkinorcaste.Inthisrespect,theTamilwomeninthediasporawereaheadoftheirsistersat
home.Inthesummerof1909,thewivesofsatyagrahisinprisonheldameetinginatempleinGermiston,whichpassedthefollowingresolution:‘Asourreligionteachesusthatawifemaynotbeseparatedfromherhusband,wepraytheGovernmenttosendustogaolwithourhusbands,andtoconfiscateourproperty,ifthatbejustice.’.TheresolutionwasmovedbyoneThayeeAmmall,andsecondedbyaMrsMarriamandaMrsChengalarayaMoodaley.3
TheTamilladiesweredissuadedfromcourtingarrest.Fouryearslater,withthestrugglereachingitsclimax,Gandhi’swife,Kasturba,offeredtogotojail.Thiswasaspontaneousreaction,anoutragedresponsetoajudgeandajudgmentthatcalledintoquestionthevalidityofherownmarriage.ThatGandhiagreedtolethiswifecourtimprisonmentmayhavebeenaresultofhisencounterswithsuffragettesinEnglandandTamilwomeninTransvaal.TherewasalsotheexampleofAfricanwomenintheOrangeFreeState,whohadrecentlyturnedintheirpassestotheauthorities,pledgingnevertocarrythemagain.4
AsforKasturba,withoutdiminishinginanywaytheradicalandunprecedentednatureofhergesture,perhapsshehadbeenpreparedforitbytheyearsspentlivinginproximitytothatenergeticfeministMilliePolak.
ThreedaysbeforethefirstbatchofsatyagrahisweretoleavePhoenix,GandhiwrotetoKallenbachaskinghimtocomedownfromJohannesburgtothe
Transvaalbordertomeetthem.‘IshallsendtheresistersfromhereonMonday’,wroteGandhi:
TheywillreachVolksrustonTuesday.YoushouldleaveMondaynightbythemailtrainsothatyouareatthestationwhentheKaffirMailreachesVolksrustonTuesdayevening.Youshouldsimplywatchasaspectator.TheyarenottospeakinEnglish.Oneofthemonlywillspeakinthattongue,interpretfortheothers.Theywillnotgivefinger-prints.Ifthepolicearrestthem,theymustaskforshelteratthepolicestation.Ifthepolicedonotarrestthem,youshould,thereandthen,buyticketsforthemandproceedtoJohannesburg.IthensuggesttheirbeinghousedatMountainView…NomorethanBoermealandalittledhollandricewillberequiredandfruitsandnutsofcourse.Iftheyarearrested,youshouldattendcourt,sendfullwiretomefromVolksrustasalsofullletter.Iftheyareimprisonedyoushouldimmediatelyseethegaoldoctorandthejailorandtellthemofreligiousandhealthfoodstheymaytakeandnottake.Butyoushouldalsosaythattheywillnotcomplainiftheydonotgetwhattheywant.Mrs.Gandhiwillbepurelyfruitarian.Jekiandotherswillnottouchbread.Someofthemwillbeabletotakeonlyonemeal.Thenamesandfurtherdetailslater.Itiswellthatyouwillbefreefromyourbusinessevenifpassiveresistanceistostart.Yourwholetimewillbe
wantedforthestruggle.5
Thisisastrikingletter,demonstratingthatGandhiwasatonceatheoristandmoralistofnon-violentresistance,anditsstrategistandtacticiantoo.EssaysinIndianOpinionfrom1907onwardshadoutlinedthephilosophyandrelevanceofsatyagraha–withinSouthAfrica,andtotheworld.Now,asafreshsatyagrahawasabouttocommence,Gandhiwasprovidingdetailedinstructionstoeachofitsmainparticipantsandpatrons.ThefirstbatchofresistersleftPhoenixFarmon15September.Workinthe
fields,thepressandtheschoolwassuspendedfortheday.Thechildrenhelpedthewomenpacktheirbagsandcarrythemtothestation.Beforetheyleftthesettlement,thesatyagrahisgatheredforonelastmeeting,whereGandhitoldthedepartingmothersthattheirchildrenweresafeinthehandsofGod.Somehymnsweresung,but(asaboystayingbackrecalled)‘nobody’svoicewasclear.Everyonewasoverwhelmed.’6
GandhiwrotetoManilal–whowasinJohannesburg–that‘BaandothersboardedthetrainwithgreatcourageonMonday.’The‘others’includedtheirsonRamdas,ParseeRustomjee,JekiMehta,andthewivesofChhaganlalandMaganlal(namedKashiandSantokrespectively),thelasttwoofferingtogooutofsolidaritywiththeiraunt.Theparty–numberingsixteeninall,fourwomenandtwelvemen–crossedtheborder,andweredetainedatVolksrust.Kasturbaandcompanyweretriedon23September,andpleadedguiltytothechargeofviolatingtheimmigrationacts.Theyrefusedtoofferfurthertestimony,and
waivedtheirrighttoaskquestionsoftheprosecutororjudge.Areporternotedthat‘thecasecreatedgreatcommotionamongthelocal[Indian]community,mostofwhomwerepresentincourt.’7
Thesatyagrahiswereallsentencedtothreemonthsinprison.TheywereatfirsttakentoajailatVolksrust,andlatershiftedtoMaritzburg.ThewomenwerehousedinthesamecellasAfricanwomenconvicts;theboysputtoworkintheprisonorchards.8
Gandhi,meanwhile,wrotetwostrong,stirringarticlesinIndianOpinion.ThefirstcalledforIndiansineverytowntojointhefightandcourtarrest.Thesecondsaidthatremovingthe£3‘bloodtax’was‘thecentralpointofthisstruggle’.RecallingthepromisemadebytheleadingwhitestoGokhale,hesaidtheremovalofthetax‘isasimple,primarydutyeveryIndianinSouthAfricaowestohiscountry,toMrGokhaleandtothepoormenwhoarethevictimsofgoldhunger’.9
This,too–theforegroundingofthepoorestIndiansinSouthAfrica–wasadeparture.IndenturedlabourershadbeenamongGandhi’sclients,andhehadcampaignedforbetterworkingconditionsforthem.However,inpastsatyagrahasinTransvaal,hawkers,merchantsandprofessionalshadbeeninthevanguard.Now,the‘centralpoint’wastheabolitionofadiscriminatorytaxthathitthepoormost.Onthemorningof25September,GandhileftPhoenixfortheTransvaal.His
hopewasthathewouldbearrestedandfollowKasturbaintojail.Hewasundergreatstress,asagrowingnumberofIndiansinNatalnowresentedhisleadership.Duringthelaststruggle,hehadfounditincreasinglyhardtogetvolunteersfromthemerchantclass.Now,asthestrugglerecommenced,Gandhiwasconfrontedwithquestionstowhichtheanswersseemedunclear.Howwouldthesatyagrahaturnout?HowreadilywouldtheIndiansineitherprovincecourtarrest?Hisnerveswereonedge.Onthe25th,inahurrytocatchthetrain,helosthistemperwiththechildrenatPhoenixwhileeatingbreakfast.Later,fromhiscarriage,hewroteMaganlalanabashed,apologeticletterthatrevealed‘theawfulstate’hewasin.Ashe‘ranforthetrain’,rememberedGandhi,
Igavenoendoftroubletotheboys.Everyonewasdelayedbecauseofme…Thinkingofthis,Ifeltextremelymiserable.EventhoseofmyactionswhichIbelievedtobeforaspiritualpurposehaveabigflawinthem…Itisneverthemarkofaspiritualaspiranttobeintoogreatahurryandmakehimselfanuisancetoothers.Hemay,ofcourse,notovertaxhimself–oughtnotto.Whatanignoble
statetobein!Allthisistheconsequenceofinitialmistakes.IalsorealizedthatifIhadskippedthemeal,Icouldhaveworkedwithanunruffledmind,withplentyoftimeonhand,andwouldhavebeennotroubletoanyofyou…IfeltashamedwithinmyselfevenasIwasontheway.Ireproachedmyself.I,whousedtobelievethatIhadperhapssomethinginme,findmyselftodayinahumiliatingstate.Itellyouallthisbecauseyouattributesomanyexcellencestome.Youshouldseethefaultsinmeinorderthatyoumaysaveyourselffromlikefaults.PlungedasIhavebeenintheaffairsofSouthAfrica,IthinkIcanbeentirelyfreeonlyinIndia.ButpleasewarnmewheneverItakeuponmyselftooheavyaburden.Youwillbewithme,nodoubt,eveninIndia.IfIamimprisoned,itwillbeallpeaceandnothingbutpeaceforme.Ifnot,Imayreturnthere[toIndia].Butpleasewarnmeifeverinfuture,eveninSouthAfrica,youfindtoday’sstorybeingrepeated.WecouldhavedonewithoutbreadforMrKallenbachandwithoutgroundnutjamforme.Weneednothavebeenparticularaboutfeedingthechildren.Orrather,wemighthavepleasedourselvesinallthesewaysandyetthingswouldhavebeenallrightifIhadnotinsistedonhavingmymeal.ButIwouldrideallthehorsesandthatiswhyGodordainedmyfall.Surely,thisisnotthefirstoccasionwhensuchathinghashappenedtome.Thistime,however,thelessonhasbeenbroughthometome.Iwillnow
changemyselfalittle.10
Theself-scrutiny,theself-criticism,wasincharacter.Thekeyphraseperhapsis‘Iwouldrideallthehorses’.Seekingsimultaneouslytobeaconscientious(byhislights)teacher,father,editor,opponentofracialinjustice(whethersufferedbyhawkers,merchants,professionals,orlabourers)andmulti-purposereformer(ofdiet,health,sexualattitudes,relationsbetweenreligions),Gandhiwould,fromtimetotime,findtheobligationsofonecallingcompetingwiththedemandsofanother,theclashleadingtoalossoftemperorlossofdirection,thisthenrecognizedand,ifpossible,rectified.
GandhicrossedintoTransvaalwithoutbeingdetained.HeproceededtoJohannesburg,whereheaddressedtwomeetingson28September,speakingoncetoanaudienceofmen,theothertimetowomenwhohaddecidedtocourtarrest.11Twodayslater,theTransvaalLeaderwrotethat‘theIndianpassiveresistancemovementisthreatenedwithcollapse.’Thestory’sheadlinesran:‘NoMoneyforMartyrsPassiveResistersinaPickleIndianMerchantsagainsttheCampaign/SupportVeryScanty’.ThenewspaperclaimedthatwhileGandhiandhiscolleagueA.M.Cachalia–
chairmanoftheBritishIndianAssociation–were‘proclaimingtheopeningofhostilities,andurgingtheircompatriotstofillthegaols,therearegrowlsandcursesfromtherankandfile,opendefiance,andfrankavowalsofcontentmentwiththepresentorderofthings’.Lasttime,thereweremorethan3,000convictions;but‘onthisoccasion’,itwasbeingsaidthat‘MrGandhihimself
doesnotexpectthatmorethan150personswillgotoprisoninthecause.’Eventhiswasthoughttobeanover-estimate,since‘aleadingIndianmerchant’interviewedbythepaperthoughtthatatmostfiftypeopleinJohannesburgwould‘risktheirliberty’.ThatthearrestssofarhadbeenofpeoplefromNatalshowed,tothenewspaper,that‘whatevermeasureofsuccessMrGandhiachievesamongstthepoorerandmoreignorantofhiscountrymen,thewealthyIndiantraders[oftheTransvaal]…aremakingnosecretoftheirantagonismtothepassiveresistancecampaign.’12
Thesameday,GandhiwrotetotheTransvaalLeaderdisputingthisstory.Themeetingof28Septemberhad,hepointedout,beenattendedbymanymerchants.Hecalledthepaper’sclaimthatpassiveresisterswere‘demand[ing]paymentfortheirpenance’an‘atrociouslibel,andacruelwrongtothemenandwomenwhohavesufferedduringthelastcampaign,andwhowillsuffernow’.13
Theprotestscontinued.On1October,ManilalGandhiwasdetainedinJohannesburgforhawkingwithoutalicence.Liketheotherresisters,hechosetogotojailratherthanpayafine.14TwooftheGandhiboyswerenowinprison;perhapstheeldest,anexperiencedjailbird,couldbesummonedtojointhem.GandhithuswrotetoHarilalsaying‘bothofyoumaycomeoverhere[fromIndia]andgetarrested.Chanchimaycomewhilethefightisononlyifshehasthecouragetogotogaol.’15
InthesecondweekofOctober,GeneralSmuts–whohadnowresumedchargeoftheInteriorMinistry–spoketotheGovernor-General’ssecretaryaboutthedevelopingsituation.Smutssaid‘Gandhiwassufferingfromoneofhisperiodicattacksofmentalderangement,andwas,forthetimebeing,attractedbytheroleofprophetandmartyr.’TheGeneral‘doubtedwhethertherewasmuchrealenthusiasmorfinancialsupportbehindit[thepassiveresistancemovement],andheratherexpectedthatitwouldsooncollapse.’Askedaboutspecificgrievanceshesaid,withregardtothemarriagequestion,thatitwasimpossibletogive‘legalrecognitiontoapolygamoussystem’.Hewaspersonallyopposedtothe£3taxandwaskeentorepealit,‘butthenarrow-mindedfollyofthe[white]Natalianshadbeen,andstillwas,aninsuperableobstacle’.Theplanterswantedthetaxasameanstogettheworkerstore-indenture;thenon-planterswantedittoinducethemtoreturntoIndia.16
On12October,thefirstMuslimwomanjoinedthesatyagrahamovement.ThiswasthewifeofGandhi’soldclassmateSheikhMehtab.MrsMehtableftDurbanwithhermother,sonandservant,aimingtocrosstheborderandcourtarrest.Shewasseenoffatthestationbyalargecrowd,whopresentedherwithbouquetsandparcelsoffoodforthejourney.17
Thesameday,Gandhijourneyedinthereversedirection,fromtheTransvaaltoNatal.AtameetinginDurban’sUnionTheatre,hewasaskedwhyHenryPolakhadrecentlybeensenttoEngland.DidtheIndiansneedtohave‘paidEuropeanworkers’?GandhiansweredthatPolakhadbeendeputedatGokhale’srequest.18
Gandhinowleftforthecoal-miningtownofNewcastle.Ameetingheldhereontheeveningofthe13thended‘withcheerstothebravesonofIndia,MrM.K.Gandhi’.ThambiNaidooalsospoke,inTamil,afterwhichthemineworkersendorsedbothGandhiandpassiveresistance;theywereparticularlyexercisedbythe£3tax.19
GandhireturnedtoDurban,wheretherehadrecentlybeensharpcriticismofhismethods.HehadspentmuchofthepastdecadeintheTransvaal;inhisabsence,otherleadershademerged,whodidnotalwaysendorsehisviews.InJuly1913,Gandhi’soldadversaryP.S.Aiyarhadclaimedthatpassiveresistancehadoutliveditsusefulness.InsteadoffightingfortheirrightsinSouthAfrica,saidAiyar,theIndiansshoulddepartenmasseforthemotherland.TheSouthAfricanGovernmentshouldbemadetobuytheirpropertiesatmarketprice,andpayfortheirpassagebacktoIndia.20
Now,inOctober,atawell-attendedmeetingoftheNatalIndianCongress,Gandhiwasattackedforhis‘provocativeandinefficientleadership’.AGujaratimerchantnamedM.C.AngliasaidthatGandhi’smethodshadnotmadetheirpositionmoresecureorelevatedtheirstandingamongthewhites.Whyshouldtheysupporthimnow?SolongastheIndians‘haveaprofessionalandpoliticalagitatorattheheadofpoliticalaffairs’,saidAnglia,‘wearedoomedtofailurewiththeGovernmentandtheEuropeanpublicofSouthAfrica.’21SomepeoplerosetodefendGandhi,andsince‘passionswererisingoneitherside’thechairmanclosedthemeeting,uponwhichhissupporters‘carriedMrGandhishoulderhighthroughtheVictoria,Albert,QueenandFieldStreets’.22
Inthedaysafterthecontentiousmeeting,Gandhi’sleadershipwasendorsedbytheHindustaniAssociationofDurbanandbyagroupofMuslimmerchants.23
Amonghisneweradmirersweretheworkersinminesandplantations,whoseendorsementturnedouttobedefinitive.Bynow,some2,000IndiansworkingintheNatalcollierieswereonstrike.ThedistrictsofDundeeandNewcastleweresaidtobe‘inafeverishstateofexcitement’.ThestrikingminersassembledinthegroundsofDundee’sHinduTemple,wherethey‘expressedconfidenceintheleadershipofMrGandhi’.TheyhadbeenmobilizedbyelevenTamil-speakingwomen,amongthemMrsThambiNaidoo.AsGandhiadmiringlynoted,‘thepresenceofthesebravewomenwhohadneversufferedhardshipandhadneverspokenatpublicmeetingsactedlikeelectricity,andthemenlefttheirwork’.24
Forspeakingatthesemeetingsandurgingtheworkerstostrike,MrsThambiNaidooandhercolleaguesweresentencedtothreemonthsinprisonwithhardlabour.25
InthesecondandthirdweeksofOctober,GandhiaddressedcrowdsofstrikingworkersinDurban,Newcastle,HattingSpruitandothertownsinNatal.Contemporaryphotographsshowpeoplelisteningtohiminallvarietyofdress,IndianandWestern,andinallmannerofheadgear–caps,hats,topisandturbans.Thegatheringswerelargeanddenselypacked,withseveralthousandIndianscometosupporttheirleader.26
On24October,GandhiwrotetoMaganlalthat‘greatthingsarehappeninginNewcastle.Thereisamovetoleadamarchof2,000mentoTransvaal.’ThenextdayhetoldmineandplantationownersthattheirworkerswereonstrikebecauseoftheGovernment’sfailuretohonourtheirpromisetoGokhaletoabolishthe£3tax.27ATamilpostercirculatedintheplantationsquotedGandhiassaying:‘Ihavenogrievancesagainsttheemployers…Iask[them]toassistingettingthetaxrepealed.Iamquiteawareofthelossandhardshipmyunfortunatebrethrenhavetosuffer,andItrustevenifyouhavetobegyouwouldnotreturntoworkuntilthetaxisrepealed.’28
ReadingthesereportsinPretoria,GeneralSmutswasprovokedtodenythem.Inaspeechonthe26th,hesaidthe£3taxwaspartofthecontractsignedbylabourersinIndiabeforecomingouttoNatal.TheGovernmenthadnotpromisedGokhalethatthetaxwouldberepealed;merelythattheywouldconsiderthequestionafresh.Smutswiredthemineowners’associationthatto
repealthetaxnow,underthepressureofGandhiandcompany,‘wouldbe[a]publicdisaster’.Heclaimedthat‘withGandhirepealoftaxisanafterthought,andisintendedtoinfluenceNatalIndianstowhomtherealgroundsonwhichhehasstartedpassiveresistanceandwhichneverincludedthistax,donotappeal.’29
TheevidenceonthisquestionsupportsGandhiratherthanSmuts.Gokhalewasclearlygiventheimpressionthetaxwouldberepealed;forthatiswhathetoldtheGovernor-Generalon15November1912,immediatelyafterhehadmetthePrimeMinister,LouisBotha.InMarch1913,whentheSouthAfricanImmigrationBillcameupfordebate,GokhaleagaintoldaseniorofficialoftheGovernmentofIndiathat‘Ministershavepromisedhim,andquitepublicly,thattheNatal£3licencetaxwillberevoked.’30
Therepealofthetaxwasmanifestlyoneofthe‘realgrounds’onwhichthecurrentsatyagrahawasbegun.TruthwasonGandhi’sside,andso,asithappens,weretheworkers.AnewsreportdatedWednesday,29October,tellsthispartofthestory:‘The[coal-mine]managersassembledtheIndiansontheminesthismorning,buttheIndiansdeclinedtolisten,insultingthemanagers,andintimatingthattheywereonlypreparedtoreceiveinstructionsandadvicefromMrGandhi.’BackinJuly1913,theDurbanjournalistP.S.Aiyarhadwrittenoffpassive
resistanceasamethodofasseringone’srights.Twomonthslaterthefirstbatchofsatyagrahis,ledbyKasturbaGandhi,courtedarrest.Hundredsmorefollowedthemintojail.TheIndianworkersinthecoalminesandsugarplantationsdownedtools.TheeditoroftheAfricanChroniclewasnowobligedtodohisprofessionalduty,whichwastoreportthenews.ThebraveryofKasturba’spioneeringbandofresisterswaspraised.Twopagesofthejournalweredevotedtothe‘ProgressofPassiveResistance’,reportingarrests,speechesandstrikesindifferentpartsofNatal.Buttheeditorcouldnotsuppresshisprejudicesentirely,callingupontheIndiansto‘keepinviewthecause,nottheman’(namely,Gandhi).InchallengingGandhi’sclaimstoleadtheIndians,P.S.Aiyarwasalways
fightinganuphillbattle.Thesurgeofsupportforthesatyagrahanowmadehisaprettyhopelesstask.Areportinhisownnewspaperconveyedthecomprehensivenessofhisdefeat.InNovember1913theChroniclewas
compelledtoreduceitspagesfromsixteentoeight,notingthat‘thecompositors,employedinouroffice,havingjoinedtheranksofthestrikers,weregret,weareunabletopublishourpaperinitsusualform.’31
TheIndiansonstrikemovedoutofthecollieriesandplantationstothetownsofDundeeandNewcastle,sothattheycouldnotbecoercedbacktowork.Whenagentsoftheownersreachedthesetownsnevertheless,itwasdecidedtoshiftthestrikingworkerstoCharlestown,thirty-fivemilesaway,closertotheborderwiththeTransvaal.‘Toproviderailwayfareforthousandswasoutofthequestion’,sotheywalked,withGandhileadingthefirstbatch.Theworkersshouted‘VandeMatram!’and‘Ramchandrakijai!’,thefirstsloganasalutetothemotherland,thesecondahomagetothemythicaljustandgoodking,Ram.Theycarriedtheirownriceanddal.Themarcherssleptthefirstnightintheopen,reachingCharlestownthenextday.Butkeepingsomanypeopleclosetogetherwasdeemedarisk–whatifplaguebrokeout?32
Gandhilikedwalking.Inthe1880s,hewalkedthestreetsofLondoninthecompanyofhisvegetariancomradeJosiahOldfield.Inthe1890s,hewalkedtotheBombayHighCourtfromhishomeinSantaCruz.Inthe1900s,hewalkedalotwithKallenbachinJohannesburg.HelikedwalkingsomuchthatwhenHenryPolakwroteaprofileofhisfriend,heplacedhimnotinthelawcourtorhisoffice,notinthePhoenixorTolstoysettlements,noteveninavegetarianrestaurant,butontheroad.‘Hereheis,’wrotePolakofGandhi,
aslim-builtmanofmiddleheight,thetannedcheeksalittlesunken,bare-headed,somewhatclose-croppedandgrizzled,withasmallmoustache.Youseehimwalkingalongtheroadinprofoundmeditationoranimatedlyconversingwithacompanion,theshouldersbent,theheadthrownslightlyforward,hisarmsbehindhisback,theleftwristgraspedintherighthand,thesandaledfeetoutspread–anottoogainlywalk,ratherrapid,forheisanaccomplishedpedestrianfromlong
practice,preference,andforceofcircumstance.33
Gandhilikedwalking,butthiswasaverylongmarch,evenbyhisstandards.ForthesatyagrahisunderhiscommandhadnowdecidedtowalkontotheTransvaal.Ifnotdetainedattheborder,theywouldproceedonwards,allthewaytoJohannesburg,severalhundredmilesintotheinterior.ArichHinduoffereda600-acrefarmtohostthem;tothiswasaddedthe1,100acresofTolstoyFarm.Kallenbachwasexcitedbytheprospect.‘Wewillhave“common”tablesandordinaryfamilylifewillnotexistforthetimebeing,’thearchitecttoldareporter.
‘Thissystemwasproperlytestedduringthelastcampaign,anditcanbecarriedonindefinitely…PassiveResistancedoesnotmeanidleness.Therewillbenolackoffunds.Merchantseverywherearegivingfreely,andProfessorGokhaleiswithusheartandsoul.’Proofofthelaststatementwasprovidedinanaccompanyingreport,which
quotedGokhaleinBombayassayingthattheIndianpublicwouldsend£2,000amonthforthenextsixmonthstosustainthepassiveresisters.34
On29October,alargepublicmeetingwasheldatJohannesburg’sWestEndBioscopeHall,tocoincidewiththeHindufestivalofDasehra.TheIndiansturnedoutinforce,asdidtheirEuropeansympathizers,W.Hosken,L.W.Ritch,SonjaSchlesin,etal.TheGujaratiS.K.Patel,inthechair,saidthisDasehraday,whichshouldbe‘oneofrejoicingandfestivity’,hadinsteadbeenturnedbytheGovernmentintoone‘ofsadnessandmourning’.HewasfollowedbyL.W.Ritch,whosemessagewasmorehopeful.Theresisters,saidRitch,shouldbecongratulatedfor‘usingtheweaponsofthesoulandnottheweaponsofthemob’(thesebeingthe‘bludgeonandthebomb’).Theaudiencewasthenaskedtostandasamarkofrespectforthewomen
resisters.AphotographoftheJohannesburgladiesinjail(MrsThambiNaidooandcompany)wasflashedonthescreen.Collectionswerethencalledfor,
andasceneofgreatenthusiasmfollowed.Rings,pocket-knives,caps,watches,etc.,wereofferedupbytheirowners,andwereputupforauction,fetchingextraordinaryprices.Anumbrellawassoldforfiveguineas,aringforseventeenguineas,pocketknivesfor10s.6d.,abottleofsweetsfor£110s.Alargeamountwascontributedbothincashandprovisions.Ontheterminationoftheproceedings,thosepresentformedinprocessionandquietlymarchedalongFoxandCommissionerStreets,thenupRissikStreetandthroughPritchardStreettothehouseoftheChairman[oftheBritishIndianAssociation]inDiagonalStreet.Theprocessionwasprecededbytwomencarryingblackflagsand
allworerosettestomarkthepresentsufferingsofthecommunity.35
Thesameday,GandhisetoutfortheTransvaalborderwithsome200men,womenandchildren.36Otherbatchesfollowed.‘WemayanyhourgetthenewsofG[andhi]’sarrest’,wiredPolaktoGokhaleonthe30th.37
By3November,1,500passiveresistershadreachedCharlestown.‘AllwereinsolechargeofMrGandhi,’reportedtheNatalMercury.Themarcherswerefedinthegroundsofthelocalmosque,withthefoodprovided,forfree,bylocalmerchants.AlsoinattendancewasSonjaSchlesin,whohadcomedownespeciallyfromJohannesburgtolookafterthewomeninthegathering.38
AjournalistfromtheNatalAdvertiser,visitingCharlestownon5November,reportedthat‘thewholeappearanceofthetownresemblednothingbutanIndianbazaar.’HefoundGandhi‘atthebackofanIndianstore,intheyard,servingoutcurryandricetohisfollowers,whomarchedup,andeachmanreceivedhisquota.Onebakersold500loavestotheIndiansinoneday.’39
Onthemorningofthe6th,theresistersleftCharlestown,walkingtowardsVolksrust,thetownjusttheothersideoftheborder.Theyhaltedthereforrefreshments,andthenproceededdeeperintotheTransvaal.Tilltheyreachedtheborder,Gandhiwasattherear,butoncetheyenteredVolksrustheledfromthefront.Hetoldareporterthattheywouldmarchtotheirfinaldestination,TolstoyFarm,ineightstages,coveringtwenty-fourmileseveryday.40
OnMondaythe3rd,whilethemarcherswerecampedinCharlestown,theGovernor-GeneralsummonedGeneralSmutsforameeting.Smutssaidheintended,forthemoment,toadoptapolicyoflaissez-faire.Hethought‘MrGandhiappearedtobeinapositionofmuchdifficulty.LikeFrankenstein,hefoundhismonsteranuncomfortablecreation,andhewouldbegladtoberelievedoffurtherresponsibilityforitssupport.’IftheGovernmentarrestedGandhi,arguedSmuts,then‘hewouldbeabletodisclaimresponsibilityforthemaintenanceofhisarrayofstrikers.’Thelongerthemarchcontinued,themoredifficultitwouldbetofeedthem,atwhichpointthestrikerswouldthemselves‘asktobesentbacktotheirworkinNatal’.41
Thepolice,however,werepressingSmutstoarrestGandhi.Theywereworriedabouttheadversepublicity,andperhapsalsothatthemarchersmightturnviolent.Ontheeveningofthe6th,whenthemarchhadreachedthetownofPalmford,Gandhiwastakenintocustody.Thenextmorning,heappearedincourtinVolksrustandwaschargedwithbreachingthelawregardingthemovementofpeopleacrossprovinces.Gandhiappealedforbail,which‘wasstronglyopposedbythePublicProsecutor’.Thejudge,however,grantedtheapplication,askingforadepositof£50,asum‘promptlyfoundbythelocalIndianmerchants’.42
KallenbachhadattendedthecourtproceedingsatVolksrust.NosoonerwasGandhigrantedbailthanthetwoofthemjumpedintoacartorejointhemarchers.Areporterclimbedintoo,andtheydrove‘throughbeautifulgrassycountry’.TheycaughtupwiththeirfellowssomethirtymilesfromVolksrust.
‘Allalongtheroad,’notedtheaccompanyingjournalist,‘thecarpassedstragglers,wholinedupandsalutedMrGandhi,callinghim“Bapoo”,orfather.’43
On7November,withtheirleaderbacktoleadthem,thestrikerscontinuedontheirjourney.ThatnighttheycampedatKrorndraai,bytheriver.ThenextmorningtheycarriedontowardsVaal.AtStandertontheywerestopped,andGandhiwasdetainedoncemore.Hewastakentocourt,wherehewasreleasedonbailandreturnedtothemarch.44HisantagonistMontfordChamneythencamedownfromJohannesburgtostopGandhi,accompaniedbyaposseofpolice.ForGeneralSmutshadfinallycomeroundtotheviewthattheIndianswhohadillegallyenteredtheTransvaalmustbesentbackacrosstheborder.ChamneyandhiscompanionsmettheIndianswestofStanderton.Yearslater,
herecalledhisfirstsightofthemarchandthemarchers,thememorymademorecolourfulbythepassageoftime:
Threedeterminedmenmarchingabreastwithsinglepurposeatsteady,rhythmicpace,Ghandi,Polak,andanother,followedcloselybyagreatcompanythatstretchedfarbacklikeamovingribbonuntillostbeyondthenextriseoftheground.ManyoftheseworethegaycoloursoftheEast,afewwerecladincheapEuropeangarbwhileothershadlittlebeyondtheOrientalloin-clothandmantle.Ready-madebootshadbeensuppliedtothepoorerclasses,butthisunfamiliarformofWesternfootgearonlyprovedanimpedimentthatwassoonremoved,theownerscarryingthebootsstrungbythelacesfromtheirnecks.Buteveryclassofmarcherseemedtocarrysomething–ababe,abasket
orperhapsafewhouseholdchattels.45
Thepolicehaltedthecolumn,andawarrantforGandhi’sarrestwasexecuted.HewastakentothetownofDundee,wherehewaschargedwithinducingthestrikeandincitingthestrikers.Thistimehisrequestforbailwasrejectedandhewassentofftoprison.Fromtherehewrotearemarkablelettertothemagistrate,which,amongotherthings,givesthelietoSmuts’chargethatGandhiwaskeentowashhishandsofthestrikers:
Sir,
IhavethehonourtorequestyoutolaybeforetheGovernmentbytelegramthefollowingfacts:WhilstIwasmarchingfromCharlestownwithnearly2,000menwomenandchildrentoTolstoy
FarmLawley,nearly150menwomenandchildrenwerefootsoreandotherwisedisabledhadtobeleftatPaarsdekopatthestoreofMrM.C.Desai.ThesepeoplehavetobeattendedtoandIsuggestthattheGovernmenttakechargeofthem.YesterdayatValtherewereeightorninemenfootsoreandotherwiseill.Oneortwomenwere
evenseriouslyill.Ihadhopedtobeabletomakecompletearrangementsaboutthemtoday.They
wereleftinchargeofMrPatelanIndianstorekeeperatVal.Thesemenshouldinmyhumbleopinionreceivemedicalattentionwithoutdelay.Probably150IndiansenteredtheTransvaalwithoutaleaderonThursdaylast.Theywerelast
heardofatStandertonandrationsweresuppliedtothem.Icouldhave,duringmymarch,tracedthemandfedthem.Thesemenshouldbetracedandfed.EightmenwhowerenotseriouslyillbutweretoofatiguedtowalkentrainedatValforBalfour
wheretheyweretojointhemainbody.Thesetooshouldbetracedandprovisioned.IfmyinformationiscorrectIunderstandthattheGovernmentintendtoputbackthemainbodyof
theIndianswhomarchedwithmeontheNatalBorderinahelplesscondition.Inthateventthemenwillattempt,Ifeel,toreenter.IventuretosuggestthattheyshouldbedealtwithundertheIndenturedIndiansImmigrationLawofNatalorotherwisetakenchargeofandfed.
IhavetheHonourtobeSirYourobedientservant
M.K.Gandhi.46
Aftertheirleaderwastakenaway,themarcherswereescortedbythepolicetothetownofBalfour,fromwheretheyweresentbacktoNatalinthreetrains.‘Themenappearinnowaydispiritedaftertheirfruitlesstramp,’reportedoneobserver,‘andexpressedtheirintentiontofurtherthepassiveresistancemovementagainwhenMrGandhiisatliberty.’47
On11NovemberGandhiwastriedatDundee,chargedwithinducingindenturedlabourtoleaveNatal.Hislawyersaid‘hewasunderanobligationtothedefendantnottopleadinmitigationinanywaywhatsoever’.Inhisstatement,GandhireferredtohimselfasanoldresidentofNatalandamemberofitsBar,who‘wasinhonourbound,inviewofthepositionofthingsbetweenMrSmutsandProfessorGokhale,toproduceastrikingdemonstration’.Hepleadedguilty,andwassentencedtoninemonthsinprisonwithhardlabour.48
ThreedayslaterGandhiwastriedatVolksrust,chargedthistimewithbringingprohibitedimmigrantsintoTransvaal.Hepleadedguiltyoncemore,notinghoweverthat‘throughoutthemarchintotheTransvaal,Iendeavouredtokeepthemenundercontrolandtopreventthemfromdispersing,andIclaimthatnotasingleIndianleftthecolumnifitmaybesocalled.’Inhisdefence,hecalleduponaminernamedPoldat.AskedwhyhehadenteredtheTransvaal,Poldatansweredthathehaddonesoinprotestagainstthe£3tax.Askedifhewouldhavegonebacktoworkifthetaxhadbeenrepealed,Poldatsaidyes,hewouldhave.
Thepointmade,Gandhiaddedthathewasawarethatthestepshehadtakenwerefraughtwiththegreatestrisksandintensepersonalsufferingbythosewhohadacceptedhisadvice,butafterverymatureconsideration,basedontwentyyearsexperienceinSouthAfrica,hehadcometotheconclusionthatnothingshortofsuchsufferingwouldmovetheconscienceoftheGovernment,asalsoofthe[white]inhabitantsoftheUnion,ofwhich,inspiteoftheso-calledbreachofthestatutorylaws,heclaimedtobeasaneandlaw-abidingcitizen.
Hewassentencedtoanadditionalthreemonthsinprison.49
Asthemarchswelledanditsleaderwasarrested,released,arrestedagain,releasedagain,PolakandKallenbachsuperviseditintheperiodic,enforcedabsencesofGandhi.Thearchitectwasaccustomedtosimpleliving,butthejournalist–husbandoftheaestheteMillie,andamanwhostayedawayfromtheTolstoyandPhoenixsettlementshimself–hadtostrivestrenuouslytoputcausebeforebody.Later,hewrotewithsomefeelingabouttryingtogettosleepundertheskyandthestars:
Ishallnoteasilyforgetthatnight!Oursmallcampfiresgraduallyflickeredoutaswelaydowntorestandsleepafteraveryfrugalmealthathadbeencookedintheearlymorning.Thecloudsrolledupheavilyandathunderstormplayedinthedistance.Alightrainfellatintervalsduringthenightandacoolwindblewingusts,increasingthegeneraldiscomfort.Ihadnotsleptintheopenforyears,andtheblanketthatIcarriedwithmewaslittleprotectionagainsttheroughnessandinequalitiesofthegrounduponwhichwelay.Oneithersideofmewasapoorwretchedstrikerintheearlystages,apparently,ofconsumption,andtheycoughedcontinuallythroughoutthenight.Itwas,therefore,withconsiderablereliefthatIrosewiththedawn,andwestruckcampafterahurriedwashandwithouteatingforweweredueatthetownshipofBalfour,whereweunderstoodarrangementshadbeenmadeforthenextmeal.
Characteristically,afterlayingbarehisownsqueamishness,PolakthenpraisedtheresolutionofhisIndiancomrades.Themorning’smarch,hewrote,‘wasonethatwouldhavedonecredittoawell-drilledarmysincewedidthedistancetoBalfourattherateofthreeandahalfmilesanhour.Theseminecooliesweresplendidfellows,fullofcourageandstrongofpurpose.’50
PolakandKallenbachwerethemselvesarrestedon10November,andtooktheirpunishmentgladly.PolakwrotetoLordAmpthillthat‘inviewofthefactthatI,asanoutsider,hadsooftencounselledIndianpassiveresisterstochallengearrest,Ifeltthatitwouldbehighlydishonourableforme–anEnglishman–todrawbackbeforearisk,andIdidnothesitatetojoin[theIndians].’51Kallenbachexplained–orjustified–hisjail-goinginalonglettertohissister,wherehedetailedthediscriminationsagainsttheIndiansandargued
thatsatyagraha–‘theteachingnottomeetforceandviolenceinalikewisemanner,buttomeetthemwithpassivesuffering’–wasconsistentwiththeteachingsof‘almostallreligions’,Judaismamongthem.52
KallenbachandPolakwerebothtriedbeforeajudgenamedJooste.Inhistestimony,thearchitectbeganbydescribinghimselfas‘anintimatefriendofMrGandhiformanyyears’.The‘voicelessandvoteless’Indianshaddrawnattentiontotheirgrievancesthroughpetitionsandrepresentations.Havingtriedandfailedwiththesemethods,theirleader,Gandhi,thenintroducedwhatKallenbachconsidered‘theonlyeffectivemeansofsecuringredress,viz.,passiveresistance,ameansinwhichI,formanyyearsadiscipleofTolstoy,thoroughlybelieve.’PolakspokeofhislongassociationwiththeIndiansofSouthAfrica,andhis
workaseditoroftheirweeklynewspaper.HesupportedtheirpassiveresistancemovementasanEnglishman,aJew,andamemberofthelegalprofession.AsanEnglishman,hesaid,
itisimpossibleformetositsilentwhilsttheGovernmentoftheUnion,claimingtospeakinmyname,repudiate,astheyhavedonetwicethisyear,theirsolemnpledgestowardsmyfellow-BritishsubjectofIndiannationality,indefianceofwhatisbestinBritishpublicopinion,andregardlessofImperialobligationsandresponsibilitiestowardsthepeopleofIndia…AsaJew,itisimpossibleformetoassociatemyself,evenpassively,withthepersecutionofany
raceornationality.Myco-religioniststo-day,incertainpartsofEurope,areundergoingsufferingandpersecutiononracialgrounds,and,findingthesamespiritofpersecutioninthiscountry,directedagainsttheIndianpeople,Ihavefeltimpelledtoprotestagainstitwitheveryfibreofmybeing.Asamemberofthelegalprofession,IhavemadeadeclarationofloyaltytotheCrownandtodo
mydutyasanAttorneyofthishonourablecourt.IntakingthepartoftheIndianpassiveresisters,loyalsubjectsoftheCrown,intheirdemandforjustice,Iclaimtohaveprovedmyloyaltyinthemostpracticalpossiblemanner,and,asanAttorney,Iclaimtohavegiventheonlyadvicetothempossibletomeasanhonourablemanwhoplacesjusticebeforeloyaltyandmorallawbeforehumanlaw.
Polakthenaddedafourthreason–thathewasafriendofGokhale’s,amanreveredbymillionsofIndians,whohadbeenpromisedbytheSouthAfricanGovernmentthatthe£3taxwouldberepealed.Polakcalledthetax‘arelicofbarbarism’,whose‘directeffectistodrivethetax-payersbacktoconditionsofservitude,dishonourabletoBritishtraditionsoffreedom,ortoexpelthemfromthiscountry,whichhasreapedthefruitsoftheirlabourforaperiodofyears.’ThesestatementsofGandhi’sclosestcolleagueswerebothdeeplymoving.
Yettheywereverydifferentlyarticulated.Kallenbach’swasspontaneousand
heart-felt,drawingattentiontothefriendwhowasleadingthestruggle.Polak’swasmorecloselycrafted.Theworkofawriterandpolemicist,itstressedrathertheprinciplesbywhichonewhowasnotanIndianhimselfwouldchoosetosupporttheirmovement.53
Kallenbachwasunattached,butPolakhadawifeandchildren.WhenMillieGrahamcameouttoSouthAfricain1905tojoinhim,shewaspreparedforalifeofservice.Butsurelyshewouldnothaveanticipatedthatthiswouldlandherhusbandinprison.Now,shewasconsoledandcheeredbyalovelyletterfromherhusband’sbestfriend,whichread:
MyDearMillie,
Youarebrave.SoIknowyouwillconsideryourselfaproudandhappywifeinhavingahusbandwhohasdaredtogotogaolforacausehebelievesin.The£3taxisthecauseofthehelplessandthedumb.AndIaskyoutoworkawayintheshapeofbegging,advisinganddoingallyoucan.Donotwaitfortheircallbutcalltheworkers.Seekthemouteventhoughtheyshouldinsultyou.MissS[chlesin]knowsthestrugglealmostlikeHenry.Assisther.Ihaveaskedhertomoveforwardandbackwardandassumefullcontrol.DrawuponWestandMaganbhaiforyourneeds.Mayyouhavestrengthofmindandbodytogothroughthefire.
Withlove,Yours
Bhai.54
AthirdJewishsupporterofthesatyagraha,L.W.Ritch,couldnotseekarrest,sincehehadtorunGandhi’slawpractice.Butheshowedhissolidarityinotherways,pepperingthepresswithlettersdefendingtheIndiancause.WhenGeneralSmutsclaimedthatthenewmarriagelawswerenecessarybecauseMuslimmenhadonlytoutter‘talaq’threetimestosecureadivorce,Ritchansweredthatthepracticewasinfactsorarethatwhenitoccurred,itwasregardedasa‘scandalofcommunalimportance’.HeestimatedthattherehadnotbeenmorethanfiftycasesoftalaqinthepastthirtyyearsamongtheIndiancommunityinSouthAfrica.Ontheotherhand,divorcewasrampantamongEuropeansinNatalandtheTransvaal.‘SouthAfricanlawyerscannotcomplainoflackofpracticeinthisbranchofourprofession,’saidRitchsarcastically.‘Ahusbandabsentshimselffromhiswifeforafewmonths,ignorestheensuingorderofcourt,andthedivorceisgranted.Almostassimpleassaying[talaq],don’tyouthink?’55
Then,whenaJohannesburgpaperclaimedthattheIndianswantedan‘opendoortoimmigration’,Ritchansweredthatwhattheyactuallyaskedforwasfair
treatmentforthoseresidentinSouthAfrica.Inhisview,thepolicyoftheUnionGovernment
resemblesnothingasmuchastheconductofHolyRussiatowardsRussia’sJewishpopulation.Allthesameelementsarepresent–repression,segregation,studiedinsultandneglect.Andthesameexcusesareadvancedbywayofjustification:economicdanger,unassimilability,alienrace,incompatibilityofideas–andalltherestofit.ThatRussia’sattitudeisoneofcriminalfollynobody
doubts;thatthefuturewillproveustohavesimilarlyerredistomymindnolesscertain.56
NolesstirelesswasafourthJewishfriendoftheIndians,Gandhi’ssecretarySonjaSchlesin.ShecamedowntoNatal,shuttlingbetweenPhoenixandtheprisons,nourishingthemoraleandthestomachoffirst-timesatyagrahis.ShesentGokhale,inIndia,aseriesoftelegrams,updatinghimonthestruggle.Thedutiesassignedtoherweresubstantial,andshesometimestookuponothertasksvoluntarily.Whenawhiteplanter,angrywiththestrike,assaultedandinjuredtwoofhisworkers,MissSchlesinhadtheirwoundsattendedto.Shealsophotographedtheirbruises,sendingtheprintstothepressandtotheGovernment.57
GandhiandhisfriendsweresenttoVolksrustPrison,beforetheauthoritiesdecidedtoseparatethem.PolakwasshiftedtoBoksburg,andKallenbachtoKrugersdorp.GandhihimselfwastransferredfirsttoPietermaritzburgandthentoBloemfontein.Theleaderwasaway,yettheprotestscontinued.On13November,2,000
IndiansworkinginsugarfieldsandsugarmillsinsouthernNatalwentonstrike.Atonemajorestate,MountEdgecombe,themanagers‘enrolledacorpsofspecialpolice,anddrewacordonaroundtheestate,withtheideaofkeepingouttheagitatorsandapostlesofGandhi,andofprotectingloyalIndiansfromintimidation.’Thecoercionfailed,withanestimated1,500outofthe2,700labourersatMountEdgecombedowningtoolsandgoingofftojointheirfellows.58
Inthefiftyyearsthattheyhadworkedonthesugarplantationsandcoalmines,Indianlabourershadoccasionallyprotestedagainstharshworkingconditionsorbrutalsupervisorsandmanagers.Whenprovokedorhumiliated,theyhaddesertedtheirwork,marchedinabodytotheirmanager’soffice,petitionedgovernmentauthorities,andsometimesevenassaultedtheiremployers.59Still,thestrikesin1913wereunprecedentedintheirscaleand
scope.Inthesugarplantationsofthesouththesewerewhollyself-organized.Indianworkershadheardoftheprotestsamongtheminesinthenorth;andoftheleaderswhohadorganizedthem.TheyweredisturbedandmovedbyGandhi’sarrest.ButGandhihadnoteverworkedwithormobilizedsugarworkers.Thesenowcameoutontheirown,inaremarkabledisplayofsolidaritywiththeircompatriots.BythemiddleofNovember,some15,000sugarworkerswereonstrike.ArumourspreadthatGokhalewascomingoutagainfromIndiatohavethe£3taxabolished.ManyworkersbelievedthatGandhihadsentamessageurgingthemtodowntools.Somestrikerslefttheplantationsandmovedintotownsnearby;othersconvergedonthesettlementfoundedbyGandhiatPhoenix.60
WhileGandhi’snamewasinvoked,themethodsofprotestwerenotalways‘Gandhian’.Angrystrikersburnedcanefields,andattackedpolicemenwithsticksandstones(andevencaneknives).InclashesbetweenconstableswithgunsandIndianswithswords,thereweremanycasualties,somefatal.Europeanplanters,unnerved,senttheirwivesandchildrentothecomparativesafetyofDurban.61
Asthestrikespreadthroughthecolony,thearmywascalledin.Severalhundredmountedriflemenunderthecommandofabrigadier-generalweresenttothesugarcountry.Thenavywasalsoputonalert,incasetroopshadtobesentfromtheCapetoDurban.62
Theshowofforcefailedoncemore.ThestrikenowspreadtothebrickkilnsandtoDurban,whereIndiansemployedbytheCityCorporationandintheportstoppedwork.Atawell-attendedmeeting,thestrikerswere‘unanimousintheirdecision,whichwasarefusaltoworkuntilthe£3taxhadbeenrepealed,anduntilGandhiwasreleased.’63
OnSaturday,15November,1,200IndiansgatheredinPietermaritzburgtodiscussthestateoftheirmovement.AcertainT.R.Naidoosaidthatwhile‘hewasnotagainstthepassiveresistancemovementasamatterofprinciple,hewasagainsttheMaritzburgIndiansdoinganythingwhichwouldbelikelytojeopardizethetradeorinterestsoftheIndiansbyadoptinganantagonisticattitudetowardstheEuropeans’.Otherspeakersvigorouslydisagreed.OneRamsinghpointedoutthat‘MrGandhihadgonetoprisonforthemall,andhewantedtoknowwhethertheyweregoingtoleavehimtofacethetroublealone,
orwhethertheyweregoingtojoinforceswithhim.’ApriestnamedDhonduramMaharajpraisedGandhiforbringingHindusandMuslimstogether.Underhisleadership,theyhadmade‘common[cause]inthepassiveresistancemovement’.Themoodofthemeetingwasveryclearlypro-satyagrahaandpro-Gandhi.64Onthecrucialissueofthe£3tax,itaccusedtheGovernmentofbetrayal.Thuswhenonespeaker‘askedwhetherhisconfrèresplacedrelianceonGeneralSmutsoronMrGokhale,therewasaloudcryofMrGokhale’.65
OnSunday,16November,ameetingofIndiansinJohannesburgaskedtheGovernmenttoreleaseGandhiandbegintalks.66Meanwhile,Natal’slargesttown,Durban,‘wasseethingwiththestrikespirit’.Ontheafternoonofthe16th,3,000Indiansgatheredforameeting,where‘cheersweregivenforMrGandhiandthestrikers.’Onespeakeraskedhospitalandsanitaryworkerstoreturntodutyasanactofcourtesytotheirfellowcitizens.Otherwise,thestrikeembracedalltradesandprofessions.Itwas‘practicallyuniversalamongsttheIndiansintheBorough’.ThechiefmagistrateofDurbantouredthecity,urgingthestrikerstoreturnto
work.Ateachplacehewasinformedthat‘theyhadbeentoldbytheir“Rajah”or“King”,MrGandhi,thattheyweretostrikeuntilthe£3Licencewasrepealed.’Thenhetouredtheplantationsoutsidethetown,tobetoldtheretoothat‘Gandhihadorderedthemtostrike’.Themagistratethoughtthatbeyondthespecificgrievanceofthe£3tax,theprotestorsalsowantedthefranchiseand‘equalrights’.67
AcrossNatal,Indianshadstoppedworkinginsugarplantations,coalmines,railways,ships,shopsandhotels.Theauthoritiessoughttocompelthembacktowork.Thepolicearrested120‘ringleaders’inDurban.Inthecountrydistricts,riflemenmarchedupanddowntheplantationsinashowofstrength,sometimesprovokingclasheswithangryIndians.InascuffleatAvoicaseveralindenturedlabourerswereinjured.AttheBenevasugarestate,‘thecooliescameoutinstrengthandavolleywasfired’.TwoIndianswerekilledbybullets,andtenseriouslywounded.AtMountEdgecombe,soldierswithrevolversbattledcoolieswithsticksandstones.FiveEuropeanswereinjured,asagainstfourIndianskilledandtwenty-fourwounded.68
OneeyewitnesstotheconflictwastheZulureformerJohnDube.HesawIndianstrikerscongregateonapieceofopenground,andrefusetomovedespite
beingbeatenbythepolice.Constablesmountedonhorsesranthroughthem,andyettheydidnotdisperse.Dubewasimpressedbytheircourageandendurance,tellingafriendthatwhilehehadoncethoughtplantationcooliescrudeanduncivilized,nowhehad‘acquiredasenseofrespectforalltheIndians’.69
TheIndiansatyagrahaalsocameinforpraisefromtheleaderoftheCapeColoureds,DrAbdurahman.InthelastweekofNovember,hetoldtheannualconferenceoftheAfricanPoliticalOrganizationthat
ifahandfulofIndians,inamatterofconscience,cansofirmlyresistwhattheyconsiderinjustice,whatcouldthecolouredracesnotdoiftheyweretoadoptthispracticeofpassiveresistance?WemustalladmirewhattheseBritishIndianshaveshown,andareshowing,intheirdeterminationto
maintainwhattheydeemtobetheirright.70
InresponsetotheIndianupsurge,theEuropeansinNatalreinforcedtheirownsolidaritiesofraceandclass.AngryletterstothepaperssingledoutGandhiasthechieftrouble-maker.Onespokeof‘therebelliononthepartofIndiansatthebiddingofGandhiandCo.’;anotherspokesarcasticallyofagitators‘elevatingGokhaleandGandhitotheleveloflittlegods’.AthirdaskedtheSouthAfricanGovernmentto‘deporttoIndiaandpermanentlybanishGandhi,Polak,Kallenbach,[Thambi]Naidoo,andallIndiansconvictedofagitationinthe“strike”’.Afourthsaidthebestanswertothestrikewastodemonstratethat‘wecandowithouttheIndian.’Thewhitesshouldsweeptheirownbackyardsandblackentheirownboots.Theycouldthen‘doawaywith50percentoftheseIndiansandcoincidentallysmashupthebackboneofthisYoungIndiamenace’.71
On26NovembertheNatalMercurycarriedaninterviewwithalocallegislator,J.T.Henderson.Hendersonnotedthatin1874therewereamere6,000IndiansinNatal;nowtheywereinexcessof130,000.Ifthe£3taxonfreeIndianswasabolished,thenumberswouldincreaseevenmore,and‘theoutlookforthewhitepopulationhere[wouldbe]averydarkoneindeed.’TheambitionoftheIndianswasworrying;theytendedtolook‘forahigherplaneofemployment’thanlabouringinfieldsandmines,andwere‘exceedinglykeen’oneducation.Thetaxwasnecessarytodiscouragethemfromchallengingthewhitesevenmoredirectlythantheypresentlydid.72
ThelegislatorwasrefutedbyF.A.Laughton,inwhoseopinionthe£3taxwasillegal.Sincewagesonplantationsweremuchbelowmarketrates,Indianswere
‘undernoobligationeithertoleaveNatalaftertheexpirationoftheirindenturesortotakeoutalicenceiftheyremain’.Thisopinionfroma‘juristofstanding’ledto‘jubilationamonglocalIndiansandconsiderableastonishmentamongstEuropeans’.73
Meanwhile,backintheTransvaal,theBoerparty,HetVolk,reneweditscalltodeporttheIndiansenmasse.ThepartypaperDieTransvalercomplainedthattheIndians‘haveincreasedtheirdemands,becomemoreobstreperousthantheyhaveeverbeen,causedmoretroublethaneverbefore,andevidentlytheyarenevergoingtobesatisfieduntileveryarticleoftheImmigrationActhasbeenrepealed’.‘SouthAfricahashadenoughoftheseIndians,’saidtheBoerorgan.‘WewantnomoreofthemfromIndiaorelsewhere.’74
InthelastweekofNovember,theGovernmentreneweditseffortstobreakthestrikeinNatalbyforce.Contingentsofpoliceweredispatchedtogetlabourersbacktowork.Fleeingthepolice,manyworkersswarmedontothefarmatPhoenix.TheyweretakeninhandbyAlbertWestandMaganlalGandhi,whofedthemandallowedthemtosleepoveratthesettlement.Theworkers‘repeatedlystatedthattheywouldratherdiethangobacktotheirwork,andtheyseemedtobereallyafraid’.WestwiredtheGovernment,suggestingthatit‘allowpeople[to]remainquietlyhereuntildisturbanceisover,orGovernmentsupplyfoodandtakecharge[ofthe]camp’.75
TheupsurgeinNatal,andthearrestofGandhiandcompany,provokedawaveofsympathyandsupportintheprotesters’homeland.‘Indiathrillingwithindignation,’wiredGokhaletoMilliePolak.‘Protestspouringupon[Indian]GovernmentforforwardingImperialGovernment.’Apublicsubscriptionhadalreadycollected£5,000;Gokhalewantedtoknowwheretosendit.HealsoaskedwhowasleadingthemovementintheabsenceofGandhi.‘Fullinformationpresentpositionprospectsnecessary,’hesaid.76
TherangeanddepthoftheIndianinterestinGandhi’smovementismanifestinaseriesofwiressentbytheViceroyontoLondon.Herearetwosamples:
ViceroytoIndiaOffice,26November1913:Mytelegramdated22ndNovemberS.Africa.23furthertelegramsreceived,twofromprivateindividuals,twentyarefromChairmenofmeetingsheldatAhmedabad,Ongole,Amalapuram,Bezwada,Tanuku,Yeotmal,twomeetingsBombay,Coonoor,Lucknow,Narsapur,Rajkot,Bapatla,
Poona,Guntur,Nasik,Kovur,Ellore,Rampurhat,Gudiwada,andBhimavaram.ContentssimilartothatofprevioustelegramsreportedtoyouprotestingagainsttreatmentofIndiansinNatalandurginggovernmentintervention.
ViceroytoIndiaOffice,8December1913:ThirteenfurthertelegramsreceivedfromwomenofBombayandcitizensofRangoon,Hyderabad,Sind,Cawnpore,Hardoi,fromAllIndiaMuslimLeagueLucknow;ChairmenpublicmeetingsCalicut,Yeotmal,Ajmer,Bombaymill-hands,SanghsabhaShanghai,ChandraChairmanPoliticalAssociationKimberley,publicofKotdwara,andletterfromChairmenofpublicmeetingsNellore,Raipur,andCoimbatore,andfromJointSecretaryGodavariDistrictAssociationCocanadapraying
foradoptionofmeasuresforthepreventionofsufferingsofIndiansinS.Africa.77
TheinterestintheSouthAfricanstrugglewasparticularlykeeninSouthIndia,theregionfromwherethemajorityofthesatyagrahiscame.ATamilpaperpublishedoutofMadraspraisedthe‘wonderfuldetermination’of‘MrGandhiandhisfollowers’;theyhad‘glorif[ied]thegoodnameofIndiabymeansoftheirnobleandcourageousconduct,riskingeventheirlives’.AKannadapaperprintedinBangaloresaluted‘theleadershipofthatzealousservantofIndia,thatgenerousandheroicpersonage,MrGandhi’.ATeluguweeklyinGunturreachedformythicparallels–Gandhi,theleaderoftheresistance,waslikeArjuna,braveandfearless,whileGokhalewaslikeKrishna,providingsageadvicefrombehindthescenes.78
Toraisemoneyforthestruggle,G.A.NatesanreprintedPolak’sbookletonGandhi.InDecember1913,arivalpublisherinMadras,GaneshandCompany,commissioneditsowncapsulebiographyof‘theheroofthePassiveResistanceMovement’,itsproceedstogo‘inreliefofourbrethreninSouthAfricaintheirpresentstruggle’.79AndarisinglawyerinSalem,C.Rajagopalachari,reprintedGandhi’saccountofhisjailexperiencesforthesamepurpose.RajagopalacharisaidGandhi‘mustberankedwiththeAvatars’,whilehisfollowers,‘eveninthesedegeneratedays,act[ed]likerealheroesinthecauseoftheNation’.Thebookletsoldrapidly,soquicklyinfactthatthelawyerwasabletosendachequeforRs1,500toaidthestruggleinSouthAfrica.80
ThemassivelyenhancedstatureofGandhiinhishomelandwasmoststrikinglyunderlinedbyaTeluguplayinfiveacts,performedatthistimeintheAndhracountry.ThefirstfouractsdetailthehandicapsoftheIndiansinSouthAfrica.InthefinalactGandhiappearsinthefleshandembarksonanextendedsoliloquy.Hereflectsontheconditionofhiscompatriots,andonthedegradation
andhumiliationtheysufferintheworkplaceandawayfromit.Thecrueltiesofthepoll-taxandthemarriagelawsaredweltupon.The(prosperous)lawyerthenaskshimself:‘AmItoliveinthismansionwhilemyfellow-brothersandsistersaresufferingfromuntoldmiseries?’,andprovidesthisanswer:
O,Gandhi;Omindofmine!Havenodesireforwealthorfame.NomorehappinesssolongasthechildrenofBharata[India]areinslavery.YoushallhavenopeaceuntilyouputanendtotheracialhatredthathasconvertedtheseSouthAfricansintobrutes.Toachievethisyoudonotrequirethestrengthofthesword…Truthisyourexistence.Yourcolourisjustice,yournameisliberty…ThroughoutthelengthandbreadthofthissacredlandofBharataonedeterminationisblazingforthinoneflameandresoundinginonevoice.TheLordhassenthismessage.ItisresoundingfromthecraggyCapeComorintothesnow-peakedHimalayas.Nogaolscanopposeourdetermination.Thewhipscannotcowdownourspirits.Eventhecannonballscannotkeepourcountrybehind.Victorytoourmotherland.
ThisplaywasoriginallypublishedinTeluguinajournalcalledtheKistnaPatrika,andthentranslatedintoEnglishandprintedafreshinDublin,fromwherecopieswerepostedtoschoolandcollegeteachersacrossSouthIndia,tobestagedinpublic.Copieswereinterceptedbythepolice;butonecopyreachedanarchiveinLondon,providingthebasisofthisaccount.ThatGandhi’sstrugglecouldpromptsuchapassionaterenderinginTeluguisremarkable;forin1913GandhihadnotbeeninIndiaforadecade,andhehadnevervisitedtheAndhracountryatall.81
Acrossthesubcontinent,intheholycityofBanaras,protestersburnedeffigiesofGeneralsBothaandSmuts.InameetingchairedbythecelebratednationalistleaderMadanMohanMalaviya,aHindipoetnamedPratapreadoutversesurgingpatriotstohearthe‘farcryfromdistantAfrica’,where‘heroeslikeGandhiinjail’were‘showingthebraveryofIndiatotheworld’.82
Backin1910,GandhihadpublishedHindSwarajasadirectresponseto,andapassionateinterventionin,debatesonIndiannationalistpolitics.ThebookwasbannedinbothitsGujaratiandEnglishversions.EvenhaditbeenavailableinIndia,onewondershowwidelyitwouldhavebeenread.Itborethemarksofitshastyproduction;andinasocietywithsuchlowlevelsofliteracy,therewasn’tmuchofamarketforbooksinanycase.Nonetheless,by1913manypartsofIndiawerefamiliarwithGandhi’sname.MoreIndiansreadnewspapersthanbooks;morestillattendedorheardofmeetingsorganizedinsolidaritywiththeSouthAfricanprotests.Thatsomanyoftheircountrymenhadsoheroicallyresistedracialoppressioninthatfarawaylandwasnowknownintownsacross
thesubcontinent.Theirleaderwassalutedandcelebratedintalks,editorials,reports,poems,andatleastoneplay.Thiswastestimonynotsomuchtotheoriginalityofhispoliticalideasastothevigourofhispoliticalpractice.MohandasGandhihadmadeadefiniteimpactonthepopularconsciousnessofthemotherland;not,however,astheauthorofanobscuretextnamedHindSwaraj,butasthechiefinspirerofthecollectivedefianceofdiscriminatorylawsandthecollectivecourtingofimprisonmentbyIndiansinSouthAfrica.
Oneofthemany‘indignationmeetings’washeldinGandhi’splaceofbirth,Porbandar.Theprincelystateshadthusfarkeptoutofthenationalmovement.TheywereinsulatedfromBritishIndia,whosepoliticalfermentdidnotaffectthem.TheprincesthemselveswereresolutelyloyaltotheRaj.ButnowtheresidentsofPorbandarweremovedtoact,becausesomeofthesatyagrahisinSouthAfricacamefromtheKathiawarcoast,andbecausetheirleaderwasbornandraisedinthetown.Theresolutionspassedatthismeetingincludedonepraising‘theinspiringleadership’ofthenativeson,M.K.Gandhi,andanotherthanking‘MajorF.deHancock,ourpopularadministratorfortheliberalandmunificentStatecontributionofRs1,000towardsthefund[forIndiansinSouthAfrica]andforallowingtheuseoftheVictoriaMemorialHallforconveningtheirmeeting.’83
In1888,theBritishAdministratorinPorbandarhadrefusedtopayforGandhi’sstudiesinLondon;now,twenty-fiveyearslater,hissuccessorwasfundingthelawyer-turned-activist’scampaignchest.Inthisrespect,Porbandarwasnoexception;atothermeetings,too,largesumsofmoneywereraisedanddispatchedtoGokhaleinPoona.On28November,SonjaSchlesinpassedonamessagefromGandhitohismentor:‘Hesaysthatyouarenottoworryyourselfaboutfunds.Iftheydidnotcome,weshouldmanageheresomehow.’Gokhale’sresponsewastowire£5,000twodayslater.On3December,afurtherinstalmentof£5,000wassenttoMaganlalGandhiatPhoenix.84
Allkindsofpeoplechippedin,somefamous,someobscure.InthefirstcategoryfellthepoetRabindranathTagore,whohadrecentlybeenawardedtheNobelPrizeforliterature.InNovember,TagoresentGokhaleRs100ashis‘humblecontribution’totheSouthAfricanIndianFund.85Threeweekslaterhesentanothercheque,apologizingforitsniggardlycontents.‘Iamashamedto
ownthattheresponsehasbeenfeebleinBengaltothecallofourcountrymenintroubleinSouthAfrica,’wrotethepoet.‘ButIcanassureyouthatmyboys’heartsweremovedtogenuinesympathywhenappealedtoandlittlethoughthesechildrenwereabletoraiseforthefunditwasnotthelessvaluableinitsmoralworth.’86
MoresurprisingthanTagore’sendorsementwasthatoftheBishopofMadras,apillaroftheEstablishmentand,ofcourse,anEnglishman.‘Ifranklyconfess,’remarkedtheBishopinDecember1913,‘thoughitpainsmetosayit,thatIseeinMrGandhi,thepatientsuffererforthecauseofrighteousnessandmercy,atruerrepresentativeoftheCrucifiedSaviour,thanthemenwhohavethrownhimintoprisonandyetcallthemselvesbythenameofChrist.’87
MoresurprisingstillwasthesupportforGandhiandcompanyexpressedbythemostpowerfulindividualinIndia,theViceroy,LordHardinge.AlsospeakinginMadras,hesaidthepassiveresistersinSouthAfricahad‘thedeepandburningsympathyofIndiaandalsoofthosewholikemyself,withoutbeingIndian,sympathisewiththepeopleofthiscountry’.TheViceroyarguedthat‘iftheSouthAfricanGovernmentdesirestojustifyitselfintheeyesofIndiaandtheworld,theonlycourseopentoitistoappointastrongimpartialcommittee,whereonIndianinterestswillberepresented,toconductthemostsearchingenquiry.’88
Thereweresomelesswell-knownsupportersofthestruggletoo.OneA.K.HariharansentRs250toGokhalefromKualaLumpur,onbehalfof‘theIndianswhoareemployedinRailwaysandotherpettypositionsinthetown’.The‘HeroesofSouthAfrica’,saidthisrepresentativeoftheIndiandiaspora,‘aresuperiortoouradversariesincourage,indevotion,andinknowledgeofthewantsofthepeople’.AcertainA.E.Lall,managerofamotoragencyinthenortherntownofPeshawar,wrotetoGokhaleofferinghisservices.HehadpreviouslylivedinSouthAfrica,claimedtohave‘knownMrGandhiintimately’,countinghim‘thebestmanIhavemetinanypartoftheworld’.89
KasturbaGandhialsocameinforhershareofpraise.InearlyDecember,whilespeakingatameetingintheBombayTownHall,SirPherozeshahMehtarecalledthe‘touchingepisode’whereinKasturbatoldGandhithatifthecourtclaimedhermarriagewasillegal,thenshewouldinsistonjoiningthesatyagraha.Mehtasaidthat
MrGandhimusthaveknownwhatitwastoexposetenderwomentothehardshipofthecampaign,butinspiteofhispleading,thatbraveladydecidedtocastinherlotwiththosemenwhowerefightingforthecause.HistoryrecordsthedeedsofmanyheroinesandIfeelMrsGandhiwillstand
asoneoftheforemostheroinesinthewholeworld.90
BytheendofNovember1913,morethan1,000Indianswereinjail.AmajoritywereworkersfromNatal,punishedforgoingonstrike.TheothersincludedmerchantsandhawkersfromtheTransvaal,andfollowers,friendsandfamilymembersofM.K.Gandhi.OnlyoneletterwrittenbyGandhifromjailhassurvived.WrittentoAlbert
West’ssister,Devi,thisaskedabouttheroutineoftheboysatPhoenix,andtoldherto‘remindDev[a]dasofthepromiseshehasmademeatvarioustimes’.‘MuchofmysparetimeisbeingdevotedtoTamilstudy,’addedGandhi.InthislatestsatyagrahatheTamilshadshonemorebrightlystill,andtheirleaderwas,itseems,suitablygrateful.Gandhi’sletterhadspecificinstructionsforoneresidentofPhoenix.Thiswas
JekiMehta,whohadjustbeenreleasedfromjailaftertheexpiryofhersentence.GandhinowwrotetoDeviWestthat
Jekibenshouldadheretothepromisesmadebyhertome.PleasetellherthathardlyadaypasseswhenIdonotgivemuchthoughttoher.Astoherdiet,Idonotbindhertoanypromisesorresolutionsshemayhavemade.Shemaytakewhateversuitsherconstitution.Butshemustnotonlykeepgoodhealthbutberobust.Shemustgrowherhairunlessshehasdefinitelyheardotherwise
fromDr.Mehta.91
Meanwhile,unknowntoGandhi,JekiMehtawasthesubjectofangryletterswrittentotheGovernmentofSouthAfricabyherestrangedhusband,ManilalDoctor.ThisotherManilalwasnowinFiji,havingshiftedtherefromMauritius.HehadsetuppracticeasabarristerinSuva,servicingthetown’sIndianresidents.WhenrumoursofwhathiswifehadbeenuptowithhisnamesakeManilalGandhireachedhim,DoctorwrotetotheGovernor-General,LordGladstone,askingthathearrangeforJekitobesenttoFiji.Themessagewaspassedon,butJekideclinedtogo.ShewantedtoremainwiththesatyagrahainSouthAfrica.Hiswife’srefusaltojoinhiminfuriatedManilalDoctor.Hewroteoncemore
toLordGladstone,suggestingthatifJekicourtedarrestagain,thesentenceshouldbedeportation,‘inwhichcasetherewouldbegreaterchancesofhercure
fromMrGandhi’sinfluencesandthereforeofsettlingdowntoastablelifewithmehere’.Hewaswillingtopaytheexpensesofhiswife’straveltoFiji.SinceGandhiwasinjail,ManilalDoctorcouldnotcommunicatewithhim
directly.SoheaskedtheGovernor-Generaltotellhimthatmywife’sfatherandImyselfdesirehertoleavehisplaceandthathewouldsparemethepainfulnecessityoftakinglegalstepsagainsthimselfandhissonManilalGandhiforinterceptingthesmoothflowofmymarriedlifeinthewaytheyhaveinfactdone.Allowmetoaddthatmywifeisaminor,I
amlegallyherguardian,andthatMrGandhiisnorelationatalltous.92
ManilalDoctorcertainlyspokeforhimself.ButdidhealsospeakforPranjivanMehta,whowashisfather-in-law,butalsoGandhi’sclosestandoldestfriend?Alas,thearchivesaresilentonthematter.DrMehtacouldnothavebeenpleasedwithJeki’saffairwithGandhi’ssonManilal–butwouldhehavelaidtheblameforthisatGandhi’sowndoor?Thatseemsunlikely.Jekiherselfseemstohavebeenunwillingtorejoinherhusband.ShewasfocusedonstayinginSouthAfrica–butwhetheroutofadmirationforGandhi’spoliticsorloveforGandhi’ssonwecannotsay.
InthesecondweekofDecember,theSouthAfricanGovernmentannouncedthatitwouldsetupan‘IndianEnquiryCommission’toreportontherecentdisturbancesandtheircauses.InhisspeechinMadrasinlateNovember,theViceroyofIndiahadcalledforsuchacommission.TheViceroy’sideahadnowbeentakenforwardbyLordGladstone,theGovernor-GeneralofSouthAfrica.FortheprotestsbytheIndianshadbeenunprecedentedinscopeandscale.Theyhadbreachedtheboundariesofprovince,classandgender.Theyhadfullystretchedtheforcesoflawandorder,andhadseriouslyendangeredtheeconomyofNatal.Despitebravetalkinthenewspapers,whiteswerenotreallypreparedtolabourinmines,plantations,hotelsorshops.GladstonethussuggestedtoGeneralSmutsthattheCommissionshouldgointothemarriageandtaxquestionsthathadsoexercisedtheIndians.93
Smutsagreed.Athree-memberCommissionwasappointed,tobechairedbythejuristSirWilliamSolomon.AsagesturetotheIndians,Gandhiwasreleasedfromjailonthemorningof18December.PolakandKallenbachweresetfreethesameday.AtapublicmeetinginJohannesburg,GandhisaidhewasnotsatisfiedwiththeconstitutionoftheEnquiryCommission.SirWilliamSolomon
wasfine,buttheothertwomembers,Lt.-Col.WylieandEdwardEsselen,wereknowntohaveanti-Indianviews.Gandhisaidthat‘ratherthanhaveaweightedorpackedCommission,whichwouldmilitateagainstthewelfareoftheIndiancommunityinSouthAfrica,hewouldprefertogobacktoprisonandallowtheIndiancasetostanduponitsownmerits.’Inresponse,WilliamHosken‘begged’Gandhitoretainhis‘self-control’,and‘todonothingthatwouldbringdiscreditontheircause’.94
Thenextday,GandhiproceededbytraintoDurban.Ashesteppedontotheplatformonarrival,‘flowerswerethrownroundhim,andtheIndiansclamberedaroundhim’.Hewasconveyedfromthestationintoanopencarriage,whichwaspulledbyyoungmen‘throughthestreetswitheverymanifestationofenthusiasm’.95
ItwasatriumphantreturntohisfirsthomeinSouthAfrica,butalsoasombreone.Injail,Gandhihadshavedhisheadandchosentowearwhite.Hisfeetwerebare.Speakingtoacrowdof5,000assembledattheDurbanracecourse,GandhisaidhehadchangedhisdresswhenheheardofthepolicefiringonIndianstrikers.Thebulletsthatshothiscountrymenshothimthroughtheheartaswell.Henceforth,hewoulddresslikeanindenturedlabourer.ThenhespokeoftheCommissionjustappointed.HecomplainedthatIndianshadnovoice,whiletwoofitsthreememberswereknownfortheirhostilitytothem.Unless‘theCommissionissupplementedbyresponsibleSouthAfricanmembersofknownstanding,whoarenotprejudicedagainstAsiaticsgenerally,’hesaid,‘weshallcertainlybeagainstit’.96
On21December,GandhiwrotetoSmutssuggestingtheadditionoftwomemberstotheCommission.W.P.SchreinerandSirJames-Inneswerebothknownfortheirliberalviews.Smutsrejectedthesuggestion,insistingthattheCommissionasitstoodwas‘impartialandjudicious’.GandhinowsaidtheIndianswouldboycotttheCommission.ThecompositionoftheEnquiryCommissionangeredtherank-and-fileeven
more.‘TheGovernmenthavetreatedusinsucharascallymannerintheappointmentofthisCommission,’wroteHenryPolaktohisfamilyinEngland,adding,‘Ifearthatitwillbeimpossibletoavoidarevivalofthestruggleinitsmostbitterform.’InthatcasePolakwouldcourtarrestoncemore,forwhichhe
askedinadvanceforthe‘sympathyandunderstanding’ofhisparents.TheseniorPolaksadmiredandlikedGandhi,butasloyalist,assimilationistJews,theywerenaturallynotverykeenfortheirsontofollowhimallthewayintojail.‘Whatevertheconsequencesmaybebothpersonallyandpublicly,’wroteHenryPolaktohisparents,‘IfeelIamboundtosupportMrGandhiinhispresentattitude,ofwhichIwhollyapprove.Itmaynotbecustomarypolitics,butthePassiveResistancestrugglehasneverbeenbaseduponpoliticsbutuponprinciples.’97
Speakingtoreporterson21December,L.W.Ritchclaimedthatiftheirdemandswerenotconceded,theIndianswouldoncemoregoonstrike.‘MrGandhiwillcollectalltheIndianswhofollowhim,’saidRitch,‘andwillmarchtoPretoria’,themarchtocommenceon1January.RitchpredictedthatGandhi‘wouldleaveDurbanwithathousandIndians,andbythetimehereachedtheborder,ifhedoesso,his“army”willincreasetoatleast20,000’.98
ThenextdayKasturbaGandhiwasreleasedfromprison.GandhihadcomeupfromDurbantoMaritzburgtomeether.TheIndiansofthetownhadprecededhim.TheymetKasturbaandherfellowprisonersoutsidethejailandpulledtheminaflower-strewncarriagethroughthestreets.Atthemeetingthatfollowed,thespeakersincludedGandhi,KallenbachandMilliePolak.Milliesaidthat
thiswasessentiallyawomen’smovement,andtherewasnoquestionthathaditnotbeenforthewomentakingthelead,therewouldhavebeennostrike.Whenwomenoncerealizedtheenormouspowertheyhadtheywouldriseupandmaketheirownlivesandtheworldwhattheywished(loud
applause).99
Kasturbaandhercomradeshadspenteightweeksinjail.Unfortunately,whereasGandhiwroteinmuchdetailofhisvariousprisonterms,hiswifeleftnorecordofherordeal.Howdidshecopewiththisradicallynewexperience?Sinceherfellowsatyagrahisincludedhernephews’wives,atleastshehadsomepeopletospeakGujaratiwith.Inotherrespectslifewouldhavebeenaltogetherdifferent,andmuchharder,thanwhatshehadbeenaccustomedtoinPorbandar,Rajkot,JohannesburgandPhoenix.ThefoodinSouthAfricanjailswasuniformlybad.Asavegetarian,Kasturbahadtomakedowiththeterriblemealiepap.Hersentencealsoincluded‘hardlabour’,whichtooktheformofwashingclothesintheprisoncourtyard.100
MilliePolaksalutedKasturba’sspirit;herhusband,meanwhile,wasshockedatthestateofherhealth.‘MrsGandhidischargedprisonalmostirrecognisablyalteredowingrefusalspecialdiet’,PolakwiredGokhale.‘Reducedskeletontotteringappearanceoldwomanheartbreakingsight.’101
Between21and28December,GandhiandGokhalewiredeachotheronceortwiceaday.GokhalesaidtheboycottoftheCommissionwouldbea‘gravemistake’,alienatingfriendsandsympathisers,andforgoingthechancetopresentevidenceofcrueltytoIndians.Gandhiansweredthathewas‘besiegedbypeopleallday’protestingagainsttheCommissionandcallingforamarchonPretoria.Gokhalesaidbothboycottandmarchwouldconstitutea‘greatpersonalhumiliation’totheViceroy.GokhalehadpersuadedLordHardingetodeputeaseniorcivilservantnamedSirBenjaminRobertsonastherepresentativeoftheGovernmentofIndiatotheCommission.EvenifGandhipersistedwithaboycott,SirBenjaminwouldconveyhisconcernstothebody.102
Gokhale’scounselprevailed.Speakingtoreportersonthe29th,Gandhisaidthat‘attherequestoffriends’hehadpostponedthemarchtoPretoria.Theywould‘waituntilweknowthatwehaveleftnostoneunturnedtoarriveatahonourablesettlement’.103
GokhalehadaskedGandhitoberestrained;ontheotherside,SmutswasurgedtobemagnanimousbytheBritishsocialreformerEmilyHobhouse.AQuakerbyreligiousconviction,HobhousehadendearedherselftotheGeneralduringtheAnglo-BoerWar.Inthefirsthalfof1901shetravelledthroughSouthAfrica,documentingtheharshtreatmentofBoerprisonersofwar.ShereturnedtoEnglandtopresentherfindingsbeforetheBritishpublic,beforetakingashipbacktocontinueherinvestigations.HercriticismshadsoangeredBritishcolonists,that–inastrikingrepriseofGandhi’sownexperienceinDurbanin1896–7–shehadnotbeenallowedtolandinCapeTown.104
Inthelatterpartof1913EmilyHobhousewasbackinSouthAfrica,whereshecontactedGandhi.Theywereintroducedbyacommonfriend,ElizabethMolteno.ThedaughterofthefirstprimeministeroftheCapeColony,BettyMoltenohadleftSouthAfricaindisgustfollowingtheAnglo-BoerWar.ShehadmetGandhiinLondonin1909,returningfromexilesoonafterwards.InDecember1913,afterGandhiandKasturbawerereleasedfromprison,
BettyMoltenotravelledfromCapeTowntoNataltomeetthem.Shewasmoved
bytheirstoriesofjaillife,andbythecross-classsupportforthesatyagraha.ShepassedonherimpressionstoEmilyHobhouse,urginghertopresstheIndiancaseonSmuts.MissHobhousewassympathetic,notleastbecauseseveralmembersofherfamilyhadservedinIndia,andbackhomeinEnglandshehadfriendsfromthesubcontinent.FromMilliePolakonthroughSonjaSchlesin,MaudPolakandbeyond,
Gandhigotalongwithindependent-mindedWesternwomen.BettyMoltenoandhehadhititofffromtheirfirstmeeting,andsonowdidheandEmilyHobhouse.TheydiscussedtheIndianquestion,ofcourse,butalsoothermatterssuchasthetacticsofthesuffragettesandtherespectivemeritsofcitylifeversusruralliving.MissHobhousehadbeenunwell,soGandhiwroteinvitinghertoPhoenix,where‘thesceneryaroundiscertainlyverycharming’,where‘thereisnobustleornoise’,andwhereshewould‘findlovinghandstoadministertoyourwants’.Nothing,saidGandhitoMissHobhouse,‘wouldgivemepersonallygreaterpleasurethan,ifIwerefree,tobeabletowaituponyouandnurseyou’.105
On29December,MissHobhousewrotetoSmutsassomeonewhowasnot‘SouthAfricanorIndianbutinfullestsympathywithboth’.WhilerecognizingthatwhiteSouthAfricaalready‘hasasmanyIndiansasitcandigest’,shehopedtheGeneralwouldfind‘amodusvivenditosuittheiramourpropre’.Tobeginwith,hecould,shesuggested,‘readjustthemarriagequestionandabolishthatstupid£3tax’.TherewasnowtalkinGandhi’scircleofstartingthemarchtoPretoriaon15
January.Beforethen,saidHobhousetoSmuts,‘somewayshouldbefound[of]givingprivateassurancetotheleadersthatsatisfactioniscomingtothem.’ThegrievanceoftheIndians,shecontinued,
isreallymoralnotmaterialandso,havingallthepowerofthespiritualbehindhim,he[Gandhi]andyouarelike[theBritishsuffragette]MrsPankhurstand[theBritishHomeSecretaryReginald]McKennaandneverneverwillgovernmentalphysicalforceprevailagainstagreatmoraland
spiritualupheaval.106
LikethatotherEnglishfriendofSmuts,theCambridgedonH.J.Wolstenholme,EmilyHobhousewasfarinadvanceofwhiteopinioninSouthAfrica.MorerepresentativewasanarticlepublishedintheNatalAdvertiseron30December,entitled‘ThePoliticalCreedofMrGandhi’.Thepaper‘deemeditwelltoenlightentheSouthAfricanpublic,fromMrGandhi’sownmouth,asto
whatmannerofmanthisis,andwhathisultimatepoliticalcreedisastotherelationsbetweentheBritishandtheIndianpeople’.AstringofquotationsfromGandhi’sbookHindSwarajfollowed,damningmoderncivilizationandBritishruleinIndia.‘AnditisanIndiancapableofthisfaragoofincoherent,inconsequentandhystericalnonsense,’commentedthenewspaper,
whomourUnionGovernmentisnegotiatingwithasarepresentativeoftheconcretedemandsoftheSouthAfricanIndiancommunity!…Thisisthelanguageofacutehypocrisy!IfWesterncivilisationbesoimmoralasMrGandhisays,aBritishDominionshouldbethelastplacehewouldwishhiscompatriotstoenter…AnditisamancapableofusingthislanguagetotheBritishofIndiawhoisposingasamartyrhereinSouthAfricabecausedeniedtheprivilegesofaEuropeanBritish
citizen!107
ThatwasoneviewofGandhi,expressedinpublicbywhitesangryandhumiliatedbytheconsequencesoftherecentuprising.AnotherviewwasexpressedinprivatebyGopalKrishnaGokhale,inaletterwrittentoSirBenjaminRobertsonon31December.‘IdonotthinkyouhavemetMrGandhi,’saidGokhaletotheViceroy’semissarytotheEnquiryCommission:
Heisathoroughlystraightforward,honourableandhigh-mindedmanandthoughhemayattimesappearobstinateandevenfanatical,heisreallyopentoconviction…ThebulkofthecommunitythereisdevotedtoMrGandhiandanyconfidencethatyoumayreposeinhimwillnotonlybeamplyjustifiedbyhimbyhisconduct,butwillberepaidtenfoldbythegratitudewhichitwillinspireinthe
community.108
GandhihimselfstressedwhatheowedtheIndiancommunityinSouthAfrica,notwhattheyowedhim.On31December1913,IndianOpinionprinteditslastissuefortheyear.Thisnotedthatthelastsatyagrahacampaign‘hashardlyaparallelinhistory.TherealcreditforthisgoestotheHindiandTamilspeakingbrothersandsisterslivinginthiscountry.’Tomarktheirsacrifice,andthememoryofthosekilledbysoldiers’bullets,theperiodicalwouldnowresumethepublicationofsectionsinTamilandHindi.109
21
FarewelltoAfrica
On2January,1914,twoEnglishclergymenarrivedinDurbantomeetGandhi.TheirnameswereC.F.AndrewsandW.W.Pearson.BothtaughtatStStephen’sCollegeinDelhi;bothwereassociatesandadmirersofRabindranathTagore.AndrewsinparticularhadidentifiedstronglywiththepeopleofIndia.LikeanIndiansadhuhewascelibate,livedsimply,andcultivatedfriendshipswithawidecross-sectionofsociety.1
C.F.AndrewswasanoldacquaintanceofGokhale’s.AftertheymetataCongresssessionin1906,hewrotetoGokhalethat‘ifatanytimethereisanywayyoucansuggestinwhichIcanhelpthenationalcauseyouknowhowgladIshallbetodosoifitiswithinmypower.’2Gokhalerememberedthispromise,andsomeyearslaterdecidedtoredeemit.InDecember1913,whenGandhiandcompanywerestillinjail,heaskedAndrewsandPearsontogoouttoSouthAfricatomediatebetweentheIndiansandtheGovernment.IntroducingthemtoAlbertWestofthePhoenixSettlement,Gokhaledescribedthemas‘bothgreatfriendsofIndia’.3
Andrewswasa‘non-official’mediator.HisofficialcounterpartwasSirBenjaminRobertson,thecivilservantdeputedbytheViceroytorepresenttheGovernmentofIndia.RobertsonwasbriefedbyGokhale,whosenthimcopiesofIndianOpinionforthemiddlemonthsof1913,whichshowed‘thateverypossibleeffortwasmadebyMrGandhitoarriveatasettlementbeforeresumingthestruggle’.Gokhalethenlisted,forRobertson’sbenefit,thefivemajordemandsoftheIndiansinSouthAfrica,namely,theremovalofracialhandicapsintheimmigrationlaw;therestorationoftherightofSouthAfricabornIndianstoenterCapeProvince;theabolitionofthe£3tax;therecognitionofmonogamousmarriagesperformedundertheritesofIndianreligions;and,finally,amoregenerousandsympatheticadministrationofalllawsconcerningIndians.Gokhalerecalledtheassurancegivenhimin1912thatthe£3taxwould
berepealed,andsaidthatwithoutarecognitionofHinduandMuslimmarriages,‘thepositionofIndianwomeninSouthAfricacannotbehonourable.’4
WhenC.F.AndrewsandW.W.PearsonarrivedinDurban,thelocalIndianshostedareceptionintheirhonour.HereAndrewsspokewith‘deepfeeling’aboutthewidespreadsympathyinIndiawiththeirsufferings.A‘profoundimpressionwascausedwhenMrAndrewsrecited,withbeautifulaccentandeffect,aSanskritmantra,whichwasgiventohimasamessagetoSouthAfricanIndiansbythepoetTagore.’5SoreportedtheNatalMercury,whereasIndianOpinionhighlightedthesongssunginthevisitor’shonourbyGandhi’soldschoolmateSheikhMehtab.Thetwowerenowquitereconciled,withtheerstwhilesportsman,meat-eaterandbrothelvisitorhavingbecomeasingerandpassiveresister.ThesongsrenderedatthisDurbanreception,reportedIndianOpinion,had‘beenspeciallycomposedbyMrShaikhMehtabasatributetothedevotionofMessrs.AndrewsandPearsontotheIndiancause’.6
AlsopresentatthemeetingwasGandhi’sfriendfromCapeTown,BettyMolteno.AtthisIndianwelcomefortheirEnglishvisitors,shespokeofadeeperhumanitythatwouldovercomedivisionsofraceandgender.‘AftertheBoerWar,’saidMissMolteno,
IsawthatBoerandBritonwouldhavetounite,butwouldtheytrytodoitatthecostoftheirdarkbrothers?Broken-heartedIwenttoEngland.ForeightlongyearsIremainedawayfromAfrica–inbody–neverinsoulandspirit.AndEnglandandEuropehavesentmebackwiththismessagetowhiteSouthAfrica:‘Openyourhearts–yoursouls-toyourbrethrenofcolour’.Weareinthe20thcentury.Risetotheheightsofthisgloriouscentury.TrytocomprehendthewordsofDuBois–thatgrandandsympatheticsoul:‘The20thcenturywillbethecenturyofcolour.’AndIsayitisalsothecenturyofthewoman.She,too,isdivineandsupreme.She,too,mustplayherGod-appointedpart–
andinthis20thcenturyherpartwillbeagreatone.7
ThemorningaftertheDurbanmeeting,theclergymenwentoffwithGandhitoPhoenix.DespiteAndrews’arrival,Gandhiwasnothopefulofasettlement.HehadyieldedtoGokhale’spleaandcalledoffthemarchtoPretoria;now,giventhecharacteroftheEnquiryCommission,hewantedsatyagrahatoresume.Amongthevolunteerswhowouldhavetocourtarrestwashiseldestson.‘SubjectyoursanctionfeelHarilalshouldcome,’GandhiwiredGokhale.‘Hevowedseestrugglethroughasresister.Shouldbepermittedfulfilobligation.Myopiniongaolotherexperiencessubstantialeducation.’8
Thiswire,senton3January,isbestreadinjuxtapositionwithalettersentthenextdaytohissecondson.Manilalwasservingasentenceofthreemonthsinprison;heawaitedreleasependingaformalamnesty.HisfathersaidthatonhisdischargehemustcomestraighttoPhoenixtoseeKasturbaandhimself.‘Ramdasislookingwellandhasdonewell,’wroteGandhi.‘Dev[a]dashasprovedahero.Hehasdevelopedasenseofresponsibilitywhichwasunexpected.’9Thereisanotehereofquietpridewithregardtothegrowingclosenessofthefamilyduringthecampaign.Thefatherasleader;themotherasapioneeringwomanresister;thesecondandthirdsonsassatyagrahisthemselves;theyoungestson,onlytwelve,whocouldnotgotojailbutplayedhispartinkeepingPhoenixgoing–allhadacquittedthemselveshonourably.OnlyHarilalwasinIndiaandoutofitaltogether.GandhihadforsometimewantedHarilalbackinSouthAfrica.Inlate
DecemberhehadcabledhissontotakeashiptoDurban.Thatcableislost,butitscontentscanbeguessedatfromonesentbyGokhaletoGandhi,whichread:‘YoursonHarilalsawmeBombay,toldmeyouhadaskedhimreturnSouthAfricaimmediatelyrejoinstruggle.IhavetakenonmyselfresponsibilityaskinghimremainIndiaandcontinuestudies.Forgivemyintervention.’10
Theinterventionwasdisregarded.ThusGandhi’scableof3January,whichGokhalepassedontoHarilalhimself.HarilalwrotebackfromthefamilyhomeinRajkot,wherehethenwas.HeaskedaboutGokhale’shealth–reportedtobeindifferent–offeringhisownprayer‘thatyoumaysoonbeoutofbedandbeworkingagain’.‘Beforereadingthenewsofyourhealth,’wroteHarilal,
myfriendsandmeallhereinourhouseusedalwaystochatawaywithmuchéclataboutyouandtheS[outh]A[frican]struggle…Inoticemyfather’sreplytoyourcable.IadmitIpromisedmyfatherandotherstoreturntorejointhestruggleifnecessary.Iwillnotrefusetokeepit.IshallgoifImust,thoughIcertainlyfeelthatmyeducationisbeinghampered.Asitis,itisafteralonginterruptionofsixyearsthatIhaveagaincometoIndiaforUniversityeducation.HoweverIshallleaveforS[outh]
A[frica]inaboutafortnight.11
Harilal’sletterwaswritteninafirm,clearhand,andindirectandeconomicalprose.Theformbarelymaskedthecontents,whichareofayoungmandeeplytornbetweentheexpectationsofhisfatherandhisownhopesanddesires.GokhalewasmovedbyHarilal’spredicamentinperson;andmustsurelyhavebeenmovedbyhisletter,whoseapparentwillingnesstocatchashiptoDurbanishedgedandqualifiedinsuchtellingways.Asithappens,Harilaldidnotreturn
toSouthAfrica.Wedonotknowwhy–whetherGokhalewroteagaintoGandhipleadingonbehalfoftheboy,whetherGandhihimselfchosenottopressthepoint,whetherHarilaldecidedtofollowhisowninstinctsratherthanhisfather’scommand.
TheclergymanvisitingfromIndia,C.F.Andrews,wasoneofnature’sreconcilers.AtPhoenixheprevaileduponGandhitomeetSmutstoseekacompromise.Thealwayscomplicated,fraughtrelationsbetweenthetwohadrecentlygonethroughaverybitterphase.Throughthemassmarchacrosstheborder,GandhihadmountedanopenchallengetoSmuts.TheGeneralhadrespondedbyputtinghistormentorinjail.PressedbytheImperialandIndianGovernments,Smutsreleasedhim.ThentheyexchangedsharplettersabouttheconstitutionoftheEnquiryCommittee.Now,GandhiwaspersuadedbyAndrews(actingonGokhale’sbehalf)thatit
wastimetotalktoSmutsagain.On6January,‘muchtohissurprise’,theGeneralreceivedaletterfromGandhiaskingforanappointment.12
SmutssaidhecouldmeetGandhioneitherFridaythe9thorSaturdaythe10th.GandhiandAndrewsreachedPretoriaonthe8th,tobemetfirstbyareporter,whowasstruckbytheIndian’s‘extraordinaryappearance,withhisshavenhead,hismourningsuitofunbleachedcalicoandhisbarefeet’.13
Meanwhile,anationwidestrikeofwhiteworkershadbrokenout,forcingtheGeneral’sattentioninthatdirection.AndrewswasimpressedbyGandhi’s‘gentlemanlyconduct’,ashewaitedpatientlywhileSmuts‘puthimoffagainandagainonaccountoftheGeneralStrike’.Theyhadabriefmeetingonthe13th,when,asAndrewsreported,Gandhi‘wassokindlyandcourteousthattheoldrelationofrespectbetweenthemgraduallycamebackagain’.14
Onthe14th,inaconversationofsecondsasitwere,C.F.AndrewsmettheGovernor-General,LordGladstone.Theclergyman‘impressedmefavourably,’reportedGladstone,notleastbecauseheseemedto‘haveanexceptionallyintimateacquaintancewiththeworkingofMrGandhi’smind’.Andrewssaidthetwomaindemandsthatmustbemetweretheabolitionofthe£3taxandtherecognitionofIndianmarriages.Thesehadbeenpromisedbytheleadertohisincreasinglymilitantfollowers,andwerenon-negotiable.‘NothingcouldshakeMrGandhionmattersofconscience,’remarkedAndrews.Heremindedthe
Governor-Generalofhow,inJohannesburgin1908,Gandhihadbeenassaultedandnearlykilled‘becauseaftertakingavowhehadcometoanagreement’withtheGovernment.AcapitulationonthosetwopointswouldmakeGandhivulnerabletoanotherattemptonhislife.15
GandhimetSmutsforalongerconversationonthe16th.Heasked,inadditiontotherepealofthetaxandtherecognitionofmarriages,fortheentryofSouthAfricanIndiansintotheCape,andfortheremovalofanovertracialbarinthelawsoftheFreeState.(ThelogicofallowingfreeentryintotheCapewasthat,likeNatal,itwasoriginallyaBritishcolony,withgreaterandolderobligationstoBritishimperialsubjectsthanTransvaalortheOrangeFreeState.)Smutswassympathetic,butrequestedGandhitostatetheseissuesinfrontoftheEnquiryCommission,who,inturn,couldthenformallyrecommendthesechangestotheGovernment.GandhiansweredthattheycouldnotgobacknowontheirboycottoftheCommission.ReportingthisinterviewtotheColonialOffice,LordGladstonesaid:GeneralSmutshasshownamostpatientandconciliatorytemper.Inspiteofaseriesofconflictsextendingovermanyyears,heretainsasympatheticinterestinMrGandhiasanunusualtypeofhumanity,whosepeculiarities,howeverinconvenienttheymaybetotheMinister,arenotdevoidofattractiontothestudent…ItisnoeasytaskforaEuropeantoconductnegotiationswithMrGandhi.Theworkingsofhisconscienceareinscrutabletotheoccidentalmindandproducecomplicationsinwhollyunexpectedplaces.Hisethicalandintellectualattitude,basedasitappearstobeonacuriouscompoundofmysticismandastuteness,bafflestheordinaryprocessesofthought.Nevertheless,a
tolerablypracticalunderstandinghasbeenreached.16
GandhiandAndrewsreturnedtoDurban.LettersandphonecallspassedbetweenPhoenixandPretoria,withSmutsassuringGandhithatheneedfeel
noseriousapprehensionsastotheprobablenatureoftheCommission’srecommendationsonhisfourpointsandastotheGovernment’sintentions,butheshouldpromisenottorevivepassiveresistanceuntiltheCommissionhadreportedandtheGovernmenthadbeengivenanopportunityofactingon
thereport.17
GandhialsohadseverallongmeetingswithSirBenjaminRobertson,whichfocusedonthemarriagequestion.HesaidtheCommission,andthelaw,shouldrecognizeasvalidalldefactomonogamousmarriagescelebratedanywhereinthepast.Monogamousmarriagescontractedinthefuturecouldbesolemnizedbeforeapriestand,ifrequired,registered.Thisanteriorrecognition,said
Gandhi,wascrucial;otherwisethechildrenofsuchunionswereindangerofbeingstigmatizedas‘illegitimate’.Gandhifurtheraskedthatwiveswhoweredefactomonogamousbeadmitted
intoSouthAfrica;andthatexistingpluralwivesofIndianswhohadrightsofresidenceinSouthAfricaberegistered.TheGovernmentwasespeciallyworriedaboutthelegitimacyaccordedbyIndianfaithstopolygamy.Gandhiarguedthatanacceptanceofhisproposals‘astolegalrecognitionofdefactomonogamousunionsenablestheStatetopopularisemonogamytoanextenthithertounknown’inSouthAfrica.18
ThecourseofthenegotiationswithSmutsandotherswerereportedtoGokhaleinalongandintenselyfeltletterwrittentohimbyC.F.Andrews.ThisstressedGandhi’sgoodnessofcharacter,butalsothefragilityofhisnerves,onedgeasaconsequenceofthecriseshehadfacedthesepastfewmonths.AshewasnegotiatingwithSmuts,Kasturbaagainfellill,whilehisoldrivalsP.S.AiyarandM.C.AngliahaddecidedtorenegeontheboycottandtestifytotheCommission.WhentheGeneral’sletteroutliningthesettlementcame,Gandhiwas‘terriblyexcitedandsaidthatfromfirsttolasttheletterwasastudiedinsult’.Andrewswasnow‘indespair’.Gandhihadexpectedapersonalletter,correspondingwiththefriendlinessoftheinterviews.Whathegotwasamissiveinneutral,evenofficiouslanguage.Goingoverthecommunicationsentencebysentence,Andrews‘sawatlastwheretheoneomissionlay.ItlayinGeneralSmutsnotrecognizingthehonourablenessofMrGandhi’smotives.’ThepriestwentuptomeetSmutsoncemore,andhadaclauseinsertedthatsatisfiedGandhi’shonour.Ithadbeenaclose-runthing,wroteAndrewstoGokhale,whichhehad
recountedindetailasitboreonGandhi’sownfutureandthefutureoftheIndiansinSouthAfrica.InamagisterialanalysisofGandhi’spersonality,Andrewsobserved,
HisworkinS.Africaisdone–andnoblydone:andthistimeitwasveryneartoacollapse.Everyoneheresaysheis‘playedout’.Polak,Kallenbach,Ritch,etc.–Allsaythesame.Hemustgo,bothforhisownsakeandforthecommunity’s.Yes!Forthecommunity’s:forifhestaysonhewilldwarfeveryoneelseandtherewillbenoleadershereforatleastanothergeneration.Itispainfully,palpablyevidentalready:anditwillbemoreevidentstillinayear’stime,ifhedoesnotgo.Letthishonourablesettlementbereachedandthenimmediatelywithoutamoment’sdelaylethimgotoIndiaandbewithyouoratoneoftheServantofIndiaHouses.Itispitifultoseehimhereatwork.Hedoeseverything–hewilldoeverything:andpeoplesimplygettoleanonhimmoreandmoreandthe
selfishonestakeadvantageofhisgoodness.Hegetsintothewayofgivinghastyorderswithoutcarefulthinking(havingtosettlesomanyaffairs)andwhenitcomestothebigthingsonwhichthewholeissueisstakedagainandagainlatelyhehasactedorthoughthastily…Heisoneofthebestmenintheworld!…Hehasmadethenoblestfightthathasbeenmadeforyears,andIcannotbeartothinkthatitshouldallendinsomegreatandhugemistakemadeinhaste…butpersistedinbecause
ofaminddistractedoroutworn.19
Thisisaperceptiveletter,showing(paceLordGladstone)thatatleastoneEuropeanunderstoodthemindandmethodsof(themystical)MrGandhi.ThesepastmonthshadbeenincrediblyintenseforGandhi.Planningforthesatyagrahawithoutknowingwherethevolunteersorfundswouldcomefrom;courtingarrestandthespellinjail;theillnessofhiswifeandthestillproblematicrelationshipwithhiseldestson;thedifficultandstillunresolvednegotiationswithhisoldadversary;indeedthewholequestionofwhetherornotheshouldevenremaininSouthAfrica–alltheseissuesagonizedandtroubledhim.Andhewouldyetrideallthehorses–‘hedoeseverything–hewilldoeverything’,asAndrewsputit,theaccumlatedstressmakinghisfriendsfearfulthathemightbeheadedforabreakdown.
ThroughoutJanuary,batchesofpassiveresisterswerereleasedfromprison.Theyweremetatthejailgatesbytheircomrades,andthenconveyedtoreceptionsinDurban.WhenMrsSheikhMehtabandhermotherwerereleasedon12January,MaganlalGandhiandhiswifewereathandtoreceivethem.EightdayslateritwastheturnofMrsThambiNaidooandherfellowTamilstobefreed.TheladiesweretakenfromtheDurbanprisontoParseeRustomjee’sstoreonFieldStreet,wheretheyweregarlandedandfedwithhome-cookedfood.Theirstoicismandsacrificewassalutedinspeechesmadeby,amongothers,HenryandMilliePolak,andSonjaSchlesin.SongsofpraiseweresungbySheikhMehtabandhispupilsinHindustani,andbytheMoodleysisters,inTamil.20
InthesecondweekofFebruaryGandhicamedowntoCapeTownwithKasturbaandC.F.Andrews.TheHinducoupleandtheirChristianfriendstayedwithaMuslimfamily,theGools.Onthe14th,AndrewsgavealectureonthelifeandworkofRabindranathTagoreattheTownHall.TheGovernor-General,LordGladstone,presided.Amongthe‘large[and]distinguishedaudience’weresomeMembersofParliament.ThepointofAndrews’talkwastodemonstratethat
Indiawasnotmerelyalandof‘coolies’butalsoof‘nobleideals’.Heexpressedthe‘warmestappreciationofhigherIndianlifeandthought’,asrepresentedparticularlybyTagore.21
TheconflictinSouthAfricawasnotmentioned,butAndrewsclearlyhaditinmindwhenstressingTagore’suniversalism,hiscapacitytoriseaboveparochialidentitiesoflanguageandrace.Thepoet’swork,heargued,offeredthehopethat
inthehigherphasesoflifeandthoughtEastandWestmaybecomewhollyandintimatelyone…[Where]thedisruptiveforcesandjealousrivalriesofraceandcolourandintolerantcreeds,ofcommerceandtradeandpartypolitics,aresoseeminglystrongandoutwardlypowerful,itisindeednosmallblessingtomankind,ifevenasinglevoicecanbeheardabovetheirdiscordanttumult,speakingamessagewhichEastandWestalikeacknowledgetobetrueandgreat…[The]sovereigntyofthepoetisnoshadowything.Itisalreadyheraldingthedownfallofancienttyrannies
andthecominginofnewworldforceswhichmakeforpeace.22
On19February,theIndiansofCapeTownthrewafarewellpartyforC.F.Andrews.TheguestofhonourwastheliberalMPW.P.Schreiner,whosalutedthepriestasarepresentativeof‘theentirebrotherhoodofhumanity’.So,ofcourse,wasthespeakerhimself.Andrews’sblindnesstomattersofracewasrareenoughamongwhitemeninBritishIndia,buttrulyexceptionalinSchreiner’sSouthAfrica.AndrewshimselfspokebothinHindustaniandEnglish.Hehadpennedalast
messageforthenewspapers,whichthankedSouthAfricansfortheirhospitality,andobservedthattheatmosphereregardingtheIndianquestionhad‘wonderfullychanged’inrecentweeks.Thecreditforthischangehegaveto‘MrGandhi’schivalrousattitude’and‘GeneralSmuts’greatconsiderateness’.Hemodestlyomittedtomentionhisownreconcilingrole.23
AndrewsleftbytheSSBritonon21February.Fivedayslater,hesentGandhialettersuffusedwithloveandregard.When‘Isawyouonthewharfstandingwithhandsraisedinprayerandbenediction,’hewrote,‘Iknew,asIhadnotknown,eveninPretoria,howvery,verydearyouhadbecometomeandIgazedandgazedandthesadnessgrewuponmeandeventhethoughtthatIwasonmywaytoIndiacouldnotovercomeit.’Later,whenhefeltseasick,hewasconsoledbythememoryofhisfriend,of
thisnewgiftinmylifewhichGodhadgivenme;anditmademesohappy,Mohan,evenwhileIwasinutterphysicalmisery,–justtothinkofitandrememberit!…SomehowIdidn’tquiteknowhowmuchyouhadlearnttolovemetillthatmorningwhenyouputyourhandonmyshoulderandspokeofthelonelinessthattherewouldbetoyouwhenIwasgone.
InthesixweeksthatGandhiandAndrewshadspentineachother’scompany,theyhadcometobesoulmates.Theword,orcliché,isinescapable,andapposite.ThesewerebothseekersaftertruthandGod,menofsentimentandconsciencewhosoughtheroicallytoreconcileEastandWest,whiteandbrown,colonizerandcolonized,and,notleast,HinduismandChristianity.Morethanthe£3taxandthemarriagequestionandthepersonalityofGeneralSmuts,theduohaddiscussed–atPhoenix,Pretoria,Johannesburg,CapeTown–themultiplepathstoGod.Thus,afteritsintimateandemotionallychargedprologue,Andrews’lettermovedontomattersoffaith.HismonthwithGandhihadinspiredhimtowriteabookonthecomparativehistoryofreligion,onhowthe‘persistentvoiceofconscience’had‘becomemarvellouslydevelopedandexpressedinthetwogreatraceswhichpossessedreligiousgenius,–theSemiticandtheIndo-Aryan’.Thewritingofthisbookwouldmean‘alonelypilgrimage’,because–nodoubtundertheinfluenceofhisnewHindufriend–itwouldmean‘givingupclaimsfortheChristianpositionwhicheveryoneintheWestwhomIknowandlove…couldnotconceiveofdoing’.24
Shortlyafterhisnewfriendhadleft,aletterarrivedforGandhifromhisoldestfriend,PranjivanMehta.ThisaskedforareceiptforMehta’scontributionsin1913–amountingtotheconsiderablesumofRs32,000–andadded:‘Ihopethe[proposed]newBill[embodyingtheagreementbetweenGandhiandSmuts]hasmitigatedyourhardships.’25Leftunspokenwastheother(andgreater)hope,solongandsopassionatelyheldbyMehta,thathisfriendwouldnowmovebacktoIndiaandpreparetotakechargeofthepoliticalmovementthere.TherehadbeenseveraloccasionsinthepastwhenGandhihadbeenonthe
vergeofreturninghome.InOctober1901heleftDurbanwithhisfamily,inhiseyesforgood.Alittleoverayearlater,hewasbroughtbacktonegotiatetherightsofSouthAfricanIndiansinthepost-Warsettlement.Hecame,hopinghowevertoreturnassoonashepossiblycould.InSeptember1904heofferedacompromisesolutiontoLordMilner,ahalfwayhousebetweentheextremedemandsoftheWhiteLeaguersandthoseofthemoreradicalIndians.Hadthisbeenaccepted,GandhiwouldhaverejoinedKasturbaandthechildren,andhadathirdtryatestablishinghimselfintheBombayHighCourt.
WhenMilnerrebuffedhim,GandhiaskedthefamilytojoinhiminJohannesburginstead.In1906and1909hevisitedLondontolobbyfortherightsoftheIndiancommunity;oneitheroccasion,hadtheirdemandsbeenmethewouldhavereturnedtoIndia.Inthesummerof1911heoncemorehadstronghopesthatSmutswouldacquiescetotheirmaindemands.That,too,wasnottobe–soafreshroundofsatyagrahawaslaunched.Now,finally,ahonourablesettlementwasabouttobeinkedintolaw–andtheGandhiscouldfulfilPranjivanMehta’sdeepestdesireandgobacktotheirhomeland.Backin1911,preparingforhiseventualdeparturefromSouthAfrica,Gandhi
hadhandedoverhispracticeinJohannesburgtoL.W.Ritch.TheninMay1913,HenryPolakmovedtoDurban,openinganofficeonSmithStreet,wherehemetclientsaswellassubscriberstoIndianOpinion.26Gandhi’shopenowwasthatsincehehadarrangedforexperiencedhandstorepresentthecommunity,he–whohadcometoSouthAfricatosettleasingledispute,stayingon,withinterruptions,fortwodecades–couldfinallyreturntoIndiahimself.InthelastweekofFebruary1914,GandhiwrotetoGokhalethatheplanned
todepartinAprilwithhisfamily,andwithsomeboysfromthePhoenixSchool.Hismentorhadboundhimtoavowofsilenceonpoliticalmatters,operativeforafullyearafterhisreturntoIndia.Thatvowhewould‘scrupulouslyobserve’.His‘presentambition’,hetoldGokhale,wasto‘bebyyoursideasyournurseandattendant.IwanttohavetherealdisciplineofobeyingsomeonewhomIloveandlookupto.IknowImadeabadsecretaryinSouthAfrica.IhopetodobetterintheMotherlandifIamaccepted.’27
GandhiwasstillinCapeTown,inpartbecausehewishedtobeathandwhilethereportoftheEnquiryCommissionwasfinalized,andinpartbecauseKasturbawasveryill.Shecouldnotsitwithoutsupport,andcouldnoteatsolidfoodeither.Grapesandorangejuicewerehermainsustenance.Gandhiwasanxiousaboutthesettlement,andanxiousabouthiswife’shealth.Shehaddeveloped‘ominousswellings’whosecausethedoctor,theirfriendandhostDr.Gool,couldnotyetlocate.28Kasturbalay‘hangingbetweenlifeanddeath’.ShewasclaimingGandhi’s‘undividedattention’;shewantedhim‘byhersidethewholeday’.Inonetwenty-fourhourperiod,allsheconsumedwasthejuiceoftwotomatoesandateaspoonfulofoil.‘Itseemstome,’wroteGandhitoKallenbach,that‘sheisgraduallysinking.’29
Thesefactorsexplain,butdonotexcuse,theextraordinaryharshnessofaletterGandhiwrotehissonHarilalon2March.‘Ihaveyourletter,’hebegan.‘Youapologizeineveryletterofyoursandputupadefenceaswell.Itallseemstomesheerhypocrisynow.Foryears,youhavebeenslackinwritingletters,andthencomeforwardwithapologies.Willthisgoonuntildeath,Iforgivingeverytime.’GandhiwentontocompareHarilalwithhisbrothers.‘Youviolateallthe
conditionsIhadmadeandyoupromisedtofulfil,’hecomplained:Youwereneveraskedtogoinforstudiesatthecostofyourhealth.Youhavefailedtotakecareofit.NowonderthatRamdasandManilalhaveoutdoneyou.AndRamdashasputinafineeffort,indeed,andgrowninsizeaswell.Manilal,too,hasplentyofstrengthandwouldhavebeenstrongeryetifhehadnottakentotheevilwaysofpleasure[withJekiMehta].EventheirstudiesItaketobesounderthanyours.
HarilalhadexpressedadesiretogotoBombaytocontinuehisstudies.Inthatcase,saidGandhi,hemustleavehiswifeChanchiandchildreninGujarat.‘Weighingmyadviceagainstthatofothers,’concludedGandhi,‘dowhatyouthinkbest.Iamafatherwhoisprejudicedagainstyou.Idonotapproveofyourwaysatall.Idoubtwhetheryouhaveanyloveforus.Thisstatementsoundsveryharsh,butIseeextremeinsincerityinyourletters.’30
GandhisentHarilal’slettertoManilal.‘Thinkoverthewretchedstatehehasbeenreducedto,’heremarked.‘Thefaultisnothis,butmine.Duringhischildhood,Ifollowedawayoflifenonetoostrictinitsruleandheisstillunderitsinfluence.Tearofftheletterafterreadingit.’Theprejudicedfatherhopedthatthesecondsonwouldmakeupforthedeficenciesofhisbrother.Oncetheyreturned,saidGandhitoManilal,‘ItismydesiretoseeyouesteemedinIndiaasabrahmachariofahighorder,yourconductsonaturallywell-disciplinedthatitcannotbutproduceanimpressiononothers.Thiswillrequirehardwork,studyandpurityinyou.’31
BythesecondweekofMarch,Kasturba’shealthhadimproved.Gandhiattributedtherecoverytohisownmethodsofhealing.Therewasspeculationthattheswellinginherstomachmightbecancerous.Gandhibelievedthatcancer‘neveryieldstomedicaltreatmentbutitmustyieldtofastingtreatmentifthepatienthasstamina’.32Heputhiswifeonanextendedfast,feedingheronlywithneemleavesinwater.Thepaininherstomacheased.Shecouldnowsitup,andeat.‘Ifshesurvives,’hetoldhisnephewMaganlal,‘takeitforcertainthatour
[nature-cure]remediesandfaithinGodhavesavedher.Shehascometorealizethatthedoctor’smedicinewasthecauseofherbreakdown.’33
Kasturba’slifewasnolongerindanger,butnowherhusband’slifewas.WordthattheEnquiryCommissionwouldonlyrecognizemonogamousmarriageshadreachedtheMuslimmerchantsintheTransvaal.ThesemerchantshadbroughtGandhitoSouthAfrica;theyhadfundedhisearlycampaigns;manyofthemhadgonetojailunderhisleadership.Butrecognitionoftherightofamantohavemultiplewiveswasacentralarticleoftheirfaith.NowtheyaccusedGandhiofbetrayingtheirinterests,and,morecrucially,theirreligion.InearlyMarch,GandhiheardthathisbrotherLaxmidashadpassedawayin
Porbandar.Hehadbeensickforsometime.Althoughtheyhadnotmetformorethanadecade,inrecentyearstheyhadbecomesomewhatreconciled.GandhihadforgivenorforgottentheintriguethatgotthefamilyintotroubleinPorbandarin1891.LaxmidashadgloriedinthepopularacclaimhisyoungerbrotherwasreceivinginIndiafortheworkhewasdoinginSouthAfrica.34
Gandhi’sotherbrother,Karsandas,haddiedthepreviousJune.Preoccupiedwiththesatyagraha,hedidnotcommentinpubliconeitherdeath;butheknewnowthathewouldgobacktoaIndiabereftofhisparentsandhisbrotherstoo.OnlyhissisterRaliat,herselfawidow,stillsurvived.On11March,GandhiwrotetohisnephewChhaganlalthathehadheardthat
‘theyareplottingagaininJohannesburgtotakemylife.Thatwouldindeedbewelcomeandafitendtomywork.’Incasehewaskilled,Gandhileftinstructionsonwhatthefamilymustdo.Theyshouldlivelikefarmersontheland,simply.Gandhihadtoprovideforfivewidows,thesebeinghissister,thewivesofhistwodeadbrothers,andtwootherfamilymembers.IfGandhiwasnowmurderedbyhisenemies,themoneyforthiscouldbetakenfromPranjivanMehta.Overthecourseoftime,however,sonsshouldassumeresponsibilityfortheirwidowedmothers,includingHarilalforKasturba.35
ItwasayoungmannamedMedhwhohadwrittentoGandhiabouttheplottomurderhim.Wedonotknowwhotheplotterswere.ThePathanswhohadassaultedandnearlykilledhimin1908?Andweretheytoactontheirownorasmercenariesofthemerchants?Howactivewastheplotinanycase?HadMedhdrawnhastyconclusionsfromwordsspokeninanger?WhatwedoknowistherewereincreasingconcernsinJohannesburgaboutwhattheCommissionwould
sayonthemarriagequestion.InthelastweekofMarch,a‘largelyattendedmeetingrepresentingallsectionsofMohammedansintheTransvaal’tookplaceintheHamidiaHall.Gandhihadoftenspokenheretoappreciativeandevenadmiringcrowds.Butthistimehewas,sotospeak,anabsentpresence.Themeetingresolvedthat‘therecommendationofrecognisingonewifeonlyandherchildren…ifcarriedout,willmolestandviolatetheprincipleofoursacredreligion.’Themeetingfurthermade‘itknowntowhomitmayconcernthatMessrsGandhi,PolakandtheirassociateshavenorightorauthoritywhatsoevertorepresenttheMoslemcommunityoranymattersconcerningthem.’36
InthelastweekofMarch,thereportoftheEnquiryCommissionwaspublished.ItwasambivalentaboutGandhi,acknowledgingthathewas‘therecognisedleaderoftheIndiancommunity’,butregrettingthatheandhisfollowerschose‘entirelytoignoretheCommission’,sothatnowitnessescameforwardtosubstantiatetheallegationsoftheexcessiveuseofforceagainstthestrikers.Compelledtorelyontheevidenceofthepolice,theCommissionconcludedthatintheplaceswheremeninuniformhadshotbulletsintocrowds,‘theuseoffirearmswasfullyjustified’.OtherrecommendationsoftheCommissionweremorecomfortingtothe
Indians.ItaskedtheGovernmenttopasslegislationthatwould,amongotherthings,allowIndianresidentsinSouthAfricatobringinonewifeandminorchildrenbyher;permittheappointmentofIndianpriestsofdifferentdenominationstosolemnizemarriagesinSouthAfrica;registerdefactomonogamousmarriagesalreadyinexistence;repealthe£3taxappliedannuallyonIndiansinNatal;issueidentificationcertificatesforthreeyearsatatime(ratherthanforoneyear,theexistingpractice);andtoprovideinterpreterstoassistIndiansinmakingapplicationstoregistermarriages,obtaincertificates,etc.37
Gandhiwaspleasedwiththereport,whosepromptnessjustifiedhisboycott.HadtheIndiansgivenevidence,heargued,thentheEuropeanswouldhaveinsistedondoinglikewise,andthereportwouldhavebeendelayedbymonths.Indiansandwhiteswouldhaveexchangedbitterwordsinpublic,anditwould‘nothavebeenpossibleforMrAndrewstodowhathedid,sowingtheseedsofconciliationsosilentlyandwithsuchdeeploveandhumility’.Inanycase,the
Commission’srecommendationsonthe£3taxandmarriagequestion‘couldnotpossiblyhavebeenbetterevenifwehadtenderedvoluminousevidence’.HenowhopedthattheGovernmentwouldmeetIndiandemandsintheCapeandtheFreeState.38
ThefavourablerecommendationsoftheEnquiryCommissionwerenotedinthepressinIndia,whichgavethecredittothepassiveresisters.Sadhva,aKannadaweeklypublishedinMysore,publishedastrikingpaeantothedistinctivenessofGandhi’spoliticalmethod.Thus
notaswordwasdrawn,notagunfired…MrGandhimerelydefiedtheunjustlawsoftheSouthAfricanGovernment,agitatedfortheirremoval,evenwenttojail,andrenewedhiscampaignofpassiveresistancethemomenthewasreleased.Inthismannerheraisedanuproaragainsttheiriniquitiesandfinallyforcedthemtotherightpath.Heperformed,sotospeak,theobsequiesofunrighteousness.HistoryhasitsheroesinmenofthetypeofAlexandertheGreatwhosefameismeasuredbythehavocanddevastationtheycaused,butheroismofthetypedisplayedbyMrGandhi
inmakinginiquity’sdefeatitsownendiswithoutaparallel.39
InearlyMaytheGandhiswerebackatPhoenix,whereKasturba’shealthcontinuedtoimprove.‘Ifherprogresscontinues,’wroteherhusbandtoGokhale,‘inamonth’stimesheshouldregainmostofherformerhealth.InthatcaseandinanycaseIcouldcometoLondontakingherwithme.Andafterconsultationwithyou,wemaybothproceedtoIndiadirectlyandtherestofthepartymayleavehereafterwehaveleft.’40
GokhalewasspendingthesummerinLondon,aswasC.F.Andrews.Theyhadlongtalks,thegistofwhichwerepassedontoGandhiinDurban.Unlikethepriestandtheascetic,GokhalewasnotaseekerfororafterGod.HetoldAndrewsthat‘hislovefortheMotherland,hisvision,hisabsorptioninitslifeandfuturewastohimreligionitselfandmadetheDivinerealtohim.’PatriotismwasGokhale’sreligion;apatriotismthatdidnotruleoutpartnershipwiththeforeignrulersaslongastheyremainedonIndiansoil.GokhaletoldAndrewsthat‘therewastheneedofthreekindsofnationalwork–thatinconnectionwiththeforeignGovernment,thatinindependenceofit,andthatinoppositiontoit.Andallwereneeded.’HeworriedthatGandhi’sinsistenceonthe‘independence’ofIndiansfromGovernment‘wouldbeastumblingblock’inhisworkingfor,andin,theServantsofIndiaSociety.41
Meanwhile,backatPhoenix,Gandhi’sattentionswereagaindivertedtorumoursofsexualtransgressionattheashram.InmidAprilKasturbatold
GandhithatshesuspectedJekiMehtaofstillharbouringromanticfeelingsforManilal.Gandhidismissedthespeculation.Kasturba,hethought,wasexcessivelyprejudicedagainstPranjivanMehta’sdaughter;shetendedto‘spitfire’onJekiateveryopportunity.KasturbathenaccusedGandhiofshieldingJeki.Heansweredthatshewas
paranoid.Thedisagreementspiralledintoafearfulrow,byallaccountsthemostintensetheGandhishadhadinthethirtyyearsoftheirmarriage.Thehusband’sversion,outlinedinalettertoKallenbach,ran:
Immediatelyshebegantohowl.Ihadmadeherleaveallthegoodfoodinordertokillher.Iwastiredofher,Iwishedhertodie,Iwasahoodedsnake…ThemoreIspokethemoreviciousshebecame…Sheisquitenormaltoday.Butyesterday’swasoneoftherichestlessonsofmylife.Allthechargesshebroughtagainstmesheundoubtledlymeans.Shehascontraryemotions.Ihavenursedherasasonwouldnursehismother.Butmylovehasnotbeensufficientlyintenseandselflesstomakeherchangehernature…Yes,amanwhowishestoworkwithdetachmentmustnotmarry.Icannotcomplainofherbeingaparticularlybadwife…Ontheotherhandnootherwomanwouldprobablyhavestoodthechangesinherhusband’slifeasshehas.Onthewholeshehasnotthwartedmeandhasbeenmostexemplary…Mypointisthatyoucannotattachyourselftoaparticularwomanandyetliveforhumanity.Thetwodonotharmonise.Thatistherealcauseofthedevil
wakinginhernowandagain.Otherwisehemighthaveremainedinherasleepandunnoticed.42
AswithHarilal,Gandhi’srelationswithhiswifeweretestedagainandagainbyhistendencytoplacecareerandcauseabovefamilyandmarriage.Inthiscase,Kasturbawasprotectiveabouthersecondson,andthusinclinedtoblameJekiforherromancewithManilal.Gandhiwasmoreeven-handed,seeingthesonasequallyresponsibleforthetransgression.Thisparticulardisputebroughttotheforeotherdisagreementsthecouplehad
overtheyears.Inhisreflectionsontheirrelationship,Gandhiisdetachedand(toadegree)balanced.WithHarilalhetendedtobemoreone-sided.Theboywasblamed,andblamedagain,fornotlivinguptotheidealsofthefather.Ontheotherhand,thislettertoKallenbach,whileunabletoconcealasenseofimpatiencewithKasturba,seesherdiscontentashavingitsoriginsinchoicesmadebyhim,thatshe(andhe)wereunawareofwhentheygotmarriedintheirteensinPorbandar.TwoweeksafterKasturbaandGandhiquarrelled,JekiMehtawasfound
makingsexualoverturestoanotherman,notManilal.Gandhiwashurtandangry.Jekiwasa‘finishedhypocrite’,apathologicalliarwhohadbetrayedhim,
herfatherandthecommunity.HedecidedtosendherbacktojoinherhusbandManilalDoctorinFiji.43
ToatoneforJeki’snewlapse,andhisowninadequatesupervision,Gandhidecidedtogoonatwo-weekfast.Kasturbaaskedhimtodesist;shefearedforhishealth.Herhusbandwentaheadanyway.Afteritended,hewrotetoKallenbachthat
thisfasthasbroughtmeasneardeath’sdoor.Icanstillhardlycrawl,caneatverylittle,restlessnights,mouthbad…Thefastwasanecessity.Iwassogrosslydeceived.IowedittoManilalofFiji,toDr.Mehta,andtomyself.Itwasoneoftheseverestlessonsofmylife.Thedisciplinewasverygreat.Everyonearoundmewasmostcharming.Mrs.Gandhiwasdivine.Immediatelysherealizedthattherewasnoturningmeback,shesetaboutmakingmypathsmooth.Sheforgotherown
sorrowsandbecamemyministeringangel.44
InthelastweekofMay,abillembodyingtheEnquiryCommission’srecommendationswaspublished.ThisprovidedfortherecognitionofpastmonogamousmarriagesconductedunderthetenetsofanyIndianreligionthepartiesprofessed;recognizedtherightsofchildrensuchunionsproduced;mandatedtheappointmentofpriestsofanyIndianreligiontobemarriageofficers;abolishedthe£3taxandwaivedtherightofthestatetocollectpastarrearsagainstit;andpermittedtheGovernmenttoprovidefreepassagetoanyoneinSouthAfricawhowishedtogobackpermanentlytoIndia.45
GandhispentthewholeofJuneinCapeTown,lobbyingMPsandmeetingministers.ThebillpassedthroughParliamentinstages,meetingoppositionwhichwasskilfullynegotiatedandeventuallyovercomebyGeneralSmutsandthePrimeMinister,GeneralBotha.TheGovernor-GeneralwrotetotheColonialOfficepraisingtheduo‘fortheircourageinforcingathoroughlydistastefulpolicyupontheirfollowers’.For‘thestrengthoftheanti-IndianprejudiceamongourDutchlegislatorsandtheextraordinarycussednessofsomeofourBritishNatalians[were]reallyamazing’.TheformerwerelothtorecognizeanyIndianmarriages;thelatterlothtogiveupthepunitive£3tax.Totametheopposition,BothaandSmutshadtousealltheir‘powersofpersuasion’;infact,‘butforpartyloyaltyalltheDutchback-bencherswouldhavevotedagainsttheBill.’46
On27June,therewasameetingofEuropeansandIndiansinCapeTowntocelebratethepassageoftheIndians’ReliefBill.HereGandhithanked‘themanyEuropeanfriendswhosehelphadmostmateriallycontributedtothesuccessnowrealized’.Hesaidthat
potent,however,thoughpassiveresistancewasasaninstrumentforwinningreforms–perhapsthemightiestinstrumentonearth–itcouldnothaveachievedsuccesshadtheIndiancommunitynotmoderatedtheirdemandstowhatwasreasonableandpractical.This,again,wasnotpossibleuntilsomeofthemwereabletoseethequestionofIndianrightsfromtheEuropeanstandpoint…TheIndiansknewperfectlywellwhichwasthedominantandgoverningrace.TheyaspiredtonosocialequalitywithEuropeans.Theyfeltthatthepathoftheirdevelopmentwasseparate.Theydidnotevenaspiretothefranchise,or,iftheaspirationexisted,itwaswithnoideaofitshavingpresenteffect.Ultimately–inthefuture–hebelievedhispeoplewouldgetthefranchiseiftheydeservedtogetit,butthematterdidnotbelongtopracticalpolitics.AllhewouldaskfortheIndiancommunitywasthat,onthebasisoftherightsnowconcededtothem,theyshouldbesufferedtolivewithdignity
andhonouronthesoilofSouthAfrica.47
AsthebillwasmakingitsprogressthroughParliament,GandhiwrotetoGokhalethatKallenbachwouldaccompanyKasturbaandhimtoLondon.ThearchitecthadlongwishedtovisitIndia;tothiswishwasnowaddedthedesirenottobeseparatedfromhisfriend.AfterGandhihadconsultedwithGokhaleinLondon,andKallenbachsaidgoodbyetohisfamilyinEurope,theywouldcarryontoIndia.Withthebillnowgazetted,theirbookingsweremadefor18July.‘Myonedesire,’wroteGandhitoGokhale,‘isnowtomeetyouandseeyou,takemyordersfromyouandleaveatonceforIndia.’48
On1July,GandhileftCapeTown.HetravelledviaKimberleyandJohannesburg,reachingDurbanonthe4th.Twoweekswereleftforhisdeparture;twoweekstobidgoodbyetothefriends,followers,associationsandplacesthathehadknownandexperiencedintwentyyearsinSouthAfrica.On8July,therewasafarewellmeetingfortheGandhisintheDurbanTown
Hall.Backin1897,thishadbeenthevenueforthemeetingsofthemobthatwantedtolynchhim.Now,IndiansandEuropeansgatheredinfriendship,tohearGandhisaythat‘hedidnotdeserveallthepraisebestowedonhim.Nordidhiswifeclaimtodeserveallthathadbeensaidofher.ManyanIndianwomanhaddonegreaterserviceduringthestrugglethanMrs.Gandhi.’HethankedalltheEuropeanswhohadhelpedhimandthestruggle,fromthelawyerF.A.Laughton,who‘stoodbyhimagainstthemob’in1897,toMrsAlexander,thepoliceman’swifewho‘protectedhimwithherumbrellafromthemissilesthrownbytheexcitedcrowd’,tohislong-timecomradesKallenbachandPolak.Hewouldgoawaywith‘noill-willagainstasingleEuropean.Ihavereceivedmanyhardknocksinmylife,buthereIadmitthatIhavereceivedthosemostpreciousgiftsfromEuropeans–loveandsympathy.’49
TheTownHallmeetingwasecumenical.Thenextday,theGandhiswerecongratulatedbytheirowncommunity,theGujaratisofDurban.Gandhiaskedtheaudienceto‘learntheirmother-tongueandstudythehistoryandtraditionsoftheirMotherland,wherehehopedtoseethemoneday’.Heurgedthemtotreatmembersofothercommunitieslikeguestsintheirhouse.Gandhihimselfhad‘alwaysshownthesamerespectforMuslimsasforHindus…IfeveryIndianlivedthusinamitywithothers,thereisnottheslightestdoubtthatweshallmakegreatadvanceinSouthAfrica.’Thesameday,the9th,Gandhispokeatasportsdayforchildren,heldinthe
AlbertPark.HewaspleasedthatthetrophyhadbeenpresentedbyParseeRustomjee,ofwhomhesaidtheIndians
hadnobetter,nomoreconstantleadertoworkwithinSouthAfrica.MrRustomjeeknewnodistinctionofraceorreligion.HewasaParseeamongParsees,butalsoaMahomedanamongMahomedansinthathewoulddoforthem,dieforthem,liveforthem.HewasaHinduamongHindusandwoulddoforthemlikewise.
Alsoonthe9th,GandhiattendedareceptionhostedbytheDheds,acasteofuntouchableschargedwithsanitaryduties.Thereformersawthemas‘ourownbrethren’,andsaidthat‘toregardthemwiththeslightestdisrespectnotonlyarguesourownunworthinessbutismorallywrong,foritiscontrarytotheteachingoftheBhagavadGita.’50
Twodayslater,GandhispokeatabanquethostedbytheEuropeansofDurban.Thevalueoftherecentsettlement,hesaidhere,‘layinthestrugglewhichprecededit–astrugglewhichquickenedtheconscienceofSouthAfrica–andthefactthattherewasadifferenttoneprevailingtoday’.However,whiletheCommissionandtheActhadsortedoutsomedifficulties,‘itwasnotafullsettlement.Itwasnotacharteroffullliberties.’Heespeciallyurgeda‘senseofjustice’inadministeringandgrantinglicences,onwhichmanyIndianswhoweretradersdepended.ThehostshadpresentedanaddresstoGandhi,andasetofbookstoSonja
Schlesin.Thelatterwasnotpresent,soGandhiacceptedthebooksonherbehalf,notingthat‘MissSchlesinhadplayedagreatpartinthepassiveresistancemovement.Shehadworkednightanddayandthrownherselfintothework.Shehadnothesitatedtocourtimprisonmentbutthatwasdeniedher.’
InDurban,Gandhialsocalledonhisfriend-turned-rivalM.C.Anglia.AngliahadrecentlystartedanewspaperthatregularlyranarticlescriticalofGandhi,complaininginparticularthatthesettlementwiththeGovernmentprohibitedpolygamy.51Notably,whileGandhisoughttomendfenceswithAngliahedidnotdothesamewithP.S.Aiyar,judgingperhapsthatthiscriticwastoofargonetobereconciled.GandhithentravelledtoPhoenixwhere,on11July,therewasafarewellparty
forhimandKasturbahostedbythesettlers.Thereweretwoshortspeeches:onebyGandhi,theotherbyAlbertWest,who,‘inafewbriefsentences,referredtotheever-growingfriendship,commencedelevenyearsago,betweenMrGandhiandhimselfanditsinfluenceupontheirlivesandthehistoryofthePhoenixSettlement.ThesingingofsomefavouritehymnsinEnglishandGujaratibroughttheproceedingstoaclose.’WesthadplayedavitalroleinsustainingPhoenixandsustainingthestruggle.HewasoneofGandhi’stwogreatestsupportersinNatal;theother,equallyself-effacing,wasParseeRustomjee,whoonthisoccasiontoochippedinbyprovidingthefood.52
Gandhinowmoveddeeperintothecountryside.HespoketoalargeaudienceofindenturedlabourersinVerulam.This,tohim,was
likegoingonapilgrimage,fortheIndianfriendshereplayedagreatpartintherecentstrike;andinwhatwonderfulamanner!Whenalltheso-calledleaders[inDurban]wererestingintheirprivateroomsorwerebusymakingmoney,theindenturedbrethrenofthisplace,themomenttheyhappenedtohearthatastrikewasoninCharlestownandelsewhereaboutthe£3tax,struckworktoo.Theylookedfornoleaders.
Withthesettlementinplace,saidGandhitothelabourers,theycouldstayoninSouthAfricaasfreemen,withoutpayingtaxorre-indenturing.AlthoughhewasleavingforIndia,theycouldapproachthosewhoremainedatPhoenixforadviceandhelp.Andwhereverhewas,saidGandhi,‘Ishall,ofcourse,continuetoworkforyou.Youareunderindentureforonepersonforfiveyears,butIamunderindenturewith300millions[ofIndians]foralife-time.Ishallgoonwiththatserviceandneverdisplaceyoufrommyhearts.’Therewasasprinklingofwhitemanagersinthecrowd.Addressingthem
directly,GandhisaidthatsometimestheEuropeanemployerwasinclinedtobeselfish,andheaskedthemtobearinmindthattheindenturedIndianswerehumanbeings,withthesamesentimentsasthemselves.Theywerenotcattle,buthadalltheweaknessesofthemselves,andallthevirtuesifonlytheywerebroughtout.He
madeapleaforsanitaryhousing,andaskedthattheEuropeanswouldlookupontheirindenturedIndiansasfellow-beings,andnotasAsiaticswhohadnothingincommonwiththem.Theindentured
Indianwasamoralbeing.53
Everywherehewent,Gandhiwaspresentedwithaddressesandsometimeswithapurse,whichhesaidhewoulduseforpublicworkonly.Hisspeechesatthesefarewellswereartfulbutalsosincere,addressingthespecificconcernsandanxietiesoftheaudience,whileunderlininghisownspecialconnectiontothem.Europeans,Indians,labourers,merchants,high-castes,low-castes,Hindus,
Muslims,Christians,Parsis–allhadworkedwithGandhiatvariouspointsinhisyearsinNatal.Hislinkswiththesegroupswerevaried–political,personal,professional;social,spiritual,sentimental.Onegrouphoweverisabsentfromthisotherwisecapaciouslist–theAfricans.TothemalonewereGandhi’sconnectionstooslighttomeritaformalandpublicfarewell.Thiswasasigninpartofhisownorientation,andasign,perhapsingreaterpart,ofthetimes.
On12July,GandhiandKasturbaleftforJohannesburg.ThiscityhehadcometolaterthanDurban,buthadcometoknowmoreintimately.ItwaswherehehadbefriendedPolak,Kallenbach,L.W.Ritch,A.M.Cachalia,SonjaSchlesin,JosephDokeandThambiNaidoo;wherehehadfirstformulatedthetheoryofsatyagraha;andwhere,withtheaidofGujaratimerchantsandlaterofTamils,hehadputthistheorytothetest.Onthe13th,GandhiwasinterviewedbyarepresentativeoftheTransvaal
Leader.Askedtorecall‘themoreremarkableincidentsinhiscareer’,heselectedsomefromtherecentmarchacrosstheborder.Hespokeofhowhehadconvincedthestrikingminers‘thattheywouldwin,notbyputtingtheirsticksovertheshouldersofothers,butovertheirown’.Hepraisedtheirdoggedness,theirabilitytomarchdaysanddaysonmeagrerations.ThenhepraisedtheEuropeanswhohadhelpedthem,suchasthestation-masterwhohadofferedthemarchersmilk,thewomanshopkeeperwhoinvitedthemtotakewhattheywanted,thehotel-ownerwhosaidtheywouldbewarmerspendingthenightinsidehispremises–gesturesmadespontaneouslyandwithoutaskingforpayment,proofofthe‘oldBritishsenseofsympathy’presentinsomewhitesinSouthAfrica.Gandhitoldthenewspaperthathewasleavingforgood,‘withtheintentionof
neverreturning’.If‘IeverhavetoreturntoSouthAfricaorleaveIndia,’hesaid,
‘itwillbeowingtocircumstancesbeyondmycontrol,andatpresentbeyondmyconception’.Thedefinitivenessofthisdeparturepromptedanelegyforthemanandwhatherepresented.‘Soitishumanlycertain’,remarkedtheLeader,
thatthemostarrestingfigureintheIndiancommunityinSouthAfricato-dayistosaygoodbyetoacountryinwhichhehasspentmanyyears,crowdedwithexperienceandexertion,hisworkonbehalfofhiscountrymenatlastcrownedwithsuccess.Whenamanhasbeenimprisonedsooftenthatwerehisoffencesnotmerelypoliticalhewouldhavequalifiedasa‘habitual’,whenhehastimewithoutnumberenduredfatigue,andfastedwithasmile,whenhehasmovedsteadilyonoverobstaclesthatmightdauntthebravest,tothegoaltowhichhiseyehasbeenfixed,youmightpicturehimphysicallyasanApollo,andimaginehisheartmadeofthefibrethatbelongstomartyrs.InthequalitiesoftheheartandofthesoulyoumaybelievethebestofGandhi,butyouwouldwonder,did
youseehim,thatsofrailafigurecouldhousesovigorousacharacter.54
Gandhiwouldsurelyhavereadthistribute.Sweptalongbyitseloquence,didherecallthatthiswasthesamepaperthat,abareninemonthspreviously,hadwrittenoffhisleadershipandhismovement?InSeptember1913theLeaderhadspokenofan‘astonishingapathy’amongtheIndians,ofan‘absolutedistrust’inGandhi.Ithadsuggestedthatthesatyagrahacampaignwas‘threatenedwithcollapse’.Now,afterthemarchandthemassstrike,thearrestofhundredsofIndians(includingwomenandchildren)andtheacceptanceoftheirdemandsbytheEnquiryCommission,thesupposedlyfailedleaderhadbecomea‘mostarrestingfigure’,hisexertions‘crownedwithsuccess’.TheLeaderwas,assomenewspaperstendtodo,bowingandbendingwiththe
wind.ThedayafteritsreportermetGandhi,ameetinginhonouroftheIndianherowasheldatJohannesburg’sMasonicLodge.AddresseswerepresentedonbehalfoftheBritishIndianAssociation,theCantoneseClub,theTamilBenefitSociety,theTransvaalIndianWomen’sAssociation,theEuropeanCommittee,andtheGujarati,MahomedanandParseecommunitiesofthecity.Inadramaticgesture,ThambiNaidooofferedhisfoursonstoGandhi,tobecomeunderhisguidance,‘servantsofIndia’.Thedetailsofsomeofthesetributeshavecomedowntous.Thatpresentedby
theBritishIndianAssociationhadasitsfirstsignatoriesA.M.CachaliaandThambiNaidoo,respectivelytheforemostGujaratiandTamilcolleagueofGandhiinthesatyagraha.Itpraisedtheleader’s‘nobility,steadfastness,self-sacrifice,andindomitablecourage’.Italsoofferedsalutationsto‘thedignifiedandsilentdevotion,tothecauseofIndianWomanhood,oftheGraciousLadywhosharesyourjoysandsorrows’.Kasturba’s‘wonderfulself-surrender’,the
tributenoted,hadplayedakeyroleinmobilizingtheIndiansagainstthemarriagelaws,nowamendedinlightoftheirstruggle.Fortheirpart,theCantoneseClubofJohannesburgofferedthanksforGandhi’s‘wisecounsel’andthe‘remarkableexample’ofhis‘characterandconduct’.Throughthecampaignsofwhichhewasthe‘shiningexemplar’,hehad‘raisedtheprestigeoftheAsiaticnamenotonlythroughouttheUnionofSouthAfrica,butinthewholecivilisedworld’.55
Respondingtothetributes,Gandhigaveaspeechwhosecontentswerenotedbyareporterwhowaspresent.Helovinglymarkedhisownmemoriesof,anddebtsto,thiscityofgold,greed,conflictandconscience:
Johannesburgwasnotanewplacetohim.Hesawmanyfriendlyfacesthere,manywhohadworkedwithhiminmanystrugglesinJohannesburg.Hehadgonethroughmuchinlife.Agreatdealofdepressionandsorrowhadbeenhislot,buthehadalsolearntduringallthoseyearstoloveJohannesburgeventhoughitwasaMiningCamp.ItwasinJohannesburgthathehadfoundhismostpreciousfriends.ItwasinJohannesburgthatthefoundationforthegreatstruggleofPassiveResistancewaslaidintheSeptemberof1906.ItwasinJohannesburgthathehadfoundafriend,aguide,andabiographerinthelateMrDoke.ItwasinJohannesburgthathehadfoundinMrs.Dokealovingsister,whohadnursedhimbacktolifewhenhehadbeenassaultedbyacountrymanwhohadmisunderstoodhismissionandwhomisunderstoodwhathehaddone.ItwasinJohannesburgthathehadfoundaKallenbach,aPolak,aMissSchlesin,andmanyanotherwhohadalwayshelpedhim,andhadalwayscheeredhimandhiscountrymen…ItwasinJohannesburgagainthattheEuropeanCommitteehadbeenformed,whenIndiansweregoingthroughthedarkeststageintheirhistory,presidedoverthen,asitstillwas,byMrHosken.
HavingpraisedhisEuropeanfriends,GandhinowturnedtotheIndiansofthecitywhohadgiventheirlivesinandforthesatyagrahacampaign.Hesingledoutthreenames:allTamil,allyoung;twomen,onewoman;twowhohaddiedinprisonandonewhohaddiedwhilebeingdeportedtoIndia.Itwas,saidGandhi,
JohannesburgthathadgivenValiamma,thatyounggirl,whosepicturerosebeforehimevenashespoke,whohaddiedinthecauseoftruth…[I]twasJohannesburgagainthathadproducedaNagappenandNarayansamy,twolovelyyouthshardlyoutoftheirteens,whoalsodied.ButbothMrsGandhiandhestoodlivingbeforethem.HeandMrsGandhihadworkedinthelime-light;thoseothershadworkedbehindthescenes,notknowingwheretheyweregoing,exceptthis,thatwhattheyweredoingwasrightandproper,and,ifanypraisewasdueanywhereatall,itwasduetothethree
whodied.56
Themeetingwasfollowedbyadinner,theinvitationforwhichhassurvived.Itwasadvertisedasafarewellto‘MrandMrs.M.K.GandhiandMrH.Kallenbach’.Theunionofbrownandwhitewassymbolizedbyaportraitofahandshake.Thechairman’snamewasalsoprinted:hewastheHon.H.A.
Wyndham,M.L.A.Theothersideofthecardcontainedthemenu,thisdividedintohorsd’oeuvres(‘various’),soups(milkandcelery,tomato),maindishes(seveninall,includingmashedpotatoes,auberginecutlets,macaroniwithcheese,stuffedtomatoes,asparagusàlavinaigrette)andsweets(amongthemapplepieandcustard,blancmange,plumtartandpastries).Indeferencetothechiefguests,noalcoholwasserved(thedrinksonofferbeingcoffeeandmineralwater),andthefoodwaswhollyvegetarian.Still,thespreadwassubstantial,andonewonderswhetherGandhiandKallenbachdidanythingotherthanpickatwhatwasputinfrontofthem.Perhaps,aswastheircustom,theyfeastedchieflyontwoitemsalsoprintedonthemenu,namely,‘fruits’and‘nuts’.57
Thenextday,the15th,GandhiattendedfourmeetingsinJohannesburg.Inthemorning,heunveiledtabletsatBramfonteinCemeteryinmemoryofNagappen,whohaddiedin1909andValiamma,theyoungwomanresisterwhohaddiedinFebruary1914.Gandhirecalledtheharshconditionsinwhichtheyperished,injail,with‘nofeathermattress…simplythewoodenfloor’.HemovednexttoameetingoftheTransvaalIndianWomen’sAssociation,whereheaskedfortheblessingsofhissistersforhisworkinIndia.AthirdmeetingwasofTamils,whomGandhipraisedforhaving‘bornethebruntofthestruggle’.Themajorityofthedeportees,passiveresistersandwomeninjailwereTamil.TheTamils,saidtheirgratefulleader,‘hadshownsomuchpluck,somuchfaith,somuchdevotiontodutyandsuchnoblesimplicity,andyethadbeensoself-effacing’.Gandhiturnedtothetermsofthesettlement,stressingthat‘the£3taxwasnowamatterofthepast’,andthat‘allthosedearsisterswhohadgonetogaolcouldnowbecalledthewivesoftheirhusbands,whilstbutyesterdaytheymighthavebeencalledsooutofcourtesybyafriendbutwerenotsointheeyesofthelaw.’DespitehisdebtstotheTamils,Gandhistillhadsomeadviceforthem.For‘hehadknownsomethingofMadras,andhowsharpcastedistinctionswerethere.HefeltthattheywouldhavecometoSouthAfricainvainiftheyweretocarrythosecasteprejudiceswiththem…Theyshouldrememberthattheywerenothighcasteorlowcaste,butallIndians,allTamils.’ThemostimportantmeetingattendedbyGandhionthisday,15July1914,
washeldatthatoncefamiliarvenue,theHamidiaHall.Here,heheardalongharanguefromhisone-timecomradeEssopMia,whohadworkedshoulder-to-shoulderwithhimduringtheirfirstsatyagrahas,whohadbeenwithhimwhenhe
wasnearlybeatentodeathin1908,andthensufferedanassassinationattempthimself.Now,sixyearslater,MiachargedGandhiwithhavingobtainedonlyone-and-a-halfofthefourpointstheyhadaskedfor.Hehadnow‘leftthemwiththebattletobefoughtalloveragain’.Replyingtothesecriticisms,Gandhisaidthesettlementhadabolishedthe£3tax,recognizedwivesandchildren,andclarifiedtheCapeandFreeStatequestions.Thenheadded,tellingly:
Themerchantshadgainedeverythingthatthecommunityhadgained,andhadgainedprobablymostofall.TheIndiancommunityhadraiseditsstatusintheestimationofEuropeansthroughoutSouthAfrica.TheycouldnolongerbeclassedascooliesbyGeneralBothaandothers.Thetermhadbeenremovedasatermofreproach,silentlybuteffectively.Iftheyhadnotfoughtforthepasteightyears,notracewouldhavebeenlefthereofIndiansasaself-respectingcommunity.
The‘half’pointEssopMiamentionedrelatedtotheabsenceoftheexplicitrecognitionofpolygamy,apracticesacredtoIslam.Anotherspeaker,H.O.Ally–hewhohadaccompaniedthelawyertoLondonin1906–saidhehadtoldGandhi‘nottobindtheMussulmanswithregardtoonemanonewife’,since‘itwasimpossibleforMussulmanstobreakonesyllableoutoftheirholyKoran.’Gandhiansweredthatthesettlementhadlegalizedmonogamousmarriages,and‘allheexpectedtheSouthAfricanGovernmenttodowastobecometolerantofpolygamy,butnottolegaliseit.’58
ThemeetingswiththeTamilsandtheGujaratiswereastudyincontrast,onemarkedbyamutualrespectandaffectionbetweenthespeakerandhisaudience,theotherbymutualreserve,andevenantagonism.TheGandhiof1906wassupportedmorallyandfinanciallybyGujaratimerchants;theGandhiof1914wasaleaderlargelyofworking-classTamils.Thecontrast,impliedandimplicit,wasmademanifestinhislastengagementinJohannesburg.SpeakingtoagroupmostlyofGujaratiHindusonthe16th,heobservedthat‘myGujaratibrethrenhavedoneagreatdealformeandMrs.Gandhibuttheydidnot,Imustsay,renderasmuchserviceinthecauseofthestruggleastheTamilcommunitydid.IwishtheGujaratistolearnalessonfromtheTamils.ThoughIdonotknowtheirlanguage,theyhavegivenmethegreatesthelpinthefight.’59On16July,GandhimadeahurriedtriptoPretoria,wherethemerchantHajeeHabib–whohadaccompaniedGandhitoLondonin1909–organizedapartyforhim.InattendancewasMontfordChamney,thelong-timeProtector-cum-PersecutoroftheIndians.Gandhirecalledthat
hehadcertainlystoodupagainstMrChamneyandthemanagementofhisoffice,buttherehadbeen
nopersonalill-willonthespeaker’spart,andhehadalwaysreceivedtheutmostcourtesyatMrChamney’shands.HeappreciatedthecomplimentMrChamneypaidhimbycomingouttoarresthimwithonlyonemantoassist,whenthespeakerwasattheheadof2,000menandwomen.It
showedtheconfidenceMrChamneyhadinhimasapassiveresister.60
Thesamenight,Gandhi,KasturbaandKallenbachtookatraintoCapeTown.Theyarrivedonthemorningofthe18th,tobemetatMonumentStationbyfriendswithgarlands,whotookthemincarriagesintothecity.Theprocessionwasheadedbyabandplayingmusic,marchingunderabannerwishing‘BonvoyagetothegreatIndianpatriot,M.K.Gandhi,andfamily,alsoMrKallenbach.Godbewithyouuntilwemeetagain.’TheGandhisspenttheirlastnightinSouthAfricaatthehomeofaJewish
couplewhowerefriendsofHermannKallenbach.MorrisAlexanderwasaliberallawyerandMP;hiswifeRuthwasafieryradicalfromafamilyoflearnedrabbis.61Gandhi‘spokelongandearnestlyofhismissionforhisfellowmen,andbeggedthathissmallbandofsupporters[inSouthAfrica]shouldcontinuetodefendtheirinterests’.WhatstruckMorrisAlexanderwashisguest’ssimplicity–refusingtheuseofthemasterbedroom,hesleptinsteadonthefloor.HiswifeRuthwasmovedbyGandhi’spatiencewithhishosts,by‘howuncondemning’hewasofthings(suchastheostentatiousfurniture)ofwhichhemusthavedisapproved.TheIndian,sheconcluded,wasoneofthe‘threegreatsouls’shehadknown(theothersbeingherfatherandOliveSchreiner).62
Thenextday,theGandhisandKallenbachproceededtothedocks.HereaddresseswerepresentedtoGandhionbehalfof,amongothers,theTamilsofCapeTownandPortElizabeth.Hewasalsopresentedwithagoldwatch,whileKallenbachwasgivenapairofbinoculars,presentsthatGandhipolitelyyetpubliclyrejectedas‘inconsistentwithhislifehereandwiththelifehehadmarkedoutforhimselfinIndia’.Hedisavowedthegiftsbutnotthepraise,hereofferedbyDrGoolonbehalfoftheIndiancommunity,andDrAbdurahmanonbehalfoftheColouredpeopleoftheCape.Inhisownspeech,Gandhiarticulatedthehopethatwiththesettlementinplace,the‘EuropeansofSouthAfrica[would]takeahumanitarianandImperialviewoftheIndianquestion’.Hewasoptimistic,forCapeTownitselfhadproducedsuchpeopleastheliberalMPsW.P.SchreinerandJ.X.Merriman,andthegreatwriterOliveSchreiner.Strikingapersonalnote,he‘expressedwarmgratitudeforwhathadbeendoneforhimbytheEuropeansofSouthAfrica,and,turningtoMrKallenbach,placedhishand
onthelatter’sshoulderandsaidthatSouthAfricahaddonethisforhim–ithadgivenhimabrother.’Afterthespeeches,theGandhisandKallenbachboardedtheSSKinfaus
Castle,boundforLondon.Acrowdoffriendsandadmirerswalkedwiththemuptotheship,before–asajournalistonthespotreported–‘comingdownthegangwaywipingthetearsfromtheireyes’.63
OnepersonwasconspicuouslymissingfromthatroundoffarewellsforMohandasandKasturbaGandhi–theiroldfriendandone-timehouse-mateHenryPolak.PolakhadgonetoEnglandtospendtimewithhisfamily.HesailedbacktoSouthAfricainJuly,andonboardwroteanemotionallettertoGandhi,sayinghewasfeeeling‘miserable’becauseof
theprobabilitythatIshallnotseeyouagainforsomeyearsatleast…Theremustbesomepeculiarbondbetweenusthatkeepsusneareachotherinspiteoftheseprolongedabsences…IsupposethatyourIndianrelationofelderandyoungerbrothermostnearlyapproachesit,andpossiblyIrealiseitmoreintimatelybecauseofmyOrientaltrendofthought.Itisstrange,thispersistentturningtotheEastwithme,andMillie’sequallypersistentturningtotheWest.IsupposethatitisthisunionofEastandWestthatmakesforthebestofallhumanunderstandings.
IncasehereturnedafterGandhihadleft,heaskedhimtospendaneveningattheirhouseandhave‘ahearttohearttalkwithMillie,sothatshemayknow,andImayknow,whatyouhopefor,andwhatyouproposetodo’.64
Theletterwaswrittenon14July;sincetheGandhisleftfourdayslater,theydidn’tgettoseeit.They,andKallenbach,werebookedthirdclassontheKinfausCastle.Gandhihimselfhadtravelledinthelowestclassoftenontrains,butneverbeforeonaship.Theymostlyatefruitsandboiledpeanuts,adiettowhichGandhiattributedhislackofseasickness.65
FollowingtheGandhisfromSouthAfricawereatorrentoftelegrams,sentfromdifferentpeoplerepresentingdifferentinterestsindifferentpartsofSouthAfrica.These132telegramsoffarewelllieintheNationalArchivesofIndia.TheycamefromNatal,TransvaalandtheCape,fromHindus,MuslimsandParsis.SorabjeeRustomjeeofDurban,sonofthebraveandgenerousParseeRustomjee,said‘weyoungerIndianswhoarecolonialbornlooktoyourselfsacrificinglifeasaninspirationtoworkinasimilarspiritforthesakeofmotherlandmayalmightyshowerrichestblessingsuponyourlaboursandgrantlonglifehealthandstrengthtocontinuelabourloveforbelovedmotherland
goodbye’.Sorabjeespokeforaparticulargeneration(theyoung);othersofferedtheirwishesandadmirationonbehalfofgroupssuchastheCatholicIndians,theNatalZoroastrianAnjuman,theAnjuman-i-Islam,theTamilBenefitSocietyofJohannesburg,theGujaratiHindusofthesamecityandtheKathiawarAryaMandalofDurban.Fromoutsidethecommunity,therewasawirefromacertain‘Mulder’,secretaryoftheAfricanPoliticalOrganization,whowrotethat‘membersofDoornfonteinbranchwishyouaheartyfarewellandbonvoyagetoyourmotherland.’Amongthewiressentbyandonbehalfofindividualswereseveralsentby
Muslims.‘MayAllahtakeyouandMrs.Gandhi’,saidAbdurawoofThangayofVereeniging–aTamilMuslimfromthesoundofhisname–‘toourholyfatherlandandwishingyoueverysuccessinfuturepleaseexpressmythankstoKallenbachgoodbye’.AbdulGaffarFajandarfromJohannesburgwrotethat‘yourdeparturefromthiscountryhasbeenagreatgrieftotheIndiancommunitywhowillneverceasetorememberyourtrojanlikeheroicand[sic]selfsacrificeyourpersonalitywillbeeveridolised’.OtherwiresweresentbyloversoftheHinduepics.TheRamayanSabhaofLugenberthywired:‘Ourlossourmothersgainhercareofusourcomfort.’PerhapsthemostemotionalmessagecamefromBughwanfromDurban,who
‘wasexitedstationcouldnotthereforewishgoodbyeasmyheartdesiredforgiveourweaknessesprayforus’.Themostevocativecamefromthe‘FarewellCommittee’ofthesamecity,whichobservedthat
thelightoftheircommunalexistencedisappearswithyourdeparturetheirconsolationbeingthatitmaybealighthousetothemfromtheheightsofMountEverestshiningnearandfarmaygodinhis
plenitudebestowthespirittoburnforthegoodofhumanitytoyouandyourcompatriots.66
ThesewishesandfelicitationsprovideaconspectusofthesocialandgeographicalrangeofGandhi’sinfluenceinthelarge,complexandconflictedlandthat,fortwodecades,washishome.Itmaybeapposite,however,tojuxtaposetotheseendorsementsacomment
onGandhi’sdeparturefromsomeonewhowasnotsorrytoseehimgo.ThiswasGeneralJanChristianSmuts.InMay1914SmutsreceivedaletterfromEmilyHobhouse,whowasnowbackinLondon.Thisconveyednewsaboutmutualfriends,andwentontodiscussamanwhomtheQuakernowconsideredafriendbutwhomtheAfrikanerstillcouldnot.‘IhavebeenreadingGandhi’sHome
RuleforIndia–HindSwaraj,’wroteHobhousetoSmuts.‘Haveyoureadit?Ilikeitverymuch,allaboutIndiaandtheharmEnglishCivilizationisdoingthere…Itisabookyouwouldhaveenjoyedatoneperiodofyourlife.’67
Smuts’replyisunrecorded.WhateverhemighthavethoughtoftheEnglishonthebattlefield,afterthewarendedhehadbeenfirstintheranksofthoseseekingtounitethewhitepeopleagainstthecoloured.Hobhouse’sendorsementofGandhi’sattackonWesterncivilizationcouldscarcelyhavepleasedhim.Inrecentyearshehadreadandseentoomuchofthemaninanycase.HisfeelingsarecontainedinaletterhewrotetoSirBenjaminRobertson,wherehesaidthataftertheViceroy’srepresentativehadreturnedtoIndia,‘Gandhiapproachedmeonanumberofsmalladministrativepoints,someofwhichIcouldmeethimon,andasaresult,thesainthasleftourshores–Isincerelyhopeforever.’68
22
HowtheMahatmawasMade
Oftenthereisjusticeintheworkingofhistory.IndiahadgiventoSouthAfricaoneofthemostdifficultofitsproblems;SouthAfricainturngavetoIndiatheideaofcivildisobedience.
TheAfrikanerpoliticianJanH.Hofmeyr,writingin1931
Yougaveusalawyer;wegaveyoubackaMahatma.
ASouthAfricanfriendtothiswriter,CapeTown,2002
ThisbookhasreconstructedMohandasK.Gandhi’slessknownandsometimesforgottenyearsinPorbandar,Rajkot,Bombay,London,DurbanandJohannesburg,onthebasisofcontemporaryrecordsratherthanretrospectiveaccounts.Now,however,withmysubjecthavingfinallysailedfromSouthAfrica,itmaybetimetobringinquestionsIhavekeptatadistanceallthiswhile.Inwhatwaysdidthefirstforty-fiveyearsofGandhi’slifeshapehimasasocialreformer,religiousthinkerandpoliticalactor?WhatisthesignificanceofhisSouthAfricanyearsinparticularforthosewhoknowGandhiastheleaderoftheIndianfreedomstruggle,asaniconandinspirationfornon-violentmovementstheworldover,asaprophetofinter-faithharmony,andmore?Let’sstartatthebeginning,withhowaBaniafromKathiawaroutgrewthe
conventionsofhiscaste.Asaschoolboy,GandhibefriendedaMuslimclassmateinRajkot.Asalawstudent,hesharedahomewithaChristianvegetarianinLondon.However,itwasinSouthAfricathathemorefullyelaboratedhisuniquespiritofecumenism.Thiswasreligious–originallyemployedbyMuslimmerchants,GandhicametocountJews,ChristiansandParsisamonghisclosestfriends.Itwassocial–amiddle-classmanhimself,Gandhiwastoidentifycloselywithhawkersandlabourers.AsthepoorerIndiansinSouthAfricawerelargelyTamil-speaking,hecametounderstandthediversityoflanguageaswell.
GandhiwasbornandraisedaHindu,andheavowedthatdenominationallabelallhislife.YetnoHindubeforeorsincehashadsuchaclose,intenseengagementwiththegreatAbrahamicreligions.HeunderstoodJudaismthroughahighlypersonallens–throughhisfriendshipswithPolak,KallenbachandSonjaSchlesinespecially.HisinterestinChristianitywasbothpersonalandtheological–helikedDokeandlovedAndrews,butwhereashewasnotreallyinfluencedbyJewishthoughthewasprofoundlyshapedbyheterodoxChristiantexts–aboveallTolstoy’sTheKingdomofGodIsWithinYou.HisrelationswithIslamwerepartlypersonal,butlargelypragmaticandpolitical.HehadreadtheKoran(probablymorethanonce),butwasneverreallymovedbyitinthesamewayashewasmovedbytheGitaortheSermonontheMount.HehadsomeMuslimfriends,butwhatconcernedhimmore–muchmore–wastheforgingofacompactbetweenHindusandMuslims:themajorcommunitiesintheIndiandiasporainSouthAfrica,astheywereinIndiaitself.PerhapsevenmorestrikingthanhisreligiousinclusivenesswasGandhi’s
completelackofbitternesstowardstherulingrace.TherootsofthislayinthoseyearsinLondon,andhisfriendlyinteractionswithvegetariansandothers.InMay1891,justbeforeheleftEnglandforIndia,heexpressedthehopethat‘inthefutureweshalltendtowardsunityofcustom,andalsounityofhearts’.Someyearslater,whensetuponbyawhitemobinDurban,Gandhichosetoremembernothispersecutorsbutthewhiteswhostoodbyhim.Stilllater,whenfacedwiththerigorousracialexclusivismoftheTransvaal,Gandhisought‘pointsofagreement’withtheoppressors,withwhomhehopedtolivein‘perfectpeace’.YearsofharassmentandvilificationatthehandsofBoersandBritonsdidnotdeterhimfromseeking‘theunityofhumannature,whetherresidinginabrown-skinnedorawhite-skinnedbody’.1
Tobesure,itwasharder,andperhapsmoreadmirable,forEuropeanstobefriendGandhi.In1904,whenBoerandBritonalikewerebeingdriventoafrenzybytheprospectofAsianimmigration,ameetinginVolksrustresolvedthat‘anywhitepersonwhoaids,abets,assistsorinanywayconnives,directlyorindirectly,totheestablishingoftheIndiantraderwithinourgatesisanenemytotheadvancementofthewhiteracesofthecountry’.2Ritch,thePolaks,theDokes,KallenbachandSonjaSchlesinwereallhappyenoughtobecountedasenemiesbytheherd–andthemob.
Gandhi’sabilitytodisregarddifferencesofraceandfaithwasexceptionalinanytimeandplace,notleasttheSouthAfricaofthe1890sand1900s.HisfirstencounterwithWinstonChurchill,whichtookplaceinLondonin1906,atatimewhentheywerebothrelativelyobscure,isinstructivehere.Gandhi,assecretaryoftheBritishIndianAssociationoftheTransvaal,hadgonetocallonChurchill,whowasUnder-SecretaryofStatefortheColonies.TheywerediscussingthefateandfutureoftheJohannesburglocalityofVrededorp,whereDutchburghersandIndianimmigrantstradedsidebyside–anarrangementthatChurchillconsideredviolatedtradition,custom,andhumannatureitself.Churchill’sperceptions–andprejudices–inthisregardhadbeen
consolidatedbyhisexperiencesinSouthAfricaduringtheAnglo-BoerWar.Thus,tothepleathatIndiansbeallowedtoliveandtradeinVrededorp,Churchillansweredthat‘thepracticeofallowingEuropean,Asiaticandnativefamiliestolivesidebysidein[a]mixedcommunityisfraughtwithmanyevils.’ItwasanargumentwhichcouldnotresonatewithGandhi,who,inthesamecityofJohannesburg,alreadyhadashousematesaEuropeancouple–oneChristian,theotherJewish.3
Gandhi’sbroadmindednesswasmostforcefullystressedinanunpublishedmemoirbyoneofthesehousemates.HenryPolakwroteofhisfriendandleaderthatwhilehewas
aVaishnavaBaniabybirth,heisbynatureaBrahmin,the…teacherofhisfellow-men,notbythepreachingofvirtue,butbyitspractice;byimpulseaKshatriya,inhischivalrousdefenceofthosewhohadplacedtheirtrustinhimandlooktohimforprotection;bychoiceaSudra,servantofthehumblestandmostdespisedofhisfellow-men.Itissaidof[theseer]Ramkrishnathatheoncesweptoutthefoulhutofapariahwithhisownhair,toprovehisfreedomfromarrogancetowardsandcontemptfortheuntouchableoutcast.Thetwice-born[i.e.upper-caste]PrimeMinister’ssonhasbeenseen…withhisownhandstopurifythesanitaryconvenienceofhisownhouseandofthegaolsinwhichhehasbeeninterned.
HavingspokenofGandhi’sabilitytobeofallcastesandofnocasteatall,Polakthenstressedhisecumenismoffaith:
Religionimplies,forhim,amightyandall-embracingtolerance,andalargecharityisthefirstofthevirtues.Hindubybirth,heregardsallmen–Mahomedans,Christians,Zoroastrians,Jews,Buddhists,Confucians–asspiritualbrothers.Hemakesnodifferencesamongstthem,recognisingthatallfaithsleadtosalvation,thatallarewaysofviewingGod,andthat,intheirrelationtoeachother,menarefellow-humanbeingsfirst,andfollowersofcreedsafterwards.Henceitisthatmenofallfaithsand
evenofnone,arehisdevotedfriends,admirers,andhelpers.4
Manyyearslater,reflectingonhisSouthAfricanexperience,GandhirememberedthattheresidentsofPhoenixandTolstoyfarmswere,inreligiousterms,Hindusofdifferentcastes,SunnisandShias,ProtestantsandCatholics,ParsisandJews.Thecareerstheyhadpreviouslypractisedincludedarchitecture,journalism,thelawandtrade.Theynowsubmergedtheirfaithsandtheirqualificationsinthecommonworkofprinting,gardening,carpentryandhouse-building.Andso,asGandhirecalled,the‘practiceoftruthandnon-violencemeltedreligiousdifferences,andwelearnttoseebeautyineachreligion.IdonotrememberasinglereligiousquarrelinthetwocoloniesIfoundedinSouthAfrica…Labourwasnodrudgery,itwasajoy.’5
ThesettlementsatPhoenixandTolstoywereameetingplace,ameltingpot,where,asthesettlerslivedandlabouredtogether,socialandreligiousdistinctionsweremadeinsubstantialandevenirrelevant.
Gandhi’sabilitytotranscendhisclass,religiousandethnicbackgroundwasgreatlyinadvanceofhiscontemporarieswithinIndia.TheIndianNationalCongresswassetupin1885asasortof‘Noah’sarkofnationalism’,seekingtorepresentallsectsandtribes.6Thepracticefellfarshortoftheideal.ForthefirstthirtyyearsofitsexistencetheCongresswasessentiallymiddle-classandcity-bound.Doctors,lawyers,editorsandteachersturnedoutinnumbersforitsannualmeetings.Peasantsandproletarianswereabsentandremainedunrepresented.Muslimleadersalsodriftedaway,asdidintellectualsandreformersfromthelowercastes.AndofcoursetheCongressremainedasolidlymalebody.Gandhi’spoliticalmentors,DadabhaiNaorojiandGopalKrishnaGokhale,
wereconspicuouslyfreeofsectarianbias.BothwereIndianratherthanParsiandGujarati,orHinduandMaharashtrianrespectively.GokhalewasoneofthefirstCongressleaderstocallforanendtocastediscrimination.However,intheireverydaylife,bothNaorojiandGokhaleremainedconfinedtotheurban,professional,privileged,malemileuinwhichtheywerebornandeducated.Neithercountedlabourers(oreventraders)astheirfriendsorco-workers.Inaspeechdeliveredin1897,Gokhale’smentor,MahadevGovindRanade,
hadurgedonhislargelyBrahminaudiencea‘newmodeofthought…castonthelinesoffraternity,acapacitytoexpandoutwards,andtomakemorecohesive
inwardsthebondsoffellowship’.Heaskedhigh-bornHindusto‘increasethecircleofyourfriendsandassociates,slowlyandcautiouslyifyouwill,butthetendencymustbetowardsageneralrecognitionoftheessentialequalitybetweenmanandman’.7
GandhiwastheninSouthAfricaandneverheardthespeech,andprobablyneverreaditeither.ButinhispracticeandhisconducthefulfilledRanade’sinjunctionmorefully(andnobly)thananyotherhigh-bornHindu.Bythetimehewasinhismidthirties–bythetimeoftheepicEmpireTheatremeetingofSeptember1906(ifnotearlier)–Gandhihadexceededhisownmentor,Gokhale,inthebreadthofhissocialvisionand(especially)hispersonalpractice.Hehadsuccessfullyreachedouttocompatriotsofotherreligionsandlinguisticcommunities,andofdisadvantagedsocialbackgrounds.TheinvolvementofwomeninthestrugglesledbyGandhiwasalso
impressive–assupportersandcheerleadersinthefirstsatyagrahas,andasresistersandjailbirdsinthelast.SpeakingtoagroupofwomenstudentsinLahoreinJuly1934,Gandhiremarked,‘WhenIwasinSouthAfrica,IhadrealizedthatifIdidnotservethecauseofwomen,allmyworkwouldremainunfinished.’8Howdidthisrealizationcomeabout?Intermsofhisupbringing,GandhiwasatypicalHindupatriarch.HefirstbegantoshedsomeofhisprejudiceswhilelivingwiththePolaksinJohannesburgin1906.Kasturbawasbroughtuptorevereandfollowherhusband;butMilliewasundernosuchconstraints.ShearguedwithherhusbandHenry,andshewouldarguewiththeirhousemateaswell.Thewordofmen,toher,hadalwaystobetestedagainstbothreasonandjustice.OnlyjustbehindMillieinmakingGandhimoreopen-mindedinthisregard
washissecretary,SonjaSchlesin.HerindomitablespiritcomesthroughinalettershewrotetohimnotlongafterhehadleftSouthAfrica.MunicipalelectionshadjustbeenheldintheTransvaal–whilethevotersandcandidateswereallwhite,forthefirsttimewomenwereallowedtostandforelection.MissSchlesinreportedthatasmanyaselevenwomenhadwontheirseatsandbecomecouncillors.Conveyingfurthernewsof‘thenoblersex’,shetoldGandhiofawomandoctorbeingappointedamedicalinspectorofschools.Ifthe‘civilisationofacountryismeasuredbythepositionitaccordstowomen,’shesaidproudly,‘youseehowhightheTransvaalstandsinthescaleofnations!’Aftertheresults
werein,MissSchlesinphonedaprominentmalepoliticianandadvisedhim‘thatsolongasheallowedhimselftobeguidedbythewomancouncillorsitwouldbealright.’9
LikeMilliePolak,SonjaSchlesingreatlyadmiredGandhi;yetshetoowouldnotfollowhimalwaysoralltheway.HerindependenceofmindandherphysicalcouragemadeGandhiseemoreclearlythewaysinwhichwomencouldandmusttakechargeoftheirlives.Then,onvisitstoEnglandin1906and1909,hewasstruckbythecommitmentofthesuffragettes.TheinfluenceoftheseEuropeanwomenwasconsolidatedbytheTamil
womenofJohannesburg,whowereabsolutelyselflessintheirsupportofthefirstsatyagrahasandabsolutelyfearlessinjoiningthefinalstruggleof1913–14.HenryPolak,husbandofthefeministMillie,wroteoftheseTamilladiesthat‘whenthewomencouldshowsuchcourage…themendarednotprovethemselvesweakerthanthewomen.’TheirexampleanimatedandchallengedtheirTamilhusbandsandsons,butitinspiredandmovedtheGujaratilawyerGandhitoo.10
Indianmen,inIndia,didnotatthistimecultivatefriendshipswithwomen.Theyknewwomenaswives,sisters,daughters;butasfriends,no.Oncemore,itwascontextasmuchascharacterthatexplainsGandhi’sdeparturefromthenorm.HadhenotlivedinSouthAfrica,hemightneverhaveoutgrowntheconventional,confined,viewsofIndianmenofhisclassandhisgeneration.11
Gandhi’sabilitytoreachouttodifferentclassesandcommunitieswasadmiredamongIndiansinSouthAfrica.ButitalsobecameknownamongIndiansinIndia.NottheleastofthemanysurprisesinresearchingthisbookwasthedepthofcontemporaryinterestthatIfound,withinthesubcontinent,inthesatyagrahasledbyGandhiinTransvaalin1907–11andinNatalin1913.Thatinanagebeforetelevisionandtheinternet,amanwholivedacrosstheoceansandwhohadnotbeeninthemotherlandforafulldecadewassowidelyandappreciativelyspokenof,wasastrikingrevelationindeed.TheinterestinthoseearlysatyagrahaswasmanifestacrossBritishIndia,and
insomeprincelystatestoo.NewspapersinlanguagesGandhididnotspeak,indeedatthisstagehadbarelyevenheard,carriedlongreportsonthesacrificesmadebyhimandhisfellowsatyagrahis.MeetingsinsolidaritywiththemwereheldintownsGandhicouldnotplaceaccuratelyonthemap.Thissupportcut
acrosslinguisticandgeographiclines,and–whatmaybeevenmorenotable–acrossreligiouslinesaswell.TheAllIndiaMuslimLeagueandtheBishopofMadraswereamongtheinstitutionsandindividualswhorecognizedthemoralforceandpoliticalsalienceofGandhi’scampaignsinSouthAfrica.And,asspeakersinseveralmeetingsfeelinglyobserved,Gandhi’scampaignshadbrokennewgroundinnotbeingledorstaffedbymenalone.AtatimewhenIndianwomenofallcastesandcreedswereconfinedtothehome,orinpurdah,thatKasturbaandhercolleagueswenttojailinprotestagainstdiscriminatorylawswasafact–orachievement–notedwithnotalittleadmiration.Gandhi’scapaciousnesswasnotcomplete,however.Itwasconstrainedinone
fundamentalsense.WhilehehadIndianandEuropeanfriendsofallcastes,classesandfaiths,heforgednorealfriendshipswithAfricans.HeknewandrespectedtheeducationistJohnDube.Hemet,andpossiblyinfluenced,thepoliticalpioneerPixleySeme.AndhelabouredalongsidesomeAfricansatTolstoyFarm.ThatwastheextentofhispersonalandprofessionalrelationswiththeoriginalinhabitantsandmajoritycommunityofSouthAfrica.Thatsaid,overthetwentyandmoreyearshelivedintheland,Gandhi’s
understandingoftheAfricanpredicamentsteadilywidened.Atfirst,headheredtothethencommonideaofahierarchyofcivilizations–theEuropeansontop,theIndiansjustbelowthem,theAfricansattheverybottom.EverydaylifeinDurbanandJohannesburgalertedhimtotherealandstructureddiscriminationthatAfricansweresubjectto.In1904and1905IndianOpinioncarriedreportsoflawsandpracticesthatboredownheavilyonthem.Inaspeechof1908helookedforwardtoa‘commingling’oftheracesinafutureSouthAfrica.BythistimehewasprescribingsatyagrahaasacureforthepredicamentofAfricans,too.
Fromhisdaysasastudent,Gandhiwascuriousaboutotherfaiths,otherwaysoflivingandrelatingtotheworld.Thistendencywasfurtherdeepenedbytheexperienceoflivingincountriesotherthanhisown.London,Durban,Johannesburg–thesewerecitiesmuchlargerandmorevariedthanRajkotorPorbandar.Gandhiwasfreetoexploretheirpluralismandtheircosmopolitanism,notleastbecausehelivedforsuchlongperiodsawayfromhisfamily.
Ofthesedifferentcities,perhapsitwasJohannesburgthatshapedGandhimostdecisively.Intheearly1900sthiswasacitybeingmadeinasociety(andcountry)beingformed.Therewasachurningabroad,asmigrantsfromallpartsoftheworldcameseekingnotjustashareoftheminingboombutalsoaliberationfromsocialorthodoxies.Ontheoneside,therulerssoughttoimposeanew,stable,racialorder;ontheotherside,individualssoughttofashiontheirlivesinaccordancewiththeirowninnerurges,experimentingwithnewformsofdiet,health-careandinter-culturalandinter-religiousdialogue.Itwasamongtheseamiablyeccentric(anddistinctlynon-violent)dissentersthatGandhifoundhisowncohort–Polak,Kallenbach,Ritch,JosephDoke,SonjaSchlesin,etal.HadGandhialwayslivedorworkedinIndia,hewouldneverhavemet
dissidentJewsorNonconformistChristians.Lifeinthediasporaalsoexposedhimmorekeenlytothehetereogeneityofhisownhomeland.HadhefollowedthefamilytraditionandworkedinaprincelystateinKathiawarhewouldneverhavemetTamilsorNorthIndians.HadhepractisedlawinBombayhecouldnothavecountedplantationworkersorroadsidehawkersamonghisclients.Formostpeople,SouthAfricaintheearly1900swasacrucibleofsocial
inequality,whereindividualsofoneraceorclasslearnedveryquicklytoseparatethemselvesfrompeopleofotherracesandclasses.ForthisIndian,however,SouthAfricabecameacrucibleofhumantogetherness,allowinghimtoforgebondsofaffiliationwithcompatriotswithwhom,hadheremainedathome,hewouldhavehadabsolutelynocontactwhatsoever.Inthisdissolvingofsocialdistinctionssoprevalent(andsoconfining)at
home,GandhisubsumedandembodiedtheexperienceofIndiansinSouthAfricamoregenerally.ThelivesofIndiansinIndiawerecircumscribedbycaste,kinandreligion.EvenincitiessuchasBombayandCalcutta,migrantstendedtolivewiththosewithwhomtheysharedalanguageorcaste.ButhereinSouthAfrica,inspiredbyGandhi,theIndianscametogetherinaninclusivesocialmovement.Thishappenedoveratwenty-yearperiod:firstinNatal,thenintheTransvaal,andfinallyinthemassivestrikesandepicmarchof1913.Duringthesesatyagrahas,andinbetweenthem,Tamils,Gujaratis,Hindi-speakers;Parsis,Hindus,Muslims,Christians;high,middle,andlowcastes;labourers,merchants,priestsatetogether,talkedtogetherandstruggledtogether.
AnintriguingmanifestationofGandhi’scosmopolitanismwashisrelationswiththeChineseintheTransvaal.Now,inthetwenty-firstcentury,ChinaandIndiahavebegunincreasinglytobecoupledtogether.Bothwereancientcivilizationsthatarenowassertivenewnations,bothhaveexperiencedasharpspurtineconomicgrowth.Theirrisehasbeenmademorenoteworthybytheirsizeandpopulation–together,theyaccountforalittlelessthan40percentofallhumanbeingsonearth.Inthecontextofthisrise–variouslyviewedasalarming,admirable,and
premature–thesepreviouslyobscureconnectionsbetweenthegreatestofIndiannationalistsandhisChinesecomradesinSouthAfricaacquireacuriouscontemporaryresonance.ThatsomeChinesemenwereamongtheaudienceinthatepochalmeetingintheEmpireTheatreon11September1906;thattheseChinesemenwillinglycourtedarrestwhenthesatyagrahaactuallystarted;thatinprisonGandhidiscussedthemultiplepathstoGodwithhisChinesecomrades;thattheChinese(asGandhiacknowledged)surpassedtheIndiansingenerositytowardstheirEuropeansupporters–thesefacts,interestingintheirownright,acquireperhapsafreshrelevancenow.When,inJanuary1908,thepassiveresisterssignedapactwiththeTransvaal
Government,therewerethreesignatoriesfromtheirside:aGujarati,Gandhi;aTamil,ThambiNaidoo;andaChinese,LeungQuinn.Thisimpliedacertainparity,eachmanspeakingforhisownparticularcommunity.Overtime,GandhiemergedasthemainleaderoftheAsiansintheTransvaal.ButthesupportoftheTamils,andtheChinese,remainedcrucialtohim,andhismovement.Intheseyears,Gandhihimselfdidnotspeakspecificallyofapan-Asian
solidarity.ButLeungQuinndid,sayinginaspeechinMadras(afterhewasdeportedthere)thatthesatyagrahaintheTransvaalwasfor‘thehonourofAsia’.Inthesamemanner,Smuts’EnglishfriendH.J.WolstenholmethoughtthatGandhi’smovementreflectedan‘epoch-making’changebetweenEastandWest,wherebyIndiansandChinesewere‘developingrapidlyasenseofnationality’withwhichtochallengetheirEuropeanrulers.AfterhecamebacktoIndiain1915,GandhilosttouchwithhisChinese
colleagues.Now,asheappliedhistechniquesofsatyagrahatowinpoliticalfreedomforIndia,nationalistsinChinawerefightingWestern(andJapanese)imperialismbyothermethods,namely,armedstruggle.Inthe1930s,the
AmericanjournalistEdgarSnowwenttomeetMaoZedongafterthelatter’sLongMarch.SnowwascomingfromIndia,wherehehadmetandcometoadmireGandhi.TheMahatmawasbythistimeafigureofgreatworldrenown,especiallyinAmerica,wherehefiguredoftenintheNewYorkTimesandhadbeenchosenbyTimeMagazineastheirManoftheYear(in1930,afterhisownLongMarchtobreakthesaltlaws).TheChineserevolutionaryandtheAmericanjournalistdiscussedtheIndianpathtopoliticalfreedom.Maowasdismissive,since,unliketheChineseCommunists,Gandhihadnotundertakenanagrarianrevolutionbyforciblydispossessinglargelandlords.12
Inthe1930sand1940stherewerefewtakersforGandhianmethodsinChina.IntheChinaoftoday,however,thereisanincreasinginterestinGandhiandwhathestoodfor.AprominentChinesebloggerhasaportraitofGandhionhisprofile.AnotheradmireristheNobelLaureateLiuXiabao.ArecentcollectionofhisessayshasmanyreferencestoMao,allhostileorpejorative,andseveralreferencestoGandhi,allappreciative.InJanuary2000hewrote:
ComparedtopeopleinothernationsthathavelivedunderthedrearypallofCommunism,weresistersinChinahavenotmeasuredupverywell.Evenaftersomanyyearsoftremendoustragedies,westilldon’thaveamoralleaderlikeVáclavHavel.Itseemsironicthatinordertowintherightofordinarypeopletopursueself-interest,asocietyneedsamoralgianttomakeaselflesssacrifice.Inordertosecure‘passivefreedom’–freedomfromstateoppression–thereneedstobeawilltodoactiveresistance.Historyisnotfated.Theappearanceofasinglemartyrcanfundamentallyturnthe
spiritofanationandstrengthenitsmoralfibre.Gandhiwassuchafigure.13
WhatLiuXiabaodidnotknow–butwemayhopeonedaywillknow–isthatthe‘moralgiant’and‘martyr’Gandhiwassupported,atanearlyandcrucialstageofhispoliticalcareer,byChineseactivistssuchasLeungQuinn.
TherelationshipsthatGandhipursuedwereatoncepersonalandinstrumental.Hehadenormousaffectionforhissons(oratleastthreeofthem),forhisnephews,andforhisIndianandEuropeanfriends.Butthattheyaidedhiminhissocialandpoliticalworkwasofmorethanincidentalimportance.Theyassistedhimwithhisjournalandhislawpractice;theycanvassedsupportforhiscauseamongthecommunityandamongtherulingrace;theyhelped,iftheyhadthemeans,tofundhispublicandsocialactivities;theywent,iftheyhadthewill,tojailwithhim.
These‘secondary’characterswereconsiderablefiguresintheirownright.Theyweremenandwomenofintelligenceandcommitment.AnditisthroughthemthatwegettoknowGandhimorefullyasanindividualandasanhistoricalactor.ItisthroughhisrelationswithHenryPolak,ThambiNaidoo,A.M.Cachalia,SonjaSchlesinandParseeRustomjeethatwecanmoreproperlyappreciateGandhi’spoliticalcampaigns;throughhisexperimentswithHermannKallenbachthatwegetadeeperinsightintohisinteractionswithTolstoyandTolstoyansandhisintensedesireforself-improvement(andalsoself-abasement);throughhisconversationswithRaychandbhai,JosephDokeandC.F.Andrewsthatweseehowhearrivedathisownbrandofreligiouspluralism;throughhislifelongfriendshipandcorrespondencewithPranjivanMehtathatweunderstandhislargerambitionsforhimselfandhishomeland;throughhisrelationswith(andmisrecognitionsof)Kasturba,HarilalandManilalthatwearriveatamorenuancedunderstandingoftheman,juxtaposinghisfamilialfailureswithhissocialandspiritualsuccesses.Asithappens,wecancometoknowGandhibetterthroughhisSouthAfrican
adversariesaswell.TheparochialMontfordChamney,theproudGeneralSmuts,theparanoidEastRandVigilantesandtheperfervidwhitemobinNatal–theyshapedGandhi’sworldandworld-viewtoo.SodidthemilitantPathansandthejealousDurbaneditorP.S.Aiyar.Asmuchashisfriendsandfollowers,hiscriticsandenemieshelpedconverttheearnest,naïvelawyerwhoarrivedinDurbanin1893intothesmart,sagaciousandfocusedthinker-activistwhosailedfromCapeTownin1914.Thetwomostpowerfuloftheseadversariesweretheimperialpro-consul
AlfredMilnerandthescholar-warriorJanChristianSmuts.HistoryhasalreadyplacedGandhisubstantiallyaboveSmutsandmassivelyaboveMilner.ButintheSouthAfricaofGandhi’sdaytheywerefarmoresubstantialfiguresthanhe.Itwasthisperceivedaysmmetryofstatusthatledbothmentotreatthelawyer’smodestdemandswithcontempt.Hadeitherbentslightly,andtakensomeaccountoftheIndianpointofview,whoknowswhathistory’sverdictonGandhinowwouldbe?If,in1904,MilnerhadagreedtolegalizetheexistingrightsofIndiantradersintheTransvaal,Gandhiwouldhavereturnedhomewithouteverhavingthoughtofcivildisobedience.If,threeyearslater,SmutshadrepealedtheAsiaticActandagreedtothereturnofaboutathousandIndianswhoclaimed
pre-BoerWarrightsofresidence,Gandhiwouldhavereturnedhomewithnoknowledgeofhowlonghecouldsustainthemoraleofhisfollowers.In1903,theJohannesburgcorrespondentoftheDailyTelegraphsaidofLord
Milner’ssanctioningof‘locations’that‘thecontroversyitwillarousewillnotbeconfinedtotheTransvaal,butwillextendtoEnglandandIndia.’In1907,theNatalMercurywroteofGeneralSmuts’intransigencethatitwould‘producequiteunforeseenresults,bothhereandinIndia’.Bothstatementswereprescient.HadeitherMilnerorSmutscompromisedearlywithGandhi,hemightneverhavehadthechancetodevelopthetechniqueofsatyagraha,northeconfidencetothinkitmightworkinacountrysolargeandsodividedasIndia.Intheevent,thearroganceofBritishimperialistandBoerracistgaveGandhitheopportunitytoemergeasamassleaderinSouthAfricaand,intime,inhishomelandaswell.
ItwasinSouthAfricathatGandhiachievedproficiencyasawriterandeditor.Tobesure,hegotastartinEngland,wherehisfellowvegetariansallowedhimafreerunoftheirjournal.InhisearlyyearsinNatal,astreamofletterstonewspapersandpetitionstoGovernmentpouredfromhispen.In1903hechosetostarthisownperiodical,IndianOpinion.Itspurposewasatoncedocumentaryandpolitical:itwasajournalmeanttoadvancenotGandhi’sinterests,buttheinterestsofIndiansinNatalandtheTransvaal.Gandhiwrotemanyessaysforit,inGujaratiandinEnglish.Healsosuperviseditsproductionfromweektoweek,andwaschieflyresponsibleforitsfinancing.Gandhi’sskillsaswriterandeditorwereconsiderable.Hewas,however,an
indifferent,ifnotdisastrous,publicspeaker.HisfriendandadmirerJosephDokenotedthat,inJohannesburgitself,therewere‘severalofhiscountrymenwhoseelocution,naturalandunaffected,isfarsuperiortohis’.Gandhispokeinalowvoice,andinamonotonoustone.He‘neverwaveshisarms’,remarkedDoke,‘seldommove[s]afinger’.14
AndyettheIndianswhoheardhimlistened,becauseevenifthetonewasunvariedthewordscarriedconviction.Gandhiinspireddevotionnotsomuchbyhisarticlesorspeechesasbytheexemplarynatureofhislifeandconduct.Hisausterity,hishardwork,hiscourage,wereimpressiveenoughtoattractfollowersfromverydifferentbackgrounds–betheyMuslimsorJewsorChristiansorTamils,merchantsorhawkersorpriestsorindenturedlabourers.Byinfluencing
individualsofdifferentbackgrounds,hecreatedamoralandintimepoliticalcommunity,whosememberswerewilling,underhisleadershipanddirection,toembracepovertyandcourtimprisonment.ThecommitmentofhisfriendstoGandhiwasstrikingindeed.ToL.W.Ritch
hewasalwaysthe‘biglittlechief’.HenryPolakchosetotravelformonthsinastrangeland,toseparatehimselffromhisbelovedwifeandchildren,outofregardforGandhiandhiscause.ThambiNaidoowashappytocourtarresttimeandagain,andtoriskhisownlifetosaveGandhi’s.Foranotherserialsatyagrahi,P.K.Naidoo,everytimehewasreleasedtheonepersonhe‘naturally’mostwantedtomeetwasGandhi.ThespiritedSonjaSchlesinworkedalldaytokeepGandhi’sofficegoing,whilefindingthetime–andenergy–tocomfortTamilwomenandcarryfoodtotheirhusbandsinjail.AndthentherewasHermannKallenbach,whosedevotionwasthemostcompleteandunquestioningofthemall.ThereverenceforGandhiofhisinnercircleismanifestinaletterKallenbach
wrotetoChhaganlalinJuly1911.ThearchitectwasleavingtoseehisfamilyinEurope;inhisabsence,heaskedChhagan‘toremainandcontinuetobetherighthandoftheman,whoselifehasgivenusallsuchawonderfullife,thatweallwishtoclingclosertohim’.AsGandhi‘dauntlesslypushesahead,’remarkedKallenbach,hisdisciplesweresometimesunabletokeeppace.Yet‘inoursaneandquietmoments,weallcannothelpbutrejoiceaboutthebrilliantfireburninginhim,inordertore-lightagainandagainthecandlewhichsooftenloseshislustre.Mayweallfullyrecognizeourgoodfortunetobewithhimandworkwithhim.’15
ThosewhospentlesstimewithGandhiwerestirredbyhisexampletoo.AmongthemoststrikingofGandhi’sachievementsisthefactthatduringthesatyagrahasintheTransvaalin1907–10,some3,000Indianscourtedarrest.Theyconstitutedanastonishing35percentoftheIndiansinthecolony.InSeptember1906,Gandhi’sfriend,thePretorialawyerR.Gregorowski,hadadvisedagainstpassiveresistance,as‘notagreatnumberofpeoplearemadeofthestuffthatseekmartyrdomandAsiaticsarenoexceptiontotherule.’Asitturnedout,however,thousandsofIndianswereinspiredbyGandhi’scalltodefythelawandgotojail.
Notably,manyofthesesatyagrahisweremerchants.Merchantsareknowntobethemostcautious,conservativeofmen–perhapsIndianmerchantsespeciallyso(somewouldsay–andGujaratimerchantsmostespeciallyso).Singlyorcollectively,merchantsarelothtotakepoliticalrisksorconfrontestablishedauthority.16
Gandhiwasmobilizingmerchantsinacolonialcontextwhowerelivingawayfromtheirhomeland,incircumstanceswhereonewouldexpectthemtobeevenmoretimid.Andyettheyfollowedtheirleaderintoprison.Asdid,intime,thehawkers,workersandprofessionalswhosediasporicstatuswouldlikewisehavemadethemreluctanttothrowawaytheirlivelihoodbyembracingastrugglesouncertainofsuccess.Inactingastheydid,theIndiansknewthattheirleaderwasnotjustprepared
tocourtarrestforthecause,buttobekilledforitaswell.AfterGandhiwasattackedandnearlymurderedinDurbaninJanuary1897,hereceivedastirringletterofsupportfromaGujaratifishcurerinCapeTown.Thispraisedhis‘single-heartedeffortsandfearlessrepresentationsofgrievancesunderwhichtheunfortunateIndianssuffer’.Hiscorrespondent,‘deeplygrieved’thatGandhi‘shouldhavebeensubjectedtothecrueltreatmentsreportedinthepapershere…atthehandsofamadmob’,assuredhim‘thattheeyesofthousands[ofIndiansintheCape]areonyouandarewatchingwithsympatheticappreciationonallyouhavedone’.17
ThosewhosetuponGandhiinDurbanin1897wereworking-classwhites.Elevenyearslater,hewasattackedoncemore,thistimeinJohannesburg,andbyagroupofPathans.Oncemore,hiscalmnessanddeterminationbroughtaroundIndiansotherwiseunimpressedbyhimandhismovement.ThesetwoattemptsonGandhi’slife,andhisresolutioninthefaceofboth,confirmedhisstandinginthecommunity.Gandhimetlaterthreatswithequanimity.Thus,whenstoriesspreadin1909
thatsomePathansinJohannesburgwereplanningtoattackhimoncemore,hetoldhisnephewMaganlalthathedidnotfear,andevenwelcomed,theprospectofdeathatthehandsofhiscountrymen,sinceitwould‘unitetheHindusandMussalmans’.18
Gandhi,hisfellowIndiansknew,was‘sofrailafigure[but]sovigorousacharacter’,inthedescriptionofameat-eatingandwhisky-guzzling
Johannesburgjournalistwhomarvelledattheunexpectedoratanyratecounter-intutitivecourageshownbyateetotalvegetarian.RelevanthereisaremarkoftheGujaratiheadmasterwho,inthe1960s,foundtheyoungMohandas’schoolrecordsinRajkot,whichbroughttolighttheerraticattendanceandindifferentacademicperformanceofanowmostveneratedfigure.‘Gandhiji,ithasbeenwellsaid’,wrotethisteacher-archivist,‘couldfashionheroesoutofcommonclay.Hisfirstand,undoubtedly,hismostsuccessfulexperimentwaswithhimself.’19
InhisyearsoutsideIndia,Gandhicamegradually,andintimedecisively,toturnhisbackonhisprofession.HadhenotfoundithardtogetbriefsinRajkotandBombayhemightneverhaveleftforDurban.InSouthAfricahemetwithconsiderableprofessionalsuccess.Slowly,however,hislegalworkwasconductedlessformonetarygainandmoretoaidhisfellowIndians.Movingfurtherawayfromthecareerforwhichhehadbeentrained,heeventuallyhandedoverhispracticetohiscolleaguesL.W.RitchandHenryPolak.Atthesametime,hebegansimplifyinghislifeandhisneeds,exchangingahomeinthecityforaplaceontheland.Overtheyears,heelaboratedanascetic,workaholicregime,disregardingpleasureandleisure:noalcoholormeat,ofcourse;nosugarorspices:and–lestitbeforgotten–nosportsorpastimeseither.Gandhi’sabidinginterestinthesimplelifeingeneral,andinavegetariandiet,
naturalmethodsofhealing,andcelibacy,inparticular,aretothemoderneyedifficulttoappreciate.Whybesofussyaboutwhattoeatandwhatnottoeat?Whynotberationalandscientific,andembracetheallopathicregimenofpillsandsurgeries,ratherthantreatillnesseswithnaturalmethodslearntfromuntrainedquacksorofone’sownconcoction?Andwhytheobsessionwithbrahmacharya?Isnotsexoneofthejoysandpleasuresoflife?Andisnotsexwithone’swifeinparticulartheveryenactmentandembodimentoftrue,enduringlove?Intruth,theseconcernswerenotalwaysappreciatedbyGandhi’s
contemporaries,norevenbysomeofhisfriends.InherbookMrGandhi:TheMan,analwaysaffectionate,ofteninsightful,andabsolutelyindispensableaccountoftheirlifetogetherinSouthAfrica,MilliePolakcouldnotconcealherpuzzlementwithherfriend’ssometimesstrangeways.HerhusbandHenry,while
deeplydevotedtohisBadaBhai’spoliticalprogramme,wasnotparticularlyenchantedbyhissocialornaturalphilosophyeither.NeitherMillienorHenryspentmuchtimeatPhoenixorTolstoyFarms;neithersubjectedthemselvestosteambathsandmudpacks;neithereverremotelycontemplatedthepracticeofcelibacy.Tosomepeoplethen(andnow),Gandhi’sascetic,austereregimen,his
idiosyncraticdiet,hisrefusaltotakepillswhensick,hissexualabstinence,werehardtotakeandhardertounderstand.IfoneadmiredGandhi’spoliticalphilosophy,then–likethePolaks–onetreatedtheseasamiableeccentricities,asfads.IfonedisagreedwithGandhi’spoliticalphilosophy,thenonesawintheseobsessionsconfirmationofhowirrelevanthisentireworld-viewwastothemodernera.TheprominentIndianCommunistE.M.S.Namboodiripad,writingofGandhi’smembershipoftheVegetarianSocietyofLondonasalawstudent,thoughtitanearlyillustrationofthe‘extremelyreactionarysocialoutlookwhichguidedGandhithroughouthisactivities’.Namboodiripadcontinued:
WhileGandhi,theyoungbarrister,waswritingarticlesfortheVegetarian,Lenin,alsoayounglawyer,wastranslatingMarx,SydneyWebb,etc.,andhimselfwritingTheDevelopmentofCapitalisminRussia.Lenincombinedthemilitantmassmovementoftheworkingclasswiththemostadvancedideology.Gandhicombineditwiththemostreactionaryandobscurantistof
ideologiesthatwascurrentinthecontemporaryworld.20
Inthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury,Marxismhadanenormousappeal.Well-readyoungmenallovertheworldsawitastheway,andwave,ofthefuture.(TheFrenchsociologistRaymondAron,aprecociousdissenterhimself,termeditthe‘opiumoftheintellectuals’.)Thesesamemen,iftheykneworknewofGandhi,sawhimas‘reactionaryandobscurantist’becauseheusedareligiousidiomratherthanasecular-scientificone,becausehepreachedamoderationofmaterialwantsratherthanwelcomingthecornucopianpromisesofmodernity,becauseheadvocatedthe(tothem)tame,timid,effeminatealternativeofsatyagrahatothemilitant,masculinerouteofarmedstruggle.Namboodiripad’semphaticdismissalofGandhi(andGandhism)wasfirst
publishedinthewinterof1955–6.Thenextyear,Khrushchev’sspeechtothe20thCongressoftheCommunistPartyoftheSovietUnionconfirmedthemurderousoutcomesofthe‘mostadvancedideology’ofLeninandhissuccessorStalin.TheimageofMarxismtookabatteringinsubsequentdecades.Newsof
theGulag,thepurges,thebrutalsuppressionofminorities,andthemassfaminesinducedbyCommunistregimes,havemadeitlesseasytohailMarxismas‘progressive’whiledismissingGandhismas‘reactionary’.Butletusnotwintheargumentbetweentheserivalphilosophiesthrough
hindsight,butrathertryandseeGandhi’sownexperimentsashesawthem,asstepstoapurer,moremeaningfullife.Tosimplifyhisdiet,toreducehisdependenceonmedicinesanddoctors,toembracebrahmacharya,wereallforhimwaysofstrengtheninghiswillandhisresolve.Byconqueringtheneedtobestimulatedbysexorrichfood–the‘basalpassions’accordingtohisteacherTolstoy–Gandhiwaspreparinghimselfforalifelivedforotherpeopleandforhighervalues.Ifheatelittle,andthatmerelyfruitsandvegetables,withoutsalt,sugarandspices;ifhedidn’tcarehowoften(orifatall)hehadsexwithhiswife(orwithothers);ifhedressedsimplyanddidn’townpropertyorjewellery,hecouldmoreeasilyembracetherigoursofprisonlife,morefullyandwhole-heartedlydevotehisbeingandhisbodytotheoppressedIndiansofNatalandtheTransvaal.
Hisreligiousquest,hisindividualandsocialrelationships,hisworkaswriterandeditor,hislegalcareer,hislifestylechoices–thesewereallsubordinated,inlesserorgreaterdegree,toGandhi’sworkfortherightsoftheIndiansinSouthAfrica.Thissubordinationofindividualchoicetosocialcommitmenthappenedincrementally,overthetwenty-oddyearsthatGandhispentthere.Thisgradualismmayhavehaditsrootsinthetimehespentasastudentin
London.AshisoldflatmateJosiahOldfieldoncenoted,thevegetariansprovided‘afinetraininggroundinwhichGandhilearnt[that]byquietpersistencehecoulddofarmoretochangemen’smindsthanbyanyoratoryorloudtrumpeting’.21
HenrySalt,whowas,properlyspeaking,Gandhi’sfirstmentor(sincehemethimevenbeforehemetRaychandbhai)hadsaidthat‘toinsistonanall-or-nothingpolicywouldbefataltoanyreformwhatsoever.Improvementsnevercomeinthemass,butalwaysbyinstalment.’Likewise,Gandhi’spolicyforpersonalimprovementaswellashisagendaforsocialreformwasthatofonestepatatime.However,evenifherecognizedthattheindividualselfwasnot,
ultimately,perfectible,heneverlostsightoftheultimatesocialgoalofracialandnationalequality.SomeonewhounderstoodthepragmaticrootsofGandhi’sgradualismwashis
friendL.W.Ritch.WhenaskedwhyIndiansdidnotimmediatelydemandthefranchise,Ritchansweredthat‘thewholetoneandtemperofwhiteSouthAfricawassuchthatanyclaimofthatkindwasabsolutelyoutsidetherangeofpracticalpolitics.’Thenhecontinued,‘Still,theidealsoftheonedaybecomethepracticalpoliticsofanother,andthechildrenofalatergenerationwillinalllikelihoodlookwithamazementuponwhattheywilldoubtlessconsiderthenarrow-mindednessoftheirpredecessors.’22
Whilefightingfortherepealofanunjustlawortax,orformorefreedomofmovementoroftrade,GandhididnotgosofarastopressforequalcitizenshiporforvotingrightsforIndians.Tospeakofcomprehensiveequalityforcolouredpeoplewasprematureinearlytwentieth-centurySouthAfrica.Nonetheless,Gandhibelievedthatintimesuchequalitywouldcome,that(asheputitinaspeechofMay1908)therulerswouldonedayrecognizetheneedtoraisesubjectpeoples‘toequalitywiththemselves,togivethemabsolutelyfreeinstitutionsandmakethemabsolutelyfreemen’.Sixyearslater,inhisfarewellspeechtotheEuropeansofDurban,hetoldthemthattheycouldnotforeverpostponethedaywhencolouredpeopleswouldenjoy‘acharteroffullliberties’inSouthAfrica.Ashispoliticalthoughtevolved,soalsodidGandhi’sconfidenceinhimselfas
aleaderandmakerofmen.HisletterstoLordMilnerin1903and1904wereextremelydeferentialintone.Withinafewyearsthishadchanged.Gandhi’sletterstoGeneralSmutswerecourteouslyworded,yetfarmoreassured.Hespoketohimastheleaderofonecommunitytoanother.Tobesure,equivalencedidnotimplyequality,sincethewhiteswerethedominantraceinapoliticalaswellaseconomicsense.Still,theconfidenceconveyedinGandhi’sexchangeswithSmutsisunmistakable,aproductofthefactthatsomanyIndianshadfollowedhiscallandcourtedarrest.Thispoliticalandpersonalevolutionwasalsoaccompaniedbyshiftsinhow
Gandhiviewedrivalculturesandcivilizations.WhenhefirstwenttoSouthAfrica,GandhiwasbothanEmpireloyalistandabelieverinthesuperiorityofBritishjusticeandBritishinstitutions.Hewas,indressandorientationofmind,
aWesternizedOrientalGentleman,amodernmanwhoadmiredandwascomfortablewith(European)modernity.ReadingTolstoyandRuskin,andre-readingRaychandbhai,ledhimtoreconsiderhisposition.Hebegantoexalttheruralagainsttheurban,theagrarianagainsttheindustrialand,eventuallytheIndicversustheEuropean.AsthisLondon-trainedbarristerbegantothinkmorelikeanIndian,hebegantolookmorelikeanIndiantoo.Hisadoptionofthehome-spundressofapeasantafterthesatyagrahaof1913wastheanalogue,inapparel,oftheintellectualindigenismcontainedwithinthepagesofHindSwaraj.Gandhi’sexperiencesinSouthAfricawereastonishinglyvariedandalways
intense.LifeinDurbanandJohannesburg,atPhoenixandTolstoyfarms,incourtandinjail,ontheroadandonthetrain,gavehimadeeperunderstandingofwhatdivided(orunited)humanbeingsingeneralandIndiansinparticular.Twodecadesinthediasporagavehimtheeyestoseeandthetoolstousewhenhecamebackhome.Aswriter,editor,leader,bridge-builder,socialreformer,moralexemplar,politicalorganizerandpoliticaltheorist,GandhireturnedtoIndiain1915fullyformedandfullyprimedtocarryoutthesecallingsoverafarwiderspatial,socialand–notleast–historicalscale.
TheSouthAfricanyearswerecrucialtoGandhi,andtothedistinctiveformofpoliticalprotestthatishismostenduringlegacytoIndiaandtheworld.From1894,whentheNatalIndianCongresswasfounded,until1906,Gandhiandhiscolleaguesreliedonletters,articles,petitionsanddeputationstomaketheircase.On11September1906,theIndiansoftheTransvaalmadearadicaldeparture,when,inthatmassmeetingatJohannesburg’sEmpireTheatre,theyresolvedtoseekimprisonmentiftheirdemandswerenotmet.GandhinowtravelledtoLondontogivetheoldermethodsalastchance.Hereturnedempty-handed.ThefollowingyearheledhundredsofIndians(andsomeChinese)incourtingarrestbybreakingthelaw.Insubsequentyears,satyagrahatookvariousforms:hawkingwithouta
licence,crossingcolonialboundarieswithoutapermit,refusingtoprovidethumbimpressionswhenaskedtodoso,burningregistrationcertificatesthatthelawobligedonetopossessandcarryatalltimes.Theactionswereindividualandcollective–firstconductedbyapersonactingalone,thenbyafewpeople
actingtogether,then,inthemarchacrosstheborderinNovember1913,bythousandsofpeopleatonce.Thesemethodsofcivildisobediencelayinbetweentheoldermethodofpetitioningtheauthoritiesandtherivalmethod–thengatheringgroundinIndia–ofbombingpublicplacesandassassinatingpublicofficials.Gandhiwasbothapractitionerandatheoristofsatyagraha.Heplannedhis
campaignsmeticulously.Whichlawwastobebrokenwhen,bywhom,inwhichplaceandinwhatmanner–tothesemattershegavecarefulattentionandissuedpreciseinstructions.Beforeandafterthesecampaignsheexplainedthewidermoralandpoliticalsignificanceofsatyagraha.Inletters,speeches,articles,editorials,andinhisbookHindSwaraj,heexplainedwhynon-violencewasmoreeffectiveaswellasmorenoblethanthearmedstruggletowhichsomebrilliantandcourageousyoungIndiansweremoreimmediatelyattracted.InAugust1911,atimewemaydescribeinretrospectasalullbetweentwo
storms,afteronemajorsatyagrahaandbeforeanother,TheTimesofLondoncarriedaleaderon‘TheAsiaticProbleminSouthAfrica’,ThissummarizedthecampaignsofIndiansinSouthAfrica,conducted‘undertheguidanceofMrM.K.Gandhi,anableandtenaciousleader’.23Thedescriptionwasnotinaccurate.ForGandhiwasin1911essentiallyacommunityleader,whorepresentedtheinterestsofabout100,000IndiansinSouthAfrica.Tobesure,givenwhatwenowknowofthemanandhisimpactonhiscountry
andtheworld,wemaythinkthepraiseparsimonious.So,hadtheyreadTheTimesatthetime,wouldsomeofGandhi’sclosestfriends.ThepeopleofPorbandar,writingtoLordMorleyin1908,insistedthatinthestruggleledbytheirnativeson‘thefateandfutureofIndiaisinvolved’.Kallenbach,writingafewyearslater,thoughthistorywouldplaceGandhialongsideTolstoyandRuskin.PranjivanMehtawentevenfurther–hecalledhisfellowGujaratia‘Mahatma’,thesortofspiritualleaderborneveryfewhundredyearstorescueandredeemthemotherland.KallenbachwasGandhi’smostdevotedEuropeanfriend;Mehta,Gandhi’s
oldestandmoststeadfastIndianadmirer.Theywouldhavefollowedtheirleaderwhereverhewent,evendownthepathofarmedstrugglehadhechosenthatrouteinstead.ThemoralforceofGandhi’spoliticalmethod,however,wasbetterappreciatedbytwomen,oneIndian,theotherEuropean,whosepersonal
affectionforthemanwasmatchedbyasharpunderstandingofhispoliticaltechnique.InaspeechinJohannesburginNovember1908,thetraderA.M.Cachaliaobservedthat‘thepassiveresisterishigherinthemoralscale,andinthatofhumandevelopmentthantheactiveresister…Passiveresistanceisamatterofheart,ofconscience,oftrainedunderstanding.’SpeakingtoareporterinDurbaninSeptember1910,HenryPolakobservedthat‘ourprogrammewillremain,asithasalwaysbeen,notoneofviolenceorattemptstodisturb,butoneofsufferingonthepartofourpeople,whointendtogoonenduringthesehardshipsuntiltheymaketheauthoritiesashamedofthemselves.’Gandhi’sownbeliefinthepowerandrelevanceofnon-violentresistancewas
enormous,andunshakeable.AsearlyasNovember1907–whenthefirstprotestsagainstpermitsweretakingshapeintheTransvaal,andwhenhehadnotyetbeenjailedhimself–hesaidofpassiveresistancethatit‘maywellbeadoptedbyeveryoppressedpeople[and]byeveryoppressedindividual,asbeingamorereliableandmorehonourableinstrumentforsecuringtheredressofwrongsthananywhichhasheretoforebeenadopted’.Twoyearslater,writingtoTolstoyfromLondon,hewentsofarastoclaimthat‘thestruggleoftheIndiansintheTransvaalisthegreatestofmoderntimes,inasmuchasithasbeenidealisedbothastothegoalasalsothemethodsadopedtoreachthegoal.’Then,inJune1914–ontheeveofhisdeparturefromSouthAfrica–hedescribedsatyagrahaas‘perhapsthemightiestinstrumentonearth’.AsIwritethisinAugust2012,sixty-fiveyearsafterIndianindependence,
forty-fouryearsafterthepassageoftheCivilRightsActintheUnitedStates,twenty-threeyearsafterthefalloftheBerlinWall,eighteenyearsaftertheendingofapartheid,andinthemidstofongoingnon-violentstrugglesfordemocracyanddignityinBurma,Tibet,Yemen,Egyptandotherplaces,Gandhi’swords(andclaims)appearlessimmodestthantheymighthaveseemedwhenhefirstarticulatedthem.
1.ThehomeinPorbandarwhereMohandasGandhiwasborn.
2.ThehomeinPorbandarwhereMohandasGandhiwasborn.
3.TheschoolinRajkot,whereMohandasGandhididnotdistinguishhimselfasastudent.
4.Mohandas'sfather,Karamchand(Kaba)Gandhi.
5.Mohandas'smotherPutlibai.
6.Mohandas,intraditionalKathiawaridress.
7.Gandhi’spreceptor,theJainscholarRaychandbhai.
8.ThesuccessfullawyerinDurban,c.1898.
9.KasturbaGandhiandchildren,c.1899.TheinfantinherarmsisRamdas,theoneonthestoolManilal,theonetotherightHarilal.Theeldestoftheboysinthepicture,ontheleft,isGandhi'ssister’sson
Gokuldas.TheGandhis’youngestson,Devadas,wasbornthefollowingyear.
10.AfrontpageofIndianOpinion,thejournalGandhifoundedin1903.Notethemaponthemasthead,linkingthemotherlandtothediaspora.Thepetitionthatthisissuereproduces,althoughsentinthenameof
A.M.Cachalia,wasalmostcertainlywrittenbyGandhi.
11.Gandhi'sclosestadviser:theJewishradicalHenryPolak.
12.Gandhi'sclosestadviser:theGujaratipatriotPranjivanMehta.
13.Gandhi’smostdevotedassistant:hissecretarySonjaSchlesin.
14.Gandhi’smostdevotedassistant:HermannKallenbach.
15.ThegreatEuropeanwholoomedlargeinGandhi’slifeinSouthAfrica:hisprincipaladversary,theBoergeneralJanChristianSmuts.
16.AnothergreatEuropeanwholoomedlargeinGandhi’slifeinSouthAfrica:LeoTolstoy.
17.Gandhi,takenin1909.ThiswaspresentedbyHermannKallenbachtoThambiNaidoo,withtheinscription(clearlyvisible):‘Ifwearetruetohimwewillbetruetoourselves.’
18.Gandhi’sstaunchestsupporter:theJohannesburgmerchantA.M.Cachalia.
19.Gandhi’sstaunchestsupporter:theEnglishvegetarianAlbertWest.
20.Gandhi’sstaunchestsupporter:theTamilradicalThambiNaidoo.
21.Gandhi’sstaunchestsupporter:DurbanmerchantParseeRustomjee.
22.Gandhi’sargumentativehousemateMillieGrahamPolak.
23.Gandhi’ssonHarilal.
24.MaganlalGandhi.
25.ChhaganlalGandhi.
26.ContemporarycartoonofthesatyagrahaintheTransvaal.
27.TheBaptistMinisterJosephDoke,Gandhi’sfriend,host,andfirstbiographer.
28.LeungQuinn,theleaderoftheChinesesatyagrahis.
29.TwoIndiansGandhigreatlylookedupto:theliberalpoliticianGopalKrishnaGokhale(left)andtheParsiphilanthrophistRatanTata(right).Thephotographwastakeninorabout1914,probablyinthegarden
ofTata'shouseinTwickenham.
30.Gandhi’skeylieutenant,ThambiNaidoo,addressingacrowdinornearDurbanduringthe1913satyagraha.
31.Gandhi,early1914,wearingwhitetomournthedeathsofIndianstrikerskilledinpolicefiring.
ANoteonSources
ThefirsttwelvevolumesoftheCollectedWorksofMahatmaGandhiruntosome5,000pagesinprint.TheycoverhisyearsinKathiawar,London,BombayandSouthAfrica.Twoscholarsplayedacriticalroleinputtingtogetherthesevolumes.TheywereK.Swaminathan,chiefeditoroftheproject;andhisdeputy,C.N.Patel.SwaminathanwaspreviouslyaprofessorofEnglishinMadras;hehadalsobrieflyeditedaSundaynewspaper.PatelhadalsobeenanEnglishteacher(inacollegeinAhmedabad);andhewasanativeGujaratispeaker.Swaminathansupervisedtheprojectasawhole,settingthetextsincontextby
providingfootnotes,cross-referencesandappendices.MuchofthetranslationofGandhi’sGujaratilettersandarticleswasdonebyPatel.Theduowerehelped,intheseearlyvolumes,bytwoothers–Gandhi’snephewChhaganlalandhisone-timealteregoHenryPolak.ChhaganpassedonhislargestockofGandhiletters;withPolak,healsohelpedidentifytheauthorsoftheusuallyunsignedarticlesinIndianOpinion.BothhadbeenintimatelyinvolvedintheproductionofthisjournalinSouthAfrica;now,fiftyyearslater,theyassessed,asaccuratelyastheycould,whichpiecescouldreliablybeattributedtoGandhihimself.ThefirsttwelvevolumesoftheCollectedWorksofMahatmaGandhihave
naturallybeenraidedforthisbook.SohasasupplementaryvolumeoftheCollectedWorks,whichreproducessomeletterswrittenbyGandhitoHermannKallenbach,HenryandMilliePolak,andAlbertWest.However,almostasimportanttothisbiographyhavebeentheletterswrittenbyotherpeopletoGandhi,asourcestrangelyneglectedinthepast.InthelibraryoftheNationalGandhiMuseuminNewDelhi,whichislocatedacrosstheroadfromhismemorialinRajghat,lieaseriesoflargeblack-boundvolumescontainingGandhi’scorrespondence.Theyrunchronologically,withthefirsttenvolumescoveringtheperiodofthisbook.HereonefindstheletterswrittentoGandhibytheclosestassociatesofhisSouthAfricanyears–PranjivanMehta,HenryPolak,JosephDoke,G.K.Gokhale,C.F.Andrews,etal.Theselettersthrow
muchlightonGandhi’spersonality,familialrelationships,religiousbeliefs,andsocialandpoliticalviews.InthelibraryoftheGandhiMuseum,thesevolumesarehousedinthebottom
shelvesofbookcases,behindslidingdoors,sothattheyarenotimmediatelyvisible,whichmaybeonereasonwhytheyhavebeenneglected.Thelettersarecopies;theoriginalsarehousedintheNationalArchives,withcopiesandsomeadditionalmaterialsalsoavailableintheSabarmatiAshraminAhmedabad,whereGandhilivedfrom1917to1930.Eachcarriesanumber,prefacedbytheinitials‘S.N.’,for‘SerialNumber’.AthirdsetofsourcescrucialtothisworkwerethepapersofGandhi’sfriends
andassociates.ThesecontainlettersaboutGandhi,andreflectionsaboutGandhi,thatproviderichdetailsandoftenstrikinginsightsabouthismultiplecareers.ThisbookhasthusdrawnextensivelyonthepapersofGopalKrishnaGokhale,housedattheNationalArchivesofIndiainNewDelhi;thepapersofHenryPolak,splitbetweentheRhodesHouseLibraryinOxfordandtheAsianandAfricanCollectionsoftheBritishLibraryinLondon;thepapersofHermannKallenbach,atthetimethisbookwasbeingresearchedintheIsraelitownofHaifa(butatthetimeitisbeingfinishedintheprocessofbeingtransferredtoapublicarchiveinIndia);andthepapersofJosephDoke,heldinpartintheSouthAfricanBaptistUnionarchivesinJohannesburgandinpartinthepapersofhissonC.M.Doke,whicharekeptinthelibraryoftheUniversityofSouthAfrica(UNISA)inPretoria.AmongtheothermanuscriptcollectionsthathavebeenhelpfulinmyresearcharetheLouisFischerPapers,heldattheNewYorkPublicLibrary;adiaryofKallenbach’sfor1912–13thatisintheSabarmatiAshraminAhmedabad;andthepapersoftheServantsofIndiaSociety,whicharehousedattheNehruMemorialMuseumandLibraryinNewDelhi(NMML).TheNMMLalsohasavastcacheofGandhipapers;whilethesedealprincipallywiththe1930sand1940s,thereissomematerialonSouthAfrica,includingafileofnewsclippingsonthe1913–14satyagrahaapparentlymaintainedbyHenryPolak.IhavealsodrawnabundantlyonGandhi-relatedmaterialscollectedovertheyearsbyE.S.Reddy.SomeofMrReddy’spapersarehousedattheSterlingLibraryinYaleUniversity;someattheNMML;andsomeareretainedbyhiminNewYork.
AfourthmajorsourcewerethearchivalrecordsoftheIndian,SouthAfricanandBritishGovernments.TheracialpoliciesoftheSouthAfricanstate,andthereactionstotheminLondonandIndia,areoftenbestreconstructedthroughtheserecords.TheyareparticularlyvaluableinunderstandinghowGandhi’spoliticaladversaries–fromthelowlyProtectorofAsiaticstoelevatedMinisters,PrimeMinistersandGovernorGenerals–wroteaboutandrespondedtohim.RecordspertainingtoGandhi’syearsinNatalwerephotocopiedatthepublic
archivesinPietermaritzburgbyE.S.Reddy;thesecopiesnowrestintheNehruMemorialMuseumandLibraryinNewDelhi.EvenmorevaluableareaseriesofeightmicrofilmsofrecordsfromNatalGovernmentHouse.TheseareheldattheNMML,whichobtainedtheminthe1970s,whentheIndianGovernmenthadnodealingswiththeapartheidregime.AvisionaryarchivistpersuadedanAmericanscholarwithalargebudgettofilmtheserecordsandpassonacopytoNewDelhi.Runningtosome10,000pages,thesemicrofilmsareaninvaluablewindowintothelivesandlaboursofIndiansinSouthAfrica,andoftheroleplayedthereinbyacertainM.K.Gandhi.TherecordsoftheTransvaalGovernment,andoftheUnionofSouthAfrica
itself,arekeptintheNationalArchivesofSouthAfrica.ThesearehousedinwhatmaybethemostunattractivebuildinginPretoria.However,therichnessofthematerialswithincompensateforthehorrorwithout.Moreattractive,atleastfromtheoutside,istheNationalArchivesinNewDelhi,whereIconsultedtherecordsoftheForeignandPoliticalDepartment(forKathiawar),theEmigrationBranchoftheDepartmentofCommerceandIndustry(dealingwiththeIndiandiaspora)andtheHomeDepartment(regardingthebanonGandhi’sbook,HindSwaraj).SupplementarymaterialwasalsolocatedintheMaharashtraStateArchivesinMumbaiandtheTamilNaduStatearchivesinChennai.AthirdsetofstaterecordsareheldinLondon,which,c.1869–1914,wasthe
capitalofanEmpirewhoseterritoriesincludedallofIndiaandmostofSouthAfrica.ParticularlyhelpfultothisprojectweretheColonialOfficerecords,keptintheNationalArchivesoftheUnitedKingdom,atKew;andtherecordsoftheoldIndiaOffice,heldbytheBritishLibraryinStPancras,bothofwhichcontainmuchvaluablematerialonGandhiandhisstruggles.Alsousefulwerethepapersoftheproconsulsthemselves.Iconsultedthe
papersofLordSelborneattheBodleianLibraryinOxford,andofLordRipon
andLordGladstoneintheBritishLibraryinLondon.
Letters,manuscriptsandgovernmentrecordsaregenerallyclassifiedas‘unpublishedprimarysources’.Turningnextto‘primaryprintedsources’,IhavedrawnontherichseriesofParliamentaryPapersonSouthAfrica(whichreproducemanylettersfromthearchives);onthepublishedvolumesoftheJanChristianSmutscorrespondence,editedbyKeithHancockandJeanVanDerPoel;andonvariousgovernmentreportspublishedbetween(roughly)1890and1910.Anabsolutelycriticalsourceforthisbook–oddlyoverlookedbyprevious
biographers–havebeennewspapersprintedinthethreecountriesGandhilivedinandhaddealingswith.IhavethusdrawnextensivelyonrelevantreportsintheBritishpress,andonnewspapercommentsonGandhiandhisactivitiespublishedinIndiannewspapersand,mostimportantly,inSouthAfrica.TwelveboundvolumesofnewsclippingsarekeptinaGodrejalmirahinthe
SabarmatiAshraminAhmedabad.Theycovertheperiod1894to1901,anddealprincipallywithattitudestoIndiansandGandhiinNatal.Whilekeptseparately,intheashram’scataloguetheyareindexedchronologicallywiththelettersbyandtoGandhi.Ihavethereforecitedthemtoobytheir‘S.N.’,or‘SerialNumber’.Whomaintainedtheseclippings?IthinkitverylikelythatitwasGandhi
himself.HowdidtheygettoSabarmati?TheveteranGandhianactivistNarayanDesaithinksthattheywerebroughtbackfromSouthAfricabyChhaganlalGandhi.Inthatcase,itmaybethatwhenGandhileftforIndiain1901,theclippingswereleftbehindinNatalinthekeepingofafriend(ParseeRustomjee?),andlatersalvagedbyChhaganlal.This,ofcourse,isspeculation–whatishardfactisthattheclippingsarenowatSabarmati.TheyprovideafascinatingperspectiveonhowtheyoungGandhiwasviewedbythewhitepublicofNatal.In1903,onhisreturntoSouthAfrica,GandhistartedIndianOpinion.The
newspaperregularlyexcerptedreportsandcommentaryfromotherperiodicals,whichIhavedrawnuponinmynarrative.IndianOpinionitselfisindispensableforafullerunderstandingofGandhi,hiscommunity,hisstrugglesandhistime.Thevolumesfrom1903to1914(inclusive)havebeenputonCD-ROMbythe
NationalGandhiMuseum.Ireadthese500-oddissuesonalargecomputer,consistentlyabsorbedandfascinatedbytheircontentandtone,takingnotesonasplitscreenasIread.(Mynotesranto40,000words,onlyafractionofwhichhavefoundtheirwayintotheprecedingpages).ThenewsclippingsatSabarmatiandthematerialinIndianOpinion(whether
originaltothatjournalorreproducedfromelsewhere)wereveryrevealingindeed.SowerecopiesofAfricanChronicle,thenewspaperofGandhi’srivalP.S.Aiyar,microfilmsofwhichareheldintheBritishLibrary’snewspapersection,inthenorthLondonsuburbofCollindale.ForkeyincidentsinGandhi’slifeandthesatyagrahasheled,IalsoconsultedcopiesofTheTimesofLondon;theTransvaalLeader,theRandDailyMail;theStarofJohannesburg;theNatalAdvertiser;andtheMadrasMail.ParticularlyvaluablewerethemicrofilmsoftheNatalMercuryfortheperiod1893–1914housedattheNMML,andpresumablybroughttherebyarouteasdevious(andcreative)asthemicrofilmsofNatalGovernmentHouse.
Thelastsetofsourcesconsistofprintedbooksandessays.Ihave,wherenecessaryandrelevant,usedsecondaryworksbyspecialistspublishedinrecentdecades.However,Ihavealsoreadmanybooksandpamphletspublishedinthelastdecadeofthenineteenthcenturyandthefirstdecadeofthetwentieth,togetadirect,unmediatedflavourofhowthedebatesinwhichGandhifiguredwereunderstoodandarticulatedatthetime.Asexplainedintheprologue,thisbooksoughtinthefirstinstancetogo
beyondtheCollectedWorks,andthustoprovideanaccountthatdidnotrelyexclusivelyorevenlargelyonwhatGandhisaidandwrote.Thesourcesdescribedabove,whichwereconsultedovermanyyearsinmanydifferentcollections,haveallowedmetopaintwhatItrustisaportrait,fromallangles,ofGandhi’slifebeforehisdeparturefromSouthAfricainJuly1914.DuringthecourseofmyresearchIalsofoundmanyletterswrittenbyGandhithat,foronereasonoranother,hadnotbeenpublishedorknownofbefore.ThesepreviouslyunknownoruncollectedletterslieintheNationalArchivesofIndiaandofSouthAfrica,intheBritishLibrary,intheC.M.DokepapersinPretoria,intheKallenbachPapersinHaifa,andinthepapersofE.S.ReddyinNewYorkandNewDelhi.TheyrevealunexpecteddetailsofGandhi’smotivations,ofhow,at
variouscriticalmoments,hebehavedtowardstheNatal,TransvaalandIndianGovernments;towardshisfellowpassiveresisters;andtowardshiseldestson.
Notes
ABBREVIATIONSUSEDINTHENOTES
ACAfricanChronicle
APAC/BLAsia,PacificandAfricaCollections,BritishLibrary,London
BLBritishLibrary,London
C.M.DokePapersC.M.DokeCollection,DocumentationCentreforAfricanStudies,
UNISALibrary,Pretoria
COColonialOffice
CWMGCollectedWorksofMahatmaGandhi(NewDelhi:GovernmentofIndia,
1958onwards).
Gandhi,AnAutobiographyM.K.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,ortheStoryofMyExperimentswith
Truth,translatedfromtheGujaratibyMahadevDesai(firstpublishedin1927;2ndedn,1940;reprintAhmedabad:NavajivanPublishingHouse,1995).TherearemanyprinteditionsofGandhi’sautobiographyinEnglish,publishedinIndia,theUnitedKingdom,theUnitedStatesandothercountries.Andtherewillbemore.Thebookhasalsobeentranslatedintomanylanguages.Thepaginationoftheseeditionsvariesenormously.ThereforeinmyreferencestoitIhavecitedPartandChapterratherthanpagenumbers.However,sincethebookoriginatedinaseriesofnewspaperarticles,eachchapterismerelyafewpageslong,somycitationswillberelativelyeasytotrackdownbythosewhohaveeditionsotherthanmine,
orinlanguagesotherthanEnglish.
ILNIllustratedLondonNews
IOIndianOpinion
IRIndianReview
J.J.DokePapersJ.J.DokePapers,SouthAfricanBaptistUnionArchives,Johannesburg
KPHermannKallenbachpapers,inthepossessionofIsaSarid,Haifa,Israel
MemorialMemorialtoTheRightHonourableJosephChamberlain,HerMajesty’s
PrincipalSecretaryfortheColonies,bytheBritishIndiansinNatal,reAnti-IndianDemonstration
MSAMaharashtraStateArchives,Mumbai
NANatalAdvertiser
NAINationalArchivesofIndia,NewDelhi
NAUKNationalArchivesoftheUnitedKingdom,Kew
NASANationalArchivesofSouthAfrica,Pretoria
NGMNationalGandhiMuseum,Delhi
NMNatalMercury
NMMLNehruMemorialMuseumandLibrary,NewDelhi
NYPL
NewYorkPublicLibrary,NewYork
S.N.SerialNumber(s)
SAAASabarmatiAshramArchives,Ahmedabad
PROLOGUE:GANDHIFROMALLANGLES
1http://freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=70&275(accessed26July2011).2.Cf.reportsinNewYorkTimes,16February2011;andinNewYorker,11April2011.Thesevariousaffirmations,personalandpolitical,haveprovokedvigorousdenunciationsfromleft-wingcriticsdisenchanted–orevendisgusted–byhowwidelyGandhiisadmiredacrosstheworld.IntheLondonReviewofBooks,thepoliticaltheoristPerryAndersonlaunchedathree-partattackonGandhiandhislegacy,callinghiman‘autocrat’and‘Hindurevivalist’whosethoughtcontained‘abatteryofarchaisms’,andwhose‘conceptionofhimselfasavesselofdivineintentionallowedhimtoescapethetrammelsofhumanlogicorcoherence’.AndersonwentontosuggestthatGandhi’sintellectualweaknessesweresubstantiallyresponsiblefortheflawednatureofIndiandemocracytoday.SeeLondonReviewofBooks,5July,19Julyand2August2012.Thelength(theseriesrantosome50,000wordsinall),the(harsh,oftenangry)tone,andthefactthatAndersonhadnever(inafivedecadelongcareer)previouslywrittenanythingonGandhi(orIndia)lendscredencetothespeculationthattheserieswasprovokedbyGandhi’s(totheMarxist)inexplicablepopularitysolongafterhisdeath.
3.OnGandhi’sGujaratiandEnglishprosestyles,see,respectively,C.N.Patel,MahatmaGandhiinhisGujaratiWritings(NewDelhi:SahityaAkademi,1981);SunilKhilnani,‘GandhiandNehru:TheUsesofEnglish’,inArvindKrishnaMehrotra,ed.,AnIllustratedHistoryofEnglishLiteratureinEnglish(NewDelhi:PermanentBlack,2003).
4.TheprojectofcompilingallofGandhi’swritingswaslaunchedinFebruary1956,eightyearsafterhisdeath.Thefirstvolumeintheserieswaspublishedin1958;theninetiethandlast,in1984.Sevensupplementaryvolumeswerethenpublished,consistingofletterscollectedtoolatetoincludeinthechronologicalvolumes.A‘subjectindex’andan‘indexofpersons’followed.Thatmadeitninety-nine;whereupon,tosatisfytheIndian’sincurableloveofsymmetry,abookof‘prefaces’totheindividualvolumeswasalsobroughtout.TheCollectedWorkshavebeenpublishedinthreelanguages–English,GujaratiandHindi.
5.TwoolderbooksonGandhithatdealspecificallywithhisSouthAfricanexperienceareRobertA.Huttenback,GandhiinSouthAfrica(Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversityPress,1971);MaureenSwan,Gandhi:TheSouthAfricanExperience(Johannesburg:RavanPress,1985).Writtenbyscholarsratherthanjournalists,bothworkswereimportantandnecessary–atthetimeatwhichtheyappeared.FocusingonGandhi’spubliccareer,neitherdealtwithhispersonal,familialorreligiouslife.NeitherscholardidanyseriousresearchonIndiansources;andofcoursemanyimportantsourcesoutsideIndiahavecometolightinthedecadessincetheirbookswerepublished.
6.H.S.L.Polak,‘PassiveResistanceMovementinSouthAfrica’,typescriptcomposedc.1908–12,Mss.Afr.R.125,RhodesHouseLibrary,Oxford,p.103.
7.BhawaniDayal,DakshinAfricakéSatyagrahakaItihas(Indore:SaraswatiSadan,1916),p.1(mytranslation).
1MIDDLECASTE,MIDDLERANK
1.TheclassicalorscripturalnameforthiscategoryofHindusis‘Vaishya’.However,theVaishyasaremoreoftenreferredtoineverydayconversationas‘Bania’(or,intheplural,as‘Banias’).Thenameissubjecttoregionalvariationsandalternatespellings,amongthem‘Vaniya’,‘Baniya’andeven‘Bunyan’.
2.AlexiconinGandhi’;smothertongue,Gujarati,saysofthemthatVaniyanimochchhnichi(‘theBaniaisalwaysreadytocompromise’;literally,‘theBania’smoustacheisreadytodroopdownwards’);VaniyaVaniyafervitol(‘theBaniaalwayschangesaccordingtocircumstance’);Vaniyamugnunaampadenahi(‘theBaniawillnotcommithimselftoanything’).TothisaGujarati–Englishdictionaryadds,JaateVaniyabhai,etletodjodkarvamankushal(‘Beingbornamerchant,hewaspossessedoftactandwasgoodinsettlingquarrels’).SeeAchyutYagnikandSuchitraSheth,TheShapingofModernGujarat:Plurality,Hinduism,andBeyond(NewDelhi:PenguinBooks,2005),p.34.
3.SeeDavidHardiman,FeedingtheBaniya:PeasantsandUsurersinWesternIndia(Delhi:OxfordUniversityPress,1996),especiallyChapter4(quotesfrompp.68–9,71,75).
4.HaraldTambs-Lyche,Power,ProfitandPoetry:TraditionalSocietyinKathiawar,WesternIndia(Delhi:Manohar,1997),ChapterIX(‘TheBanias:TheMerchantEstate’).
5.Cf.HowardSpodek,Urban–RuralIntegrationinRegionalDevelopment:ACaseStudyofSaurashtra,India,1800–1960(UniversityofChicagoGeographyResearchPapers,1976),p.11.
6.Ibid.,pp.2–3.7.Cf.HaraldTambs-Lyche,‘ReflectionsonCasteinGujarat’,inEdwardSimpsonandAparnaKapadia,TheIdeaofGujarat:History,EthnographyandText(Hyderabad:OrientBlackSwan,2010),pp.101–2,104,108.
8.C.F.Andrews,‘MahatmaGandhi’sBirthplace’,TheCentenaryReview(January1938),pp.35f.9.TheImperialGazetteerofIndia(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1908),XX:ParditoPusad,pp.188–91.10.ChandranD.S.Devanesan,TheMakingoftheMahatma(Bombay:OrientLongman,1969),pp.100–5.11.Cf.SatishC.Misra,MuslimCommunitiesinGujarat:PreliminaryStudiesintheirHistoryandSocialOrganization(2ndedn,NewDelhi:MunshiramManoharlal,1985).
12.Devanesan,MakingoftheMahatma,Chapter2(‘WhirlwindsofChange:KathiawarintheNineteenthCentury’);HowardSpodek,‘UrbanPoliticsintheLocalKingdomsofIndia:AViewfromthePrincelyStatesofSaurashtraunderBritishRule’,ModernAsianStudies,7:2(1973).
13.Thisincidenthasbeennarrated,basedonprimarysources,inKrishnalalMohanlalJhaveri,TheGujaratis:ThePeople,theirHistory,andCulture,4:GujaratiSocialOrganization(NewDelhi:IndigoBooks,2002),p.141.
14.Pyarelal,MahatmaGandhi,I:TheEarlyPhase(Ahmedabad:NavajivanPress,1965),pp.173–8.15.Anon.,HeroesoftheHour:MahatmaGandhi,TilakMaharaj,SirSubramanyaIyer(Madras:GaneshandCo.,1918),p.5.
16.Seecompilationno.190,vol.48of1950,PoliticalDepartment,MSA.17.Pyarelal,MahatmaGandhi,I,pp.186–7.18.ThisaccountisbasedonthecorrespondenceinAProceedings130–147(Political),December1869,ForeignDepartment,NAI.
19.PrabhudasGandhi,MyChildhoodwithGandhiji(Ahmedabad:NavajivanPublishingHouse,1957),pp.4–5.
20.M.N.Buch,‘AnswerstoLouisFischer’squestionsregardingPorbandarandRajkot’,dated9March1949,inBox1,LouisFischerPapers,NYPL.
21.QuotedinPyarelal,MahatmaGandhi,I,p.194.22.StephenHay,‘DiggingupGandhi’sPsychologicalRoots’,Biography,6:3(1983),pp.211–12.
23.HenryYuleandArthurCokeBurnell,Hobson-Jobson:BeingaGlossaryofAnglo-IndianColloquialWordsandPhrases,andofKindredTerms,Etymological,Historical,Geographical,andDiscursive(London:JohnMurray,1886),p.48.
24.Hardiman,FeedingtheBaniya,p.65.25.Formoredetails,seeK.T.Achaya,IndianFood:AHistoricalCompanion(NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,1994),pp.133ff.Idonotknowofastand-aloneworkinEnglishontheculinaryartsofGujarat,butasamplingofthissuperbcuisinemaybehadinrestaurantssuchasChetna,intheKalaGhodaareaofMumbai,andSwatiSnacks,nearLawCollegeinAhmedabad.
26.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartI,ChapterI.Afootnote(addedmostlikelybyMahadevDesai)explainsthatChaturmaswas‘literallyaperiodoffourmonths.Avowoffastingandsemi-fastingduringthefourmonthsoftherains.TheperiodisasortoflongLent’.
27.YagnikandSheth,ShapingofGujarat,pp.159–60;Devanesan,MakingoftheMahatma,p.34.28.SeeNarayanDesai,MyLifeIsMyMessage,I:Sadhana(1869–1915)(Hyderabad:OrientBlackSwan,2009),pp.10–11.
29.Cf.Pyarelal,MahatmaGandhi,I,AppendixE,pp.737–8.30.ImperialGazetteerofIndia,XXI:PushkartoSalween,pp.73–5.31.SeeJ.M.Upadhyaya,ed.,MahatmaGandhiasaStudent(NewDelhi:PublicationsDivision,1965)andMahatmaGandhi:ATeacher’sDiscovery(VallabhVidyanagar:SardarPatelUniversity,1969).Unlessotherwisestated,therestofthissectionisbasedonthesetwobooks.Remarkably,thematerialreproducedinthesebookshasneverbeforebeenusedbyaGandhibiographer.
32.Theschoolisreferredtoas‘AlfredHighSchool’insomerecentbiographiesofGandhi.However,itacquiredthatnameonlyin1907,longafterMohandashadleftit.‘Kattywar’isthewaytheBritishthenspelt‘Kathiawar’.In1969,onthecentenaryofGandhi’sbirth,theschoolwasrenamed‘MahatmaGandhiMemorialHighSchool’.
33.NotesofaninterviewwithRaliatbehn,14December1948,inBox1,LouisFischerPapers,NYPL.(ThequestionswereframedbyFischer,butaskedofRaliatbyanIndianfriendonhisbehalf.)
34.SeeStephenHay,‘BetweenTwoWorlds:Gandhi’sFirstImpressionsofBritishCulture’,ModernAsianStudies,3:4(1969),pp.308–9;Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartI,ChapterX.Thepreacher’snamewasH.R.Scott;yearslater,heidentifiedhimselfinalettertoGandhi,butdisputedtheIndian’srecollectionthathehad‘pouredabuse’onHindugods.SeecorrespondenceinMss.Eur.C.487,APAC/BL.
35.Upadhyaya,MahatmaGandhiasaStudent,pp.14–15,32,35.36.SeeJ.M.Upadhyaya,Gandhiji’sEarlyContemporariesandCompanions(Ahmedabad:NavajivanPublishingHouse,1971),photooppositep.23.
37.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartI,ChaptersVIIandVIII.38.Cf.StephenHay,‘Gandhi’sFirstFiveYears’,inDonaldCapps,WalterH.CappsandM.GeraldBradford,eds,EncounterwithErikson:HistoricalInterpretationinReligiousBiography(Missoula,Montana:ScholarsPress,1977),fn.5.
39.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartI,ChapterIII.40.ArunandSunandaGandhi,TheUntoldStoryofKasturba:WifeofMahatmaGandhi(Mumbai:JaicoPublishingHouse,2000),p.5.
41.Anon.,Smt.Kasturba’sHouseatPorbandar(Ahmedabad:DirectorateofArchaeology,1973).Thesewall-paintingswouldhavebeenofreligiousthemes,perhapsofthelives(andlegends)ofKrishnaandRam.
42.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartI,ChapterIV.43.Ibid.,PartI,ChapterIX.44.TheseparagraphsarebasedonUpadhyaya,MahatmaGandhiasaStudent,passim.
45.SeeSitamshuYashaschandra,‘FromHemacandratoHindSvaraj:RegionandPowerinGujaratiLiteraryCulture’,inSheldonPollock,ed.,LiteraryCulturesinHistory:ReconstructionsfromSouthAsia(Berkeley:UniversityofCalforniaPress,2003).
46.Formoredetails,seeTridipSuhurd,WritingLife:ThreeGujaratiThinkers(Hyderabad:OrientBlackSwan,2009),Chapters2and4.
47.BasedonananalysisofthenamesinaphotocopiedpageoftheclassregisterinSubjectFileno.1,GandhiPapers,NMML.
48.ThisaccountofGandhi’stimeinSamaldasCollegeisbasedonUpadhyaya,MahatmaGandhi:ATeacher’sDiscovery,pp.95–102.
49.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartI,ChapterXI.50.Cf.Yashaschandra,‘HemacandratoHindSvaraj’,p.596.51.PoliticalAgentofKathiawar,quotedinGazetteeroftheBombayPresidency,VII:Kathiawar(Bombay:GovernmentCentralPress,1884),p.343.
52.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartI,ChapterXI.53.SeeFileno.R/1/1/740,APAC/BL.54.ExtractfromtheKathiawarTimes,12August1888,reproducedinUpadhyaya,MahatmaGandhiasaStudent,p.83.
55.OnthelikelydateofHarilal’sbirth,seeChandulalBhagubhaiDalal,HarilalGandhi:ALife,editedandtranslatedfromtheGujaratibyTridipSuhrud(Chennai:OrientLongman,2007),p.1.
56.Gandhi,‘LondonDiary’,CWMG,I,p.45.57.Ibid.,pp.45–6;Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartI,ChapterXII.
2AMONGTHEVEGETARIANS
1.Unlessotherwisestated,thissectionisbasedonM.K.Gandhi,‘LondonDiary’,CWMG,I,pp.2–16.2.Gandhi,‘GuidetoLondon’(Appendix),inCWMG,I,p.117.3.JamesD.Hunt,GandhiinLondon(revisededn,NewDelhi:PromillaandCo,1993),pp.7–8.4.CoverofILN,13July1889.5.SeeILN,7September1889.6.JonathanSchneer,Londonin1900:TheImperialMetropolis(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1999),pp.7–8.
7.RozinaVisram,AsiansinBritain:400YearsofHistory(London:PlutoPress,2002),pp.45–6,125–6.8.ThisparagraphisbasedonissuesoftheIllustratedLondonNewsfortheperiod.9.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartI,ChapterXIII.10.Hunt,GandhiinLondon,pp.220–22;Gandhi,‘GuidetoLondon’,CWMG,I,pp.94,117,119.11.Hunt,GandhiinLondon,p.14.12.CWMG,I,pp.2,16–18.13.GilchristAlexander,TheTempleoftheNineties(London:WilliamHodgeandCompany,1938),p.78.14.Ibid.,p.269.15.ThomasLeaming,APhiladelphiaLawyerintheLondonCourts(NewYork:HenryHoltandCompany,1911),p.137.
16.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartI,ChapterXXIV.17.TheRecollectionsofSirHenryDickens,K.C.(London:WilliamHeinemann,1934),p.296.TheauthorwasasonofCharlesDickens.
18.SachindanandaSinha,‘Gandhiji’sEarlierCareerasIKnewIt’(11-pagetypescriptwrittenc.1949),inBox3,LouisFischerPapers,NYPL.
19.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartI,ChaptersXVIIandXVIII.
20.SeeTristramStuart,TheBloodlessRevolution:RadicalVegetariansandtheDiscoveryofIndia(London:HarperPress,2006),pp.40,43,49,50,53,57,62–3,69,280f.,284–5,342–3,422–3,etc.
21.StephenWinsten,SaltandHisCircle(London:HutchinsonandCo.,1951);GeorgeHendrick,HenrySalt:HumanitarianReformerandManofLetters(Urbana:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1977).
22.GeorgeHendrickandWilleneHendrick,eds,TheSavourofSalt:AHenrySaltAnthology(Fontwell,Sussex:CentaurPress,1999),pp.25–8.
23.HenryS.Salt,Animals’Rights:ConsideredinRelationtoSocialProgress(NewYork:MacmillanandCo.,1894),pp.51–2,89–90,94.
24.GrantRichards,MemoriesofaMisspentYouth,1872–1896(London:WilliamHeinemann,1932),p.106.
25.Inhis‘GuidetoLondon’,Gandhidoesnotmentionsportatall,andsaysofthetheatrethattovisitit‘onceamonthontheaverageisquitesufficient’(anaverageonesuspectshehaddifficultyinmeeting).SeeCWMG,I,pp.110–11.
26.SeeStephenHay,‘TheMakingofaLate-VictorianHindu:M.K.GandhiinLondon,1888–1891’,VictorianStudies(Autumn1989),esp.pp.89–90.Thelarge(andstillexpanding)worldofGandhischolarshipowesagreatdebttoStephenHayandJamesD.Hunt.TheseAmericanscholars,bothnowdeceased,havecontributedimmenselytoourunderstandingofGandhi’searlyyears,througharchivalresearchthathasvariouslyclarified,disputed,contextualizedorsupplementedtherecollectionsintheAutobiography
27.Hunt,GandhiinLondon,p.221.28.AsrecalledinJosiahOldfield,‘MyFriendGandhi’,inChandrashankerShukla,ed.,ReminiscencesofGandhiji(Bombay:VoraandCo.,1951),pp.187–8.
29.Hunt,GandhiinLondon,pp.28–30;Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartI,ChapterXX.30.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartI,ChapterXX.31.Ibid.,PartI,ChapterXVI.32.Hunt,GandhiinLondon,pp.16–18.33.Gandhi,‘GuidetoLondon’,CWMG,I,pp.83–4,120.34.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartI,ChaptersXXItoXXIII.35.G.ParameswaranPillai,LondonandParisThroughIndianSpectacles(1897,reprintNewDelhi:SahityaAkademi,2006),pp.83–5.
36.Seenoticeon‘InnsofCourt’,TheTimes,16April1890.(IamgratefultoZacO’Yeahforthisreference.)
37.Hunt,GandhiinLondon,pp.17–18.38.M.K.Gandhi,‘IndianVegetarians’,CWMG,I,pp.19–29.39.SeeCompilationno.140,vol.108of1892,PoliticalDepartment,MSA.40.See,amongotherworks,RaymondWilliams,TheCountryandtheCity(London:ChattoandWindus,1973);JanMarch,BacktotheLand:ThePastoralImpulseinEngland,from1800to1914(London:QuartetBooks,1982).
41.M.K.Gandhi,‘SomeIndianFestivals’,three-partseriesoriginallypublishedinTheVegetarian,28March,4and25April1891,CWMG,I,pp.29–34.
42.M.K.Gandhi,‘TheFoodsofIndia’,originallypublishedinTheVegetarianMessenger,1May1891,CWMG,I,pp.36–41.
43.SeeJerryWhite,LondonintheNineteenthCentury(London:JonathanCape,2007),pp.3,29–30,289–90.
44.Hunt,GandhiinLondon,p.10.45.Hay,‘MakingofaLate-VictorianHindu’,pp.82–3,88.46.Cf.Schneer,Londonin1900,pp.184–9.
47.Obituarynotice,ILN,7February1891.48.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartI,ChapterXX.49.Anon.,‘TheFirstMosqueinEngland’,ILN,9November1889.50.SeeGandhi,‘GuidetoLondon’,CWMG,I,pp.76–87,96–7,117–18.51.CWMG,I,pp.41,49.52.M.K.Gandhi,‘On[the]WayHometoIndia’,TheVegetarian,9and16April1892,CWMG,I,pp.50–55.
3FROMCOASTTOCOAST
1.Thehouse,ManiBhavan,stillexists.ItnowhousesaGandhimuseumandlibrary.2.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartII,ChapterI.3.See,forbiographicaldetails,SatishSharma,Gandhi’sTeachers:RajchandraRavjibhaiMehta(Ahmedabad:GujaratVidyapith,2005),Chapter2.
4.SeeJamesLaidlaw,RichesandRenunciation:Religion,Economy,andSocietyamongtheJains(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1995),pp.235–7.
5.Gandhi,‘AGreatSeer’,CWMG,XLIII,p.98.6.Gandhi,‘Prefaceto“SrimadRajchandra”’,5November1926,CWMG,XXXII,pp.5–7.7.ArunandSunandaGandhi,TheUntoldStoryofKasturba:WifeofMahatmaGandhi(Mumbai:JaicoPublishingHouse,2000),pp.49–50.
8.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartII,ChapterII.9.Ibid.,PartII,ChapterIV.10.Administrator,PorbandarState,toPoliticalAgent,Kathiawar,9September1891,inR/2/720/49,APAC/BL.
11.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartII,ChapterII.12.Letter,datedc.June1891,byJ.B.Benson,StateEngineer,PorbandarState;AdministratortoPoliticalAgent,Kathiawar,15August1891,bothinR/2/720/49,APAC/BL.
13.BhavsinghjitoPoliticalAgent,Kathiawar,5September1891;Administrator,PorbandarState,toPoliticalAgent,Kathiawar,9September1891,ibid.
14.‘TestimonyofKalidas[Laxmidas]Gandhi,8August1891’,inibid.LaxmidasGandhi’spetnamewas‘Kalidas’:thatishowhewasknowntohisfriendsandfamilyinPorbandar.
15.PoliticalAgent,Kathiawar,toHomeSecretary,BombayGovernment,12September1891,ibid.16.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartII,ChapterIV.17.Cf.StephenHay,‘Gandhi’sReasonsforLeavingRajkotforSouthAfricain1893’(unpublishedpaperinthepossessionofE.S.Reddy).
18.Cf.CWMG,I,item21,p.50.19.G.W.Stevens,‘AllIndiainMiniature’,inR.P.Karkaria,TheCharmofBombay:AnAnthologyofWritingsinPraiseoftheFirstCityinIndia(Bombay:D.B.TaraporavalaandSons,1915),pp.81–4.
20.PrashantKidambi,TheMakingofanIndianMetropolis:ColonialGovernanceandPublicCultureinBombay,1890–1920(Aldershot:Ashgate,2007),ChapterI,‘TheRiseofBombay’.
21.S.M.Edwardes,TheRiseofBombay(Bombay:TheTimesofIndiaPress,1902),p.327.22.SeeRahulMehrotraandSharadaDwivedi,TheBombayHighCourt:TheStoryoftheBuilding,1878–2003(Bombay:EminenceDesigns,2004).
23.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartII,ChapterIII.24.M.K.GandhitoRanchhodlalPatwari,5September1892,CWMG,I,pp.56–7.TheletterwasapparentlywritteninEnglish.
25.Gandhi,‘Prefaceto“SrimadRajchandra”’,p.6;‘SpeechonBirthAnniversaryofRajchandra’(Ahmedabad,16November1921),CWMG,XXI,pp.432–4.
26.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartII,ChapterIV.ForanexampleofapetitiondraftedbyGandhiwhileinRajkot,seePyarelal,MahatmaGandhi,I:TheEarlyPhase(Ahmedabad:NavajivanPress,1965),AppendixH,pp.739–44.
27.SeeGoolamVahed,‘Passengers,Partnerships,andPromissoryNotes:GujaratiTradersinColonialNatal,1870–1920’,InternationalJournalofAfricanHistoricalStudies,38:3,p.459andpassim.
28.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,pp.84–5.29.NM,22November1860,quotedinC.G.Henning,TheIndenturedIndianinNatal(1860–1917)(NewDelhi:PromillaandCo.,1993),pp.30–1.
30.ThisaccountoftheimmigrationofIndiansintoNatalandtheirlifethereisbasedon,amongotherworks,SurendraBhanaandJoyBrain,SettlingDownRoots:IndianMigrantsinSouthAfrica,1860–1911(Johannesburg:WitwatersrandUniversityPress,1990);MabelPalmer,TheHistoryoftheIndiansinNatal(1957;reprint,Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress,1977);SurendraBhana,IndenturedIndianEmigrantstoNatal,1860–1902:AStudyBasedonShips’Lists(NewDelhi:PromillaandCo.,1991);G.H.Calpin,IndiansinSouthAfrica(Pietermaritzburg:ShuterandShooter,1949);C.J.Ferguson-Davie,TheEarlyHistoryofIndiansinNatal(Johannesburg:SouthAfricanInstituteofRaceRelations,1952);SurendraBhana,ed.,EssaysonIndenturedIndiansinNatal(Leeds:PeepalTreePress,1990);NileGreen,BombayIslam:TheReligiousEconomyoftheWestIndianOcean,1840–1915(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2011);AshwinDesaiandGoolamVahed,InsideIndenture:ASouthAfricanStory,1860–1914(Durban:MadibaPublishers,2007);RobertA.Huttenback,‘IndiansinSouthAfrica,1860–1914:TheBritishImperialPhilosophyonTrial’,EnglishHistoricalReview,319(April1966);JoBeall,‘WomenunderIndentureinColonialNatal,1860–1911’,inColinClarke,CeriPeachandStevenVertovec,eds,SouthAsiansOverseas:MigrationandEthnicity(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1990);JoyBrain,‘Natal’sIndians:FromCo-operation,throughCompetition,toConflict’,inAndrewDuminyandBillGuest,eds,NatalandZululand:FromEarliestTimesto1910:ANewHistory(Pietermaritzburg:UniversityofNatalPress,1989);ThomasR.Metcalf,‘“HardHandsandSoundHealthyBodies”:Recruiting“Coolies”forNatal,1860–1911’,JournalofImperialandCommonwealthHistory,30:3(2002);GoolamVahed,‘“AManofKeenPerceptiveFaculties”:AboobakerAmodJhaveri,an“Arab”inColonialNatal,circa1872–1887’,Historia,50:1(2005).
31.‘ReportoftheProtectorofImmigrantsfortheyearendingJune30,1893’,inNatalGovernmentHouseDocuments,onmicrofilm,Reel6,Accessionno.2179,NMML.
32.ThisparagraphisbasedonawalkingtourofDurbaninOctober2009,inthecompany(andundertheguidance)ofthenovelistAzizHassim.
33.NM,24May1893.34.LetterinNA,29May1893,reproducedinCWMG,I,pp.57–8.35.SeeGandhi,AnAutobiography,PartII,ChaptersVIIIandIX.IreturntothesignificanceofthetrainincidentinChapter5below.
36.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartII,ChaptersX,XIandXIV.37.BengtSundklerandChristopherSteed,AHistoryoftheChurchinAfrica(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2000),pp.417–18.
38.A.W.Baker,GraceTriumphant:TheLifeStoryofaCarpenter,Lawyer,andMissionary,inSouthAfricafrom1856to1939(London:PickeringandInglis,1939),pp.84–6.
39.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartII,ChapterXIV.40.Cf.SurendraBhanaandBridglalPachai,eds,ADocumentaryHistoryofIndianSouthAfricans(CapeTown:DavidPhilip,1984),pp.33–4.
41.NA,19September1893,inCWMG,I,pp.59–61.
42.NA,clippingsdated19and28September1893,S.N.37andS.N.40,SAAA.43.NA,29September1893,inCWMG,I,pp.63–4.44.‘GuidetoLondon’,CWMG,I,pp.66–120.45.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartII,ChaptersXVIandXVII.46.SeeBurnettBritton,GandhiArrivesinSouthAfrica(Canton,Maine:GreenleafBooks,1999),pp.75–6,80–83,88;Swan,Gandhi,p.38f.
47.SeeCO179/185,NAUK.48.AsquotedinE.H.BrookesandC.deB.Webb,AHistoryofNatal(2ndedn,Pietermaritzburg:UniversityofNatalPress,1987),pp.172.
49.JohnRobinson,ALifeTimeinSouthAfrica:BeingtheRecollectionsoftheFirstPremierofNatal(London:Smith,Elder,andCo.,1900),pp.76–7.
50.NA,3September1894;NatalWitness,ofthesamedate,respectivelyS.N.107andS.N.99,SAAA.51.QuotedinMaynardW.Swanson,‘;“TheAsiaticMenace”:CreatingSegregationinDurban,1870–1900’,InternationalJournalofAfricanHistoricalStudies,16:3,p.411.
52.Petitiondated28June1894,inCWMG,I,pp.128–32.53.NM,29June1894.54.Cf.LaughlintoGandhi,18May1896,S.N.964,NGM.55.InCWMG,thispetitiontoRiponissaidtohavebeensignedby‘HajeeMohamedHajeeDadaandSixteenOthers’;however,theoriginalpetition,whichIhaveseenonmicrofilm,saysitwassignedby‘HajeeMohamedHajeeDadaand8,888others’.
56.ThisaccountofthepetitionsandletterswrittenbyGandhiisbasedonthedocumentsinCWMG,I,pp.128–91.
57.Minutedated27July1894,inNatalGovernmentHouseDocuments,onmicrofilm,Reel6,AccessionNo.2179,NMML.
58.SirHerculesRobinsontoLordRipon,11July1894,inMs.43563,RiponPapers,BL.59.SeecorrespondenceinMs.43563,RiponPapers,BL.60.SeeCWMG,I,pp.162–5.61.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartII,ChapterXVIII;NM,6September1894;NA,20September1894,S.N.149and159respectively,SAAA.
62.NatalWitness,6September1894,S.N.150,SAAA.63.Star,26December1894,S.N.204,SAAA.64.NatalWitness,29December1894;NM,7January1895,S.N208and212respectively,SAAA.65.NA,7January1895.66.TimesofNatal,22and27October1894,S.N.171and173respectively,SAAA.Gandhi’sletterisreprintedinCWMG,I,pp.166–7.
4ABARRISTERINDURBAN
1.CWMG,SupplementaryVolumeI(1894–1928),p.14.2.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartII,ChapterXXII.3.Thisincidentisrecounted,basedon‘personalinformation’,inE.H.BrookesandC.deB.Webb,AHistoryofNatal(2ndedn,Pietermaritzburg:UniversityofNatalPress,1987),p.185.
4.SeeA.N.Wilson,God’sFuneral:TheDeclineofFaithinWesternCivilization(NewYork:W.W.Norton,1999);J.T.F.Jordens,DayanandaSaraswati:HisLifeandIdeas(Delhi:OxfordUniversityPress,1978).
5.AnnaKingsford,ThePerfectWayinDiet:ATreatiseAdvocatingaReturntotheNaturalandAncientFoodofourRace(6thedn,London:KeganPaul,Trench,TrübnerandCo.,1895),pp.19,76ff,114.
6.ThePerfectWay,OrtheFindingofChrist,wasfirstpublishedbyAdamsandCo.inLondonin1882.Maitlandpublishedenlargedandrevisededitionsin1887and1890.IhavehereusedanexcerptpublishedinKessingerPublishing’sRareReprintsseries.
7.SeeReneFueloep-Miller,‘Tolstoy:TheApostolicCrusader’,RussianReview,19:2(1960);RosamundBartlett,Tolstoy:ARussianLife(London:ProfileBooks,2010),Chapters11and12.
8.LeoTolstoy,TheKingdomofGodisWithinYou(1893)reprintedinTheKingdomofGodandPeaceEssays,translatedbyAylmerMaude(reprintNewDelhi:RupaPublicationsIndiaPvt.Ltd.,2001).
9.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartII,ChapterXV.10.Cf.J.T.F.Jordens,Gandhi’sReligion:AHomespunShawl(firstpublishedin1998;2ndedn,NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,2012),Chapter2andpassim.
11.NM,28Novemberand19December1894,S.N.184and202,SAAA.12.ThisaccountofthecorrespondencebetweenGandhiandRaychandbhaiisbasedonMahatmaGandhiandKaviRajchandraji:QuestionsAnswered(3rdedn,Ahmedabad:ShrimadRajchandraGyanPracharakTrust,1991–translatedfromtheGujaratibyBrahmachariSriGoverdhandas).AdifferentandapparentlylessreliabletranslationispublishedinCWMG,XXXII,pp.593–602.
13.‘ABandofVegetarianMissionaries’,CWMG,I,pp.222–8.14.CWMG,I,pp.229–44.15.TheseparagraphsarebasedonthecorrespondencebetweentheSecretaryofStatefortheColoniesandtheNatalGovernmentinNatalGovernmentHouseDocuments,onmicrofilm,Reel6,AccessionNo.2179,NMML.
16.S.N.890and958,SAAA.17.NatalWitness,9February1896,S.N.753,SAAA.18.UndatededitorialfromaNatalnewspaper,entitled‘DurbanDoings’,c.August/September1895,S.N.529,SAAA.
19.CWMG,II,pp.16–8.20.Gandhi’slegalcareerinDurban,c.1895–6,iscoveredindepthinBurnettBritton,GandhiArrivesinSouthAfrica(Canton,Maine:GreenleafBooks,1999).Thisisalittle-knownprivatelypublishedwork,butimmenselyvaluablenonetheless.
21.CharlesDiSalvio,TheManBeforetheMahatma:M.K.Gandhi,Attorney-at-Law(NOIDA,UP:RandomHouseIndia,2012),pp.65,80–82.
22.ReportfromtheNatalMercury,citedinBritton,GandhiArrivesinSouthAfrica,notessection,p.xviii.23.IanMorrison,Durban:APictorialHistory(CapeTown:C.Struik,1987);MonicaFairall,WheninDurban(CapeTown;C.Struik,1983).
24.Theterm‘neo-Europe’wascoinedbyAlfredCrosbyinhisEcologicalImperialism:TheBiologicalExpansionofEurope,900–1900(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1986).
25.WalterHelyHutchinson,‘Natal:ItsResourcesandCapabilities’(addresstotheLondonChamberofCommerce,8June1898),copyinFile2399,L/P&J/6/497,APAC/BL.
26.Cf.thebiographicalinformationprovidedinDavidDick,WhoWasWhoinDurbanStreetNames(Durban:ClerkingtonPublishingCo.,1998).
27.Seetabledated13April1904,preparedbytheTownClerk,Durban,inNatalGovernmentHouseRecords,onmicrofilm,Reel6,AccessionNo.2174,NMML.Inthedecadeofthe1890s,theproportionofIndiansintradeincreasedfrom0.8percentto5percent.c.1900,thepercapitaincomeofIndiansinNatalwasroughlysixtimesthatofAfricans,butstillone-sixththatofEuropeans.SeeZbigniewA.Konczacki,PublicFinanceandEconomicDevelopmentinNatal,1893–1910(Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress,1967),pp.5,27.
28.RobertA.Huttenback,GandhiinSouthAfrica(Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversityPress,1971),pp.38–9.
29.Letterdated7March1891,inCorrespondenceRelatingtotheProposaltoEstablishResponsibleGovernmentinNatal(London:HMSO,1891–C.4687),pp.40–41.
30.CWMG,I,pp.245–51.31.GillianBerning,ed.,GandhiLetters:FromUpperHousetoLowerHouse,1906–1914(Durban:LocalHistoryMuseum,1994),p.44;interviewwithAzimHassan,Durban,October2009.
32.QuotedinBritton,GandhiArrivesinSouthAfrica,pp.256–7.33.Seeibid.,pp.296–300.34.Cf.AndréOdendaal,BlackProtestPoliticsinSouthAfricato1912(Towota,NJ:BarnesandNobleBooks,1984),Chapter1,‘AfricanPoliticsfromtheEarliestYearsto1899’.
35.NM,18and25October1895,S.N.572and595,SAAA.36.Cf.S.N.606,611,628,629,639and650,SAAA.37.‘TheIndiansintheTransvaal’,editorialinNA,19November1895,S.N.640,SAAA.38.Clippingdated4November1895,S.N.612,SAAA.39.Cf.‘SixtyYearsMemoirofVincentLawrenceof67GaleStreet,Durban,Natal’,typescriptinE.S.ReddyPapers,NMML.
40.PaulTichman,GandhiSitesinDurban(Durban:OldCourtHouseMuseum,n.d.),pp.17–8;Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartII,chaptersXXIIIandXXIV;Pyarelal,MahatmaGandhi,I:TheEarlyPhase(Ahmedabad:NavajivanPress,1965),pp.491–3.SoasnottoembarrassMehtab’sfamily,Gandhididnotnamehiminhistext,referringmerelytoa‘friend’.
41.‘TheIndianFranchise’,CWMG,I,pp.266–90.42.W.W.HuntertoM.K.Gandhi,13May1896,S.N.948,SAAA.43.H.K.KharetoM.K.Gandhi,11July1896,S.N.743,SAAA.44.NatalWitness,25December1895;SouthAfricanTimes,25December1895,respectivelyS.N.699and703,SAAA.
45.NA,11January1896,S.N.715,SAAA.46.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartII,ChapterXXIV.
5TRAVELLINGACTIVIST
1.NA,5June1896,S.N.1004,SAAA.2.SeeS.N.1005,SAAA.3.SeeS.N.1006,SAAA.4.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartII,ChapterXXIV.5.‘TheGrievancesoftheBritishIndiansinSouthAfrica’,CWMG,II,pp.2–50.6.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartII,ChaptersXXVandXXVI.7.‘OutofpocketexpensesinconnectionwiththemovementinIndiawithregardtothegrievancesoftheBritishIndianinSouthAfrica’,S.N.1310,SAAA;alsoinCWMG,II,pp.104–15.
8.TimesofIndia,2September1896,quotedinBurnettBritton,GandhiArrivesinSouthAfrica(Canton,Maine:GreenleafBooks,1999),pp.442–3.
9.‘SpeechatPublicMeeting’,Bombay,26September1896,CWMG,II,pp.50–60.10.See‘TheElevationoftheDepressedClasses’,inSpeechesofGopalKrishnaGokhale(2ndedn,Madras:G.A.Natesan,1916),pp.1055–6.ThisisGokhale’srecollectionofRanade’stalk–anoriginaltextofwhichdoesnotexist.Ranadewasaprecociouscriticofcastehierarchiesandcasteexclusivism.Throughoutthe1890s,inhisannualaddressestotheIndianSocialConference,hepromotedinter-dining,intermarriage,theemancipationofwomen,andothersuchmeasures.SeeTheMiscellaneousWritingsoftheLateHon’bleMrJusticeM.G.Ranade(Bombay:TheManoranjanPress,1915),passim.
11.Forastillvaluabledualbiography,seeStanleyWolpert’sTilakandGokhale:RevolutionandReformintheMakingofModernIndia(1961,reprintNewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,1989).
12.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartII,ChapterXXVIII.13.GandhitoF.S.Taleyarkhan,18October1896,CWMG,II,pp.67–8.14.‘Outofpocketexpenses’,S.N.1310,SAAA.15.GandhitoG.K.Gokhale,18October1896,CMWG,II,p.66.16.Basedonananalysisofthesurnamesinthenotice,acopyofwhichisintheSAAA(S.N.1213).17.‘SpeechatMeeting,Madras’,CWMG,II,pp.71–2.18.MadrasMail,27October1896.19.‘PrefacetotheSecondEditionoftheGreenPamphlet’,CWMG,II,p.93.20.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartII,ChapterXXIX.21.GopalkrishnaGandhi,ed.,AFrankFriendship:GandhiandBengal(Calcutta:SeagullBooks,2007),p.4.
22.CWMG,II,p.94;Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartIII,ChapterI.23.SeelettersandclippingsinFileNo.138,CO179/195,NAUK.24.NM,19September1896.25.NM,21September1896.26.NatalWitness,6January1897,clippinginCO179/197,NAUK.27.NA,17September1896,S.N.1112,SAAA.28.SeeJ.T.Henderson,ed.,SpeechesoftheLateRightHonourableHarryEscombe,P.C.,M.L.A.,Q.C.,L.L.D(Maritzburg:DavisandSons,1904),p.324.
29.NM,27November1896.30.NA,7December1896,S.N.1366,SAAA.31.SeeDavidArnold,‘TouchingtheBody:PerspectivesontheIndianPlague,1896–1900’,inRanajitGuha,ed.,SubalternStudiesV(NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress,1987).
32.SeeAnnieBesant,ed.,HowIndiaWroughtforFreedom:TheStoryoftheNationalCongresstoldfromOfficialRecords(Madras:TheosophicalPublishingHouse,1915),pp.246,236–7.
33.QuotedinBritton,GandhiArrivesinSouthAfrica,pp.513–14.34.NA,30December1896,S.N.1508,SAAA.35.SeeBritton,GandhiArrivesinSouthAfrica,pp.526–7.36.NM,30December1897.37.NM,5January1897.38.TimesofNatal,6January1897,clippinginCO179/197,NAUK;NA,5January1897,quotedinMemorial,CWMG,II,p.151.
39.NM,8January1897.40.SeeMemorial,AppendixAa,CWMG,II,p.198.41.SeeS.N.3638,NGM.42.NatalWitness,11January1897;NA,11and12January1897,clippingsinCO179/197,NAUK.43.‘Interviewto“TheNatalAdvertiser”’,CWMG,II,pp.118–26.44.IanMorrison,Durban:APictorialHistory(CapeTown:C.Struik,1987),pp.76ff.45.Cf.correspondenceinNatalGovernmentHouseDocuments,onmicrofilm,Reel6,Accessionno.2179,NMML.
46.Memorial,CWMG,II,pp.159–60.47.SeereportsinNM,14January1897.48.SeeGandhi,AnAutobiography,PartIII,ChapterIII.49.ThisaccountoftheassaultonGandhiislargelybasedontheextensivereports–coveringseveralpagesofthenewspaper–printedinNM,14January1897.Cf.also‘HowGandhiGotAwayDisguisedasa
Servant’,NatalWitness,16January1897,S.N.1894,SAAA.WhenR.C.Alexanderdied,tenyearslater,anobituaristwrotethatthepolicechief‘hadmoreinfluenceoveramob,throughthemediumofhiscommandingpersonality,thanthewholeofthepoliceforcecombined,andmanyaretheinstancesonrecordwhere,bythedisplayofsurprisingingenuity,hehoodwinkedthegatheringsofangeredmen’.(NM,21October1907).ThewriterheremayperhapshavehadAlexander’singenioushoodwinkingofGandhi’spersecutorsforemostinmind.
50.NM,15January1897.51.NM,16January1897.52.R.C.AlexanderandJaneAlexandertoM.K.Gandhi,bothlettersdated22January1897,respectivelyS.N.1938and1939,NGM.Ironically,inFebruary1896,beforeGandhileftforIndia,hehadclashedwiththepolicesuperintendentincourt,whenAlexanderinsinuatedthattwoIndianChristiansthelawyerwasdefendinghadchangedtheirfaithmerelytoingratiatethemwiththerulingrace.SeeCharlesDiSalvio,TheManBeforetheMahatma:M.K.Gandhi,Attorney-at-Law(NOIDA,UP:RandomHouseIndia,2012),pp.92–4.OnbehalfoftheIndiancommunityinNatal,agoldwatchwaspresentedtoAlexanderforbeing‘instrumentalinsavingthelifeofonewhomwedelighttolove’.Inaddition,£10wassent‘fordistributionamongthoseofyourForcewhoassistedontheoccasion’.SeeCWMG,II,pp.229–30.
53.IfoundthispreviouslyunknownessayinafileintherecordsoftheoldIndiaOffice,whereithadbeenmarkedforattentionbythereformingcivilservantSirAlfredLyall.See‘D.B.’,‘EastIndiansinSouthAfrica’,TheNation,6May1897,clippinginFile2536,L/P&J/6/467,APAC/BL.
54.QuotedinNM,16January1897.55.NM,18February1897,S.N.2046,SAAA.56.LouisFischer,TheLifeofMahatmaGandhi(firstpublishedin1951;reprint,Mumbai:BharatiyaVidyaBhavan,1998),pp.50–51.
6LAWYER-LOYALIST
1.DavidDick,WhoWasWhoinDurbanStreetNames(Durban:ClerkingtonPublishingCo.,1998),pp.62–3.
2.J.T.Henderson,ed.,SpeechesoftheLateRightHonourableHarryEscombe,P.C.,M.L.A.,Q.C.,L.L.D(Maritzburg:DavisandSons,1904),pp.154–5,291–4.
3.ThetextoftheseActsisreproducedinCWMG,II,pp.272–8.4.SpeechesofHarryEscombe,p.340.5.CWMG,II,p.241.6.CWMG,II,pp.246f.7.Petitiondated26March1897,CWMG,II,pp.231–5.8.Petitiondated2July1897,CWMG,II,pp.260–72.9.Letterwritten‘beforeSeptember18,1897’,inCWMG,II,pp.284–7.10.NaorojitoChamberlain,11October1897,copyinS.N.2568,NGM.11.http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Queen_Victoria%27s_Proclamation12.HarryEscombetoM.K.Gandhi,20September1897,S.N.2549,SAAA.13.PaulTichman,GandhiSitesinDurban(Durban:OldCourtHouseMuseum,n.d.),p.21.14.TheeditorsoftheCollectedWorksofMahatmaGandhididnothaveaccesstothesefiles,forduringtheapartheidyearsitwasforbiddenforIndianstohaveanydealingswiththeGovernmentorpeopleofSouthAfrica.ThefileswerephotocopiedfromthePietermaritzburgArchivesbytheGandhischolarE.S.Reddy,whothengenerouslymadethemavailabletome.Thisandthenexttwoparagraphsarebasedonthismaterial.
15.Cf.S.N.3856,SAAA.16.Thelogbook,runningtothirty-onepagesinall,isfiledasS.N.2711,SAAA.17.Newsclippingdated27February1898,S.N.2700,SAAA.18.FrancisYounghusband,SouthAfricaofTo-day(London:MacmillanandCo.,1899),pp.228–31.19.P.J.Mehta,M.K.GandhiandtheSouthAfricanIndianProblem(Madras:G.A.NatesanandCo.,1912),p.80.Thetitle-pageofthisbookletwronglyspellstheauthor’snameas‘Metha’.
20.TextofspeechinGujaratibyPranjivanMehta,Durban,17October1898,S.N.2825,SAAA.21.Cf.VernonFebruary,TheAfrikanersofSouthAfrica(London:KeganPaulInternational,1991),Chapters1and2.TheBritishannexedtheTransvaalin1877,butrestoredittotheBoersin1881,onconditionthatBritainretainedcontroloveritsforeignrelations.
22.SeeJ.EmrysEvans,‘ReportonIndianImmigrationintotheTransvaal’,2March1898,inL/P&J/6/478,File789,APAC/BL.
23.See,foranexcellentoverview,BalaPillay,BritishIndiansintheTransvaal:Trade,PoliticsandImperialRelations,1885–1906(London:Longman,1976),Chapters1and2.Cf.alsoIqbalNarain,ThePoliticsofRacialism:AStudyoftheIndianMinorityinSouthAfricadowntotheGandhi–SmutsAgreement(Delhi:ShivaLalAgarwalandCo.,1962),Chapters6and7.
24.IhaveborrowedthisstoryfromEdwardRoux,TimeLongerthanRope:TheBlackMan’sStruggleforFreedominSouthAfrica(firstpublished1948;2ndedn,Madison:UniversityofWisconsinPress,1964),p.102.
25.ThejudgmentisreproducedinPapersRelatingtotheGrievancesofHerMajesty’sIndianSubjectsintheSouthAfricanRepublic(London:HMSO,1895[C.7911]),p.24.Thisassertionoftherightof‘everyEuropeannation’to‘excludealienelementswhichitconsiderstobedangerous’,seemsstrikinglycontemporary,withtheriseofright-wingnativistpartiesacrossWesternEuropewhoseplatformrestsonsuchsentiments(orprejudices).
26.Petitiondated31December1898,signedby‘TayobHajeeKhanMohammed,HajeeHabibHajeeDadeeHajeeCassim,H.Joosw,MohammedH.Joosw,and27others’,inNatalGovernmentHouseRecords,onmicrofilm,Reel2,AccessionNo.2175,NMML.ThispetitionisnotintheCollectedWorks,butadocumentinthearchivesconfirmsthatitwasGandhi’shandiwork.ForwardingittohisbossinCapeTown,theBritishAgentinPretoriasaidthat‘they[thetraders]informedmethatthepetitionhadbeendrawnupbyMrGandhi’(EdmundFraser,HerMajesty’sAgentinPretoria,toHighCommissioner,CapeTown,31December1898,inNatalGovernmentHouseRecords,onmicrofilm,Reel2,AccessionNo.2175,NMML.)
27.FortheUitlanderpointofview,seeAlfredHillier,SouthAfricanStudies(London:MacmillanandCo.,1900)andJ.P.Fitzpatrick,TheTransvaalfromWithin:APrivateRecordofPublicAffairs(NewYork:FrederickA.Stokes,1899);foraccountssympathetictotheBoerperspective,F.ReginaldStatham,SouthAfricaAsItIs(London:T.FisherUnwin,1897)andF.V.Engelenburge,‘TheSouthAfricanQuestionfromtheTransvaalPointofView’,inJohnClarkRidpathandEdwardS.Ellis,eds.,TheStoryofSouthAfrica:AnAccountoftheTransformationoftheDarkContinentbytheEuropeanPowersandtheCulminatingContestbetweenGreatBritainandtheSouthAfricanRepublicintheTransvaalWar(London:C.B.Burrows,1899).Cf.alsoMuratHalstead,BritonandBoerinSouthAfrica(Philadelphia:TheBellPublishingCo.,1900)andC.E.Vulliamy,Outlanders:AStudyofImperialExpansioninSouthAfrica,1877–1902(London:JonathanCape,1938),Chapters10and11.TwousefulrecentsummariesofthebackgroundtotheconflictareJamesBarber,SouthAfricainthe
TwentiethCentury(Oxford:BasilBlackwell,1999),ChapterI,‘PreludetoWar:AfrikanerandBritishImperialNationalism’andHermannGilimore,TheAfrikaners:BiographyofaPeople(Charlottesville,VA:UniversityofVirginiaPress,2003),ChapterVIII,‘TheCrucibleofWar’.ThedefinitivehistoryremainsThomasPakenham,TheBoerWar(firstpublishedin1979;reprint,London:Abacus,2007).
28.Milner,quotedinJohnMarlowe,Milner:ApostleofEmpire(London:HamishHamilton,1976),p.47;Chamberlain,quotedinRonaldRobinsonandJohnGallagher,AfricaandtheVictorians:TheClimaxofImperialismintheDarkContinent(NewYork:St.MartinsPress,1961),p.455.
29.M.K.Gandhi,SatyagrahainSouthAfrica,translatedfromtheGujaratibyValjiGovindjiDesai(2ndedn,1950;reprint,Ahmedabad:NavjivanPress,1972),pp.65–6.
30.Letterof19October1899,CWMG,III,pp.134–5.31.SeeS.N.3302,NGM.32.SeeM.K.Gandhi,‘IndianAmbulanceCorpsinNatal’and‘IndianAmbulanceCorps’,inCWMG,III,pp.163–9,174–6.
33.VereStent,‘OntheBattle-field’(originallypublishedin1911),reprintedinChandrashankerShukla,ed.,GandhijiasWeKnowHim:BySeventeenContributors(Bombay:VoraandCo.,1945),pp.18–19.
34.HerbertKitchintoM.K.Gandhi,20April1900,S.N.3444,NGM.35.Newsclippingdated16March1900,S.N.3412,SAAA.36.SeeIndianOpinion,12November1903.37.CWMG,I,pp.188,199,233;CWMG,III,pp.4,44,108,137.38.Gokhale,quotedinDavidOmissi,‘India:SomePerceptionsofRaceandEmpire’,inDavidOmissiandAndrewS.Thompson,eds,TheImpactoftheSouthAfricanWar(Basingstoke:Palgrave,2002),p.224.
39.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartIII,ChapterX.40.PeterWarwick,BlackPeopleandtheSouthAfricanWar,1899–1902(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1983),pp.110–11.SeealsoHulmeT.Siwundhia,‘WhiteIdeologiesandNon-EuropeanParticipationintheAnglo-BoerWar,1899–1902’,JournalofBlackStudies,15:2(1984).
41.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartIII,ChapterV.42.See‘ReportontheJamesGodfreyCase’,inNatalGovernmentHouseRecords,onmicrofilm,Reel1,AccessionNo.2174,NMML.
43.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartIII,ChapterV.44.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartIV,ChapterX.45.M.K.GandhitoRevashankarZaveri,21May1901,inCWMG,III,pp.230–31.46.CWMG,XIII,p.143.47.Gandhi,‘Prefaceto“SrimadRajchandra”’,CWMG,XXXII,pp.9–13.48.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartIII,ChapterXII.49.CharlesDiSalvio,TheManBeforetheMahatma:M.K.Gandhi,Attorney-at-Law(NOIDA,UP:RandomHouseIndia,2012),p.147.
50.SeeS.N.3920,SAAA.51.NA,16October1901,S.N.3919,SAAA.52.M.K.GandhitoParseeRustomjee,18October1901,CWMG,III,pp.246–7.53.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartIII,ChapterXII.Kasturba’schastisementishererenderedinMahadevDesai’sEnglishtranslationofherhusband’srecollections;itwould,ofcourse,originallyhavebeenofferedinGujarati.
54.ParseeRustomjeetoM.K.Gandhi,19October1901,S.N.3924,SAAA.55.ThisaccountofGandhi’svisittoMauritiusislargelybasedonthenewsreports(inFrenchandEnglish)reproducedinPahladRamsurrun,MahatmaGandhiandhisImpactonMauritius(NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers,1995),pp.120–31;supplementedbyU.Bissoondoyal,GandhiandMauritiusandOtherEssays(Moka:MahatmaGandhiInstitute,1988),pp.6–12.
56.AnnieBesant,ed.,HowIndiaWroughtforFreedom:TheStoryoftheNationalCongresstoldfromOfficialRecords(Madras:TheosophicalPublishingHouse,1915),pp.333–40.
57.CWMG,III,pp.252–5.
58.Thestandardbiography,onwhichtheseparagraphsdraw,remainsB.R.Nanda,Gokhale:TheIndianModeratesandtheBritishRaj(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1977).AlsousefulisGovindTalwalkar’sGopalKrishnaGokhale:HisLifeandTimes(NewDelhi:RupaandCo.,2006).
59.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartIII,ChapterXVII.60.IndianMirror,26January1902,quotedinGopalkrishnaGandhi,ed.,AFrankFriendship:GandhiandBengal(Calcutta:SeagullBooks,2007),pp.26–9.
61.CWMG,III,pp.255–7,260–66.62.GandhitoGokhale,30January1902,CWMG,III,pp.266–7.63.GandhitoChhaganlalGandhi,23January1902,CWMG,II,p.257.64.ChandulalBhagubhaiDalal,HarilalGandhi:ALife,editedandtranslatedfromtheGujaratibyTridipSuhrud(Hyderabad:OrientLongman,2007),pp.4–5.
65.Pyarelal,MahatmaGandhi,II:TheDiscoveryofSatyagraha–OntheThreshold(firstpublishedin1980;reprint,Ahmedabad:NavajivanPublishingHouse,1997),pp.399–403;CWMG,III,pp.274–306.
66.SeeArthurPercivalNewton,ed.,SelectDocumentsRelatingtotheUnificationofSouthAfrica(1924;reprint,London:FrankCass,1968),vol.I,pp.205–8.
67.A.P.Thornton,TheImperialIdeaanditsEnemies:AStudyinBritishPower(firstpublishedin1959;2ndedn,London:Macmillan,1985),p.137.
68.GandhitoD.B.Shukla,8November1902,CWMG,III,pp.315–6.69.SeeUmaDhupelia-Mesthrie,Gandhi’sPrisoner?ThelifeofGandhi’sSonManilal(CapeTown:KwelaBooks,2004),p.50.
70.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartIII,ChapterXXIII.71.GandhtoDevchandParekh,6August1902,CWMG,III,pp.312–13.
7WHITEAGAINSTBROWN
1.CWMG,III,p.316.2.W.H.Moor,AssistantColonialSecretary,toTayobHadjiKhanMohomed,6January1903,inNatalGovernmentRecords(onmicrofilm),Reel2,AccessionNo.2175,NMML.
3.CWMG,III,pp.325–32.4.GandhitoChhaganlal,5February1903,CWMG,III,p.337.5.SeeApplication252,vol.8/654,ZTPD,NASA.6.EricItzkin,Gandhi’sJohannesburg:BirthplaceofSatyagraha(Johannesburg:WitwatersrandUniversityPress,2000),pp.12–3.
7.QuotedinGeoffreyWheatcroft,TheRandlords(London:WeidenfeldandNicolson,1985),p.4.8.‘Johannesburg:ACityofUnrest’,originallypublishedinthePallMallGazette,reproducedinIndianOpinion,12May1906.
9.JonathanHyslop,‘Gandhi,Mandela,andtheAfricanModern’,inSarahNuttallandAchilleMbembe,eds,Johannesburg:TheElusiveMetropolis(Durham,NorthCarolina:DukeUniversityPress,2008),pp.121–2.Cf.alsoNechamaBrodie,ed.,TheJoburgBook:AGuidetotheCity’sHistory,PeopleandPlaces(Johannesburg:PanMacmillanSouthAfrica,2008),Chapter3,‘FoundationsoftheCity’.
10.HannesMeiring,withG-MvanderWaalandWilhelmGrütter,EarlyJohannesburg:ItsBuildinganditsPeople(CapeTown:HumanandRousseau,1985),pp.36–8;DiaryoftheTownClerkofJohannesburgfor1904,Reel34,LionelCurtisPapers(onmicrofilm),BodleianLibrary,Oxford.
11.JohnBuchan,TheAfricanColony:StudiesintheReconstuction(Edinburgh:WilliamBlackwoodandSons,1903),Chapter15,‘Johannesburg’.
12.Seeforinstance,File8593,vol.367,CS;File9199,vol.377,CS;File8491,vol.365,CS;allinNASA.
13.MilnertoJosephChamberlain(SecretaryofStatefortheColonies),11May1903,inDespatchfromtheGovernoroftheTransvaalRespectingthePositionofBritishIndiansinthatColony(London:HMSO,1903–Cd.1684).
14.MilnertoJosephChamberlain,12May1903,inCorrespondenceRelatingtoaProposaltoEmployIndianCooliesUnderIndentureonRailwaysintheTransvaalandtheOrangeRiverColony(London:HMSO,1903–Cd.1683).OnMilner’sattitudetoIndians,seealsoCecilHeadlam,ed.,TheMilnerPapers:SouthAfrica,1899–1905,vol.II(London:CassellandCompany,Ltd.,1933),pp.429–30.
15.CWMG,III,pp.364–71.16.RandDailyMail,6June1903,clippinginNatalGovernmentRecords(onmicrofilm),Reel3,AccessionNo.2176,NMML.
17.‘IndiansintheTransvaal:TheJohannesburgMeeting’,IO,4June1903.18.Cf.advertisementinIO,4June1903.19.BurnettBritton,GandhiArrivesinSouthAfrica(Canton,Maine:GreenleafBooks,1999),pp.232,303:CWMG,II,p.251andfootnote.
20.UmaDhupelia-Mesthrie,‘FromAdvocacytoMobilisation:IndianOpinion,1903–1914’,inL.Switzer,ed.,SouthAfrica’sAlternativePress:VoicesofProtestandResistance,1850–1960(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1987).
21.IsabelHofmeyr,‘Gandhi’sPrintingPress:PrintCulturesoftheIndianOcean’,inKrisManjapraandSugataBose,eds,CosmopolitanThoughtZones(London:PalgraveMacmillan,2010).
22.CWMG,III,pp.376–7,380.23.IO,3June1903.24.Cf.VijayaRamaswamy,‘IndianOpinion:VoiceoftheTamilDiaspora’,inTheEditorGandhiandIndianOpinion:SeminarPapers(NewDelhi:NationalGandhiMuseum,2007).
25.SeeSurendraBhanaandJamesD.Hunt,eds,Gandhi’sEditor:TheLettersofM.H.Nazar,1902–1903(NewDelhi:PromillaandCo.,1989),pp.94–5,99–100,107–8,etc;Pyarelal,MahatmaGandhi,III:TheBirthofSatyagraha–fromPetitioningtoPassiveResistance(Ahmedabad:NavajivanPublishingHouse,1986),pp.74–7.
26.CWMG,III,pp.424–7.27.IO,9July1903.28.IO,10September1903.29.SeeIO,13August1903.30.Tothisdispassionatesummary,wemightjuxtaposetherathermorefeveredlanguageofthecommon-or-gardenvarietyofcolonist.In1902,aUitlanderpublishedabookdefendingtheBoertreatmentofIndians.Thisrejectedtheideathatas‘Britishsubjects’theydeservedasympathetichearing.Indiantradersandhawkersconstituteda‘frightfuldangertopublichealth’.Theirremovaltolocationsoutofsightofwhiteswas‘amostnecessarysanitaryreform’.Warmingtohistheme,thecolonistclaimedthatitwas‘quiteacommonthingtofindthecoolies–themajorityofthemfruitandvegetablehawkers–notonlyhuddledtogether,men,women,andchildren,tothenumberofeightorten,orevenmore,inatinshantyofperhapslessthantenfeetsquare,withtheirstock-in-tradeinthesameroom,asoftenasnotpackedunderthebed,ifindeedtherewasabedatall,butinsomecasesactuallysleepingonthevegetableswhichthefollowingdaytheywouldbehawkingaroundthetown.’SeeEdwardB.Rose,TheTruthabouttheTransvaal:ARecordofFactsBaseduponTwelveYearsResidenceintheCountry(London:publishedbytheauthor,1902),pp.142–4.
31.IO,25June1903,inCWMG,III,pp.417–19.32.SeeletterfromL.W.Ritch,publishedinTheTheosophist,April1897.(IamgratefultoShimonLowforthisreference.)
33.AlbertWest,‘IntheEarlyDayswithGandhi–1’,IllustratedWeeklyofIndia,3October1965.
34.ThesebiographicaldetailsaredrawnfromH.S.L.Polak,‘Who’sWho?AnEssayinWorldConsciousness’,typescriptwrittenprobablyinthe1940s,inMssEurD.1238/1,APAC/BL.Cf.also‘MrandMrs.Polak’,IO,13January1906.
35.H.S.L.Polak,‘MahatmaGandhi:SomeEarlyReminiscences’,typescriptprobablyfromtheearly1930s,inMssEurD.1238/1,APAC/BL.
36.Cf.GustavSaronandLouisHotz,eds,TheJewsinSouthAfrica:AHistory(CapeTown:OxfordUniversityPress,1955),pp.85–6,89.
37.SeeShimonLow,‘MahatmaGandhiandHermannKallenbachinSouthAfrica,1904–1914’,MAdissertation(FacultyofHumanities,TheHebrewUniversityofJerusalem,April2010),pp.26–9,35–40,etc.Asthisbookgoestopress,MrLow’sdissertationhasbeenpublishedasSoulmates:TheStoryofMahatmaGandhiandHermannKallenbach(Hyderabad:OrientBlackSwan,2012).
38.In1895,whenthefirstattemptstoconsignAsianstolocationsweremade,agroupoffortyEuropeanmerchantswrotetothegovernmentsayingtheIndiansinJohannesburgkept‘theirbusinessplaces,aswellastheirplacesofresidence,inacleanandpropersanitarystate–infact,asgoodastheEuropeans’.ThenamesappendedtothisletterweremostlyJewish–Schneider,Fogelman,Behrens,Friedman,etc.SeecorrespondenceinFile3681,L/P&J/6/783,APAC/BL.
39.Cf.File402,L/P&J/6/628,APAC/BL.40.ThelettersofBhownaggree,Lyttelton,LawleyandMilnerareprintedinCorrespondenceRelatingtothePositionofBritishIndiansintheTransvaal(inContinuationofCd.1684)(London:HMSO,1904).DespitehismanifestprejudiceagainstIndians,AlfredLawleywas,shortlyafterwards,appointedGovernoroftheMadrasPresidency.
41.Fordetails,seeJohnMcleod,‘“IndianTory”:ABiographyofSirMancherjeeMerwanjeeBhownaggree’(bookmanuscriptinpreparation),Chapter12.
42.SeeDailyGraphic,5August1904,S.N.4201,SAAA.BhownaggreewasansweredinthesamecolumnsbythepresidentoftheAmalgamatedChambersofCommerceoftheTransvaal,whoaccusedIndianmerchantsof‘unfaircompetition’,claiming‘theencroachments’theyhadmadewerealreadysolargethat,ifleftunchecked,they‘couldonlyultimatelyresultinSouthAfricabecominganAsiaticcountry’.ThewhitetraderwasansweredinturnbyanIndianstudentfromLondonUniversity,whonotedthatinBombay,EuropeansandIndianslivedandtradedsidebyside,because‘theEnglishtradersdonotwanttheir25to30percentontheircapital,asthetradersandcapitalistsinSouthAfricado.’SeelettersbyH.R.AbercrombieandS.B.Gadgil,DailyGraphic,16and24September1904,clippingsinMssEur.F111/258,APAC/BL.
43.CWMG,IV,pp.49–50,112–13.44.CWMG,IV,pp.149–51.45.West,‘IntheEarlyDayswithGandhi–1’;IO,30April1904.46.KeithBrown,Johannesburg:TheMakingandShapingoftheCity(Pretoria:UniversityofSouthAfricaPress,2004),pp.75–8.
47.CWMG,IV,pp.183–4,203–5.48.Noteofameetingheldon26February1904,inNatalGovernmentRecords(onmicrofilm),Reel3,AccessionNo.2176,NMML.
49.SeeIO,27May1905.50.ReportsinIO,28May,4Juneand13August1904.51.‘NationalConventionreAsiaticQuestionheldattheOperaHouse,Pretoria,Thursday,10November1904:VerbatimRecordofProceedings’,inNatalGovernmentRecords(onmicrofilm),Reel3,AccessionNo.2176,NMML.
52.GovernoroftheTransvaaltoSecretaryofStatefortheColonies,lettersof13Mayand13July1904,inibid.
53.M.K.GandhitoPrivateSecretarytoLordMilner,HighCommissionerandGovernoroftheTransvaal,3September1904,inNatalGovernmentRecords(onmicrofilm),Reel3,AccessionNo.2176,NMML.(ThisletterisnotinCWMG.)
54.Cf.ArthurPercivalNewton,ed.,SelectDocumentsRelatingtotheUnificationofSouthAfrica(1924;reprint,London:FrankCass,1968),vol.II,pp.1–2.
55.Letterof3October1904,CWMG,IV,pp.272–3.56.EmilyHobhouse,quotedinAdamHochschild,ToEndAllWars:AStoryofLoyaltyandRebellion,1914–1918(Boston:HoughtonMifflinHarcourt,2011),p.34.
57.SaulDubow,‘HowBritishWastheBritishWorld?TheCaseofSouthAfrica’,JournalofImperialandCommonwealthHistory,37:1(2009),p.13.
58.JohnRuskin,‘UntoThisLast’:FourEssaysontheFirstPrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy,editedandintroducedbyLloydJ.Hubenka(firstpublished1860;thisedition,Lincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress,1967).
59.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartIV,ChapterXVIII.Cf.alsoM.L.Dantwala,‘GandhijiandRuskin’sUntoThisLast’,EconomicandPoliticalWeekly,4November1995.
60.CWMG,IV,pp.319–21.61.West,‘IntheEarlyDayswithGandhi–1’.62.Letterof13January1905,CWMG,IV,pp.332–3.63.SirWilliamWedderburntoColonialOffice,13January1899,inNatalGovernmentHouseRecords,Reel2(AccessionNo.2175),NMML.
64.‘NotestakenatinterviewwithSirDenzilIbbetsononthe5February1903’,inNatalGovernmentHouseRecords,Reel1(AccessionNo.2174),NMML.
65.Notedated23May1904,inMss.Eur.F111/258,APAC/BL.
8PLURALISTANDPURITAN
1.EricItzkin,Gandhi’sJohannesburg:BirthplaceofSatyagraha(Johannesburg:WitwatersrandUniversityPress,2000),pp.61–3.
2.H.S.L.Polak,‘EarlyYears(1869–1914)’,inH.S.L.Polak,H.N.BrailsfordandLordPethick-Lawrence,MahatmaGandhi(London:OldhamsPressLimited,1949),p.49.
3.RamadasGandhi,Sansmaran,translatedfromGujaratitoHindibyShankarJoshi(Ahmedabad:NavajivanPress,1970),pp.12–13,47–8.
4.SeeIO,7Januaryand13May1905.5.ReportsinIO,22and29April1905.6.ReportsinIO,7Januaryand18February1905.7.ReportsinIO,27May,3June,5Augustand2September1905.8.CWMG,V,pp.5,27–8,50–52,56–7,61–2.9.CWMG,IV,p.441;V,pp.65–8.10.CWMG,V,p.55;IV,p.347.11.ThisaccountofGandhi’slecturesandtheiraftermathdrawsonCWMG,IV,pp.368–70,375–7,405–9,430–1,454,458–9,468–9;V,pp.42,49–50;andonlettersintheGujaratisectionofIndianOpinion,issuesof20May,3and17June1905.
12.IO,issuesof4and11November1905,CWMG,V,pp.121–2,131–2.13.GandhitoRevashankarJhaveri,18July1905,inCWMG,V,p.21.14.SeeChandulalBhagubhaiDalal,HarilalGandhi:ALife,editedandtranslatedfromtheGujaratibyTridipSuhrud(Hyderabad:OrientLongman,2007),pp.6–7.
15.GandhitoChhaganlal,27September1905,CWMG,V,p.78.
16.MillieGrahamPolak,MrGandhi:TheMan(London:GeorgeAllenandUnwin,1931),pp.17–18.17.GandhitoMillieGraham,3July1905,CWMG,XCVI,pp.1–2.18.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartIV,ChapterXXII.19.MilliePolak,MrGandhi,pp.21–7,29–35,43–5,62–3.20.H.S.L.Polak,‘MahatmaGandhi:SomeEarlyReminscences’,typescriptprobablyfromtheearly1930s,inMssEurD.1238/1,APAC/BL.
21.MilliePolak,MrGandhi,pp.25–6.22.ReportinIO,27January1906.23.EditorialinIO,16June1906.24.Cf.IsaacDeutscher,‘TheNon-JewishJew’(basedonalecturetotheWorldJewishCongress,February1958),inDeutscher,TheNon-JewishJewandOtherEssays(1968;reprint,London:MerlinPress,1981).
25.SeeRichardMendelsohn,SammyMarks:‘TheUncrownedKingoftheTransvaal’(CapeTown:DavidPhilip,1991),especiallyChapter11.
26.GandhitoKallenbach,undated,c.1904–5,handwritten,inKP.ThisletterisnotinCWMG.27.SeePrabhudasGandhi,MyChildhoodwithGandhiji(Ahmedabad:NavajivanPublishingHouse,1957),pp.59–60.
28.IO,24March1906,CWMG,V,p243.OnGandhi’sfriendshipwithDrAbdurahman,seealsoGavinLewis,BetweentheWireandtheWall:AHistoryofSouthAfrican‘Coloured’Politics(NewYork:St.Martin’sPress,1987),pp.54,63,78,etc.;andJamesD.Hunt,‘GandhiandtheBlackPeopleofSouthAfrica’,GandhiMarg,April–June1989.
29.JosephJ.Doke,M.K.Gandhi:AnIndianPatriotinSouthAfrica(London:TheLondonIndianChronicle,1909),pp.1–2.FormoreonDoke,seeChapters11to14below.
30.J.H.BalfourBrowne,SouthAfrica:AGlanceatCurrentConditionsandPolitics(London:Longmans,GreenandCo.,1905),pp.200–202.
31.SeeSaulDubow,‘ColonialNationalism,theMilnerKindergarten,andtheRiseof“SouthAfricanism”,1902–10,HistoryWorkshopJournal,43(Spring1997).
32.Letterof21September1905,AProceedings,no.11,April1906,DepartmentofCommerceandIndustry(Emigration),NAI.
33.Letterof21May1906,ibid.,no.3,May1906.34.CWMG,V,pp.142–52,236–8.35.SeereportsinIO,3March,17March,26Mayand9June1906;CharlesDiSalvio,TheManBeforetheMahatma:M.K.Gandhi,Attorney-at-Law(NOIDA,UP:RandomHouseIndia,2012),pp.209–13.
36.MontfordChamney,‘MahatmaGhandi[sic]intheTransvaal’,typescriptdatedc.1935,MssEur.C.859,APAC/BL,pp.6,16–17.
37.GandhitoM.Chamney,lettersof9March,9Apriland19May1906(notinCWMG);ChamneytoAssistantColonialSecretary,9April1906,allinNatalGovernmentRecords(onmicrofilm),Reel3,AccessionNo.2176,NMML.
38.SeeShulaMarks,ReluctantRebellion:The1906–8DisturbancesinNatal(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1970),PartIV.
39.IO,28April1906.40.IO,16and23June1906.41.CWMG,V,pp.281–2,348,368–74.42.EdwardRoux,TimeLongerthanRope:TheBlackMan’sStruggleforFreedominSouthAfrica(firstpublished1948;2ndedn,Madison:UniversityofWisconsinPress,1964),pp.96,104.
43.PadmanabhS.Jaini,TheJainaPathofPurification(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1979),pp.175–6,183.
44.QuotedinJamesLaidlaw,RichesandRenunciation:Religion,Economy,andSocietyamongtheJains(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1995),p.237.
45.Gandhi,‘Prefaceto“SrimadRajchandra”’,CWMG,XXXII,p.6.46.Cf.GailHinichSutherland,Nonviolence,ComsumptionandCommunityamongAncientIndianAscetics(Shimla:IndianInstituteofAdvancedStudy,1997),pp.6–7andpassim.
47.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartIII,ChaptersVIIandVIII.48.‘TheFirstStep’,inTheCompleteWorksofCountTolstoy,vol.XIX,translatedandeditedbyLeoWiener(Boston:DanaEstesandCompany,1905),pp.391–2andpassim.
9TROUBLEINTHETRANSVAAL
1.EricItzkin,Gandhi’sJohannesburg:BirthplaceofSatyagraha(Johannesburg:WitwatersrandUniversityPress,2000),pp.68–9.
2.MillieGrahamPolak,‘MySouthAfricanDayswithGandhiji’,IndianReview,October1964.3.UnlikeinearlymodernEurope,wealthyIndianmerchantswerenotoftenpatronsoftheartsorofartists.ThepatronageofartandmusicwasmorecharacteristicofKshatriyaandMuslimnobles;besides,Baniasdidnotwanttodrawattentiontogreatwealthiftheyhadit.Athird,enduring,GandhicharacteristicmayalsobearesidueofhisBaniaupbringing–anindifferenceto,andalackofabilityin,modernsportssuchascricket,football,andtennis.
4.TheseparagraphsonGandhi’slifewiththePolaksinJohannesburgin1906arebasedonMillieGrahamPolak,MrGandhi:TheMan(London:GeorgeAllenandUnwin,1931),pp.70–87.
5.TheletterisreproducedinChandulalBhagubhaiDalal,HarilalGandhi:ALife,editedandtranslatedfromtheGujaratibyTridipSuhrud(Hyderabad:OrientLongman,2007),pp.225–6.
6.Chanchalwasalsoknownas‘Gulab’.ManygirlsinSaurashtracarriedtwonames,onegivenbythemother’sfamily,theotherbythefather’sfamily.InthisbookhoweverIhavereferredtoheras‘Chanchal’throughout,orbyitsdiminutive,‘Chanchi’,bywhichshewasalsoknown.
7.GandhitoLaxmidas,27May1906,CWMG,V,p.334–5.8.GandhitoChamney,13August1906,inFileE26/8,vol.215,‘ND’,NASA.ThisletterisnotinCWMG.9.ChamneytoGandhi,15September1906;GandhitoChamney,17September1906(notinCWMG),bothinFileE26/8,vol.215,‘ND’,NASA.
10.Letterof27September,inCWMG,V,pp.408–9.11.BalaPillay,BritishIndiansintheTransvaal:Trade,PoliticsandImperialRelations,1885–1906(London:Longman,1976),pp.210–12.
12.Statementtothepress,4August1906,inNatalGovernmentRecords(onmicrofilm),Reel2,AccessionNo.2175,NMML.
13.SeeDeborahLavin,FromEmpiretoCommonwealth:ABiographyofLionelCurtis(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1995),pp.59–60.
14.LionelCurtis,quotedinKeithBreckenridge,‘Gandhi’sProgressiveDisillusionment:Thumbs,Fingers,andtheRejectionofScientificModernisminHindSwaraj’,PublicCulture,23:2(2011),p.339.
15.SeeLionelCurtis,WithMilnerinSouthAfrica(Oxford:BasilBlackwell,1951),p.348.CurtisprobablymeantTrinidadorGuyanaratherthanJamaica.Inabookpublishedin1908,heoutlinedhislargervisionforSouthAfrica:Thepresentpopulationofwhitetocolouredisonetosix;andhowfarthefuturepopulationistobe
drawnfromthehigherandhowfarfromthelowerracesofmankindistheissuewhichhangsonthenativeproblemofto-day.TheanswerdependsuponwhetherSouthAfricaaccommodatesherindustrialsystemtothehabitsofthewhitesortothoseofthecolouredraces.Ifthesystemisoneinwhichthelowerracesthrivebetterthanthehigher,thecolouredelementwillgrowattheexpenseoftheEuropean.SouthAfricawill
thensinktothelevelofStatessuchasthoseofcentralandsouthernAmerica–republicsinnameandnotseldomtyranniesinfact,unequaltothetaskoftheirowninternalgovernmentandtooweaktoexertaninfluenceontheworld’saffairs.If,ontheotherhand,theschemeofsocietyoffersthewhitepopulation,insteadofthecolouredpopulation,tobebuiltupfromoutsideaswellasfromitsownnaturalincrease,sothatinthecourseofyearstheonegainsupontheother,thiscountrywillgraduallyassumeitsplacebesideEngland,theUnitedStates,Canada,orAustralia,asoneofthepowersoftheworldandshareinthedirectionofitsfuture.Toachievethisideal,saidCurtis,the‘promotionandcontrolofimmigrationisamatterofsupreme
importance’.TheAsiaticOrdinancewasthereforeanaturaloutcomeofthisviewoftheworld–andofSouthAfricainparticular.SeeAnon.,TheGovernmentofSouthAfrica(2vols)(SouthAfrica:CentralNewsAgency,Ltd.,1908),vol.1,pp.156–8.Althoughwithoutanauthor(orplaceofpublication),theAllSoulscopyofthisbookhas‘byL.G.Curtis’writtenonitinpencilonthetitlepage.ItappearsthebookwascompiledandeditedbyCurtisonthebasisofreportsondifferentsubjectswrittenbyothers,whichhethenwoveintoasingle,coherentnarrative.16.CWMG,V,pp.400–405,409–12.17.GregorowskitoGandhi6September1906,quotedinPyarelal,MahatmaGandhi,III:TheBirthofSatyagraha–fromPetitioningtoPassiveResistance(Ahmedabad:NavajivanPublishingHouse,1986)pp.492–3.
18.QuotedinIO,22September1906.19.Thisaccountofthe11SeptembermeetingisbasedonreportsinIO,15and22September1906;inCWMG,V,pp.419–23,439–43;andinNM,12September1906.
20.CharlesDiSalviohaspointedoutthatthefirsttimeGandhiadvocatedthecourtingofarrestwasinfactinJanuary1904,when,inaneditorialinIndianOpinion,hewrotethatmerchantsseekingpermanentlicences‘mustmakerespectfulrepresentationstotheGovernment’,butifthesefailed,shouldtradewithoutalicence,refusetopayafinefordoingso,andgotojail.(SeeCharlesDiSalvio,TheManBeforetheMahatma:M.K.Gandhi,Attorney-at-Law(NOIDA,UP:RandomHouseIndia,2012),pp.195–6.)Thatearlysuggestionwasthensetasideformorethantwoyears,inwhichtimemanyrespectfulrepresentationsweremadetoGovernment.TheproposalhesitantlyofferedinprintinJanuary1904wasnow,inSeptember1906,ringinglyendorsedinamassmeeetingofseveralthousandIndians.
21.JamesD.Hunt,GandhiandtheNon-Conformists:EncountersinSouthAfrica(NewDelhi:PromillaandCo.,1986),Chapters3and4.
22.Cf.J.G.James,‘TheEthicsofPassiveResistance’,InternationalJournalofEthics,14:3(1904).23.IO,6October1906,CWMG,V,p.461.24.SeeHowardSpodek,‘OntheOriginsofGandhi’sPoliticalMethodology:TheHeritageofKathiawadandGujarat’,JournalofAsianStudies,30:2(1971).ItwasnotmerelyinKathiawarthatthesemethodsofprotestwereused.Intheearlynineteenthcentury,whentheBritishtookovertheholycityofBanaras,theyimposedanewhousetaxonitsresidents.Thisledtoapopularoutcry,withpetitionsbeingsenttoGovernmenturgingthatthereweretoomanytaxesalready,andthatwiththestagnationintradetheresidentsofBenarescouldnotbearanotherone.Amagistratereportedthat‘thepeopleareextremelyclamorous;theyhaveshutuptheirshops,abandonedtheirusualoccupations,andassembleinmultitudeswithaviewtoextortfrommeanimmediatecompliancewiththeirdemands,andtoprevailwithmetodirecttheCollectortowithdrawtheassessors.’TheresistersinBanarascalledamassassembly,sendingemissariestohamletsandlocalitiesfor
volunteers.Intheevent,some20,000peoplesatonprotest,demandingthatthetaxbewithdrawn.‘Atpresentopenviolencedoesnotseemtheiraim,’wrotetheCollectorofBenarestohissuperior,‘theyseemrathertovaunttheirsecurityinbeingunarmedinthatamilitaryforcewouldnotusedeadlyweaponsagainstsuchinoffensivefoes.Andinthisconfidencetheycollectandincrease,knowingthatthecivilpower
cannotdispersethem,andthinkingthatthemilitarywillnot.’SeeDharampal,CivilDisobedienceandIndianTradition:WithSomeEarlyNineteenthCenturyDocuments(Varanasi:SarvaSevaSanghPrakashan,1971).Otherpre-modernformsofcustomaryrebellionthatinsomewaysanticipateGandhiansatyagrahaarealsodiscussedinRamachandraGuha,TheUnquietWoods:EcologicalChangeandPeasantResistanceintheHimalaya(firstpublishedin1989;3rdedn,Ranikhet:PermanentBlack,2010),ChapterIV.25.ChineseConsul-GeneraltoGovernoroftheTransvaal,13September1906,inNatalGovernmentRecords(onmicrofilm),Reel3,AccessionNo.2176,NMML.
26.Letterof17September1906,copyinNatalGovernmentRecords(onmicrofilm),Reel2,AccessionNo.2175,NMML.
10ALOBBYISTINLONDON
1.‘HajeeOjeerAlly’,IO,6October1906,inCWMG,V,pp.459–60.2.H.S.L.Polak,‘PassiveResistanceMovementinSouthAfrica’,typescriptcomposedc.1908–12,Mss.Afr.R.125,RhodesHouseLibrary,Oxford,pp.221–4.
3.CWMG,VI,pp.1–3.4.Letterof26October1906,inCWMG,VI,pp.17–20.5.Letterof26October1906,inCWMG,VI,pp.21–2.6.Cf.JamesD.Hunt,GandhiinLondon(revisededn,NewDelhi:PromillaandCo,1993),p.62.7.Letterof21September1906,inNatalGovernmentRecords(onmicrofilm),Reel3,AccessionNo.2176,NMML.
8.‘PetitionofBritishSubjects,NativesofIndia,residentintheTransvaalandelsewhere’,inNatalGovernmentRecords(onmicrofilm),Reel3,AccessionNo.2176,NMML.
9.LetterintheRandDailyMail,28March1904,reproducedinCorrespondenceRelatingtothePositionofBritishIndiansintheTransvaal(inContinuationofCd.1684)(London:HMSO,1904).
10.SeecorrespondenceinFile15/12/1906,vol.951,GOV,NASA.11.SeecorrespondenceinFileGEN1031/06,vol.203,GOV,NASA.12.Telegramdated21November1906,inCorrespondenceRelatingtoLegislationAffectingAsiaticsintheTransvaal(Cd.3308–inContinuationofCd.3251)(London:HMSO,1907).
13.See‘LostHospitalsofLondon:LadyMargaretHospital’,http://ezitis.myzen.co.uk/ladymargaret.xhtml(accessed12October2011).
14.LetterstoDrJ.Oldfield,26and27October1906;letterstoH.O.Ally,26and27October1906,inCWMG,VI,pp.23,26,32–3,33–4.
15.SeeIndulalYajnik,ShyamajiKrishnavarma:LifeandTimesofanIndianRevolutionary(Bombay:LakshmiPublications,1950);HaraldFischer-Tine,‘IndianNationalismandthe“WorldForces”:TransnationalandDiasporicDimensionsoftheIndianFreedomMovementontheEveoftheFirstWorldWar’,JournalofGlobalHistory,2:3(2007).
16.LettertoJ.H.L.Polak,30October1906,CWMG,VI,pp.40–41.17.IO,1December1906,CWMG,VI,pp.83–4.18.Letterof3November1906,CWMG,VI,pp.78–80.19.SirLepelmayhavebeeninfluencedbyM.M.Bhownaggree’sview(asexpressedintheHouseofCommonsinJune1905)that‘therealopposition’toIndiansinSouthAfrica‘didnotproceedfromBritishcolonistsfromthebetterclass,butwasmainlyledbyalowclassofaliens,PolishJewsandsuchlike,whowerepermittedrightsandlibertiesdeniedtotheIndiansubjectsoftheCrown’.Inquotingthisspeech,JohnMcleod(inhisforthcomingbookIndianTory)notesthattheParseepoliticiansawworldhistoryasagreatstrugglebetweenAryans(amongwhomheincludedIndians)andSemites(especiallyJews),hencethisinterpretation,certainlyamistakenone,withnocredenceinfactorinanymaterialsGandhimighthavesentBhownaggreefromSouthAfrica.
20.Theproceedingsofthemeeting,fromwhichthisaccountdraws,arereproducedinCWMG,VI,pp.113–26.
21.Letterof9November1906,CWMG,VI,p.133.22.SecretaryofStatefortheColoniestotheGovernoroftheTransvaal,29November1906,inCorrespondenceRelatingtoLegislationAffectingAsiatics.
23.TheTimes,10November1906.24.Letterof16November1906,inCWMG,VI,pp.168–9.25.GeorgeBirdwoodtoM.K.Gandhi,3November1906,S.N.449,SAAA.
26.SeeFile827,L/P&J/6/752,APAC/BL.27.CWMG,VI,pp.224–6.28.AsreportedinIO,29December1906,CWMG,VI,pp.257–60.29.Letterof27November1906,CWMG,VI,p.237.30.SeereportofmeetinginIO,29December1906.31.CWMG,VI,pp.244–6.32.Letterdated3December1906,AProgsNo.4,May1907,inDepartmentofCommerceandIndustry(Emigration),NAI.
33.GovernorofTransvaaltoSecretaryofStatefortheColonies,14January1907,inCorrespondenceRelatingtoLegislationAffectingAsiatics.
34.SeeL.E.Neame,TheAsiaticDangertotheColonies(London:GeorgeRoutledgeandSons,1907),pp.4–6,31–3,53–4,89–90,etc.Neame’sbookdrewonaseriesofarticlespreviouslypublishedbyhimintheRandDailyMail,hererevisedandrewrittenforaBritishaudience.
35.‘ABook–anditsMisnomer:AReview’,IO,11,18,25Mayand1June1907.
11FROMCONCILIATIONTOCONFRONTATION
1.IO,29December1906.2.IO,5January1907.3.SeeAProceedings,no.14,December1907,inDepartmentofCommerceandIndustry(Emigration),NAI;CWMG,VI,pp.253f.
4.MemorandumbyMinistersoftheNatalGovernment,dated19February1907,inNatalGovernmentRecords(onmicrofilm),Reel1,AccessionNo.2174,NMML.
5.SeeFile2726,L/P&J/883,APAC/BL;VishnuPadayacheeandRobertMorrell,‘IndianMerchantsandDukawallahsintheNatalEconomy,c.1875–1914’,JournalofSouthernAfricanStudies,17:1(1991).
6.CapeTimes,6November1907,File4238,L/P&J/6/839,APAC/BL.7.ReportoftheSelectCommitteeonAsiaticGrievances(CapeTown:GovernmentPrinters,1908),inFile4490,L/P&J/6/907,APAC/BL.
8.IO,issuesof26Januaryand2February1907,CWMG,VI,pp.291–5,308–9.9.Letterof28January1907,CWMG,VI,pp.301–2.10.CWMG,VI,pp.320–21.11.GandhitoChhaganlal,24April1907,copyinGandhi–PolakPapers,vol.I,ManuscriptSection,NAI.12.HaroldSpender,GeneralBotha:TheCareerandtheMan(London:ConstableandCompany,1916),pp.22,166–7,178–80,etc.
13.Letterof1April,inFurtherCorrespondenceRelatingtoLegislationAffectingAsiaticsintheTransvaal(Cd.3887–incontinuationofCd.3308)(London:HMSO,1908).
14.CWMG,VI,pp.381–2,394–408.15.IO,20April1907.Cf.alsoKarenL.Harris,‘Gandhi,theChineseandPassiveResistance’,inJudithM.BrownandMartinProzesky,eds,GandhiandSouthAfrica(Pietermaritzburg:UniversityofNatalPress,1996).
16.SeeFile2659,L/P&J/6/823,APAC/BL.17.SeepetitionstoColonialOfficeandIndiaOfficebyJosephRoyeppen,24April1907,inFile1338/L/P&J/6/809,APAC/BL.
18.Theparagraphsthatfollowdrawlargelyonthestandard(andstillunsurpassed)biographybyW.K.Hancock:Smuts,I:TheSanguineYears,1870–1919(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1962).
19.EmilyHobhousetoSmuts,29May1904,inW.K.HancockandJeanvanderPoel,eds,SelectionsfromtheSmutsPapers,II:June1902–May1910(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1966),p.253
(emphasisinoriginal).20.Seeibid.,pp.25–6,64–5,116,125–6.21.CWMG,VI,pp.416–17,423–7.22.Letterwritten‘aboutApril20,1907’,CWMG,VI,pp.423–7.23.IO,27April1907,CWMG,pp.439–43.24.IO,11May1907.25.CWMG,VI,pp.480–81,486;VII,pp.6–7,121–3.26.SeeIO,issuesof18and25May,1June1907.27.Letterof5May1907,inFurtherCorrespondenceRelatingtoLegislationAffectingAsiatics.28.CWMG,VII,p.56.29.RandDailyMail,2July1907,CWMG,VII,p.67.30.RandDailyMail,9July1907,CWMG,VII,p.87.31.RandDailyMail,quotedinIO,6July1907.32.IO,6July1907.33.CWMG,VII,pp.89,97,98,117.34.‘ASerio-Comedy’,IO,20July1907.35.CWMG,VII,pp.113–44.36.IO,27July1907,CWMG,VII,pp.128f.37.IO,3August1907,CWMG,VII,pp.134–6.38.IO,27July1907,CWMG,pp.123–4.39.ReportsinIO,3and10August1907.40.Cf.correspondenceinCWMG,VII,pp.147–9,162.41.ReportsfromtheStarandtheRandDailyMailinIO,17September1907.42.CWMG,VII,pp.152,154,164.43.QuotedinIO,24August1907.44.CWMG,VII,pp.170–71,180–84,492–6.45.SeeIO,8June1906.46.‘JohannesburgJottings’,IO,17August1908.47.IO,7and21September1907.48.IamgratefultotheGandhischolarAnilNauriyaforworkingouttheoriginsofthispenname.IfPolak’sinitials,‘HSL’,aresaidveryfast,theysoundlike‘A.Chessell’,while‘piquet’isFrenchfor‘pole’.
49.IO,24September1907.50.CWMG,pp.211,217–18,228–30.51.PolaktoP.KodandaRao,9April1948,inKodandaRaoPapers,NMML.52.JohnCordestoM.K.Gandhi,3June1907,KP.53.ThisdescriptionofPhoenix,c.1906–7,drawsonMillieGrahamPolak,MrGandhi:TheMan(London:GeorgeAllenandUnwin,1931),pp.47–50,56–7;andPrabhudasGandhi,MyChildhoodwithGandhiji(Ahmedabad:NavajivanPublishingHouse,1957),pp.37–9.
54.CordestoGandhi,9July1907,KP.55.GandhitoCordes,12July1907,KP.56.GandhitoCordes,lettersof12and13July1907,KP.NoneoftheGandhilettersquotedinthissectionareinCWMG.
57.GandhitoCordes,lettersof17Julyand16August1907,KP.58.GandhitoCordes,12October1907,KP.59.PolaktoCordes,20November1907,KP.IbsenwasofcoursethegreatNorwegianplaywright.IamunabletotracewhoDrStaubmanwas.
12TOJAIL
1.‘Pickets’sDuty’,IO,CWMG,VII,pp.255,258.2.IO,12October1907,CWMG,VII,p.285.3.IO,19October1907,CWMG,VII,pp.295–6,316.4.SeeCWMG,VII,pp.320–21.5.IO,9November1907.6.Cf.MonicaBarlow,‘TheCloudedFaceofTruth:AReviewoftheSouthAfricanNewspaperPressApproachingUnion’,unpublishedPh.D.thesis(DepartmentofHistory,BristolUniversity,1988),p.172.
7.SeeIndulalYajnik,ShyamajiKrishnavarma:LifeandTimesofanIndianRevolutionary(Bombay:LakshmiPublications,1950),pp.241f.
8.EssopMia(M.K.Gandhi)toRashBehariGhosh,4November1907,CWMG,VII,pp.332–4.9.ThisaccountoftheRamSundarPunditcaseisbasedonnewspaperclippingsinNatalGovernmentRecords(onmicrofilm),Reel4,AccessionNo.2177,NMML;CWMG,VII,pp.33–6,365–8,380–81.
10.Letterof22November,CWMG,VII,p.376.11.Letterof11November1907,inFurtherCorrespondenceRelatingtoLegislationAffectingAsiaticsintheTransvaal(Cd.3887–incontinuationofCd.3308)(London:HMSO,1908).
12.SeeCWMG,VII,pp.409–11,422,446.13.CWMG,VII,pp.416–18.14.SelbornetoSmuts,30November1907;SmutstoSelborne,6December1907,inBox62,SelbornePapers,BodleianLibrary,Oxford.
15.SmutstoJ.X.Merriman,8January1908,inW.K.HancockandJeanvanderPoel,eds,SelectionsfromtheSmutsPapers,II:June1902–May1910(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1966),p.373.
16.ReportinNM,3December1907.17.GandhitoCordes,3December1907,KP.(ThisletterisnotinCWMG.)18.TheFriend,excerptedinIO,23November1907.19.SeeIO,7December1907.20.CWMG,VII,pp.429–30,439–40,443.21.CWMG,VII,p.449.22.NewsreportsinCWMG,VII,pp.463–8.23.IO,4January1908,CWMG,VII,p.473.24.NM,31December1907.25.Telegramsdated27December1907and7January1908,inNatalGovernmentRecords(onmicrofilm),Reel4,AccessionNo.2177,NMML.
26.WilliamCursons,JosephDoke:TheMissionary-Hearted(Johannesburg:TheChristianLiteratureDepot,1929),pp.35–6,141,etc.
27.Thissketch,signed‘J.J.D.’,isintheJ.J.DokePapers.28.SeeGeorgePaxton,Gandhi’sSouthAfricanSecretary:SonjaSchlesin(Glasgow:PaxBooks,2006),pp.3–4.
29.GandhitoRichardB.Gregg,29May1927,CWMG,XXXIII,p.396.30.JosephJ.Doke,M.K.Gandhi:AnIndianPatriotinSouthAfrica(London:TheLondonIndianChronicle,1909),pp.5–6,9.
31.SeeCWMG,VIII,pp.24–5.32.CWMG,VIII,pp.8–9,13–17,19.33.IO,11January1908,CWMG,pp.22–3.34.CWMG,VIII,pp.33–8.
35.Cf.EricItzkin,Gandhi’sJohannesburg:BirthplaceofSatyagraha(Johannesburg:WitwatersrandUniversityPress,2000),pp.30–33.
36.Lettertoeditorfrom‘ProBonoPublico’,NM,20November1907.37.NM,7January1908.38.SeeNM,7and14January1908;IO,28September1907.39.NM,13January1908,IO,18January1908.40.IO,18January1908.41.Excerptsfromanarticleentitled‘Courage’inIlangalaseNatal,reproducedinNM,13January1908.
13ATOLSTOYANINJOHANNESBURG
1.ThisaccountisbasedonsixarticlesonhisjailexperiencesthatGandhilaterpublishedinIndianOpinion,reproducedinCWMG,VIII,pp.119–20,134–6,139–43,145–7,152–6,158–62.
2.AsreportedintheTransvaalLeader,13and15January1908.3.Lettertotheeditor,dated14January,TransvaalLeader,16January1908.4.‘PassiveResistanceandtheNativeMind:ARemarkableArticle’,TransvaalLeader,28January1908.5.‘GeneralSmuts’Apologia’,IO,15February1908.6.ViceroytoSecretaryofStateforIndia,30January1908,inFurtherCorrespondenceRelatingtoLegislationAffectingAsiaticsintheTransvaal(Cd.4327–incontinuationofCd.3892)(London:HMSO,1908).
7.Telegramdated26January1908,copyinFileNo.5,ServantsofIndiaSocietyPapers,NMML.8.MerrimantoSmuts,13January1908,inW.K.HancockandJeanvanderPoel,eds,SelectionsfromtheSmutsPapers,II:June1902–May1910(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1966),pp.394–6.
9.CWMG,VIII,pp.40–42,161,517.10.GandhitoJohnCordes,7February1908,inKP.(ThisletterisnotinCWMG.)11.RandDailyMail,31January1908,inCWMG,VIII,pp.42–3.12.Undatednewsclippingentitled‘AtMrGandhi’sOffice’,inJ.J.DokePapers.13.Letterof31January1908,CWMG,VIII,pp.49–51.14.IO,8February1908,CWMG,VIII,59–60.15.NM,4February1908.16.NM,11February1908.17.Cf.reportinIO,15February1908.18.OliveC.Doke,‘MrGandhiinSouthAfrica’,C.M.DokePapers.19.See‘MyReward’,IO,22February1908,inCWMG,VIII,pp.93–7.20.IO,22February1908.21.Cf.GandhitoOliveDoke,3April1908,DokePapers,UNISA(thisletterisnotintheCWMG).22.‘LettertoFriends’,dated10February1908,CWMG,VIII,pp.75–6.23.‘MeetingofPunjabis’,undatednewsclippinginJ.J.DokePapers.24.‘ADenial’,letterintheTransvaalLeader,15February1908,signedbyEmamA.K.Bawazeer,M.P.Fancy,EssopIsmailMia,SyedMustafa,AllibhaiAkoojiandM.E.Nagdee.
25.Star,13February1908.26.ReportsinNM,13February1908.27.CWMG,VIII,pp.76–86.28.SeereportsinIO,22and29February1908.29.‘ADisorderlyMeeting’,IO,7March1908.30.CWMG,VIII,p.132.31.CWMG,VIII,pp.148–50,162–3.
32.SeeIO,18April1908.33.GandhitoChamney,lettersof12and13March1908,inFileE8979,vol.480,IND,NASA(theselettersarenotinCWMG).
34.NM,6May1908.Ontheotherhand,themorehardlineNatalAdvertiser(initsissueofthesamedate)supportedtheBills,arguingthattheinterestsoftherulingracerequiredthe‘elimination,orrestrictiontothenarrowestpossiblelimits,oftheAsiatic,onthesimpleandsufficientgroundthatthereisnoroomforhim’.
35.CWMG,VIII,pp.214–15,221–2.36.GandhitoE.F.C.Lane,14May1908,inCWMG,VIII,p.231.(LanewasaseniorofficialintheColonialDepartment,workingcloselywithSmuts.)
37.GandhitoSmuts,21May1908,CWMG,VIII,pp.253–4.38.E.F.C.LanetoGandhi,lettersof15and22May1908,inNatalGovernmentRecords(onmicrofilm),Reel4,AccessionNo.2177,NMML;IO,30May1908.
39.CWMG,VIII,pp.261–7.40.FordetailsontheSmuts–GandhimeetingsinJune1908,seeCWMG,VIII,pp.277–9,290–92,306–9,316–17.
41.SmutstoWilliamHosken,lettersof24Marchand6June1908,S.N.4802andS.N.4823,SAAA.42.Cf.‘MassMeetingofBritishIndians’,IO,27June1908.43.CWMG,VIII,pp.319–24.44.JohannesburgcorrespondentoftheDailyTelegraph,quotedinIO,27August1908.45.TheseparagraphsdrawonthetranslatedreportsofnativenewspapersintheMadrasandBombayPresidenciesfor1907–9,containedintheseriesL/P&J/R/5,Filenos.113,114,162and163,APAC/BL.
46.ThepreviousparagraphsarebasedonthelettersandtelegramsinFile598,L/P&J/6/849;andinFile516,L/P&J/6/848,bothinAPAC/BL;andonreportsinIO,18and25January,14and21March1908.
47.SeenewsclippingsinCIDReportsforNovember1908,TamilNaduStateArchives,Chennai.48.Cf.CWMG,XI,p.136,footnote.49.AsreportedinTheEveningPost,18May1912,inhttp://hpaperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgibin(accessed24September2010).F.B.Meyerwasaprolificauthorofbooksandpamphletswithtitlessuchas‘TheSoul’sWrestlewithDoubt’,‘TheDutyoftheFreeChurchesinanAgeofReaction’and‘OpenAirServices:HintsandSuggestions’.
50.F.B.Meyer,AWinterinSouthAfrica(London:NationalCouncilofEvangelicalFreeChurches,1908),pp.71–3.
51.EricItzkin,Gandhi’sJohannesburg:BirthplaceofSatyagraha(Johannesburg:WitwatersrandUniversityPress,2000),pp.70–72.
52.SeeGandhitoHarilal,undatedletterc.1909(notinCWMG),reproducedinNilamParikh,Gandhiji’sLostJewel:HarilalGandhi(NewDelhi:NationalGandhiMuseum,2001),pp.121–2;GandhitoCordes,letterquotedinShimonLow,‘MahatmaGandhiandHermannKallenbachinSouthAfrica,1904–1914’,MAdissertation(FacultyofHumanities,TheHebrewUniversityofJerusalem,April2010).
53.Cf.‘TolstoyandtheNonviolentImperative’,ChapterIVofStevenG.Marks,HowRussiaShapedtheModernWorld:FromArttoAnti-Semitism,fromBallettoBolshevism(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,2003).AlsousefulisMartinGreen’scomparativestudy,TheOriginsofNonviolence:TolstoyandGandhiintheirHistoricalSettings(1986;reprint,NewDelhi:HarperCollinsPublishersIndia,1998).
54.CharlotteAlston,‘Tolstoy’sGuidingLight’,HistoryToday,60:10(2010).55.AsrelatedinUmaDhupelia-Mesthrie,Gandhi’sPrisoner?TheLifeofGandhi’sSonManilal(CapeTown:KwelaBooks,2004),p.118.
56.LettertoCharlesTurner,c.July1892,inRosamundBartlett,Tolstoy:ARussianLife(London:ProfileBooks,2010),pp.342–3.
57.TheGandhi–KallenbachjointexperimentincelibacywassubjecttoaseriesofspectacularmisreadingsfollowingthepublicationofJosephLelyveld’sbookGreatSoul:MahatmaGandhi’sStrugglewithIndia(NewYork:AlfredKnopf,Jr.,2008).Basinghisanalysisonthepublishedlettersbetweenthetwomen,Lelyveldconcludedthattherelationshipwas‘homoerotic’;buthisinterpretationwaswrong-headed,andhisresearchincomplete.HehadnotconsultedtheKallenbachPapersinHaifa,whichwouldhavesethimrightastothedepthofthearchitect’scommitmenttocelibacy,c.1908–13,andtohisheterosexualinstinctsbeforeandafter.(Kallenbachwasattractedonlytowomen:yearslater,afterGandhihadreturnedtoIndia,heabandonedbrahmacharyatohaveaffairswithwomen.)LelyveldfoundsupportforhisclaimincasualgossipthathepickedupdecadesafterGandhileftSouthAfrica.Hethusclaimedthatamong‘SouthAfrica’ssmallIndiancommunity’,it‘wasnosecretthen,orlater,thatGandhi,leavinghiswifebehind,hadgonetolivewithaman.’(p.88).Noreferenceswereprovidedforthisattribution;whosaidthis,towhom,andwhen?Suchtalkisentirelyabsentfromthearchivalrecord.Thehardhistoricalevidence,ontheotherhand,isveryclearthatGandhiwasbasedintheTransvaalintheseyearsbecausetheIndiansinthatprovincewerefacedwiththethreatofevictionanddeportation.Thatistosay,GandhiwaslivinginJohannesburgoutofsocialobligation,notsexualdesire.WhileLelyveld’sresearchwassuspect,hisproseisunderstated,andhisconclusioncautious–Gandhi
andKallenbachwere,hesuggested,ina‘homoerotic’relationship.Hedidnotexplicitlyruleoutsexualrelations,butdidnotclaimtheseexistedeither.Thisrestraintwasnotechoedbyhisreviewers.OnedescribedGandhiasa‘sexualweirdo’(alsoasa‘politicalincompetent’and‘fanaticalfaddist’),whose‘organprobablyonlyrarelybecamearousedwithhisnakedyoungladies,becausetheloveofhislifewasaGerman-Jewisharchitectandbodybuilder,forwhomGandhilefthiswifein1908’.(AndrewRoberts,‘AmongtheHagiographers’,WallStreetJournal,26March2011.)Roberts’screedinturnpromptedastoryinaBritishtabloidwiththeheadline‘Gandhi“LeftHisWifetoLivewithaMaleLover”NewBookClaims’(DailyMail,28March2011).Thisarticleconcluded–onthebasisofRoberts’misreadingofLelyveld’smisreadingofthefriendship–thatGandhiwas‘bisexual’and,further,that‘afterfourchildrentogether[withKasturba]theysplitupsohecouldbewithKallenbach.’ThereproductionofthesereportsinIndiapromptedthecountry’sLawMinistertoproposeabanonthebook,athreatfortunatelynotcarriedout(inpartbecausetwoofGandhi’sdistinguishedgrandsons,thehistorianRajmohanandthecivilservantanddiplomatGopalkrishna,cameoutstronglyagainstit).ThespeculationthatGandhiandKallenbachwere(realorsuppressed)loversisperhapsnotunrelatedto
thefactthatthreegreatWesternmoraltraditions–theJewish,theProtestantandtheatheistic–areallantipathetictocelibacy.Andsothemostwidelyreadandcosmopolitanpeopletendtoassumethattwomenlivingtogether,whowroteaffectionateletterstooneanother,mustbeinahomosexualrelationship.ThatsomanyCatholicpriestsboundintheorytocelibacyhavebeenexposedforsexuallyabusingyoungboysmakesthepost-modernmindevenlesslikelytounderstandthatotherpeopleinothertimesmayhavebeendeeplyandhonestlycommittedtosexualabstinence.AcelebratedIrishhistorian,onhearingIwasworkingonthisbook,hopedthatIwouldwriteatlengthon
‘Gandhi’sgaylover’.WouldthatIcould.Alas,therelationshipbetweenGandhiandKallenbachwasthatbetweenbrothers.And,asthelaterchaptersofthisbookshow,Gandhicontinuedtohaveaclose,continuousanddeeplyintimate(ifalsooccasionallycontentious)relationshipwithhiswifeKasturba.58.HermannKallenbachtoSimonKallenbach,10/14June1908,KP(theletterwasoriginallywritteninGerman;thetranslationisbyKallenbach’snieceHannahLazar).
59.Meyer,AWinterinSouthAfrica,p.72.60.Thereisausefuland(sofarasIcantell)reliablediscussioninhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrotherapy.
61.CWMG,VIII,pp.328–30.62.GandhitoAlbertCartwright,14July1908,CWMG,VIII,pp.361–3.
63.Speechof18May1908,inCWMG,VIII,pp.242–6.64.CWMG,VIII,pp.379,382,384–6.65.TheseparagraphsarebasedonaforthcomingpamphletbyE.S.ReddyentitledThambiNaidooandHisFamily:TheStoryofThambiNaidoo,aLieutenantofGandhiintheSatyagrahainSouthAfrica,andofhisFamilywhichSacrificedforFiveGenerationsintheStruggleforaFreeSouthAfrica.
66.ReportinIO,1August1908.67.‘NoQuarter’,IO,15August1908.68.ReportsintheJohannesburgStarof8,9,10and20July1908,inFurtherCorrespondenceRelatingtoLegislationAffectingAsiatics.
69.GandhitoChamney,4August1908,inFileNo.E26/8,vol.215,‘ND’,NASA(thisletterisnotinCWMG).
70.Jailform,dated23June1910,ibid.71.‘ResolutionsPassedbytheHamidiaIslamiaSociety,Johannesburg,28July1908’,inNatalGovernmentRecords(onmicrofilm),Reel4,AccessionNo.2177,NMML.
72.LetterinIO,8August1908,inCWMG,VIII,pp.432–3.
14PRISONEROFCONSCIENCE
1.SeepressreportsinCWMG,VIII,pp.443,447.2.Cf.illustrationsinCWMG,VIII,oppositepp.32,33,81,etc.3.CWMG,VIII,p.451.4.‘Joh’burgMassMeeting’,IO,22August1908.5.CWMG,VIII,pp.457–60.6.TransvaalLeader,quotedinCWMG,VIII,p.4637.Seethereportonthismeetingof18August1908inFurtherCorrespondenceRelatingtoLegislationAffectingAsiaticsintheTransvaal(Cd.4327–incontinuationofCd.3892)(London:HMSO,1908).
8.SeereportinFile3722,L/P&J/6/894,APAC/BL.9.ExcerptfromTransvaalLeader,22August1908,ibid.10.ExcerptofdebateinTransvaalParliament,inFile3722,L/P&J/6/894,APAC/BL.11.GovernoroftheTransvaaltoSecretaryofStatefortheColonies,5September1908,inFurtherCorrespondenceRelatingtoLegislationAffectingAsiatics.
12.Toinvoke,Ihopenottooanachronistically,thetitleofabookbytheAnglo-AmericanphilosopherAlasdairMacintyre.
13.CWMG,VIII,pp.473–7.14.CWMG,VIII,pp.481:IX,pp.3,8,13,29,etc.15.CWMG,IX,p.4;BhawaniDayal,DakshinAfricakéSatyagrahakaItihas(Indore:SaraswatiSadan,1916),p.24.
16.InterviewintheStar,9September1908,CWMG,IX,pp.30–31.17.ExtractfromTransvaalWeeklyIllustrated,12September1908,inNatalGovernmentRecords(onmicrofilm),Reel4,AccessionNo.2177,NMML.
18.DoketoGandhi,11September1908,S.N.4874,NGM(emphasesinoriginal).19.CWMG,VIII,pp.16,41.20.OnGandhi’sideasforthePhoenixschool,seeCWMG,VIII,p.85;IX,pp.135–9.21.InterviewinNatalMercury,inCWMG,IX,pp.77–9.22.DoketoGandhi,30September1908,CWMG,IX,AppendixVI,pp.556–7.23.Messagedated13October1908,CWMG,IX,pp.96–7.
24.SeeDeputyGovernoroftheTransvaaltotheSecretaryofStatefortheColonies,30September1908,inNatalGovernmentRecords(onmicrofilm),Reel4,AccessionNo.2177,NMML;‘VolksrustAgain:MrGandhiSentenced’,IO,17October1908.
25.SeereportsinIO,24Octoberand21November1908.BritishfriendsofGandhialsoralliedtohisdefence.Threedaysafterhisarrest,theRev.F.B.MeyersentastirringlettertotheDailyNews(quotedinIO,21November1908).Meyerwrotethathecould:hardlybelievetheevidenceofmysenses,whenIreadtheannouncementthatmyfriend,MrGandhi,has
beensentencedtotwomonths’hardlaboutandtobreakingstonesanddoingscavengerwork.ButIwishIwereinJohannesburgthatImighthelphim!Iwouldcountitanhonourtosufferwiththispureandholysoul,whomIhopetointroducetomychoicestfriendswhenhecomestothiscountry.HeisnotaChristianinonesenseoftheword,butthefaceofChristhangsoverhisdesk,andwehavetalkedtogetherforhoursofthedeepestthemesthatcanengagethehumanheart.HecontendsonlyforwhatheholdstobetherightsoftheIndianswhohavebeensettledinJohannesburg,manyofthemfrombeforethewar.HiscontentionisretrospectiveforthosewhohaveenteredtheTransvaalandbeenitssubjectsandcitizensforyears.Evenifhecontravenedthelawtherewasnoneedtoexposehimtodegradinglabour.Yetwhatcan
degradeapuresoul?ChristmadetheCrossthehonouredsymbolofChristendom.Truthisstillonthescaffold,whileprejudice,fear,andselfishinterestsareonthethrone,butthereisOnethatkeepethwatch.’26.‘TheMassMeeting’,IO,24October1908.27.QuotedinIO,24October1908.28.SeeDoketoAlbertCartwright,26October1908,inJ.J.DokePapers.29.Cf.M.K.Gandhi,‘MySecondExperienceinGaol’,five-partseriesinIO,CWMG,IX,pp.120–22,140–42,145–9,161–6,179–80.Quotesnotsourcedintherestofthissectionarebasedonthisseries.AmaundisanIndianunitofweight,roughlyequivalentto37kilos.
30.AsrecalledinH.S.L.Polak,‘M.K.Gandhi:ASketch’,inSpeechesandWritingsofM.K.Gandhi,withanIntroductionbyMrC.F.Andrews,aTributebyMrG.A.Natesan,andaBiographicalSketchbyMrH.S.L.Polak(Madras:G.A.NatesanandCo.,1918),pp.i–iii.
31.CWMG,IX,AppendixVIII,pp.560–61.32.SecretaryofStatefortheColoniestoGovernorofTransvaal,29October1908;DeputyGovernorofTransvaaltoSecretaryofStatefortheColonies,3November1908;bothinFurtherCorrespondenceRelatingtoLegislationAffectingAsiaticsintheTransvaal(Cd.4584–incontinuationofCd.4327)(London:HMSO,1909).
33.GandhitoWest,9September1908,CWMG,IX,pp.105–6.34.CWMG,IX,pp.108–9,111,115.35.‘MrGandhi’sArrival’,IO,26December1908.36.ReportinTransvaalLeader,30November1908.37.AC,4July,11July,25July,15Augustand17October1908,18December1909.38.QuotedinJohnMarlowe,Milner:ApostleofEmpire(London:HamishHamilton,1976),p.146.39.SeeSirEdgarWalton,TheInnerHistoryoftheNationalConventionofSouthAfrica(1912;reprint,Westport,Connecticut:NegroUniversitiesPress,1970),pp.117ff;L.M.Thompson,TheUnificationofSouthAfrica,1902–1910(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1960),pp.212–26.
40.Selbourne’sschemeisreproducedinArthurPercivalNewton,ed.,SelectDocumentsRelatingtotheUnificationofSouthAfrica(1924;reprint,London:FrankCass,1968),vol.II,pp.250–51.
41.SchreinertoSmuts,2August1908,inW.K.HancockandJeanvanderPoel,eds,SelectionsfromtheSmutsPapers,II:June1902–May1910(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1966),vol.II,p.450(emphasisinoriginal).
42.SeeThompson,UnificationofSouthAfrica,pp.341,35,404,etc.43.ThestandardlifeisRuthFirstandAnnSmith,OliveSchreiner(NewYork:SchockenBooks,1980).
44.‘OliveSchreineronColour’,IO,2January1909.45.EditorialinIO,2January1909.46.CWMG,IX,pp.112–13.47.CWMG,IX,pp.130,159–60,180,184,187,193–4.48.GandhitoOliveDoke,dated‘Tuesday’(almostcertainly5January1909),inDokePapers(thisletterisnotinCWMG).
49.DevadasGandhi,‘MyBrotherHarilal’,HindustanTimes,23July1948.50.GandhitoChanchalbehnGandhi,lettersof16and28January1909;GandhitoHarilal,27January1909,CWMG,IX,pp.150,173–5.
51.TheTimes,6January1909.52.SeePyarelal,MahatmaGandhi,III:TheBirthofSatyagraha–FromPetitioningtoPassiveResistance(Ahmedabad:NavajivanPublishingHouse,1986),pp.182–3.
53.CurzontoGandhi,26January1909,S.N.4915,SAAA.54.CWMG,IX,p.175.55.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartIV,ChapterXXVIII.56.GandhitoKallenbach,5February1909,inGillianBerning,ed.,GandhiLetters:FromUpperHousetoLowerHouse,1906–1914(Durban:LocalHistoryMuseum,1994),pp.12–13.(ThisletterisnotinCWMG.)MilliePolak,whowasatPhoenixatthetime,wasbothsurprisedandimpressedbyhowwellKasturbarespondedtoherhusband’sunorthodoxtreatment.Forperniciousanaemiawasthen‘stilllookeduponasoneofthefataldiseases,andveryfewcasesindeedofrecoverywereonrecord’.Andcertainlynopreviouscasehadbeensuccessfully‘treatedbylemon-juice,aidedbywhatweto-daycallmentalhealing.Itwasagreatpuzzletothefewmedicalmenwhokneworheardofit.’(MrGandhitheMan,London:GeorgeAllenandUnwin,1931,pp.132–3.)
57.CurzontoHonorarySecretary,BritishIndianAssociation,Johannesburg(i.e.,Gandhi),2February1909,S.N.4920,SAAA.
58.SundayTimes(Johannesburg)quotedinIO,13February1909.59.CWMG,IX,pp.197–9.60.GandhitoChanchalbehnGandhi,26February1909,CWMG,IX,pp.200–201.61.Gandhiwroteabouthisthirdjailtermintwoarticles,andinalettertothepressissuedafterwards:seeCWMG,IX,pp.221–4,228–34,238–43.
62.GandhitoWest,4March1909,CWMG,IX,pp.202–3.63.H.S.L.PolaktoDavidPollock,datedJohannesburg,27March1909,inNatalGovernmentRecords(onmicrofilm),Reel4,AccessionNo.2177,NMML.PolaksaysherethatGandhihadrefusedtheChiefJusticeshipofPorbandar–thereisnoindependentconfirmationofwhenandhowthathappened.TheonlyevidencethatmaytangentiallybearonthisclaimisanentryinGandhi’sofficelogbookforthe1890s,notingthereceiptofaletterfromtheChiefJudgeofPorbandar(seeS.N.2711,SAAA).
64.DavidPollocktoLordSelborne,29March1909;D.C.Malcolm,GovernmentHouse,Pretoria,toDavidPollock,31March1909,bothinNatalGovernmentRecords(onmicrofilm),Reel4,AccessionNo.2177,NMML.
65.Minutedated28April1909,ibid.66.CWMG,IX,pp.238–9.Unfortunately,wedonotknowthetitlesorauthorsofthebooksgiventoGandhibySmuts.
67.J.C.Smuts,JanChristianSmuts(London:CassellandCompany,1952),p.107.68.Speechof24March1909,inFourthSessionoftheTwenty-EighthParliamentoftheUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandIreland,I;16February1909to26May1909(London:HMSO,1909).
69.W.K.Hancock:Smuts,I:TheSanguineYears,1870–1919(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1962),p.44.
70.WolstenholmetoSmuts,14May1909,inHancockandvanderPoel,SmutsPapers,vol.II,pp.568–73.71.ThesepoemsareavailableinGujaratiandinEnglishtranslationsinSurendraBhanaandNeelimaShukla-Bhatt,AFirethatBlazedintheOcean:GandhiandthePoemsofSatyagrahainSouthAfrica,1909–1911(NewDelhi:PromillaandCo.,2011),pp.18–19,26,71–3,87–8,112–13,etc.
72.Letterdated28December1908,CWMG,IX,p.118.73.AC,17July1909.OnShankeranand,seealsoAshwinDesaiandGoolamVahed,InsideIndenture:ASouthAfricanStory,1860–1914(Durban:MadibaPublishers,2007),pp.240–48.
74.GandhitoManilal,25March1909,CWMG,IX,pp.205–9.75.GandhitoPolak,26April1909,CWMG,IX,pp.205–9,212–13.76.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartIV,ChapterXII.77.GeorgePaxton,Gandhi’sSouthAfricanSecretary:SonjaSchlesin(Glasgow:PaxBooks,2006),pp.14–15,100–101.
78.SeeIO,29May1909.79.CWMG,IX,pp.215–19.80.CWMG,IX,pp.243–4.81.Cf.S.N.4938,SAAA.82.Clipping,c.June1909,fromSpringfieldDailyRepublican,S.N.5022,SAAA.Itisappropriate(cf.Chapter5above)thatTheNationranwhatseemstohavebeenthefirstarticleonGandhiintheAmericanpress;andthatanothernewspaperactiveinthemovementagainstslavery,theSpringfieldDailyRepublican,carriedwhatmostlikelywasthefirstaccountofGandhiansatyagrahatoappearinAmerica.
83.GandhitoPolak,dated‘Monday’and‘Tuesday’(i.e.21and22June1909),inMssEur.B.272,APAC/BL.Thesehandwrittenletters,whichlieintheBritishLibrary,arenotinCWMG;thiswritermaybethefirsttohavereadthemsincePolakhimself.
84.CWMG,IX,pp.267–8.85.CWMG,IX,pp.270,286–7.86.See‘ASuggestiveLetter’,IO,10July1909.
15BIGLITTLECHIEF
1.LettertoOliveDokedated5July1909(notinCWMG),DokePapers,UNISA.2.CWMG,IX,pp.269–74,276–9,281–3.3.CWMG,IX,pp.284–8.4.MemorandumdatedBrixtonPrison,22July1909,byS.R.Dyer,MedicalOfficer,inCRIM/1/113/5,NAUK.
5.StatementbyMadanLalDhingradated10July1909,ibid.6.DavidGarnett,quotedinLesleyChamberlain,‘Bloomsbury’sTeenageTerrorist’,Standpoint,July/August2011.
7.Cf.V.N.Datta,MadanLalDhingraandtheRevolutionaryMovement(NewDelhi:VikasPublishingHouse,1978),pp.38–41.ThereferencestoRama,KrishnaandMotherIndiadonotappearinthearchivalrecordofthetrial.
8.CitedinJamesD.Hunt,GandhiinLondon(revisededn,NewDelhi:PromillaandCo,1993),pp.106–7.9.IO,14August1909,CWMG,IX,pp.302–3.10.GandhitoPolak,lettersof20August,26August,2Septemberand29September1909,CWMG,IX,pp.363,368–9,382–3,438–40.
11.Letterof8September,CWMG,IX,p.395.12.GandhitoKallenbach,lettersof21June,3July,20August,30Augustand10September1909,CWMG,XCVI,pp.9–10,13,23,25.Inoneletter,GandhiwrotethathehadkeptabottleofVaselineonhis
mantelpieceinLondontoremindhimofKallenbach.ThispromptedaspeculativeparagraphbyJosephLelyveldonwhattheVaselinewasfor(GreatSoul:MahatmaGandhi’sStrugglewithIndia,NewYork:AlfredKnopf,Jr.,2008,p.89).Heconcludedthatitwasmostlylikelyforenemas.Oneofhisreviewers,however,feltthat‘therecouldbelessgenerousexplanations’,meaningthatitwastoremindGandhiofthe(homo)sexualintercoursehewaspresumed(bythereviewer)topractisewithKallenbach.(AndrewRoberts,‘AmongtheHagiographers’,WallStreetJournal,26March2011.)Infact,LelyveldhadmissedareferenceinthelettertoGandhisufferingfromcorns.ThatwaswhattheVaselinewasfor;totreattheblistersunderhisfeetcausedbylongwalksinLondon.ThewalksthatGandhiundertookinJohannesburgwereofteninthecompanyofKallenbach;hencethereferencetocornsandVaseline.
13.GandhitoOliveDoke,18August1909(notinCWMG),C.M.DokePapers,UNISA.14.Seewww.oxforddnb.com/view/printable/35874(accessed17February2012).15.SeeAmpthilltoL.W.Ritch,28July1909,S.N.4964,SAAA.16.CWMG,IX,pp.318–21,576–8.17.GandhitoMerriman,lettersof15and16July1909,copiesinE.S.ReddyPapers,NewYork.(TheselettersweresourcedbyMrReddyfromtheMerrimanpapersinCapeTownandarenotinCWMG.)
18.GeneralSmutstoLordCrewe,26August1909,inFurtherCorrespondenceRelatingtoLegislationAffectingAsiaticsintheTransvaal(Cd.5363–incontinuationofCd.4854;London:HMSO,1910).
19.AmpthilltoSmuts,10August1909;AmpthilltoGandhi,31August1909,CWMG,IX,pp.583–4,587–8.
20.DoketoKallenbach,12August1909,inKP.21.IO,21August1909,CWMG,IX,p.313.22.Cf.FlorenceWinterbottomtoM.K.Gandhi,16August1909,S.N.4945,NGM.23.CWMG,IX,pp.368–9,502.24.See‘Gandhi,Tolstoy,andtheTolstoyans’,inJamesD.Hunt,AnAmericanLooksatGandhi:EssaysinSatyagraha,CivilRightsandPeace(NewDelhi:PromillaandCo.,2005).
25.OnTolstoy’scorrespondencewithIndiansotherthanGandhi,seeAlexanderShifman,TolstoyandIndia,trans.A.V.Esualov(2ndedn,NewDelhi:SahtiyaAkademi,1978);D.V.Gundappa,TolstoyandIndia(Bangalore:TheSwadeshiLibrary,1909).OnTaraknathDas,seeTapanK.Mukherjee,TaraknathDas:LifeandLettersofaRevolutionaryinExile(Calcutta:NationalCouncilofEducation,1997).
26.CWMG,XI,pp.444–6,448–50.27.The‘LettertoaHindu’andGandhi’sintroductiontoitareavailableathttp://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/7176(accessed14February2010).
28.JosephJ.Doke,M.K.Gandhi:AnIndianPatriotinSouthAfrica(London:TheLondonIndianChronicle,1909),pp.7,8,23,84,92–3,etc.
29.InaletterwrittenataboutthesametimetotheMadraseditorG.A.Natesan,GandhisaidtheforthcomingmeetingoftheIndianNationalCongressshouldconcentrateitsattentionontheSouthAfricanstruggle,foritmightthen‘per-chancefindoutthatforthemanyillswesufferfrominIndiaitisaninfalliblepanacea’.Hewas‘sureitwillbefoundthatitistheonlyweaponsuitedtothegeniusofourpeopleandourland’.SeeCWMG,IX,pp.506–7.TotheIndianpatriot,Gandhiwrotethatpassiveresistancewouldsolvetheircountry’sproblems;tothe
greatRussianwriter,hearguedthatthemethodwasactuallyofuniversalsignificance.30.ThisdiscussionofthecorrespondencebetweenTolstoyandGandhiisbasedonCWMG,IX,pp.444–6,448–50,483,528–9,593.
31.MehtatoGandhi,29September1909,S.N.5101,SAAA.32.MehtatoGandhi,27September1909,S.N.5097,SAAA.33.CWMG,IX,pp.406–11.34.PolaktoGandhi,lettersof14and21August1909,S.N.5011and5021,SAAA.
35.PolaktoGandhi,9September1909,S.N.5061,SAAA.LordCurzonhadbeenacontroversialViceroy,whosedecisiontopartitionBengalhadprovokedwidespreadpopularprotest.
36.SeereportsandclippingsinFileNo.242,PartI,G.K.GokhalePapers,NAI;andinL/P&J/6/1000,APAC/BL.
37.PolaktoGandhi,19October1909,S.N.5138,SAAA.38.SeereportsinFile184,L/P&J/6/917,APAC/BL.39.GandhitoPolak,14October1909,CWMG,IX,p.478.40.PolaktoGandhi,lettersof7and14October1909,S.N.5116and5126,SAAA.41.H.S.L.Polak,TheIndiansofSouthAfrica:HelotsWithintheEmpireandHowTheyAreTreated(Madras:G.A.NatesanandCo.,1909),PartI,pp.4,21,70ff;PartII,pp.16–17,22–3,41,43–4.
42.SeeReportoftheProtectorofIndianImmigrantsfortheYearending31December,1909,inNatalGovernmentRecords(onmicrofilm),ReelNo.6.,AccessionNo.2179,NMML.
43.Anon.,M.K.Gandhi:ASketchofHisLifeandWork(Madras:G.A.NatesanandCo.,1910).44.SeeCWMG,IX,pp.436–7.45.PolaktoGandhi,7October1909,S.N.5116,SAAA.46.Letterof23September,1909,CWMG,IX,pp.429f.47.PolaktoGandhi,7October1909,S.N.5116,SAAA.48.‘MrPolak’sVisittoRangoon’,IO,22January1910.49.PranjivanMehtatoG.K.Gokhale,datedRangoon,8November1909,FileNo.4,ServantsofIndiaSocietyPapers,NMML.
50.Cf.thenamesappendedtothenoticeofthemeetingintheTownHall,Calcutta,3December1909,copyinE.S.ReddyPapers,NMML.
51.H.S.L.PolaktoG.K.Gokhale,10January1910,FileNo.242,PartI,GokhalePapers,NAI;reportonBanarasmeetinginIO,12February1910.
52.FirstpublishedinBandeMatram,11to23April1907,reprintedinSriAurobindo,BandeMatram:EarlyPoliticalWritings(Pondicherry:SriAurobindoAshram,1972;fourthimpression1995),pp.90–123.
53.‘TheTransvaalIndians’,firstpublishedinKarmayogin,11December1909,reprintedinSriAurobindo,Karmayogin:PoliticalWritingsandSpeeches,1909–1910(Pondicherry:SriAurobindoAshramTrust,1997),pp.347–9.IamgratefultoPeterHeehsforthisreference.
54.SeePeterHeehs,TheLivesofSriAurobindo(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2009).55.ReportsinIO,10Julyand25September1909.56.EditorialinIO,20November1909.57.SeeIO,6and13November1909.58.IO,9September1909.59.IO,3April1909.60.C.K.T.NaidootoGandhi,4October1909,S.N.5107,SAAA.61.CWMG,IX,p.499;DhananjayKeer,VeerSavarkar(1950;3rdedn,Bombay:PopularPrakashan,1988),pp.62–4.
62.AsafAli,‘Gandhiji:1909–1920’,inChandrashankerShukla,ed.,ReminiscencesofGandhiji(Bombay:VoraandCo.,1951),p.17.
63.Letterof30October1909,CWMG,IX,pp.508–9.64.CWMG,IX,pp.450–51.65.CWMG,IX,pp.531–2.66.CWMG,IX,pp.352–3,417,435–6,495.67.GandhitoRamdas,27November1909,CWMG,XI,pp.81–2.
68.FrancisHopwood,Under-SecretaryofStatefortheColonies,toM.K.Gandhi,3November1909,inFurtherCorrespondenceRelatingtoLegislationAffectingAsiatics(Cd.5363).
69.CWMG,IX,pp.514–17,527.70.S.N.5156,SAAA.71.‘NotesofameetingheldattheWestminsterPalaceHotelonNovember12th1909tobidfarewelltotheTransvaalBritishIndianAssociation’,inFileNo.242,PartI,GokhalePapers,NAI.
72.SeeCWMG,IX,pp.539–43.73.RitchtoPolak,19November1909,inFileNo.242,PartI,GokhalePapers,NAI.74.CWMG,IX,pp.533–4.75.H.S.L.Polak,‘EarlyYears(1869–1914)’,inH.S.L.Polak,H.N.BrailsfordandLordPethick-Lawrence,MahatmaGandhi(London:OldhamsPressLimited,1949),p.17.
76.GandhitoPolak,15November1909,CWMG,XCVI(SupplementaryVolume–Six),pp.34–6.77.GandhitoMilliePolak,14November1909,CWMG,XCVI(SupplementaryVolume–Six),pp.32–3.78.MillieGrahamPolak,MrGandhi:TheMan(London:GeorgeAllenandUnwin,1931),pp.124–5.79.AmpthilltoCurzon,14November1909,MssEur.F112/79,APAC/BL.
16THECONTESTOFCIVILIZATIONS
1.M.K.Gandhi,HindSwarajandOtherWritings,ed.AnthonyParel(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1997),editor’sintroduction,p.xiv.
2.InwritingaboutHindSwaraj,itishardtokeepoutofone’smindthecontinuingdebatesaboutwhatthebookmeanstousnow.Butthisisabiography,notaworkofpoliticalorliterarycriticism.Inwhatfollows,IwriteaboutthebookintermsofwhatitmeanttoGandhiandhisreaders,atthetimeitwaspublishedandcirculated.ForrecentwritingsonoraroundHindSwaraj,seeVarshaDas,ed.,GandhijionHindSwarajandSelectViewsofOthers(NewDelhi:NationalGandhiMuseum,2009);M.K.Gandhi,IndianHomeRule(HindSwaraj),acentenaryeditionintroducedbyS.R.Mehrotra(NewDelhi:RajendraPrasadAcademy,2010);SureshSharmaandTridipSuhrud,edsandtrans,M.K.Gandhi’sHindSwaraj:ACriticalEdition(Hyderabad:OrientBlackSwan,2010).ThejournalAryanPath,initsissueofSeptember1938,publishedafascinatingandstillreadablesymposiumonHindSwaraj,withcontributionsfrom(amongothers)theNobelprize-winning-chemistFrederickSoddy,theeconomistG.D.H.ColeandthecriticJohnMiddletonMurry.
3.G.K.Chesterton,‘OurNotebook’,IllustratedLondonNews,18September1909.4.IO,8January1910,CWMG,IX,p.425(thearticlewaswrittenbyGandhiinthelastweekofOctober1909).
5.CWMG,IX,pp.457–60.6.CWMG,IX,pp.475–6.7.CWMG,IX,pp.477–82.8.ThecasethatPranjivanMehtawasthe‘Reader’ofHindSwarajhasbeenconvincinglymadebyS.R.Mehrotra.SeehisGandhijikéAajivanAnanyaMitra[Gandhi’sIntimateLifelongFriend](Allahabad:EtawahHindiSevaNidhi,2008);andhisintroductiontothecentenaryeditionofIndianHomeRule.
9.Gandhi,HindSwaraj(ed.Parel)pp.14–16,17,31,38,47,52,58,61,63–4,71,89–90,93–5,105–6,112–19,etc.
10.Cf.theeyewitnessaccountsoftheSuratCongressreproducedinGovindTalwalkar,GopalKrishnaGokhale:HisLifeandTimes(NewDelhi:RupaandCo.,2006),pp.381–6.
11.ThestandardworkontheSwadeshimovementremainsSumitSarkar,TheSwadeshiMovementinBengal,1905–7(firstpublished1973;newedn,Ranikhet:PermanentBlack,2010).
12.GokhaletoWilliamWedderburn,lettersof24May1907and24September1909,inB.N.Pandey,ed.,TheIndianNationalistMovement,1885–1947:SelectDocuments(London:Macmillan,1979),pp.7–8,10–11.
13.TheseparagraphsdrawonAmalesTripathi,TheExtremistChallenge:Indiabetween1890and1910(Bombay:OrientLongmans,1967)andPeterHeehs,TheBombinBengal:TheRiseofRevolutionaryTerrorisminIndia,1900–1910(Delhi:OxfordUniversityPress,1993).Tripathi(p.134)notesthattheBhagavadGitawasaconstantcompanionoftherevolutionariesofBengal.‘Intheirhands,itwasamoreterribleweaponthanthebomb.Itsteeledthemforthekilling,whichwasGod’swillandordaineddecree,anditassuredthemofsalvationthroughdeathinGod’sservice.TheGitaprovidedabetterphilosophyoftyrannicidethanBakunin.’Heehs,forhispart,givesussuchrevealingchaptertitlesas‘MilitancyinaVanquishedLand’and‘MotherKali’sBomb’.
14.ValentineChirol,IndianUnrest(London:MacmillanandCo.,1910),pp.324,321–2.ThisbookwasbasedonreportspublishedinTheTimes,someofwhichGandhimusthaveread.
15.HenryW.Nevinson,TheNewSpiritinIndia(London:HarperandBrothers,1908),pp.321–2.16.SyedShamsuddinKadri,OrientalTranslator,GovernmentofBombay,toCommissionerofPolice,16February1910,inBProceedingsnos.4–5,Home(Political),NAI.
17.BombayGovernmentnotificationdated17March1910;HomeDepartmentnotedated12April,bothibid.
18.M.K.GandhitoHomeSecretary,GovernmentofIndia,16April1910,inAProceedingsnos.96–103,Home(Political),NAI.ThisletterisnotinCWMG;itwasdiscoveredintheNationalArchivesofIndiabyProfessorS.R.Mehrotra,whogenerouslyshareditwithme.
19.Thisisreproduced,withabriefprefacebyAnthonyParel,inGandhiMarg,issueofJuly–September1993,pp.240–54.
20.Notesigned‘A.L.’,dated27May1910,inAProceedingsnos.96–103,Home(Political),NAI.21.NotebyC.R.Cleveland,dated24June1910,ibid.22.‘Anglo-IndianFunk’,AC,19March1910.23.NotebyS.H.Slater,dated13May1910;notebyA.G.Cardew,dated19May1910,bothinG.O.No.753,21May1910,JudicialDepartment,TamilNaduStateArchives,Chennai.
24.EdwardDallowtoLordCrewe,7June1909,inFile2757,L/P&J/6/954,APAC/BL.25.IhavehereusedaclippingoftheprintedreviewintheDokePapers,UNISA,whichhas‘TransvaalLeader,May1910’writtenonitbyhand.Itseemstohavebeenpublishedon2May,sinceitismentionedbyGandhitoGokhaleinaletterofthatdate(cf.CWMG,X,pp.239–40).
26.Typescriptdated4May1910,marked‘unsignedreplybyM.K.G.toE.Dallow’sReviewof“IndianHomeRule”’,inC.M.DokePapers,UNISA.ThisrejoinderisnotinCWMG;nor,apparently,wasitpublishedintheTransvaalLeader.
27.Cf.BalaPillay,BritishIndiansintheTransvaal:Trade,PoliticsandImperialRelations,1885–1906(London:Longman,1976),pp.75–6.
28.SeeCWMG,X,pp.507–10,246–50.29.SeeCWMG,XI,pp.203–7,249–50.30.Cf.LindyMoore,‘TheReputationofIsabellaFyvieMayo’,Women’sHistoryReview,19:1(2010).31.IsabellaFyvieMayotoHermannKallenbach,3February1911,inKP.32.Cf.GandhitoDoke,lettersof21Januaryand5February1910(notinCWMG),C.M.DokePapers.
17SEEKINGASETTLEMENT
1.CWMG,XI,pp.81–2.
2.SeeB.R.Nanda,Gokhale:TheIndianModeratesandtheBritishRaj(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1977),Chapter16.
3.RatanTatatoG.K.Gokhale,17December1907,inFileNo.4,ServantsofIndiaSocietyPapers,NMML.
4.RatanTatatoGokhale,29November1909,FileNo.242,PartI,GokhalePapers,NAI.5.GokhaletoGandhi,3December1909;undatedpressstatement(c.firstweekofDecember1909),bothibid.
6.Seecorrespondenceandreports,ibid.7.CWMG,XI,pp.86–7,90–92.8.GandhitoKallenbach,dated‘Monday’(c.endDecember1909),inKP(thisletterisnotinCWMG).9.SeereportsinIO,25December1909.10.IO,22January1910.11.CWMG,XI,pp.96–8,101,103–4,128–30,140–41,149–50,153.12.SonjaSchlesintoGandhi,31July1913,S.N.5829,SAAA.13.Gandhi,SatyagrahainSouthAfrica,pp.165–6.14.CWMG,X,pp.503–5.Muchlater,Diepkloofwaswheretheliberalreformer(andnovelist)AlanPatonservedasawarden.
15.SeepiecefromTheOutlook,reproducedinIO,1April1905.PhillipsmayalsohavebeentheauthorofanextraordinaryessaywritteninDecember1903,whichchastisedlawsaimedatIndiansasunchristian,whileasking:‘Andatthisseason,too,whenthoughtsofChristendomaresaidtobesweetlystirredbythememoryofa
MessageandaMessenger,shalltheTeacher’slessonsbeheldsolightlythatuponHisveryanniversarythedemonofinjusticeshallmounttriumphant,andvirtueandbrotherlycharitybeheartlesslytrampledbeneaththeheelofmercenarygreed,andcallousindifferencetosufferingsabouttobeinflicted?’See‘TheExcommunicationofaPeople’,IO,3December1903.
16.ReportinIO,26February1910.17.CWMG,X,pp.117–19.18.ThespeechisreproducedinfullinR.P.PatwardhanandD.V.Ambekar,eds,SpeechesandWritingsofGopalKrishnaGokhale,I:Economic(Poona:TheDeccanSabha,1966),pp.284–94.
19.ProceedingsoftheCounciloftheGovernor-GeneralofIndia,25February1910,inNatalGovernmentHouseRecords,Reel4,AccessionNo.2177,NMML.
20.CWMG,X,p.201.21.L.W.RitchtoColonialOffice,lettersof16April,9Mayand7June1910,inFurtherCorrespondenceRelatingtoLegislationAffectingAsiaticsintheTransvaal(Cd.5363–incontinuationofCd.4854)(London:HMSO,1910).
22.CWMG,X,p.263.23.KallenbachtoGandhi,30May1910,inKP.24.See‘ThePassiveResistanceFarm’,IO,18June1910.25.PolakoncewrotetoGokhalethat‘youhaveanallyagainstGandhiandmyselfregardingthesimplelifeinMrsPolak’(letterof10January1910,FileNo.242,PartI,GokhalePapers,NAI).Polak’ssupportforthesimplelifewasinanycaselargelytheoretical;overtime,Millie’sviewsinthisregardbecamehis,too.
26.CWMG,X,pp.262,272,288–90,297,etc;reportsinIO,13Augustand15October1910,4January1911,etc.
27.GandhitoMaganlal,21August1910,CWMG,X,pp.307–8.Yearslater,RamdasGandhirecalledtherigidregimenbyreproducingtheFarm’sdailytimetableinhismemoirs:
5.30:Wake-up5.30to7:CleaningandPrayer7to8:Workinthefields8to9:Breakfast9to11:Workinthefields,inthekitchen,andintheprintingpress
11to1:Bath,lunch,washingdishesandrest1to4.30:School4.30to5.30:Workinthefieldsandcollectfirewood5.30to6.30:SportsandGames(football,cricket,kabaddi,etc)6.30to7:Supper,cleaningofkitchen7to8:Prayerandreadingofreligioustexts8to10:Relaxation10to5.30:SleepSeeRamadasGandhi,Sansmaran,translatedfromGujaratitoHindibyShankarJoshi(Ahmedabad:
NavajivanPress,1970),p.36.(ThetranslationfromtheHindiismine).28.IO,22October1910,CWMG,X,p.340.29.OnesupposesanexceptionwasmadeforAfricanpeonsandcleaners.30.CWMG,X,pp.113,176–7.Inapartheid-eraterminology‘Colouredpeople’referredtothoseofmixedrace;Gandhi,however,wasusingthetermtodenotethosewhowerenotwhite,whoincludedblacks,Indians,Chinese,andthoseofmixedrace.
31.CWMG,X,pp.182–4.32.Letterdated27August1910(translatedfromtheGermanprobablybyChristianBartolf),inKP.33.TheseparagraphsarebasedonCWMG,X,pp.369–70,512–4.34.SeereportsinIO,23April,21and28May,etc.35.ReportinIR,May1910.36.P.K.Naidu,‘FiveTimestotheTransvaalJail’,IR,September1910.P.K.NaiduwasnotrelatedtoThambiNaidoo.
37.LeungQuinn,‘AChineseViewoftheTransvaalTrouble’,IR,June1910.38.ChiefSecretary,MadrasGovernment,toCommerceandIndustrySecrerary,GovernmentofIndia,13August1910,inFile3604,L/P&J/6/1037,APAC/BL.
39.CommissionerofPolicetoBombayGovernment,24May1910,inFile3200,L/P&J/6/1031,APAC/BL.40.SeeGandhitoGokhale,25April1910,CWMG,X,pp.229–33.41.RatanTatatoG.K.Gokhale,8July1910,FileNo.242,PartI,GokhalePapers,NAI.42.RatanTatatoG.K.Gokhale,22September1910,FileNo.242,PartI,GokhalePapers,NAI;emphasisinoriginal.
43.‘Ghandi’and‘Ghandy’arebothvariantspellingsofGandhi,especiallycommonamongParsis.44.SeeS.N.5192and5193,SAAA.45.ReportsinIO,3Septemberand5November1910.46.SeereportinIR,August1910.MrsBesantwasspeakingasanIrishwomanwhohadembracedthecauseofIndianfreedomherself.
47.ThepoemisreproducedinSurendraBhanaandNeelimaShukla-Bhatt,AFirethatBlazedintheOcean:GandhiandthePoemsofSatyagrahainSouthAfrica,1909–1911(NewDelhi:PromillaandCo.,2011),pp.164–5.
48.SeeNM,5October1910.49.SeereportsinIO,1and8October1910;NM,5October1910.50.PrabhudasGandhi,MyChildhoodwithGandhiji(Ahmedabad:NavajivanPublishingHouse,1957),pp.56,135.
51.Cf.CWMG,X,pp.336–7,355,375,446,476.52.CWMG,X,pp.350–53.53.‘AGreatDayatTolstoyFarm’,IO,31December1910.54.CWMG,X,pp.392–5.55.All-IndiaMoslemLeague,London,toColonialOffice,17January1911;Governor-GeneralofSouthAfricatoSecretaryofStatefortheColonies,15March1911,bothinCO879/108/1,NAUK.
56.Letterdated3March1911,inFileNo.427,GokhalePapers,NAI.57.CWMG,XI,pp.412–14,424–6.58.CWMG,XI,pp.446–7.59.CWMG,X,pp.477–8,487–8,491–2,530,531–2.60.Memorandumdated26November1911byH.J.Stanley,AddMss.46004,BL.61.ExtractfromtheTransvaalLeader,27September1911,File4625,L/P&J/6/1125,APAC/BL.62.RitchtoGandhi,15March1911,S.N.5294,SAAA.63.AiyartoGokhale,18March1911,inFileNo.242,PartI,GokhalePapers,NAI.64.EditorialinRandDailyMail,28March1911,clippinginC.M.DokePapers,UNISA.65.CWMG,X,pp.494–6.66.ThisdiscussionoftheprovisionalsettlementisbasedonCWMG,XI,pp.5–39,49,515–16,519–20.67.CWMG,XI,pp.45,56–7.68.ExtractfromtheRandDailyMail,28April1911,inNatalGovernmentHouseRecords,Reel7,AccessionNo.2180,NMML.
69.Star,28April1911,clippinginC.M.DokePapers.70.CWMG,XI,pp.90–92.71.IO,6May1911.72.‘SuccessfulBanquetinJohannesburg’,IO,17June1911.
18ASONDEPARTS,AMENTORARRIVES
1.GandhitoMaganlal,21August1910,CWMG,X,p.273.2.GandhitoHarilal,5March1911,CWMG,X,pp.428–9.3.GandhitoMaganlal,19March1911,CWMG,X,p.476.4.ChandulalBhagubhaiDalal,HarilalGandhi:ALife,editedandtranslatedfromtheGujaratibyTridipSuhrud(Chennai:OrientLongman,2007),pp.28–9.
5.PragjiDesai,‘SatyagrahainSouthAfrica’,inChandrashankerShukla,ed.,ReminiscencesofGandhiji(Bombay:VoraandCo.,1951),p.83.DesaiwasaresidentofPhoenix,whohadbeenarrestedseveraltimesduringthesatyagrahacampaigns.
6.HarilaltoGandhi,c.8May1911,copyinE.S.ReddyPapers,NMML.ThisletterwasnotavailabletoHarilal’sbiographerC.B.Dalal.Theoriginalislost,butacopywasretrievedbyE.S.ReddyfromthelibraryoftheUniversityofCapeTown.
7.AsrecalledinPragjiDesai,‘SatyagrahainSouthAfrica’,pp.82–3.8.Cf.GandhitoPranjivanMehta,8May1911,CWMG,XI,p.65.9.Dalal,HarilalGandhi,pp.29–30.10.GandhitoMaganlal,18May1911,CWMG,XI,pp.77–8.11.Dalal,HarilalGandhi,AppendixI,p.134(fromaletterwrittenin1915or1916).12.Cf.appreciationbyMillieGrahamPolak,originallypublishedintheIndianReview,reprintedinMahatmaGandhi:AnEnlargedandUp-to-dateEditionofHisLifeandTeachingwithanAccountofHisActivitiesinSouthAfricaandIndiaDowntoHisGreatMarch,inConnectionwith‘SaltSatyagraha’(Madras:G.A.NatesanandCo.,1930),pp.13f.
13.Cf.TridipSuhrud,ReadingGandhiinTwoTonguesandOtherEssays(Shimla:IndianInstituteofAdvancedStudy,2012),pp.24–5;PragjiDesai,‘SatyagrahainSouthAfrica’,inChandrashankerShukla,ed.,ReminiscencesofGandhiji(Bombay:VoraandCo.,1951),pp.82–3.
14.Desai,‘SatyagrahainSouthAfrica’,p.84.15.GandhitoHarilal,27May1911,CWMG,XI,pp.94–5.16.SeeCWMG,XI,pp.165–7,312–13,315–16,333–4.17.CWMG,XI,pp.129–31,149–50,154,157.18.NaliniRanjanChakravarti,TheIndianMinorityinBurma:TheRiseandDeclineofanImmigrantCommunity(London:OxfordUniversityPress,1971),pp.98–9.
19.Regrettably,whilenobiographyofMarxcanbewrittenwithouttakingfullaccountofEngels’scontribution,andwhiletherehavebeenseveralexcellentbiographiesofEngelshimself,thismaybethefirstbookonGandhitoattempttogivePranjivanMehtasomethinglikehisdue.ThehistorianS.R.MehrotraisnowcompletingabiographyofMehta.
20.P.J.Mehta,M.K.GandhiandtheSouthAfricanIndianProblem(Madras:G.A.NatesanandCo.,1912),pp.21–2,26–32,74,87,96.
21.CWMG,XI,pp.138–9.22.GandhitoMehta,25August1911,CWMG,XI,pp.130–33.23.Cf.PolaktoMehta,22August1911,copyinE.S.ReddyPapers,NMML.24.CWMG,XCVI(SupplementaryVolumeSix:Gandhi–KallenbachCorrespondence),pp.62–3;RamadasGandhi,Sansmaran,translatedfromGujaratitoHindibyShankarJoshi(Ahmedabad:NavajivanPress,1970),p.48.
25.Seeentryfor11September1911,KallenbachDiary,KP.26.GandhitoKallenbach,7October1911,KP(notinCWMG).27.GandhitoMehta,24September1911,CWMG,XI,pp.160–61.‘IvantheFool’isafableofthreebrothers,onebrilliantandwarlike,thesecondsmartandacquisitive,thethirdfoolishyetupright,inwhichthehonestyandhardworkofthelastisrewardedbytheloveofhisfamilyandhiscommunity.See‘TheStoryofIvantheFool’inMoreTalesfromTolstoi,trans.R.NisbetBain(1902;reprint,NewYork:CoreCollectionBooks,1979).
28.GandhitoMehta,10October1911,CWMG,XI,pp.165–7.29.CWMG,XI,pp.168–71,296–7.GandhiandManilalDoctorfirstmetinLondonin1906,whentheyoungmanwasqualifyingtobeabarrister.AtGandhi’ssuggestion,hewenttoMauritiustoworkwiththeIndiansthere.Itmay,ormaynot,havebeenGandhiwhosuggestedtoPranjivanMehtathatDoctorwouldbeasuitablehusbandforhisdaughterJeki.
30.KallenbachtoMehta,18October1912,copyinKP.31.AC,23June1910.32.AC,11March1911.33.AC,issuesof23September,7and14October1911.34.SeeL/P&J/6/1017,APAC/BL.35.P.SubramaniaAiyar,AnUnjustTaxonIndianImmigrants:AppealtotheEmpire(Durban:AfricanChroniclePrintingWorks,1911),inFile3810,L/P&J/1113,APAC/BL.
36.Minutedated6February1912,ibid.37.GandhitoWest,27November1911,CWMG,XCVI,pp.93–4.38.GandhitoTata,1April1912,CWMG,XI,pp.248–53.39.Memorialdated1August1912,inL/P&J/6/1226,APAC/BL.40.‘ANativeUnion:TheLessonsofthePassiveResistanceMovement’,IO,29July1911.41.IamgratefultotheGandhischolarAnilNauriyaforsharingthisinformationwithme.Thememoirist,aRussianJewnamedPaulinePodlashuk,mayincidentallyhavehelpedintranslatingTolstoy’sletterto
Gandhi.42.QuotedinEdwardRoux,TimeLongerthanRope:TheBlackMan’sStruggleforFreedominSouthAfrica(firstpublished1948;2ndedn,Madison:UniversityofWisconsinPress,1964),p.110.
43.SeeAndréOdendaal,BlackProtestPoliticsinSouthAfricato1912(Towota,NJ:BarnesandNobleBooks,1984),Chapter11.
44.‘TheAwakeningoftheNatives:MrDube’sAddress’,IO,10February1912.Cf.alsoA.P.Walshe,‘TheOriginsofAfricanPoliticalConsciousnessinSouthAfrica’,JournalofModernAfricanStudies,7:4(1969),pp.595f.
45.CWMG,XI,pp.213–17,227–8,231,241,254,264,275,556–8.46.AssemblyDebatesoftheUnionofSouthAfrica,30Mayand14June1912,inNatalGovernmentHouseRecords,Reel7,AccessionNo.2180,NMML.
47.SeeS.N.5662,SAAA.48.Cf.enclosuresinGovernor-GeneralofSouthAfricatoSecretaryofStatefortheColonies,13April1912,inCD879/111/2,NAUK.
49.S.N.5658,SAAA(emphasisinoriginal).50.MehtatoGandhi,c.September1911(writtenfromHotelGenève,Marseille),S.N.5588,SAAA.51.GokhaletoUnionCastleCompany,lettersdated24and29July1912,copiesinFileNo.242,PartI,GokhalePapers,NAI.
52.SeeGokhaletoGandhi,7July1912,S.N.5672,SAAA.TherearetwolettersextantfromthisperiodbyMaudPolaktoGandhi.Athissuggestion–orcommand–shehadbeguntocallhimBapu,‘Father’.Still,itappearsthatherloveforhimremaineddeep,andevenobsessive.OneletterbegshimtoallowhertocontinuelobbyingfortheIndiansinLondon;itgoesontoclaimthatherworkwasasimportantasGokhale’sinstoppingtheexportofindenturedlabourfromIndia.Asecondletter,fourteenhandwrittenpagesinlength,presentsarambling,somewhatincoherentaccountofwhatshehadgotfromGandhi’sbookHindSwaraj.SeeMaudPolaktoGandhi,lettersof6December1911and23December1912,S.N.5594and5600,SAAA.TherearenorepliesbyGandhionrecord.Perhapstherewerenone,sinceherownbrothertoldGandhithat‘Maudisquiteunbalanced.Shemuchdisappointsme.Ishallnotreplytoherletter.’(HenryPolaktoGandhi,19January1911,S.N.5204,SAAA.)
53.DrMaitlandPark,editorCapeTimes,toGeneralLouisBotha,13August1912;BothatoPark,23August1912,bothinNatalGovernmentHouseRecords,Reel5,AccessionNo.2178,NMML.AnotherCapeliberal,thepoliticianJ.X.Merriman,wrotetoSmutsonsimilarliness,urgingthattheGovernmenttreathimwithrespect,andnot‘asamerekleurling[Colouredperson]’.MerrimantoSmuts,3October1912,inW.K.HancockandJeanvanderPoel,SelectionsfromtheSmutsPapers,III:June1910–November1918(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1966),pp.115–16.
54.MehtatoGokhale,28August1912,inFileNo.242,PartII,GokhalePapers,NAI.55.CWMG,XI,pp.320–25.56.IO,14September1912.57.GandhitoMaganlal,27January1910,CWMG,X,pp.138–9.58.KasturbawascommandedtofindaturbanfromoneoftheboxesatPhoenix,ironitandsenditbyposttoJohannesburg.SeePrabhudasGandhi,MyChildhoodwithGandhiji(Ahmedabad:NavajivanPublishingHouse,1957),pp.95–6.
59.Entryfor22October1912,inKallenbachDiary,SAAA.60.Anon.,Hon.MrG.K.Gokhale’sVisittoSouthAfrica,1912(Durban:IndianOpinion,1912),pp.4–7.61.MerrimantoSmuts,25October1912,inHancockandvanderPoel,SelectionsfromtheSmutsPapers,vol.III,p.119.Inotherletterswrittenataroundthesametime,MerrimancomparedGokhaletoJohnDube.Bothwere‘moderateandcivilized’,both‘spokeextraordinarygoodEnglish’,bothhadanintense
senseof‘nationalfeeling’.QuotedinShulaMarks,‘TheAmbiguitiesofDependence:JohnL.DubeofNatal’,JournalofSouthernAfricanStudies,1:2(1975),p.164.
62.Entryfor25October1912,inKallenbachDiary,SAAA.63.Anon.,MrGokhale’sVisit,pp.8–9.64.SeereportinIO,23November1912.65.Anon.,MrGokhale’sVisit,pp.13,16–17,201.66.CWMG,XI,pp.343–4.67.IO,9November1912.68.Anon.,MrGokhale’sVisit,pp.34–5.69.IO,23November1912.70.Letterdated11November1912,inAddMss.46006,BL.71.Cf.SecretaryofInteriortoG.K.Gokhale,11November1912,inFileNo.242,PartI,GokhalePapers,NAI.
72.Governor-GeneralofSouthAfricatoSecretaryofStatefortheColonies,16November1912,inCD879/111/2,NAUK.
73.AsrecalledinH.S.L.Polak,‘EarlyYears(1869–1914)’,inH.S.L.Polak,H.N.BrailsfordandLordPethick-Lawrence,MahatmaGandhi(London:OldhamsPressLimited,1949),pp.81–2.
74.Anon.,MrGokhale’sVisit,p.4.75.SeereportsinIO,19October,2and30November,and28December1912.76.QuotedinGandhi,AnAutobiography,PartIV,ChapterXII.77.ClippingfromtheLourençoMarquesGuardian,21November1912,inFile1398,L/P&J/6/1235,APAC/BL.
78.CWMG,XI,p.414.79.Entryfor27November1912,inKallenbachDiary,SAAA.80.Entryfor3December1912,ibid.81.GandhitoGokhale,4December1912,CWMG,XI,pp.351–2.82.ThisaccountofGokhale’sspeechinBombayisbasedontwonewsreports:thatintheTimesofIndia(mailedition),21December1912,inNatalGovernmentHouseRecords,Reel5,AccessionNo.2178,NMML;andthatinTheLeader,19December1912,inFileNo.242,PartI,GokhalePapers,NAI.
83.AC,15June1912.84.‘APuzzlingProblem’,AC,30November1912.85.AC,28December1912.86.AC,28December1912and8February1913.
19APHYSICIANATPHOENIX
1.PrabhudasGandhi,MyChildhoodwithGandhiji(Ahmedabad:NavajivanPublishingHouse,1957),pp.44–5.
2.MillieGrahamPolak,MrGandhi:TheMan(London:GeorgeAllenandUnwin,1931),pp.137–41.3.CWMG,XI,pp.428–30,434–6,441–3,447–9,453–5,etc.4.SeeGandhitoHarilal,26January1913,CWMG,XI,pp.449–50.5.GandhitoGokhale,14February1914,CWMG,14February1913.6.ClippingfromCapeTimes,21March1913,inAProceedings25–49forSeptember1913,DepartmentofCommerceandIndustry(EmigrationBranch),NAI;CWMG,XI,pp.568–9.
7.IndianOpinion,22March1913,CWMG,XI,pp.497.8.SeecopiesofresolutionsenclosedwithA.M.Cachalia,Chairman,BritishIndianAssociation,toGovernor-GeneralofSouthAfrica,10April1913,inAProceedings25–49forSeptember1913,
DepartmentofCommerceandIndustry(EmigrationBranch),NAI.Cf.also‘MassMeetinginJohannesburg’,IO,5April1913.
9.IndianOpinion,19April1913;GandhitoGokhale,19April1913,CWMG,XII,pp.31,41.10.Cf.IO,10Novemberand9December1911.11.Cf.FurtherCorrespondenceRelatingtoaBilltoRegulateImmigrationintotheUnionofSouthAfrica:WithSpecialReferencetoAsiatics(IncontinuationofCd.6283)(London:HMSO,1913).
12.TelegramdatedDurban,22April1913,inNatalGovernmentHouseRecords,Reel7,AccessionNo.2180,NMML.
13.ReportinRandDailyMail,23April1913.14.Speechof30April1913,ibid.15.SeeUnionofSouthAfrica:HouseofAssembly:DebatesoftheThirdSessionoftheFirstParliament(CapeTown:UnionParliamentofSouthAfrica,1913),cols.2050ff,2235f;UnionofSouthAfrica,DebatesoftheSenate:ThirdSessionoftheFirstParliament(CapeTown:UnionParliamentofSouthAfrica,1913),col.336.
16.SecretaryfortheInteriortoGandhi,lettersof4and10April1913,S.N.5750and5761,SAAA.17.Backin1910,LordSelbornehadproposedthatIndianwomeninSouthAfricabegivenacashinducementtoreturntotheirhomeland.‘Itneednotrequireaverylargesumtobeaninducementtothecooliewomantoearnadowryinthisway’,hewrotetothePrimeMinister,GeneralBotha,adding,‘AndofcourseonceinIndia,Itakeit,shewouldhavenorighttoreturn.’Selbornethoughtthatwiththesebribestowomen‘the[Indian]questionwouldintimeresolveitself.’(LordSelbornetoGeneralLouisBotha,3May1910,inBox60,SelbornePapers,BodleianLibrary,Oxford.)Selborne’ssuggestionwasnotactedupon;threeyearslater,theSearlejudgmentoutlinedanotherwayofreducingthenumbersofIndiansinSouthAfrica–bynotallowingtheirwomentocomeinfromIndia,ratherthanbribingthosealreadyinSouthAfricatogoback.
18.ExtractfromRandDailyMail,28April1914,inFileNo.242,PartI,GokhalePapers,NAI;CWMG,XII,pp.52–3,59.
19.Cf.H.S.L.PolaktoW.Clark,Member,CommerceandIndustry,GovernmentofIndia,letterof17Aprilandtelegramof23April1913,inAProceedingsnos.25–49forSeptember1913,DepartmentofCommerceandIndustry(EmigrationBranch),NAI.CopiesofthesecommunicationswerealsosenttotheColonialOfficeinLondon.
20.A.Fischer,InteriorMinister,toLordGladstone,Governor-General,22April1913,inFile15/388,vol.895,GG,NASA.
21.‘IndianWomenasPassiveResisters’,IO,10May1913;alsoCWMG,XII,p.65.22.‘FromtheEditor’sChair’,IO,10May1913.23.ThelettersthatfollowareallfromtheKallenbachPapersinthepossessionofIsaSarid,Haifa,Israel.24.‘WhyMrGandhiisaFailure’,AC,19April1913.25.AC,24May1913.Whileworking-classTamilsinNatalwerelargelyonGandhi’sside,amongeducatedmembersofthecommunityAiyarwasnotaloneinhavingreservationsabouthisleadership.InJune1913oneLeoR.GopaulwrotetoKallenbachcomplainingthatdespiteapplyingseveraltimes,hehadnotbeenchosenasoneofthesixeducatedIndiansallowedintotheTransvaalasaresultoftheprovisionalsettlementof1911.HethoughtitwasbecausehehadoncecriticizedGandhi’sHindSwaraj.KallenbachwrotebackthatwhileGandhiplayednopartinthedecision,preferencewouldnaturallybegiventothosewhohadcourtedarrestinpastsatyagrahas.ThisGopaul(likeAiyar)hadconspicuouslyfailedtodo.Kallenbachtoldthecomplainantthatarevivalofthestrugglewasimminent,andhemightconsidercourtingarrestthistimearound.GopaultoKallenbach,10June1913;KallenbachtoGopaul,19June1913,bothinKP.
26.CWMG,XII,pp.4–7,45–52.
27.SeeCWMG,XII,pp.87–8,90–91,101,574–5.28.Governor-GeneraltoSecretaryofStatefortheColonies,16June1913,inCO879/112/4,NAUK.29.PolaktoGokhale,1and22June,inFileNo.242,PartI,GokhalePapers,NAI.30.GokhaletoLegislativeSecretary,GovernmentofIndia,lettersof13Juneand11July1913,File4104,L/P&J/6/1278,APAC/BL.
31.SeeMaudPolaktoUnderSecretaryofState,ColonialOffice,27February1913(withenclosures);OfficialreportofdebateinHouseofLords,30July,1913,bothinFile1398,L/P&J/6/1235,APAC/BL.
32.GandhitoGokhale,20June1913,CWMG,XII,pp.113–15.33.WedderburntoGandhi,lettersof19and26June1913,S.N.5813and5817a,SAAA.34.Letterof2July1913,CWMG,XII,pp.122–4.35.SeethecorrespondenceinCO879/112/4,NAUK.36.SeeFile15/462,vol.896,GG,NASA.37.‘ASouthAfricanProblem’,JewishChronicle,5September1913.38.SeeIO,12July1913;JackandRaySimons,ClassandColourinSouthAfrica,1850–1950(Lusaka:InternationalDefenceandAidFundforSouthernAfrica,1983),pp.156–9.
39.KallenbachtoIsabellaFyvieMayo,18August1913,KP.40.GandhitoE.F.C.Lane,11July1913,copyinKP.41.Entryfor12July1913,inHermannKallenbach’sDiaryfor1912–13,S.N.33996,SAAA.42.Gandhi,AnAutobiography,PartIV,ChapterXXVI.43.UmaDhupelia-Mesthrie,Gandhi’sPrisoner?TheLifeofGandhi’sSonManilal(CapeTown:KwelaBooks,2004),pp.106–11.
44.MilliePolak,MrGandhi:TheMan,pp.142–8.45.SeeManilalGandhi,‘MemoriesofGandhiji’,IndianReview,March1952.Manilalhad–understandably–gottheyearslightlywrong.Itwas1913,not1912.
46.PrabhudasGandhi,MyChildhoodwithGandhiji,pp.116–17;MilliePolak,MrGandhi:TheMan,p.148;Dhupelia-Mesthrie,Gandhi’sPrisoner?,p.110.
47.CWMG,XII,pp.79–81,102–4,137,164–5,etc.48.SeeRavjibhaiPatel,TheMakingoftheMahatma,trans.AbidShamshi(Ahmedabad:RavindraR.Patel,1990),ChapterIX(‘TheAffectionateHealer’).
49.CWMG,XII,p.164.50.CordestoGandhi,11December1911,S.N.5592,SAAA.51.CordestoGandhi,c.JulyorAugust1913,S.N.5819,SAAA.52.CWMG,XII,pp.167–75.53.Cf.CWMG,XII,pp.183–6,192–5.
20BREAKINGBOUNDARIES
1.ThedetailedfiguresareavailableinSurendraBhanaandJoyBrain,SettlingDownRoots:IndianMigrantsinSouthAfrica,1860–1911(Johannesburg:WitwatersrandUniversityPress,1990).
2.MillieG.PolaktoV.S.SrinivasaSastri,22July1912,inV.S.SrinivasaSastriPapers,2ndinstalment,NMML.
3.Undatednewsclipping(c.May1909),entitled‘AFreshDevelopmentIndianWomen’sMeetingDesiretobeImprisoned’,inJ.J.DokePapers.
4.Cf.‘NativeWomen’sBraveStand’,IO,2August1913.5.GandhitoKallenbach,12September1913,CWMG,XCVI,p.142.6.PrabhudasGandhi,MyChildhoodwithGandhiji(Ahmedabad:NavajivanPublishingHouse,1957),p.129.
7.ReportinNM,24September1913.8.CWMG,XII,pp.188–91;RamadasGandhi,Sansmaran,translatedfromGujaratitoHindibyShankarJoshi(Ahmedabad:NavajivanPress,1970),pp.59–62.
9.CWMG,XII,pp.196–8,204–6.10.SeeCWMG,XII,pp.209–10.11.CWMG,XII,p.215.12.TransvaalLeader,30September1913.13.TransvaalLeader,1October1913.ThepaperprintedthreelettersalongsideGandhi’s.L.W.Ritcharchlynotedthat‘theconcernofusEuropeansshouldbenotwithwhethertheir[theIndians’]campaignwillsucceedorfail,butrather,whetherrightisorisnotontheirside.’Kallenbach,likeGandhi,refutedtheslurthatthesatyagrahisweremercenaries.Itwas‘anabsolutefalsehoodthatanymonetaryconsiderationhasbeenreceivedbythem…beyondthemeremaintenanceforthemselvesandtheirfamilies’.Thethirdlettercamefromsomefortymerchants‘throughouttheprincipaltownsoftheTransvaal’,whostated‘thatweareinfullsympathywiththe[satyagraha]movement,andthatthemerchantsalongwiththeothersarecontributingbothmenandmoneytothemovement.’
14.NM,2October1913.15.Letterof17October1913,CWMG,XII,p.242.16.TheconversationtookplaceonSmuts’farm,on10or11October,andisreportedinH.J.StanleytoH.C.M.LambertoftheColonialOffice,12October1913,inFile15/486A,vol.897,GG,NASA.
17.IO,15October1913.18.AsreportedinNM,13October1913.19.ReportsinNM,17and18October1913.20.AC,5July1913.21.ReportinTransvaalLeader,21October1913.22.SeeNM,issuesof20,21and23October1913;CWMG,XII,pp.245–6.23.Cf.reportsinNM,20October1913.24.Gandhi,quotedinRandDailyMail,23October1913.25.SeeNM,24and25October1913.26.SeeGillianBerning,ed.,GandhiLetters:FromUpperHousetoLowerHouse,1906–1914(Durban:LocalHistoryMuseum,1994),photosonpp.34–6.
27.CWMG,XII,pp.251–3.28.ReportinFile1389,L/P&J/6/1306,APAC/BL.29.SeeGovernor-GeneralofSouthAfricatoSecretaryofStatefortheColonies,30October1913;clippingfromtheTransvaalLeader,29October1913,bothinL/PJ/6/1283,APAC/BL.
30.NotebyW.H.Clark,Member,CommerceandIndustry,GovernmentofIndia,dated20March1913,inFile1398,L/P&J/6/1235,APAC/BL.
31.ClippingfromtheTransvaalLeader,30October1913,ibid.SeealsoAC,issuesof27September,8,15and22November1913,etc.
32.M.K.Gandhi,‘TheLastSatyagrahaCampaign:MyExperience’,CWMG,XII,pp.508–19.33.H.S.L.Polak,‘PassiveResistanceMovementinSouthAfrica’,typescriptcomposedc.1908–12,Mss.Afr.R.125,RhodesHouseLibrary,Oxford,p.103.
34.NM,27October1913.35.ReportsinRandDailyMail,30October1910;IO,5November1913.36.ReportsinNM,30and31October1913.37.Telegramdated30October1913,inFileNo.427,GokhalePapers,NAI.38.NM,1and4November1913.39.NA,10November1913.
40.TimesofNatal,7November1913.41.Governor-GeneralofSouthAfricatoSecretaryofStatefortheColonies,6November1913,inCO879/112/4,NAUK.
42.NM,8November1913.43.TransvaalLeader,8November1913.44.NA,9November1911.45.MontfordChamney,‘MahatmaGhandi[sic]intheTransvaal’,typescriptdatedc.1935,MssEur.C.859,APAC/BL.
46.M.K.GandhitotheResidentMagistrate,Heidelburg,10November1913,inFile4/572/13,vol.181,JUS,NASA(thisletterisnotinCWMG).
47.NA,12and14November1913.48.CWMG,XII,pp.263–4.49.CWMG,XII,pp.266–8;File15/228,vol.897,GG,NASA.50.SeeH.S.L.Polak,‘ASouthAfricanReminiscence’,IndianReview,October1926.51.PolaktoAmpthill,12November1913,writtenfromVolksrustPrison,inCO879/112/4,NAUK.52.TheletterisreproducedinitsentiretyinIsaSaridandChristianBartolf,HermannKallenbach:MahatmaGandhi’sFriendinSouthAfrica(Berlin:GandhiInformationsZentrum,1997),pp.34–61(quotefromp.37).
53.‘TheLeadersSentenced’,IO,26November1913.54.GandhitoMilliePolak,12November1913,CWMG,XCVI,p.155.55.LetterfromRitchinRandDailyMail,21October1913.56.LetterfromRitchinTransvaalLeader,31December1913.57.SeePercyBinns,Magistrate’sOffice,Durban,toE.Gorges,DepartmentoftheInterior,1December1913,inNatalGovernmentRecords(onmicrofilm),Reel5(AccessionNo.2178),NMML.
58.Cf.pressreportsquotedinIO,19November1913.59.SeeAshwinDesaiandGoolamVahed,InsideIndenture:ASouthAfricanStory,1860–1914(Durban:MadibaPublishers,2007),pp.147–57.
60.MaureenSwan,‘The1913NatalIndianStrike’,JournalofSouthernAfricanStudies,10:2(1984).61.DesaiandVahed,InsideIndenture,pp.376–85.62.Cf.correspondenceinFile15/516,vol.897,GG,NASA.63.ReportsinNA,14,15and16November1913;inNM,14November1913.64.NM,17November1913.65.Seeenclosureno.8toGovernor-GeneralofSouthAfricatoSecretaryofStatefortheColonies,20November1913,inCO879/112/4,NAUK.
66.ReportsinNM,18November1913.67.‘ReportontheIndianStrikeintheDivisionofDurban’,dated3December1913,inFile4/572/13,vol.203,JUS,NASA.
68.TelegramsfromGeneralLukinto‘Defence,Pretoria’,dated21,25and27November,ibid.69.SeeHeatherHughes,FirstPresident:ALifeofJohnL.Dube,FoundingPresidentoftheANC(AucklandPark,SouthAfrica:Jacana,2011),pp.178–9.
70.‘Dr.AbdurahmanandPassiveResistance’,IO,3December1913.71.NA,20November,2and8December1913.72.‘TheIndianMenace:QuestionofNatal’sFuture’,NM,26November1913.HendersonwasaprotégéofHarryEscombe,whosespeechesheeditedforpublication.
73.TransvaalLeader,22November1913,clippinginCO879/112/4,NAUK.AmoreemotionaldefencewassentbyMillieGrahamPolaktotheNatalAdvertiser,whichdeclinedtopublishit,onthegrounds
thatamongthemattersshehadmentionedweresome(presumablythecasesagainstherhusband,KallenbachandGandhi)whichweresubjudice.SeeNA,22November1913.
74.QuotedinTransvaalLeader,8December1913,clippinginAddMss46001,BL.75.SeeA.H.WesttoG.K.Gokhale,undated,c.24November1913,inFileNo.242,PartI,GokhalePapers,NAI.
76.GokhaletoMrsPolak,17November1913,ibid.77.SeeFile202,L/P&J/6/1295,APAC/BL.78.Cf.reportsinL/P&J/R/5/118,APAC/BL.79.Anon.,M.K.Gandhi:AStudy(Madras:GaneshandCo.,1913).80.C.Rajagopalachari,ed.,MrGandhi’sJailExperiences:ToldbyHimself(Salem:T.AdinarayanaCetti,1913).RajagolachariwastobecomeaclosecompanionofGandhiinthefreedommovementinIndia.
81.AcopyoftheplayisinFile1041,L/P&J/6/1302,APAC/BL.Theplaywright(whosename,alas,hasnotcomedowntoposterity)mayhaveattendedsomeofHenryPolak’stalksinSouthIndia.HeseemstohavebeenreadingthejournalsIndianReviewandIndianOpinion;andperhapsvariousbiographiesofGandhiaswell,thustoextolthepatriotism,theprinciplednon-violence,andthespiritofsacrificeofasuccessfullawyerwhohadembracedpovertyandpublicservice.
82.BhawaniDayal,DakshinAfricakéSatyagrahakaItihas(Indore:SaraswatiSadan,1916),pp.53–7.83.Formoredetailsonthesemeetings,seedocumentsandclippingsinL/PJ/6/1284,APAC/BL;NA,21November1913;BProceedingsNo.29forDecember1913,DepartmentofCommerceandIndustry(EmigrationBranch),NAI.
84.Cf.correspondenceinFileNo.242,PartII,GokhalePapers,NAI(emphasisinoriginal).85.TagoretoGokhale,18November1913,inFileNo.242,PartI,GokhalePapers,NAI.86.TagoretoGokhale,9December1913,inFileNo.547,GokhalePapers,NAI.87.TheBishopofMadras,quotedinSpeechesandWritingsofM.K.Gandhi:WithanIntroductionbyMrC.F.Andrews,aTributebyMrG.A.Natesan,aBiographicalSketchbyMrH.S.L.Polak(2ndedn:Madras:G.A.NatesanandCo.,1918),AppendixIII,p.x.
88.CWMG,XII,pp.602–3;RobertA.Huttenback,GandhiinSouthAfrica(Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversityPress,1971),pp.319–21.
89.K.HariharantoGokhale,11December1913;A.E.LalltoGokhale,29November1913,bothinFileNo.242,PartII,GokhalePapers,NAI.
90.Mehta,quotedinSpeechesandWritingsofM.K.Gandhi,AppendixIII,p.xiv.91.GandhitoDeviWest,14December1913,CWMG,XII,pp.269–71.92.D.M.Manilal[ManilalDoctor],Barrister-at-Law,Suva,Fiji,toLordGladstone,30December1913,inFile15/652,vol.899,GG,NASA.
93.SeecorrespondenceinFile15/543,vol.897,GG,NASA.94.NA,19December1913.95.NA,20December1913;NM,22December1913.96.CWMG,XII,pp.274–7.97.HenryPolaktohisfamilyinEngland(addressedas‘DearFolks’),Durban,31December1913,Mss.Brit.Emp.S372/2,RhodesHouseLibrary,Oxford.
98.NM,22December1913.99.NM,23December1913.100.Cf.M.K.Gandhi,SatyagrahainSouthAfrica,translatedfromtheGujaratibyValjiGovindjiDesai(2ndedn,1950;reprint,Ahmedabad:NavjivanPress,1972),p.258.
101.Telegramdated23December1913,inFileNo.242,PartII,GokhalePapers,NAI.102.SeecorrespondenceinCWMG,XII,pp.277–81,599,283–4,286,289,295–6,301–5;andinFileNo.242,PartsIandII,GokhalePapers,NAI.
103.NM,30December1913.104.SeeHopeHayHewison,HedgeofWildAlmonds:SouthAfrica,thePro-BoersandtheQuakerConscience,1890–1910(London:JamesCurry,1989),pp.187–95.
105.GandhitoEmilyHobhouse,5January1914,copyinE.S.ReddyPapers,NMML(thisletterisnotinCWMG).
106.EmilyHobhousetoSmuts,29December1913,inW.K.HancockandJeanvanderPoel,SelectionsfromtheSmutsPapers,III:June1910–November1918(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1966),pp.152–6.OntheHobhouse–Smutsfriendship,seeW.K.Hancock:Smuts,I:TheSanguineYears,1870–1919(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1962),especiallypp.179–88,282–6.
107.NA,30December1913.108.GokhaletoRobertson,31December1913,inFileNo.242,PartII,GokhalePapers,NAI.109.CWMG,XII,p.311.
21FAREWELLTOAFRICA
1.UnlikesomeotherfiguresinIndianhistory,C.F.Andrewshasbeenwellservedbyhisbiographers.Therearethreeexcellentstudies,eachfocusingonadifferentaspectofhislife,workandfriendships:BenarsidasChaturvediandMarjorieSykes,CharlesFreerAndrews:ANarrative(London:GeorgeAllenandUnwin,1949);HughTinker,TheOrdealofLove:C.F.AndrewsandIndia(Delhi:OxfordUniversityPress,1979);andDanielO’Connor,Gospel,Raj,andSwaraj:TheMissionaryYearsofC.F.Andrews(1904–14)(Frankfurt:PeterLang,1990).
2.AndrewstoGokhale,24January1906,FileNo.11,GokhalePapers,NAI.3.GokhaletoWest,12December1913,FileNo.242,PartII,GokhalePapers,NAI.4.GokhaletoRobertson,31December1913,inFileNo.242,PartI,GokhalePapers,NAI.5.NM,5January1914.6.‘ArrivalofMrAndrewsandMrPearson’,IO,7January1914.7.Ibid.8.CWMG,XII,p.316.9.CWMG,XII,pp.317–18.10.GokhaletoGandhi,26December1913,FileNo.242,PartII,GokhalePapers,NAI.11.HarilaltoGokhale,13January1914,FileNo.242,PartII,GokhalePapers,NAI.12.J.C.SmutstoLordGladstone,6January1914,inFile15/622,vol.899,GG,NASA.13.ClippingfromthePretoriaNews,inFile15/640,vol.899,GG,NASA.14.AsrecalledinAndrewstoGokhale,30January1914,inFileNo.242,PartI,GokhalePapers,NAI.15.LordGladstone,Governor-GeneralofSouthAfrica,toLewisHarcourt,SecretaryofStatefortheColonies,14January1914,inFile15/640,vol.899,GG,NASA.
16.CWMG,XII,pp.324–6,17.CWMG,XII,pp.609–10.18.SeeFile15/647A,vol.899,GG,NASA.19.AndrewstoGokhale,30January1914,inFileNo.242,PartI,GokhalePapers,NAI,emphasisinoriginal.
20.IO,issuesof14,21and28January1914.21.AsreportedinGandhitoGokhale,18February1914,CWMG,XII,pp.353–4.22.RabindranathTagore:ALecturebytheRev.C.F.AndrewsofDelhi(CapeTown:CapeTimesLimited,1914),copyinMss.Eur.D.1238/5,APAC/BL.
23.ClippingsfromCapeTimes,dated23February1914,inFile15/658,vol.899,GG,NASA.24.AndrewstoGandhi,26February1914,S.N.5943,NGM.
25.MehtatoGandhi,14February1914,S.N.6034,SAAA.PostedfromBurma,theletterwouldhavearrivedinDurbantowardstheendofFebruaryorinearlyMarch.
26.SeeIO,5April1913.27.Letterdated27February1914,CWMG,XII,pp.360–61.28.GandhitoKallenbach,25March1914,CWMG,XCVI,p.165.29.SeeGandhitoKallenbach,6March1914(notintheCWMG),KP.30.CWMG,XII,pp.367–9.31.Letterdated22March1914,CWMG,XII,p.395.32.GandhitoKallenbach,15March1914,CWMG,XCVI,p.175.33.CWMG,XII,pp.378–80.34.InlateFebruary,GandhiwrotetoKallenbachthat‘myeldestbrotherwhousedalwaystogostronglyagainstmehasnowcompletelychangedandrepentsofhispastlettersandthinksIhavenotdiscreditedthefamilyafterallasheusedtothinkbefore.Hisonewishistoseemebeforehedies’.Now,whenthenewsofLaxmidas’sdeathcame,Gandhiwroteagain,saying:‘Whatapassionatewishitwasonhisparttomeetme!AndformeIwashurryingeverythingonsothatIcouldgotoIndiawiththequickestdespatchandfalldownathisfeetandnursehim.Butitwasnottobe’.Lettersof25Februaryand10March,CWMG,XCVI,pp.165,173.
35.CWMG,XII,pp.380–83.36.Newsclippingdated25March1914,S.N.5949,SAAA.37.SeeReportoftheIndianEnquiryCommission(CapeTown:GovernmentPrinters,1914).38.IO,25March1914,inCWMG,XII,pp.396–9.39.Sadhva,24July1914,translatedexcerptinL/R/5/119,APAC/BL.40.GandhitoGokhale,6May1914,CWMG,XII,p.414.41.AndrewstoGandhi,5April1914,S.N.5956,NGM.42.GandhitoKallenbach,12April1914,CWMG,XCVI,pp.181–2.43.GandhitoKallenbach,5May1914,CWMG,XCVI,p.186.44.GandhitoKallenbach,18May1914,CWMG,XCVI,p.190.45.See‘CorrespondenceRelatingtotheIndianReliefAct,1914’,copyinE.S.ReddyPapers,NMML.46.SeecorrespondenceinFile15/708,vol.900,GG,NASA.47.CWMG,XII,pp.436–7.48.GandhitoGokhale,lettersof5Juneand1July1914,CWMG,XII,pp.422,440.49.CWMG,XII,pp.445–7.50.CWMG,XII,pp.454–9.51.SeeFile1305,L/P&J/6/1305,APAC/BL.52.IO,22July1914.53.CWMG,XII,pp.463–72.54.TransvaalLeader,15July1914.55.ThisparagraphisbasedonmaterialssuppliedbytheGandhischolarIanDesai,whofoundtheseaddressesinthebasementoftheM.J.LibraryinAhmedabad.
56.CWMG,XII,pp.472–5.57.AcopyoftheinvitationisintheKallenbachPapers,Haifa.58.CWMG,XII,pp.486–95.59.CWMG,XII,p.497.60.CWMG,XII,pp.459–60.Gandhi’smemorymayhavebeenatfaulthere.OthersourcessayChamneywasaccompaniedbya‘posse’ofpolice–atleastseveral,notone,constable;butstillasmallnumberwhenconfrontingmorethan2,000strikers.ThedateofthePretoriameetingiswronglygivenas10JulyinCWMG–itwasinfactheldonthe16th.
61.Herfather,SolomonSchechter,hadrescuedahugecacheofoldHebrewdocumentsfromtheatticofaCairosynagogue–knownasthe‘Geniza’documents,thesewerethenpassedonbyhimtoCambridgeUniversity.
62.BaruchHirson,TheCapeTownIntellectuals:RuthSchechterandherCircle,1907–1954(Johannesburg:WitwatersrandUniversityPress,2001),pp.3,13,15,37–8;EnidAlexander,MorrisAlexander:ABiography(CapeTown:JutaandCo.,1953),p.118.
63.TheaccountoftheCapeTownfarewellisbasedonclippingsinFile15/730,vol.900,GG,NASA.64.PolaktoGandhi,14July1914,S.N.6006,NGM.65.CWMG,XII,p.507.66.Thetelegramsareallin‘Gandhi–KallenbachCorrespondence’,vol.IV,NAI.(Thefirstthreevolumesofthiscorrespondence,mostlyletterstoGandhibyKallenbach,arepublishedinCWMG,XCVI.Thefourthvolume,onwhichtheseparagraphsarebased,consistsoftheseunpublishedtelegrams,lyingintheNAI.)
67.HobhousetoSmuts,23April1914,inW.K.HancockandJeanvanderPoel,SelectionsfromtheSmutsPapers,III:June1910–November1918(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1966),pp.173–4(emphasisinoriginal).PostedinthelastweekofApril,theletterwouldhavereachedSmutssometimeinthemiddleofMay.
68.SmutstoRobertson,21August1914,ibid.,pp.190–91.
22HOWTHEMAHATMAWASMADE
1.SourcenoteshavenotbeenprovidedinthisconcludingchapterforremarksbyGandhi(andothers)thathavealsobeenquotedearlierinthebook.
2.IO,4June1906.3.Thisencounterpresagedtheeventsofthe1930sand1940s,whenGandhiledthemovementforIndianindependence,andChurchill,bothinandoutofoffice,campaignedvigorouslyforIndiatoremainintheEmpireandforIndianstobeforeversubjecttoBritishrule.
4.H.S.L.Polak,‘PassiveResistanceMovementinSouthAfrica’,typescriptcomposedc.1908–12,Mss.Afr.R.125,RhodesHouseLibrary,Oxford,pp.105,109–10.
5.Harijan,27January1940,inCWMG,LXXI,p.131.6.TheresonantphraseinquotesisthatofMukulKesavan.SeehisSecularCommonSense(Delhi:PenguinIndia,2001).
7.TheMiscellaneousWritingsoftheLateHon’bleMrJusticeM.G.Ranade(Bombay:TheManoranjanPress,1915),p.193.
8.CWMG,LVIII,pp.188–9.9.SonjaSchlesintoGandhi,25December1915,S.N.6250,SAAA.Inthisletter,MissSchlesinalsowrotethat‘Ithink,ifItookupLawseriously,IshouldwanttobeaConsultingBarrister–aSpecialistinsomespecialbranchoflaw’.Sadly,shewasn’tabletofulfilthatlong-standingambition,insteadbecomingheadmistressofagirls’schoolintheTransvaal.
10.A.ChesselPiquet,‘IndianWomenandtheStruggle’,IO,1February1908.11.Writingin1931,bywhichtimeGandhiwasanacknowledged‘Mahatma’andhadjustbeenchosenTimeMagazine’s‘ManoftheYear’,MilliePolakcalledhima‘greatandlovingman,whohadshowntomeandmineanaffectionthattranscendedraceandsexandtime’.(MrGandhitheMan,London:GeorgeAllenandUnwin,1931,p.14).ShemodestlyomittedtoaddthepartshehadplayedinthebroadeningofGandhi’sworld-view.
12.SeeEdgarSnow,RedStarOverChina(NewYork:GrovePress,1968),p.94.13.LiuXiabao,NoEnemies,NoHatred:SelectedEssaysandPoems,ed.PerryLink,TienchiMartin-LiaoandLiuXia(Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress,2012),p.288.
14.JosephJ.Doke,M.K.Gandhi:AnIndianPatriotinSouthAfrica(London:TheLondonIndianChronicle,1909),pp.41f.
15.KallenbachtoChhaganlal,29July1911,S.N.5582,SAAA.16.Alatter-dayGujaratireformerwritesthat‘fortraders,freedommeansnothing;whatmattersisthattheyshouldbeabletocarryonwiththeirtradepeacefully.Theyprefertobuytheirwaytopeaceratherthanfightforanyprinciple,muchlesstheprincipleoffreedom.’AsgharAliEngineer,ALivingFaith:MyQuestforPeace,HarmonyandSocialChange(Hyderabad:OrientBlackSwan2011),p.44.
17.J.H.M.GooltoGandhi,23January1897,quotedinBaruchHirson,TheCapeTownIntellectuals:RuthSchechterandherCircle,1907–1954(Johannesburg:WitwatersrandUniversityPress,2001),p.42.
18.Thesewordswereprophetic.ThePartitionriotsof1946–8causedseveralmilliondeathsintheIndiansubcontinent,theresultofunspeakablebrutalitiesbyHindu,MuslimandSikhrioters.IttookGandhi’smartyrdominJanuary1948fortherioterstorealizetheextentofthebarbarismtheyhadunleashed.TherevulsionagainstGandhi’sdeathledtoanimmediatecessationofhostilities,promptingaperiodofcommunalpeaceinIndiathatlastedadecadeandahalf.
19.J.M.Upadhyaya,ed.,MahatmaGandhiasaStudent(NewDelhi:PublicationsDivision,1965),Introduction.
20.E.M.S.Namboodiripad,TheMahatmaandtheIsm(firstpublished1958;2ndedn,Calcutta,NationalBookAgency,1981),pp.11–12.ThebookwasbasedonarticlespublishedintheCommunistParty’sjournalNewAgein1955–6.
21.JosiahOldfield,‘MyFriendGandhi’,inChandrashankerShukla,ed.,ReminiscencesofGandhiji(Bombay:VoraandCo.,1951),p.188.
22.LettertotheeditorfromL.W.Ritch,intheTransvaalLeader,5December1912.23.TheTimes,14August1911.
Acknowledgements
In1998ImademyfirstvisittoSouthAfrica.Ihavebeenbackfourtimes.Mygreatestdebtsinthatcountryaretothreeoutstandinghistorians:SurendaBhana,UmaDhupelia-Mesthrie,andGoolamVahed.Theyhavegivengenerouslyoftheirtimeandtheirscholarship.Ihaveraidedtheirpublishedworks,ofcourse,butalsogainedmuchfromlettersandconversationsovertheyears.ThreeotherSouthAfricanstookmeonjourneysthroughplacesGandhilived
orworkedin.SudeshanReddydrovemethroughJohannesburg,endingupattheHamidiaMosque,aroundwhichsomuchoftheactiondescribedinthisbooktakesplace.ThenovelistAzizHassimtookmeonawonderfulwalkingtourofcentralDurban.ElaGandhi,daughterofManilalandanadmiredSouthAfricandemocratherself,tookmeonaguidedtourofthenowreconstructedPhoenixSettlement.Asthe‘NoteonSources’indicates,theresearchforthisbookwasdonein
archivesspreadacrossfivecountries.IntheNationalArchivesofIndiaandtheNehruMemorialMuseumandLibrary,bothinNewDelhi;attheoldIndiaOfficecollectionsinLondon,nowhousedinawingoftheBritishLibrary;attheBritishLibraryNewspaperLibraryatColindale;atRhodesHouseinOxfordandattheNewYorkPublicLibrary;attheNationalArchivesoftheUnitedKingdomatKew;attheMaharashtraStateArchivesinMumbaiandtheTamilNaduStateArchivesinChennai;andattheUniversityofSouthAfricaandtheSouthAfricanNationalArchives,bothinPretoria–inalltheseplaces,Iwasassistedbykindlyandcompetentrecord-keepers.Ido,however,owespecialthankstofourveryspecialarchivists.Jenni
MackenziewentthroughtheBaptistarchiveinJohannesburg,diggingouteveryscraprelevantinanywaytoGandhi.AttheSabarmatiAshraminAhmedabad,KinnariBhattguidedmeto(andthrough)thenewsclippingsanddiariesoftheSouthAfricanyears,rarelyusedandyet(orthus)staggeringlyvaluable.Kinnari
benalsoansweredmanyqueriesaboutGandhi’sGujaratibackground,andhelpedselectthephotographsforthisbook.AttheNationalGandhiMuseuminNewDelhi,thevastlyexperiencedS.K.BhatnagarguidedmethroughthemanyvolumesofletterstoGandhi.Jenni,KinnariandBhatnagarSaabareallthoroughprofessionals.Afourth
benefactor,IsaSarid,wasactingoutofanintenselypersonalinterest.Inherhome,intheIsraeliporttownofHaifa,laythepapersofGandhi’sfriendandpatronHermannKallenbach.Ispentamostrewardingweekamongthesepapers,withdearIsa(thenasprightlyandever-smilingeighty-seven)athandtoprovidecluesand–whenmyhandtiredfromnote-taking–avegetarianlunchofthekindheruncleandGandhisometimesate.IregretthatIsaSariddidnotlivelongenoughtoseethisbookinprint.Fortunately,beforeshedied,shewasable,asshehadlongwished,tosupervisethetransferofherbeloveduncle’spaperstotheNationalArchivesofIndia.Ishouldalsomentionfourfinebookshops,whereIobtainedmanyoldand
out-of-printbooksandpamphletsthatprovedenormouslyhelpfulinmyresearch.TheseareClarke’sBookshopinCapeTown;Ike’sBookshopandCollectablesinDurban;theCollectorsTreasuryinJohannesburg;andPrabhuBookServiceinGurgaon(theoldtown,notthenewcity).ThefirstfulldraftofthisbookwaswrittenwhileIheldthePhilippeRoman
ChairinHistoryandInternationalAffairsattheLondonSchoolofEconomics.Afewfurlongstothesouthofmyoffice(inColumbiaHouse,onthecornerofHoughtonStreetandtheAldwych)liestheInnerTemple,whereGandhistudied.AfewfurlongstothenorthrunsHighHolborn,thestreetonwhichtherewasonceavegetarianrestaurantwhereGandhiate.AsIthoughtandwroteaboutGandhi(writing,amongotherthings,thethree
chapterssetinLondon)IwasfortunatetohaveathandtheextraordinarilycapablestaffatLSEIDEAS,wheretheRomanChairishoused.IwishespeciallytothankArneWestad,EmiliaKnightandTihaFranulovicfortheirfriendshipandtheirgenerosity.This,alongwiththefriendshipandgenerosityofEmmanuel(Manny)Roman,mademyyearinLondonthemostenjoyableandproductiveofallmyspellsoutsideIndia.Ahostofotherfriendscontributedideas,suggestedsources,translatedletters
fromlanguagesIdonotknow,andinotherwayshelpedinthemakingofthis
book.TheyincludeN.Balakrishnan,RakeshBasant,WilliamBeinart,DeepaBhatnagar,SharadChari,RajeshChopra,VarshaDas,V.N.Datta,AshwinDesai,KeshavDesiraju,RichardDuguid,PatrickFrench,SupriyaGandhi,StephenGelb,AmitavGhosh,PeterHeehs,IsabelHofmeyr,NasreenMunniKabir,PrashantKidambi,ShimonLow,JohnMcLeod,AshishMitter,RajendraprasadNarla,AnilNauriya,ZacO’Yeah,DinaPatel,DinyarPatel,AchalPrabala,AchintyaPrasad,TirthankarRoy,UshaSahay,NavtejandAvinaSarna,OrnitShahni,HemaliSodhi,NeelimaShukla-Bhatt,TridipSuhrud,AkhilaYechury,GeoffreyWard,andmyparentsVisalakshiand(thelate)DrS.R.D.Guha.AspecialsalaamtomyfriendsJagadevGajare,M.V.RavishankarandR.Ullagadi,allofRay+KeshavanDesignAssociates,wholovinglyrestoredandsequencedthephotosforthisbook.Iwouldliketothankthreeindividualswhoreadtheentiremanuscriptindraft:
KatherineBoo,SaulDubowandDavidGilmour.Distinguishedwritersall,theybroughtdifferentbutcomplementaryperspectives,correctingerrors,smoothingoutmyprose,alertingmetonewlinesofenquiry.DavidandKateareoldfriends,whoseassistancemayinthiscasebe(somewhat)takenforgranted.SaulDubow,ontheotherhand,Iknowonlythroughemail.Thatheagreedtoreadabookbyastranger,onshortnotice,anddidsowithsuchacuityandthoroughness,speaksofacollegialityabsentamonghistoriansofmanycountriesbutnot,itseems,amongthoseofSouthAfrica.IalsoowealargedebttotwoIndianscholars.Thepublisherandliterary
historianRukunAdvanireadsomeearlychaptersandadvisedonhowtheymightbeimproved;thisbookalsodrawsondozensofconversationswehavehadovertheyearsonthetechnique(s)ofbiographicalwriting.Meanwhile,theveteranpoliticalhistorianS.R.MehrotraalertedmetothecrucialimportancetotheGandhistoryofPranjivanMehta.Heselflesslyguidedmetothekeysources,despiteworkingonalifeofMehtahimself.ProfessorMehrotra’szestandzeal(inhiseighties,hethinksnothingoftakinganighttrainfromShimlatoDelhi,checkingsomedocumentsinthearchives,andtakinganighttrainbackhome)providednourishmentandexamplewhenmyownenergiesflagged.Asalways,thisbookcouldnothavebeenwrittenwithoutthesolidarityand
supportofmyfamily.Mywifeandsonreadsomechaptersandcommentedmost
helpfullyonthem.MydaughteraccompaniedmeonamagicaltourofGandhi’sKathiawar.Butmerelythefactofbeingwiththemisenoughtokeepmegoing.ItwasmyagentGillColeridgewhofirstconvincedmethatIshouldwritea
biographyofGandhi.WhenIhadaccumulatedtoomanymaterialstodothisinonego,shesuggestedImakeittwovolumesinstead.Meanwhile,Gill’scolleague,MelanieJackson,hasbeenquitesuperbatworkingouttheNorthAmericanendofthings.IamalsogratefultoallGill’scolleaguesatRogers,ColeridgeandWhitefortheirassistanceovertheyears,andparticularlytotheindispensableCaraJonesandtomyoldmentorPeterStraus.GillandMelaniehelpedplacethisbookinthehandsofsomefantasticeditors.
MyyearinLondonwasthusfurtherenrichedbymanystimulatingconversationswithSimonWinderatPenguinPress.Simonreadmydraftsveryclosely,andwasparticularlyhelpfulinmakingmethinkthroughthelinksbetweenbiographyandhistory.AlsoatPenguinUK,JaneBirdsellhasbeenanexpertandextremelyunderstandingcopy-editor.IcarrywarmmemoriesoflonglunchesinNewYorkwithSonnyMehta,the
conversationmostlyaroundGandhibutnotexcludingthegameofcricket.Sonnyreadseveraldrafts,encouragingmeespeciallytofleshoutthesecondarycharacters.HisKnopfcolleagueDanFrankalsoprovidedexcellentcomments.AtRandomHouseCanada,AnneCollinscommentedmostvaluablyonanearlydraft,andwasalwaysavailableasasoundingboardonmattersofstructureandstyle.AtPenguinIndia,mydearfriendNandiniMehtahasbeenasolidsourceof
support.ShehasworkedwithmethroughmoredraftsofthisbookthanI(orshe)caretoremember.LikeSonny,NandiniinsistedthatIpaymoreattentiontoGandhi’sfriendsandfamily.IamalsogratefultoChikiSarkarforherinsightfulcommentsonalatedraft,andforherenthusiasmforallthingsconnectedwithpublishing,whichmakesherauthorsworkharderthantheymightotherwisetendtodo.ThepersonwithwhomIhavediscussedmysubjectlongestisGopalkrishna
Gandhi.Inthetwenty(andmore)yearsofourfriendship,GopalGandhihastaughtmemuchaboutMohandasGandhi,aboutGujaraticulture,andaboutIndianhistory.Inthecontextofthisparticularbook,however,hisgreatestgiftwasthathesentmetomeetEnugaS.ReddyinNewYorkinoraroundtheyear
1992.Itwasacoldanddarkwinterevening,andMrReddythenworkedoutofasmall(anddark)roomsomewhereneartheUNheadquartersinmidtownManhattan.Eversince,MrReddyhasilluminatedmypathtoGandhi.Allthroughtheresearchandwritingofthisbook,IhavedrawnregularlyandrepeatedlyonhisphenomenalknowledgeofGandhiandofSouthAfrica.Hehasdirectedmetorarematerialsinarchivesaroundtheworld.Hehasprovidedmanymaterialsfromhisowncollection.And,inbetweenvarioushospitalstintsandfamilycommitments(amongthemcelebratingthebirthofagreat-grandchild),hehasreadandcorrectedmydrafts.ThededicationtoGandhiBeforeIndiainadequatelyexpresseswhatI(andnumerousotherGandhischolars)owethisshy,gentle,greatlylearned,andtrulyheroicman.
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