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*
Assoc.Prof.Ph.D.D.Sc.Arch.TeresaBardzińska-Bonenberg,FacultyofArchitectureandDesign,UniversityofArtsinPoznań.
TereSABArDzińSkA-BonenBerg*
gamEs oF history anD politics – architEcturE oF grEat chinEsE
citiEs: shanghai
igraszki historii i polityki – architEktura wiElkich miast chin:
szanghaj
S u m m a r
ySincethebeginningofthe20thcenturydevelopmentofgreatChinesecitieshasbeeninfluencedbyforeignpatterns.Housesofdifferenttypeshavebeenbuiltamongthetraditionalbuildings.The
areasofShanghai “concessions”werebuilt in a
specificway.AfterthewarSovietinfluenceswereintroduced.nowadaysinternationalcorpo-rationsoutdooneanotherintheheightandoriginalityoftheirskyscrapers.
Keywords: city centre, concessions, vernacular architecture,
communication, scale, form, technique, construction
S t r e s z c z e n i
eodpoczątkuXXw.rozwójwielkichchińskichmiastodbywałsiępodcorazwięk-szymwpływemeuropejskichiamerykańskichwzorców.Wśródrodzimejtkankimia-stapojawiałysiękamienice,apartamentowce,rezydencje.WSzanghaju,wszczegól-nysposóbzabudowanoterenyeksterytorialnycheuropejskich„koncesji”.Powojniewpływwywarłyradzieckiekoncepcjeurbanistyczneiarchitektoniczne.obecniemię-dzynarodowekorporacjeprowadząswoistykonkurswysokościioryginalnościformswychnowychsiedzib.
Słowa kluczowe: centrum miasta, koncesje, architektura rodzima,
komunikacja, ska-la, forma, technika, konstrukcja
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1. Introduction
overthelast150yearsChinese-Westernrelationshaveseenbothupsanddowns.UntiltheoutbreakofwarwithJapanin1937Shanghai–called“Parisof
theeast”–hadbeendevelopedinlinewitheuropeanandAmericantraditions.inthe1920sand1930spoliticaldecisionscontributedtotherenaissanceoftraditionalChinesearchitecture.Afterthewarcul-turallyalienideasandtechnologieswereimportedfromtheSovietUnion.AfteradecadeofeconomiccollapseduringtheCulturalrevolutionofthe1960sandopeningtotheWestsincetheendofthe20thcenturythecityhasagainbecomeaplacewithavant-gardearchitectureandurbandevelopment.
TheaimofthepaperistoshowthechangesthathavetakenplaceinShanghai’sarchitec-tureagainstthebackgroundofpoliticalandsocialeventsattheendofthe19thcentury,the20thcenturyandthebeginningofthe21stcentury.
2. Shanghai during the time the Empire of China
Thebeginningofthe19thcenturywasmarkedbycontemporarytiesbeinginstitutedbe-tweenChinaandeuropeanculture,whencontactsbetweentheMiddlekingdomandeuropeaswellasAmericabegantoflourishthankstoseatrade.
inthebeginning,Shanghaiwasnotpowerful,butasearlyas751ADitwasanimportantcentreanditsdevelopmentwasdrivenbyriverandseatrade.ThefirstplanofShanghaidatesfromthe17thcenturyandshowsacitysurroundedbycircularfortificationsandamoatwithafreeinternalstreetlayoutfollowingstreamsflowsthroughthem1.
Thefortificationswerebuiltaround1553andfollowedthecontourofevenearlierdefences.Atthattimethecitywasalsoaweavingandacraftcentreaswellasasignificantadministrativecentre[8,p.23].
The following centuries saw the development of Shanghai in the
orbit of
subsequentChinesestates.However,itwasnotamajorportthatwasabletomaintaincontactswiththeWest.Thisrolewasplayedbyguangzhou(Canton)[6,p.6–7].ShanghaihadspecificurbandevelopmentwhichwasdifferentfromthesystemofBeijinghutongs
[1,p.9–21],whichwasfurtherdevelopedandconsolidatedbysubsequentevents.itwasnotuntil1843,theyearinwhichthenankinTreatywassigned,thattheportbecameaninternationaltradecentreandthe“concessions”,whereeuropeanslived,weredelimitedinthevicinityoftheoldtown2.
3. Shanghai in the international arena for the first time
in1845, theQuingdynastyandQueen Victoria’sgovernmentsigned
thedocument ti-tledLand Regulations,according
towhichgreatBritainwasgranteda“concession”areaof55.4hasouthofwhatisnowthewaterfrontareaofBund.Thishadaninfluenceonthefurther
development of the city, particularly its diversity of architecture
with european
1 ShanghaioldCityWallandDajinggePavilionMuseum–maps.2
nanjingTreaty(1842)betweengreatBritainandemperorofChinaassignedfourportsopenforforeigntrade,Shanghaiamongthem.ActuallytheTreatymarkedthebeginningofthecolonizationofChina.
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origin.itwasthefirstestateforforeignersthatwasaffordedextraterritorialrightsinChina.in1848,anAmericansettlementwasestablishedwhichsooncametobecalledthe“ShanghaiinternationalSettlement”
togetherwith theBritishone. in1899, theareawasenlarged
to2234.7ha.TheFrenchsettlementwasestablishedin1849inanareawiththesizeofasmanyas743.7hain19143.
germanhouseswerebuiltthelatestin1936.
SouthoftheYangtzerivertraditionalurbandevelopmentcouldbefoundintheformoflilongtypestreets.Thenameisderivedfromthesocialconceptofsettlement:“fivehouse-holdsmakeaneighbourhood(lin),andfivelinsmakeacommunity(li)”,whereaslongmeans“asmallstreet”.Until1876,therewereasmanyas105settlementunitscalledli[9,p.75].
initially,thesettlementhousesinthatareawerelowandwooden[5,p.1–27].Aftersocialun-restinthefirstdecadesofthe20thcenturythousandsofChineselandownerssoughtshelterinthecityintheconcessionarea.ThenecessitytointensifythedevelopmentcontributedtotheterracedhousescommoninenglishcitiesbeingadaptedtothetraditionoftheShanghairegion.Housesbuiltinthisperiodarereferredtoasshikumens4.
overthedecades,becauseofthediversifiedneedsofdwellersandtherisingpricesofbuildingplots,fivetypesofshi-kumens
came tobedevelopedcharacterisedbyahighdegreeof functionaldiversity
[14].Therewerealsodifferentdevelopmentstyles:englishandDutchred-brickhouses(ill.1),plastered,withbalustersofterracesinFrenchlilongs(ill.2)andamodernist,Bauhausiangermancomplex[13,p.368].(ill.3)
Until1941,amosaicofarchitecturalsolutionswascreatedthatsynthesisedthestylisticsoftheeuropeanarchitectureofthefirsthalfofthe20thcentury,whereasfunctionalsolutionsofhousescorrespondedtoChinesetraditionadaptedtotheneedsofeuropeancommunities.Theurbandevelopmentofconcessionareaswashaphazard,createdinahurryandresultedfromthelayoutofwatercoursesandanetworkofhistoricalroads.
Apartfromhousingdevelopmentabusinessdistrictwascreatedalongthewaterfrontthatwashometomonumentalbuildingsofvariousarchitecturalstylesinwhichbanks,tradecom-panies,clubsandhotelswerefound.erectedbyeuropeanandAmericanarchitects,theycon-tributedtothecityarchitecturebeinginfluencedbyforeignstyles[13,p.310–317].(ill.4.5.)Subsequentlyevenmoremagnificentresidenceswerebuilt5andstate-of-the-artmaterialswereused,oftenbroughtfromeurope,e.g.cementforreinforcedconcretestructuresofbuildings[2,p.85–86].insomecasesarchitectshadnofinanciallimitsimposed,thankstowhichthe19thcenturylavishnessoffaçadesandinteriorsremainsastonishingtothisday[10,p.34].
in1948,theconcessionswereterminatedandtheirinhabitantsleftthePeople’srepublicofChina.
4. Return to the past
After1912,ontheruinsoftheempireofChina,therepublicofChinawasestablishedrun
by nationalists. This meant that in the 1930s apart from developing
concession and
3
Dataondevelopmentoftheconcessionsfrom:ForeignSettlementinShanghai,mapsandareasdatabetween1855and1929,from:ShanghaiUrbanexhibitionCentre.
4
originally“shikumen”means“stonegate”,ashouses’entranceswerebuiltinsuchaway.5
ShanghaiUrbanexhibitionCentre,detailedphotographyandcadastraldocumentationofthechangeswithinquayside.
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ill.1.BrittishConcession,streetfrom1924ill.2.FrenchConcession,housingfrom1903ill.3.germansettlementfrom1936ill.4.Bund,glenLineSteamshipCompanyBuilding,Palmer&Turner,1921ill.5.Bund,BankofCommunication,C.H.gonda,1908ill.6.ShanghaiMuseum,DongDayou,1935ill.7.ShanghaiLibrary,DongDayou,1935ill.8.ShanghaiexhibitionCentre,Anderlev,Jislova,1955ill.9.SkylineofPudongDistrict
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waterfrontareasarchitecturewascreated in thenational form
inspiredby
thekuomitangPartyinpower.in1927,aplanofgreaterShanghaiwaspreparedcovering6538km2.
ontheedgesofthecitytherearefragmentsoftheinterestingurbanplanningschemeandtheadministrativeandculturalcentrethatwerestarted.ThearchitectDongDajou,educatedintheUSA,createdamonumentalcomplexdesignedintheshapeofacross.Thiswassup-posedtoserveasacounterbalancetotheroleplayedbytheconcessionsinthecity[10,p.267].Publicbuildings,includingadministrationbuildings,weresupposedtobeconstructedclosetothemainsquarethatconstitutedtheheartofthedistrict.Uptonowthefollowingbuildingshavebeenpreserved:amuseum,theseatofgovernment,andalibrary–allmain-tainedinthenew“national”Chinesestyle.(ill.6.,7.)Themainhousingestatestreetsledradiallyfromthecentre,whichmadeitpossiblefor
theresidentialdistrict
todevelopandlinktotheexistingroadnetwork[10,p.266].Theconceptwassoonabandonedduetothehistoricaleventsthatfollowed.
AfterWorldWar2inthenewpoliticalsystemtieswiththeWestweresevered.Anothercityplanwasdevelopedafter1946underCommunist
rule.Shanghaiwas
toserveasoneofChina’slargestindustrialcentresandwithin50yearsitwastohaveapopulationof15million(in2013ithad23.9millioninhabitants[15]).The1927planwasabandonedbutthedevelopmentconceptwhichconsistedincreatingsatellitetownswascontinuedandaplanfordevelopingthemetropolitanareaofShanghaiwasprepared[7,p.39].inShanghaionlyonemonumentbuildingwascreatedthatrepresentedsocialistrealistarchitecture:(ill.8)theShanghaiexhibitionCentre–Sino-SovietFriendshipMansionbuiltin1955anddecoratedinaneclecticChino-russianway[12,p.26–49].
AnotherpoliticalchangeintheformoftheCulturalrevolutionofthe1960sstoppedthecityfromdevelopingfor10yearsandcausedaconsiderableinfluxofpeople.
5. Shanghai in the international arena for the second time
Theopeninguppolicyconducted since the1970sby
theChinesegovernment and
itsattempttoadopta“thirdroad”policyconsistingincombiningcentralplanningandprivateentrepreneurship[3]contributedtoanothereconomicandconstructionboomvisiblesincethe1990s.ThiswasfacilitatedbytheeconomicslowdownineuropeandAmericaandthesearchfornewmarketandproductionoutlets.
ThechangesthathavetakenplacetoShanghai’sstreetsandskylinehavebecomepartof
theglobal
trendsofarchitecturalandurbansolutions.The“UrbanMasterPlan for
theYears1986–1999”providedforintegralsatellitetownsbeingcreatedthatcombinedallthefunctionsandspecialisedproduction
thatdeterminedurbandevelopment [4].At that timethe following were
constructed in the city: the main train station, the first
undergroundlines,twonewbridges(crossingtheHuangpu),aringroadandexitroadsfromflyoversandover130residentialdistricts.TheHongqiaoairportwasalsomodernised.Thearchitecturebureaux
thathavebeendesigningforShanghaisince the90s includeall
thegreatnames:Foster+Partners,gmpvongerkan,goettschPartners,HeatherwickStudios,knippersHelbigAdvancedengineering,kohnPedersonFoxAssociates(kPF),Michaelgraves,MargandPartners,
Marshall Strabala Architect, Miralles Tagliabue Architects (eMBT),
MVrDV,nikkenSekkei,PaulAndreuArchitects,renzoPianoBuildingWorkshop,richardrogers,Skidmore,owings&Merrill(SoM),SladeArchitecture,andzahaHadidArchitects[16].in
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thePudongdistrictintheformerindustrialeastriverbankafinancialcentrehasbeencreatedsince1990swiththetallestandmostinterestingworldskyscrapers:ShanghaiTower,632min2015;ShanghaiWorldFinancialCenter,492min2008andJinMaoTower,421min1999andothersaswellasthenewPudongairport.(ill.9).
The turningpoint in theway
thecitywasperceivedanddevelopedwaseXPo2010,organisedbythecityofShanghai.itledtoinvestmentsinthecentre,expansionoftheun-derground,buildingasystemofflyoversandcreatinganewdistrictthepartofwhichwereeXPo-relatedinvestments.
oneofthemainguidelinesofthecurrentgeneralPlanofShanghaifortheyears1999–2020
is to reclaimpost-industrial areas in the city centre and to
creategreenareas
alongnumerouswatercoursesandtheHuangpuriver[17].
6. Recapitulation
Forthelast150yearsShanghai’sspatialdevelopmenthasbeendependentonthevaryingpoliticalconfigurationsathomeandabroad;ithasbeenshapedbywars,politicalalliancesandideology.ChinahasestablishedmutuallysignificanttieswiththeWesttwice:inthe1840sandinthe1980s.Twice,ithasseveredthetieswiththeworldforpoliticalreasons.inthe1920sthecountrycreateditsowncodeofnationalarchitectureandadoptedimporteddesignstylesinthepost-warperiod.AllthesechangeshavelefttheirmarkonthecontemporaryspaceofShanghai.
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