Literature Review Part 1: What is Social exclusion? Part 2: What is Social Housing Policy in Ireland Part 3: What is regeneration? Part 4: Social exclusion in Limerick Part 5: Regeneration in Limerick The introduction of regeneration policies / programmes in Limerick City in the areas of public housing has provided the opportunity for social inclusion in regeneration areas and has addressed the failures of government policies over many years, in this policy area. This literature review will be divided into 3 chapters. The first chapter will examine the nature of social exclusion and poverty in the international context. The second chapter will examine Irish Social housing policy since the 1960s. Finally the 3 rd chapter will examine the relevant literature on regeneration in Ireland and abroad. Aims of this chapter The first section of the chapter will describe the definition and examine the relationship between poverty and social exclusion. The third part will examine the various methods of measuring social exclusion from an international and Irish Perpestive. Part 1: What is Poverty? Poverty has always been defined according to the standards in which a people in a certain place are familiar with. Callan and Nolan note that there is uncertainty associated with the term and concept of social exclusion in the context of policy making (Callan, Nolan, 1994, pp 9-11). This is due to the term of poverty a wide ranging concept that has common usage both within academic application and outside the academic world. Because of its wide range of usage, Callan and Nolan note that there should be variations between talking about poverty
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Literature Review
Part 1: What is Social exclusion?
Part 2: What is Social Housing Policy in Ireland
Part 3: What is regeneration?
Part 4: Social exclusion in Limerick
Part 5: Regeneration in Limerick
The introduction of regeneration policies / programmes in Limerick City in the areas of
public housing has provided the opportunity for social inclusion in regeneration areas and
has addressed the failures of government policies over many years, in this policy area.
This literature review will be divided into 3 chapters. The first chapter will examine the
nature of social exclusion and poverty in the international context. The second chapter will
examine Irish Social housing policy since the 1960s. Finally the 3rd
chapter will examine the
relevant literature on regeneration in Ireland and abroad.
Aims of this chapter
The first section of the chapter will describe the definition and examine the relationship
between poverty and social exclusion. The third part will examine the various methods of
measuring social exclusion from an international and Irish Perpestive.
Part 1: What is Poverty?
Poverty has always been defined according to the standards in which a people in a certain
place are familiar with. Callan and Nolan note that there is uncertainty associated with the
term and concept of social exclusion in the context of policy making (Callan, Nolan, 1994, pp
9-11). This is due to the term of poverty a wide ranging concept that has common usage both
within academic application and outside the academic world. Because of its wide range of
usage, Callan and Nolan note that there should be variations between talking about poverty
within developed counties in the First World and talking about poverty in the developing
Third World (Callan, Nolan, 1994, pp 9-11).
Townsend defines members of society to be in poverty as “Individuals, families and groups
are said to be in poverty when they lack the resources to obtain the types of diet, participate
in the activities and have the living conditions that are customary or at least widely
encouraged in the societies to which they belong.” (Townsend, 1979, p31).
It can be noted therefore, that poverty exists when individuals and families only have access
to subsistent level income. There are various types of poverty. These are distinguishe the
differences between both absolute and relative poverty.
Absolute poverty : Sen argues that if a person is unable to access the basic resources to fulfil
their basic needs than they are considered to be in absolute poverty (Townsend, 1993,
pp124). A person’s basic needs can be divided into two categories, a person’s basic physical
needs in order to survive, (access to food, shelter, clothing and employment, minimum wage)
and also a person’s social needs (contact with other human beings, such as parents, friends
etc). (ibid pp124-132).
Relative poverty is a more refined approach to determining different poverty levels within
societies. Relative poverty can be applied to different circumstances. This relative approach is
used in the context of those living below the average income level are unlikely to participate
fully in the community and society (Nolan, Callan, 1994, p 16).
What is Social exclusion
The term social exclusion has come into extensive use within political circles with regard to
the idea that persons can be excluded from the benefits of society (Penguin Dictionary of
Sociology, 2006, pp 355-356). Walter and Park note that there is a poverty can led to social
exclusion by way of people living in poverty can be cut off from access to income, social
services and lose social contact with the rest of society (Lister, 2004, p81). It is defined as:
“Social exclusion does not only mean insufficient income, and it even goes beyond
participation in working life…it is the rupture of the social link, it suggests something more
than social inequality and therefore carries with it the risk of a two-tier society. (Tricart,
cited in Alcock, 2006, p121).
Dimensions of social exclusion
Silver examines three significant paradigms where the interpretations of social exclusion are
based. These paradigms are labelled ‘solidarity’, specialisation’ and monopoly.
Solidarity
The paradigm of solidarity attempts to understand the role of how the state attempts to bind
society together. Solidarity sees social exclusion as a breakdown between the relationship
between certain individuals and the rest of society. This breakdown can be caused by society
abandoning or segregating the individual (Lisiter, 2004, Silver, 2008).
Specialisation.
Specialisation focuses on the individual. Social exclusion is usually the result of the
economic division of labour between the upper classes and the working classes, social
differences between the classes. The results include discrimination against the individual or
group prevent people from exercising participating in a society (Lisiter, 2004, Silver, 2008).
Monopoly
Social exclusion is relates to the hierarchical power within the social order of society.
Powerful groups of individuals restrict the access of outsiders to certain privileges and
services. Inequality is created because of this. (de Hann, 2001).
Irish Context of social exclusion.
In the Irish context, the Combat poverty agency considers Social exclusion is considered to
be one of the negative effects of poverty. As economic growth in societies fails to reduce
inequalities and in fact can increase inequalities in societies (Combat Poverty Agency, 1997).
As this inequality in society deepens, people who live in poverty are more likely to be
prevented from acting as independent individuals in society.
Callan and Nolan note that measuring poverty in Ireland is based, similarly to other countries
in the European Union, on income information. Income information can include examining
the numbers of households that fall below average income thresholds in Ireland (Callan,
Nolan, 1994, p27).
By examining poverty and social exclusion through income trends has its limitations. They
take into consideration that income is not the sole determent of social exclusion. They, like
Berghman, argue that there are other factors that determine social exclusion such as family
support, and other aspects lifestyle, such as community involvement and social participation
in leisure activities (Callan, Nolan, 1994, p 50).
Part 2 Housing Policies in Ireland and social exclusion
The previous chapter has described the theoretical aspect of social exclusion and various
methods of measuring poverty and social exclusion.
This chapter will be divided into three parts. Part 1 will describe the various problems in Irish
urban areas, with particular reference to social housing estates. Part 2 will examine the
housing ideologies that influence state housing policy.
Part 3 will examine the recent transformation of Irish housing policy has undergone hin
response increased role of the markets in the housing sector (MacLaren et al 2007 p2).
Introduction
Despite a large increase in the number of houses and apartments built by local authorities and
private developers of the past decade, Ireland still faces a major ‘housing crises’ where the
lower social classes housing areas are separated from the rest of society through inequality
and segregation. This is due to the argument that housing ideologies have had a major impact
on the policy evolution of housing in Ireland and has contributed to the social segregation of
many individuals living within social housing estates (Drudy, 2006 p242).
Social exclusion in Ireland.
Social exclusion in Ireland can be examined by highlighting the major differences and social
and spatial differences between rich and poor neighbourhoods in urban areas (Hourigan,
2011, p xiii).
During the second half of the twentieth century, Ireland began to transition from an
agricultural based economy toward an industrialised Fordist society, and by the end of the
century a post-Fordist society. One of the effects of this shift is migration from rural to urban
areas resulting in a ‘profound change in society’ (Whelan, Layte, 2004, pp38-40). This has
resulted in an increase in the population in urban areas, and subsequently a decrease in the
population in rural areas. As result of this, local governments face challenges brought about
by social segregation from economic and social perspectives within urban areas (Colantonio,
Dixon, 2011, p4).
Within urban areas, a lack of social fluidity is most visible where there is intergenerational
poverty that is concentrated in deprived neighbourhoods. It should be noted that where there
is evidence of low educational attainment, high unemployment, low rates of car ownership,
high rates of lone-parent households and high rates of crime and labour force participation is
geared toward unskilled or semi-skilled labour (McCafferty a, 2009, p34).
Housing Policy in Ireland.
Healy and Reynolds draw upon three philosophies when studying the allocation of housing in
Ireland. These philosophies have a critical influence of the kinds of policies pursued by
central and local government and the type of housing system that emerges as a result of those
policies (Drudy, 2007, p85). There are different tenure types that vary across different nation
states, These three tenure types are, owner-occupied housing, rented housing and social
housing. For the purposes of this essay we will focus of the provision of owner-occupied and
socially rented housing.
Approaches to housing: A commodity or a social right.
Market system
The first approach views the market as the ideal provider for housing and determining
market prices. In this philosophy housing can be considered to be a commodity like any other
object of value such as cars and televisions (Drudy, 2007).
As the market grows, the state’s main role is to provide the private developers with the
necessary means to construct houses. This may involve fast tracking planning, providing tax
breaks, and paying for services such as sewerage and waste removal. (Considine, Dukelow,
2009, p339).
Despite having a minimal role in housing provision, the state will provide housing for those
who cannot afford it. Thus it can be argued that the market philosophy can lead to
segregation between those of housing types and various social groups (Drudy, 2006, pp 242-
243). This social diversity leads to structured patterns of social segregation within certain
areas. These areas differ from each other in terms of age and population, occupation, levels of
education, etc (McCafferty, cited in Hourigan 2011, p4).
Socially Rented housing
The second approach, places emphasis on housing as a social right. In this approach, social
housing is provided by government. The supply of housing is considered to be part of a
‘holistic process’ to improve the quality of life for all. Housing is placed within a broader
development framework in order to create a more ‘sustainable society’. These include access
to employment, lifelong learning opportunities, a high standard of health services and
adequate social amenities (Drudy 2007, p87).
As housing is provided is not for the purposes of profit. Allocation to social housing is
granted through allocation mechanisms designed to distribute housing to those most in need.
(Considine, Dukelow, 2009a, p333).
History of Housing polices in Ireland.
Irish housing policy has undergone huge transformation since Independence. The state’s role
has changed from the provider of social housing in the 1920s and 1930s toward the facilitator
of social housing at the end of the 20th
century
In the early 1920s, following the formation of the Irish Free State, it was deemed necessary
for the State to address the issues of slum conditions in many urban areas.
Central and local government provide publically rented housing to the lower classes to assist
the low-income population in achieving a better quality of life. The 1930s saw the state began
to shift away from government provided public-rented housing to increasing private output
through subsidising private companies to construct social housing (Norris, 2004, p17).
Since the 1930s the number of owner-occupied dwellings in Ireland has doubled, while the
socially rented sector has declined on account of government policies favouring home
ownership such as tenant purchase despite high levels of social housing construction since the
1970s. This has had a major impact that this has had on socially excluded individuals who are
unable to afford to purchase housing.
1970s-1980s
In the mid-20th
century demand for social housing rose due to an increased population that
outpaced social housing output. The 1970s saw investment in the construction of social
housing on the outskirts of towns and cities with estates such as Southill in Limerick and
Tallaght in Dublin. Due to the economic difficulties, urban design was stripped down to the
bare minimum in order to save costs. ‘Roads were long and straight as this saved on the road
length per house…Economies of scale were achieved through the construction of hundreds of
standardized houses and reducing the size space between houses as much as possible