CERMES Technical Report N o 71 Future of Reefs in a Changing Environment: an ecosystem approach to managing Caribbean coral reefs in the face of climate change Belize Country Profile ANGELIE PETERSON, RACHEL TURNER, DAVID GILL, JOHANNA FORSTER, CLARE FITZSIMMONS, ROBIN MAHON, HAZEL OXENFORD AND SELINA STEAD Centre for Resource Management and Environmental Studies (CERMES) The University of the West Indies Cave Hill Campus, Barbados School of Marine Science & Technology Ridley Building Newcastle University Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK 2014
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CERMES Technical Report No 71
!
Future of Reefs in a Changing Environment: an ecosystem approach to managing Caribbean coral reefs in
the face of climate change
Belize Country Profile ANGELIE PETERSON, RACHEL TURNER, DAVID GILL, JOHANNA FORSTER, CLARE
FITZSIMMONS, ROBIN MAHON, HAZEL OXENFORD AND SELINA STEAD
Centre!for!Resource!Management!and!Environmental!Studies!(CERMES)!!The!University!of!the!West!Indies!Cave!Hill!Campus,!Barbados!!
School!of!Marine!Science!&!Technology!Ridley!Building!Newcastle!University!Newcastle!upon!Tyne,!NE1!7RU,!UK
2014!
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The! research! leading! to! these! results! has! received! funding! from! the! European! Union! 7th!Framework!programme!(P7/2007Q2013)!under!grant!agreement!No.!24416.
The!research!was!only!possible!through!the!efforts!and!contributions!of!a!multitude!of!people.!Field! assistance! was! provided! by! Cecilia! Guerrero,! Lindolfo! Chicas! and! Natalie! Morrish.!Assistance!with!data!entry!and!transcription!was!provided!by!Chike!Barrow!and!Catrina!Hinds.!In!Belize,!the!research!team!was!helped!by!James!Azueta!from!the!Belize!Fisheries!Department,!Janet!Gibson!and!Roberto!Pott!from!the!Wildlife!Conservation!Society!(WCS),!Dr!Leandra!ChoQRicketts! at! the!University! of! Belize! and! staff! from! the!Department! of!Marine! Resources,! the!Southern! Environmental! Association! (SEA)! and! the! Coastal! Zone!Management! Authority! and!Institute! (CZMAI).! The! research!would!not!have!been!possible!without! the!many!participants!who!gave!up! their! valuable! time! to! contribute! their! knowledge!and!experiences! towards! the!research!presented!here.!
This!report!has!been!translated!to!Spanish!by!Bertha!Simmons!and!is!available!on!the!CERMES!website.!
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TABLE.OF.CONTENTS.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS!.....................................................................................................................!i!
TABLE!OF!CONTENTS!......................................................................................................................!ii!
ACRONYMS!....................................................................................................................................!iv!
EXECUTIVE!SUMMARY!...................................................................................................................!vi!
1! INTRODUCTION!........................................................................................................................!1!
! Introduction!to!the!FORCE!project!....................................................................................!1!1.1
! Governance!of!coral!reefs!.................................................................................................!3!1.2
! Livelihoods!and!coral!reefs!................................................................................................!3!1.3
! Objectives!of!this!report!....................................................................................................!4!1.4
2! OVERVIEW!OF!WORK!...............................................................................................................!5!
! Household!interviews!........................................................................................................!6!2.1
! Governance!interviews!......................................................................................................!6!2.2
! Social!network!analysis!......................................................................................................!7!2.3
! Community!meetings!........................................................................................................!7!2.4
! National!consultation!........................................................................................................!7!2.5
! Scenario!and!feedback!meetings!.......................................................................................!7!2.6
3! COUNTRY!AND!SITE!PROFILES!..................................................................................................!8!
! Country!Profile!...................................................................................................................!8!3.1
! Site!Profiles!......................................................................................................................!13!3.2
! Demographics!..................................................................................................................!17!3.3
4! HISTORICAL!TIMELINES!..........................................................................................................!19!
! National!key!events!.........................................................................................................!19!4.1
! Hopkins!key!events!..........................................................................................................!19!4.2
! Placencia!key!events!........................................................................................................!20!4.3
! San!Pedro!key!events!.......................................................................................................!21!4.4
5! REEF!HEALTH!..........................................................................................................................!27!
! Perceived!drivers!of!reef!health!......................................................................................!27!5.1
! iii! !
! Household!perceptions!of!reefs!......................................................................................!30!5.2
6! GOVERNANCE!OF!REEFS!.........................................................................................................!36!
! Policy!Analysis!..................................................................................................................!36!6.1
! Household!perceptions!of!reef!governance!....................................................................!37!6.2
7! SOCIAL!NETWORK!ANALYSIS!..................................................................................................!39!
8! SUMMARY!..............................................................................................................................!41!
9! REFERENCES!...........................................................................................................................!42!
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Citation:!
Peterson,!A.,!R.!Turner,!D.!Gill,!J.!Forster,!C.!Fitzsimmons,!R.!Mahon,!H.!Oxenford,!and!S.!Stead!!2014.!Future!of!reefs!in!a!changing!environment:!an!ecosystem!approach!to!managing!Caribbean!coral!reefs!in!the!face!of!climate!change.!Belize!country!profile.!Centre!for!Resource!Management!and!Environmental!Studies,!The!University!of!the!West!Indies,!Cave!Hill!Campus,!Barbados.!CERMES!Technical!Report!No.!71,!44pp
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ACRONYMS.
APAMO! Association!of!Protected!Area!Management!Organisations!
BACSP! ! Belize!Association!of!Cruise!Ship!Providers!
BAHA! ! Belize!Agricultural!Health!Authority!
BAS! ! Belize!Audubon!Society!
Beltraide! Belize!Trade!and!Investment!Development!Services!
BFCA! ! Belize!Fishers!Cooperatives!Association!
BFF! ! Belize!Federation!of!Fishers!
BHA! ! Belize!Hotel!Association!
BNTOA!! Belize!National!Tour!Operators!Association!
BTB! ! Belize!Tourism!Board!
BTIA! ! Belize!Tourism!Industry!Association!
CBO! ! Community!based!organisation!
CERMES!! Centre!for!Resource!Management!and!Environmental!Studies!
CITES! ! Convention!on!International!Trade!in!Endangered!Species!of!Wild!Fauna!and!!
Flora!
COMPACT! Community!Management!of!Protected!Areas!for!Conservation!
CORAL!! Coral!Reef!Alliance!
CRFM! ! Caribbean!Regional!Fisheries!Mechanism!
CSME! ! CARICOM!Single!Market!and!Economy!
CZMAI! ! Coastal!Zone!Management!Authority!and!Institute!
DOE! ! Department!of!the!Environment!
EIAs! ! Environmental!Impact!Assessments!
EPA! ! Environment!Protection!Act!
ERI! ! Environmental!Research!Institute,!University!of!Belize!
FAB! ! Fisheries!Advisory!Board!
FAO! ! Food!and!Agriculture!Organization!
HRI! ! Healthy!Reefs!Initiative!
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IMM! ! International!Marine!Management!Ltd.!
IUCN! ! International!Union!for!Conservation!of!Nature!
MAR! ! Mesoamerican!Reef!
MPA! ! Marine!protected!area!
NCRMN! National!Coral!Reef!Monitoring!Network!
NEAC! ! National!Environmental!Appraisal!Committee!
NGOs!! ! NonQGovernmental!Organisations!
NICH! ! National!Institute!for!Culture!and!History!
NRM! ! Natural!resource!management!
OSPESCA! Organisation!of!Fishing!and!Aquaculture!in!Central!America!
PACT! ! Protected!Areas!Conservation!Trust!
PCSD! ! Peninsula!Citizens!for!Sustainable!Development!
SACD! ! Sarteneja!Alliance!for!Conservation!and!Development!
SEA! ! Southern!Environmental!Association!
SNA! ! Social!network!analysis!
SPAGs! ! Spawning!Aggregation!Groups!
TIDE! ! Toledo!Institute!for!Development!and!Environment!
TNC! ! The!Nature!Conservancy!
UB! ! University!of!Belize!
USAID! ! United!States!Agency!for!International!Development!
WCS! ! Wildlife!Conservation!Society!
WG! ! Working!group!
WWF! ! World!Wildlife!Foundation!
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EXECUTIVE.SUMMARY.
This! report!provides!a! summary!of!governance!and! livelihoods! research!conducted!as!part!of!the!Future!of!Reefs!in!a!Changing!Environment!(FORCE)!project.!The!health!of!Caribbean!reefs!has!deteriorated!rapidly!in!the!last!few!decades,!posing!a!threat!for!human!societies!through!a!loss! of! ecosystem! services.! There! is! an! urgent! need! to! improve! coral! reef! management! to!mitigate!or!adapt!to!these!threats.!Successful!management!requires!a!better!understanding!of!the! relationships! between! people! and! reefs.! The! research! conducted! through! the! FORCE!project!contributes!to!further!developing!our!understanding!of!these!relationships.!The!primary!aim!of!the!work!conducted!was!to!develop!a!greater!understanding!of!coastal!communities!in!the! Caribbean! and! how! changes! in! coral! reefs! affect! these! communities! given! the! current!governance!context.!
Research!in!Belize!was!conducted!in!2012!and!had!a!multiQlevel!focus;!research!was!conducted!at!the!community!level!and!the!national!level.!At!the!community!level!three!communities!were!studied:! Placencia,!Hopkins,! and! San! Pedro.! At! the! national! level,! research! focused!on! views!from!different!agencies!and!organisations!involved!in!coral!reef!governance!across!both!islands.!Nearly! 400! interviews!were! completed! as! part! of! this! study.! These! included! interviews!with!community! members,! fishing! and! tourism! resource! users,! government! agents,! and!representatives!of!NGOs.!
This!report!begins!with!an!overview!of!the!FORCE!project!and!the!governance!and!livelihoods!work!completed!within!the!project.!Following!this,!five!sections!provide!details!on!the!studied!communities!and!different!aspects!of!reefs!and!their!management!investigated!by!the!research.!First,!Belize!and! the! three!studied!communities!are!briefly!described,! including!demographics!and!characteristics!of!reef!use.!Second,!timelines!developed!through!community!and!national!consultation!meetings!are!presented.!These!provide!historical!context!and!an!overview!of!key!events!that!affected!the!reefs!or!people’s!relationships!with!the!reefs.!Third,!current!views!on!reef! importance,! reef!health,!and!drivers!of! reef!health!are!explored! from!both!a!community!and! national! perspective.! Fourth,! governance! of! coral! reefs! is! investigated! in! terms! of! the!actors! involved! in!reef!related!policymaking!and!community!perceptions!of!good!governance.!And! finally,! fifth,! informationQsharing! interactions! are! mapped! and! analysed! using! social!network!analysis.!!
The!purpose!of! this! report! is! to! summarise!data! collected!pertaining! to! coral! reefs,! their!use!and!governance!in!Belize,!to!highlight!differences!within!and!between!coastal!communities,!and!to!illustrate!contrasts!between!local!and!national!level!viewpoints.!!
! 1! !
1 INTRODUCTION
Introduction.to.the.FORCE.project.1.1
Coral!reefs!provide!important!ecosystem!services!to!coastal!communities! including!support!of!fisheries,!tourism,!coastal!defence!from!hurricanes,!generation!of!sand!and!building!materials,!and!the!highest!marine!biodiversity!on!Earth!(Moberg!and!Folke!1999;!Burke!et!al.!2011).!In!the!Caribbean!alone,!the!annual!net!benefits!of!reefs!through!fisheries,!dive!tourism,!and!shoreline!protection!were!valued!at!US$3.1!billion! to!$4.6!billion! in! the!year!2000! (Burke!and!Maidens!2004).! However,! despite! this! high! value,! the! ecological! state! of! Caribbean! reefs! has!deteriorated!rapidly!in!the!last!few!decades!(Gardner!et!al.!2003;!Burke!et!al.!2011;!Mora!2008).!This!decline! in!coral!ecosystems!poses!a! real! threat! for!human!societies!because!most!of! the!ecosystem! services! derived! from! coral! reefs! stem! from! the! coral! itself;! it! is! the! coral! that!provides!the!complex!reef!structure!that!underpins!biodiversity,! fisheries!production,!and!the!provision!of!a!structural!barrier!to!wave!energy!(Barbier!et!al.!2011).!
There!is!an!urgent!need!to!improve!coral!reef!management,!due!to!the!current,!and!growing,!demand! for! ecosystem! services! of! reefs! brought! on! by! rapid! population! expansion! and!predicted!impacts!from!climate!change!and!other!environmental!stressors!(Burke!and!Maidens!2004;! Burke! et! al.! 2011;! Mimura! et! al.! 2007;! McClanahan,! Abunge,! and! Cinner! 2012).! For!successful! management! of! reefs! to! be! achieved,! the! interactions! between! people! and! coral!reefs!need!to!be!better!understood,!and!integrated!into!reef!management!(Cinner!et!al.!2009).!Implementing!practical!marine!resource!management!to!promote!coral!reef!ecosystem!health!requires!an!understanding!of!the!management!and!governance!systems!that!influence!success!or!failure!of!particular!management!measures!(e.g.!marine!protected!areas).!The!overall!aim!of!the! Future! of! Reefs! in! a! Changing! Environment! (FORCE)! project! is! to! provide! coral! reef!managers! with! a! ‘toolbox’! of! sustainable! management! practices! that! they! can! choose! to!implement!within!the!governance!constraints!in!operation!for!their!particular!situation.!!
The!project!recognises!that!the!threats!to!coral!reefs!are!complex!and!addressing!them!requires!a!management!approach! that! integrates!natural,! social!and!economic!disciplines.!The!project!combines!natural!and!socioQeconomic!sciences!to!help!provide!new!insights!into!how!the!reefs!are!likely!to!change!and!how!these!changes!will!affect!coastal!communities!and!livelihoods!such!as! fisheries!and! tourism.!The!project! sought! to! identify!ways!of!managing! reefs! that!are!best!suited!to!regional!and!local!contexts,!providing!better!guidance!on!how!to!protect!the!reefs!on!which!so!many!Caribbean!people!depend.!
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The! FORCE! project! is! a! fiveQyear! collaborative! initiative! funded! by! the! European! Union! that!commenced! in! 2010.! FORCE! brings! together! a! unique!multiQdisciplinary! team! of! researchers!from!20!organisations!based!in!10!countries!within!the!Caribbean,!Europe,!the!US!and!Australia.!The!project! is!organised! into!11!work!packages! (Figure!1).!This! report!presents!a! selection!of!results! from!social! science!work!packages!1!and!2:!governance!and! livelihoods!of! coral! reefs.!This! research!was! conducted! in! four! countries:! Barbados,! Belize,! Honduras,! and! St! Kitts! and!Nevis!(Figure!2).!
Figure. 1. An. overview. of. the. work. plan. for. the. FORCE. project. (WP. =. work. package).. Data. from.WPs. 1R6. is.combined.into.the.more.integrative.work.completed.in.WP.7R10..
Figure. 2.Maps. of. a). study. countries. where.WP1. and.WP2. work. was. conducted,. and. bRe). study. sites. within.Barbados,. St. Kitts. and. Nevis,. Belize. and. Honduras.. Symbols. represent. reefRuse. characteristics. of. each.community;. circle. =. predominantly. fishing,. triangle. =. mixed. fishing. and. tourism,. square. =. predominantly.tourism.
WP#11.##Dissemina-on#of#results#
##
WP#9.#Evalua-on#of#restora-on#methods#
WP#10.#Evalua-on#of#the#efficacy#and#constraints#to#
management#tools#
WP#8.#Ecosystem#based#fisheries#management#and#
reserve#design#
WP#7.#Integrated#Modeling#of#Processes#
WP#1.#Governance#of#coral#reefs#
WP#4.#Ecological#Status#
WP#2.#Livelihoods#and#
coral#reefs#
WP#5.#Ecological#Processes#
WP#3.#Physical#Environments#
WP#6.#Impacts#of#Climate#Change#
! 3! !
Governance.of.coral.reefs.1.2
The! governance! component! of! the! FORCE! project! broadly! seeks! to! understand! the! decisionQmaking!processes!underpinning! the!ways!coral! reefs!are!managed! in! the!Caribbean,!with! the!aim! of! addressing! how! management! can! be! improved.! The! work! was! conducted! through! a!partnership! between! the! Centre! for! Resource! Management! and! Environmental! Studies!(CERMES)!at!the!University!of!the!West! Indies! in!Barbados,!and!the!School!of!Marine!Science!and!Technology!based!at!Newcastle!University!in!England.!
Many! proximate! causes! of! environmental! decline! have! been! ultimately! attributed! to! poor!governance,! which! has! failed! to! limit! anthropogenic! impacts! and! constrained! the! effective!implementation! of! management! tools! (Hughes! et! al.! 2010;! Mora! et! al.! 2009).! Improved!governance!is!considered!critical!to!how!effectively!coral!reefs!are!managed!in!the!future,!and!ultimately! to! the! survival! of! coral! reefs.! Governance! is! defined! here! as! the! structures! and!processes! that! determine! how! decisions! are! made,! power! is! exercised! and! responsibilities!allocated!(Graham,!Amos,!and!Plumptre!2003).!Governance!occurs!at!many!scales!and!includes!interactions!among!many!different! ‘actors’! in! society,! including!government,! civil! society! and!the!private!sector.!!
The! FORCE!project! aims! to!develop!a!multiQlevel! (local! to!national! level)! perspective!of! good!governance!by! building! an!understanding!of! the! socioQeconomic! characteristics! of! coral! reefQdependent! communities,! perceptions! and! opinions! about! governance,! and! the! types! of! reef!management!in!place.!With!this!perspective,!we!hope!to!better!understand!governance!and!the!links! between! governance! structure! and! management! implementation! in! order! to! inform!formulation! of! policies! that! are! more! likely! to! be! effective! in! supporting! sustainable!management,!and!use!of!coral!reefs.!
The!FORCE!project!aims!to!explore!and!understand!Caribbean!governance.!Its!objectives!are!to:!
1. Identify!and!collate!reef!management!tools;!2. Quantify!and!map!the!complexity!of!marine!resource!governance!in!a!variety!of!societal!
contexts!at!multiple!scales!(local,!national!and!regional)!taking!into!consideration!the!geoQpolitical!diversity!of!the!Caribbean!region;!
3. Determine!the!ultimate!causes!of!proximate!drivers!of!reef!health;!4. Complete!social!network!analysis!of!relationships!between!reef!resource!users!and!
managers;!5. Identify!governance!constraints!to!the!implementation!of!management!tools;!6. Develop!an!adaptive!governance!framework!
Livelihoods.and.coral.reefs.1.3
The! livelihoods! and! reefs! component! of! the! FORCE! project! is! concerned! with! exploring! the!relationship! between! people! and! coral! reefs! in! the! Caribbean.! The! research! was! led! by!International! Marine! Management! (IMM)! Ltd.,! in! partnership! with! CERMES! and! Newcastle!University.!
! 4! !
Considered!in!its!simplest!form,!this!relationship!may!be!defined!by!how!people!use!coral!reefs!and! in! turn!what! services!are!provided!by!coral! reefs! to! those!people.!Coral! reef!ecosystems!provide!services!which!people!may!depend!on!directly!and!indirectly,!and!which!go!beyond!the!provision!of!food!and!income.!As!highlighted!by!the!Millennium!Ecosystem!Assessment!(2005),!human!wellQbeing!is!supported!by!a!range!of!services,!including!supporting!services!(e.g.!habitat!provision,! support! for! life! cycles,!nutrient!cycles);!provisioning!services! (e.g.! fish! for! food!and!sale,! employment! and! income);! regulating! services! (e.g.! protection! from! coastal! erosion! and!storm!damage,!maintenance!of!water!quality,! formation!of!beaches!and! islands);!and!cultural!services!(e.g.!cultural!identity,!tourism!and!recreation,!research!and!interest).!
A!key!part!of!understanding!the!relationship!between!coral!reefs!and!associated!resourceQusers!is! to! understand! the!dependency!people!have!on! coral! reefs,!what! forms! that! can! take,! and!how! that! is! changing.! This!understanding!will! have! significant! implications! for!how!managers!can! respond! to! future! changes! in! ecosystem! services! flows! and! the! benefits! which! people!derive! from! them.! To! that! end,! the! livelihoods! component! of! the! FORCE! project! aims! to!characterise!the!varied!nature!of!people’s!dependency!on!coral!reefs!in!the!Caribbean!and!their!vulnerability! to! changes! in! the! ecosystem! services! coral! reefs! provide,! including! those!provisioning,! regulating,! cultural! and! supporting! services! previously! mentioned.! New!information! collected! from! the! FORCE! project! is! articulated! through! the! following! three!research!questions:!
1. How!do!people!in!the!Caribbean!depend!on!coral!reef!resources?!!2. How!are!people’s!relationships!with!coral!reefs!affected!by!change!in!reefs!and!access!to!
reef!services?!!3. How!do!people!in!coastal!communities!respond!to!changes!in!coral!reefs?!!
Objectives.of.this.report.1.4
This!report!presents!findings!of!the!social!science!research!conducted!in!Belize!in!2012!as!part!of!the!FORCE!Project.!The!document!is!presented!in!the!following!seven!sections:!
1. Overview!of!work:!an!introduction!to!the!research!approaches!used!and!summary!of!work!completed!
2. Country!and!site!profiles:!a!brief!description!of!the!country!studied!and!the!three!communities!where!research!was!conducted!including!community!demographics!
3. Historical!timelines:!a!review!of!key!events!and!changes!that!affected!the!reefs!or!people’s!relationships!with!reefs!at!a!country!and!community!level!
4. Reef!health:!an!overview!of!perceived!drivers!of!reef!health!and!perceptions!of!reef!health!
5. Governance!of!coral!reefs:!a!review!of!actors!involved!in!reef!related!policy!making!and!household!perceptions!of!good!governance!
6. InformationQsharing!networks:!social!network!analysis!of!reefQrelated!information!sharing!
7. Economics!of!reef!fish:!value!of!reef!fishing!and!tourism!and!responses!to!future!changes!
! 5! !
8. Summary!
This!report!aims!to!present!some!of!the! initial! results! found!as!part!of! this!research.!Findings!from! similar! work! completed! by! the! FORCE! project! in! Barbados,! Honduras,! and! St! Kitts! and!Nevis! are! presented! in! separate! reports! which! can! be! accessed! on! the! CERMES! website!(http://cermes.cavehill.uwi.edu).!Descriptive!case! studies!on! reef!dependency!and!change! for!each!country!are!also!available!as!individual!reports!which!can!be!accessed!on!the!IMM!website!(http://www.imm.uk.com).!
2 OVERVIEW.OF.WORK.
Multiple! field! surveys!were!used! to!address!a! range!of! governance!and! livelihoods!questions!from!a!multiQlevel!perspective!in!Belize!(Table!1)!and!replicated!in!three!other!countries!in!the!Wider!Caribbean!Region.!These!surveys!were!designed!to!assess!peoples’!attitudes,!behaviour,!dependency!on! coral! reef! resources,! livelihood!diversity! and!perceptions!of! coral! reef! health!and!management!at!an!individual,!community,!and!country!level.!In!order!to!represent!various!levels!of!social!and!economic!conditions,!and!marine!resource!dependency,!this!research!was!conducted! in! four! countries:! Barbados,! Belize,! Honduras,! and! St! Kitts! and! Nevis.! Three!communities! in! each! country! were! selected! to! replicate! the! research! at! a! community! level.!Communities!were!selected!to!express!variation!of!the!two!most!predominant!reefQdependent!livelihoods,! reef! fishing!and!tourism.!The!communities!were!chosen!within!these!criteria!with!input!from!key!informants,!site!visits,!and!logistical!considerations.!
Fieldwork!in!Belize!was!completed!between!June!and!August!2012.!The!following!section!gives!an!overview!of!the!research!methods!and!a!summary!of!the!work!completed!in!Belize!(Table!1).!
Table. 1. Summary. of. fieldwork. completed.. Interviews.marked.with. asterisks. (*). are. detailed. further. in. “Reef.Dependency.and.Change:.Belize.Case.Study”.(Booker.et.al..2013).
.. Count!of!interviews!and!meetings!completed!in!!
each!community!or!at!the!national!level!
! Hopkins! Placencia! San!Pedro!
National!/!!not!community!
!specific! Total.Interviews!completed. ! ! ! ! .Household! 76! 75! 76! ! 227.Governance! 5! 10! 7! 17! 39.Social!network! 10! 18! 15! 25! 68.Livelihood!inQdepth*! 11! 14! ! ! 25.Livelihood!key!informant*! 10! 9! ! 6! 25.! ! ! ! ! .Meetings!completed! ! ! ! ! .Initial!community!meetings! 1! 1! 1! ! 3.Initial!national!consultation. ! ! ! 1! 1.Scenario!and!feedback!! 1! 1! ! 1! 3.
.
! 6! !
.
Household.interviews.2.1
FaceQtoQface! semiQstructured! interviews! were! conducted! with! representatives! of! individual!households! at! the! community! level.! Interviews! were! designed! to! investigate! topics! such! as!usage!of!the!sea!and!reef!areas,!reef!health,!views!on!reef!management,!livelihoods,!and!social!capital! in!the!community.!Fishing!households!were!asked!additional!questions!to!quantify!the!economics!of!fishing!and!patterns!of!usage.!!
The! target! sample! in! each! community! included! up! to! 50! direct! reefQresource! users,! and! a!minimum!of!25!randomly!selected!community!members,!who!were!considered!to!be! indirect!resource!users.!Based!on! their! level!of!dependency!on! reefs! in! the!Caribbean,! two!groups!of!direct!users!were!specifically! targeted:! reef! fishers!and! reefQrelated! tourism!operators.!Direct!resource!users!were!targeted!primarily!through!opportunistic!and!snowball!sampling!but!were!selected!to!reflect!the!total!numbers!and!balance!(fishing!vs.!tourism)!of!resource!users!within!each!community.!In!communities!with!smaller!populations!or!fewer!resource!users,!the!sample!of! direct! resource! users! was! smaller.! Remaining! respondents! were! targeted! by! randomly!selecting! households! within! defined! community! boundaries,! using! 100m! x! 100m! numbered!grids!and!a!random!number!generator.!
The! majority! of! interviews! lasted! between! 30Q90! minutes.! Detailed! notes! were! taken! in! all!interviews!and,!unless!participants!were!unwilling,!all!interviews!were!recorded.!
.
Governance.interviews.2.2
FaceQtoQface! semiQstructured! interviews! were! conducted! with! individuals! from! a! variety! of!organisations! involved! in! reef! use! and! management! at! community! and! national! levels.! The!purpose!of!these!interviews!was!to!assess!perceptions!of!governance!structures!and!processes,!and! develop! a! rich! and! detailed! understanding! of! the! governance! context,! current! reef!management,! stakeholder! involvement,! and! drivers! of! reef! health.! Respondents! included!representatives! of:! government! departments! or! ministries! with! a! responsibility! for! reef!management! or! resource! use! (e.g.! tourism,! fisheries! and! environment! departments);! nonQgovernmental!organisations! involved! in! reef!management;! research!and!stakeholder! support;!industry!organisations!with!interests!in!reef!or!marine!resources;!and!educational!organisations!such!as!universities!that!undertake!research!on!coral!reefs.!!
The!majority! of! interviews! lasted! between! 45Q90!minutes.! All! interviews!were! recorded! and!transcribed! verbatim,! unless! participants! were! unwilling,! in! which! case! detailed! notes! were!taken.!!
.
! 7! !
Social.network.analysis.2.3
Social! network! analysis! (SNA)! is! the! study! of! actors! (individuals! or! organisations)! and! the!relationships! that! connect! these! actors.! SNA! provides! a! way! to! quantitatively! analyse! the!interactions!that!are!happening! in!the!governance!of!coral! reefs!and!visualise!the!patterns!of!these! interactions.! A! list! of! actors! involved! in! reef! use,! management,! and! research! was!composed! for! each! country.! Interviews! targeted! representatives! from! each! organisation! or!group! identified,!with! the! aim! to! conduct! interviews!with! all! identified! actors.! In! the! case!of!resource! users,! interviews! were! conducted! with! individual! resource! users! identified! by! the!community!as!being!wellQconnected!or!influential.!!
FaceQtoQface!semiQstructured!network! interviews! included!questions!on!multiple!relationships,!including!communication!and!reef!related!information!sharing.!Interviews!were!conducted!as!a!section! of! the! governance! interviews,! or! as! a! separate! interview! where! appropriate.! All!interviews! were! recorded! and! transcribed! verbatim,! unless! participants! were! unwilling,! in!which!case!detailed!notes!were!taken.!!
Community.meetings.2.4
Community!meetings!were!held!in!each!of!the!three!study!sites.!The!meetings!were!open!to!all!members!of!the!community,!and!reef!users!were!encouraged!to!attend.!Attendees!were!invited!to! participate! in! two! activities:! 1)! a! historical! scan! to! explore! key! changes! in! the! community!with! respect! to!use!of! the!sea!and!the!reefs,! fishing,! tourism,!and!the!community! in!general;!and!2)!discuss!the!groups!and!organisations!involved!in!coral!reef!use!and!management.!
National.consultation!2.5
A!national! consultation!meeting!was!held!with! representatives!of!government!agencies,!nonQgovernment!organisations,!and!the!private!sector!who!were! involved! in!work!related!to!coral!reef! resources,! the! environment,! community! development,! and! tourism.! Participants! were!asked! to! take!part! in! two!activities:!1)!a!historical! scan! to!explore!key!changes! in!Belize!with!respect!to!the!environment,!society,!economy,!and!the!policies!and!management!systems;!and!2)! a! policy! cycle! review! to! facilitate! a! discussion! on! the! formal! and! informal! groups! and!organisations!involved!in!reef!governance!and!management.!
Scenario.and.feedback.meetings!2.6
Community! and! national! level! meetings! were! held! at! the! completion! of! fieldwork.! These!meetings! had! three! purposes,! to:! 1)! share! initial! findings! with! community! members! and!national! level! representatives,! 2)! allow! participants! to! validate! these! findings! and! collect!feedback,!and!3)!conduct!an!exercise!to!explore!some!aspects!of!future!reef!management.!
! 8! !
3 COUNTRY.AND.SITE.PROFILES.
Country.Profile.3.1
3.1.1 Geography!
Belize,! located!on!the!northQeastern!coast!of!Central!America,!shares!its!northern!border!with!Mexico,!and!its!south!and!western!borders!with!Guatemala!(Figure!3).!The!country!has!an!area!of!22,806!km2!and!has!386!km!of!coastline!on!the!Caribbean!Sea!(CIA!2013).!Belize’s!terrain!is!mostly! flat! with! a! swampy! coastline! and! low! mountains! in! the! interior.! The! climate! is!subtropical! (dry!and!wet! seasons),!with!annual! rainfall! ranges! from!1500!mm! in! the!north! to!4060!mm!in!the!south!(Belize!Meteorological!Service!2014).!!
3.1.2 Social,!economic,!and!political!setting!
Belize! is! the! most! sparsely! populated! nation! in! Central! America,! with! a! population! of! over!324,000!(Statistical! Institute!of!Belize!2013).!Over!half! the!population! lives! in!rural!areas,!and!29%!of! the!population! lives!within!10!km!of! the!coast! (Burke!and!Maidens!2004).!Population!growth!rate!was!at!2.65%!in!2010!(Statistical!Institute!of!Belize!2013).!Approximately!15%!of!the!population! of! Belize! are! immigrants,! primarily! from! Guatemala,! El! Salvador,! and! Honduras,!while!about!16%!of!Belizeans!live!abroad!(CIA!2013).!Migration!has!transformed!the!population!of!the!country.!Most!Belizeans!are!of!multiracial!descent;!the!country’s!main!ethnic!groups!are!Mestizo!(HispanicQAmerindian!mix;!52.9%),!Creole!(AfricanQEuropean!descent;!25.9%),!Garifuna!(African!and!Carib!ancestry;!6.1%),!and!Mayan!(from!descendants!of!the!original!inhabitants!of!Belize;!11.3%)!(Statistical!Institute!of!Belize!2013).!Belize!is!the!only!country!in!Central!America,!a!dominantly!SpanishQspeaking!region,!with!English!as!the!official!language.!However,!only!63%!of!the!population!speaks!English!to!conversational!level;!Spanish!and!Creole!are!also!spoken!by!a! significant!portion!of! the!population! (57%!and!45%,! respectively).!Mayan!dialects,!German,!and!Garifuna!are!also!each!spoken!by!at!least!3%!of!the!population!(Statistical!Institute!of!Belize!2013).!
! 9! !
Figure.3.Belize.study.sites..Symbols.represent.reefRuse.characteristics.of.each.community:.square.=.predominantly.tourism,.circle.=.predominantly.fishing,.and.triangle.=.mixed.fishing.and.tourism..
Belize! is! categorised! as! a! middle! income! country,! and! is! ranked! as! having! ‘high! human!development’!on!the!UNDP’s!Human!Development!Index!(The!World!Bank!2014;!UNDP!2011).!Clean! drinking! water! is! available! to! 98.6%! of! the! population,! nearly! 90%! have! access! to!improved! sanitation,! and! nearly! 77%! of! the! population! is! literate! (CIA! 2013).! Although! the!Belizean! economy!has! experienced! growth! in!GDP!over! the! past! several! years,! an! estimated!41%!of!the!population!are!below!the!poverty!line!and!income!inequality!is!seen!to!be!a!problem!(CIA!2013).!Tourism!is!the!primary!source!of!foreign!exchange,!followed!by!exports!of!marine!products,!citrus,!sugar,!bananas,!and!garments!(CIA!2013).!The!tourism!industry!is!supported!by!both!natural!and!cultural!assets,!including!the!longest!barrier!reef!in!the!Western!Hemisphere,!numerous! islands,! jungle!wildlife,!and!Mayan!ruins.!The!Government!of!Belize!has!designated!tourism!as!one!of!its!major!development!priorities.!!
Belize! gained! independence! from!Britain! in! 1981! and! functions! as! a! constitutional!monarchy!and! a! parliamentary! democracy.! The! government! is! modelled! on! the! British! Westminster!system! with! the! Prime! Minister! as! the! head! of! the! government;! the! Queen! of! England! is!recognised! as! the! head! of! state,! represented! by! a! GovernorQGeneral.! Belize! has! a! bicameral!legislature,!the!National!Assembly!of!Belize,!which!is!composed!of!a!House!of!Representatives!and! a! Senate.! Belize! has! two! levels! of! government,! the! state! government! and! a! local!government! system.!Over! the! past! five! years,! the! local! government! has! been!more! formally!established! and! the! trend! is! towards! greater! decentralisation.! The! local! government! system!includes! two!city!councils,! seven! town!councils,!and!a!network!of!192!village!and!community!councils.!In!1999,!the!legal!basis!for!town!councils!was!revised!with!the!Town!Councils!Act!1999,!and!the!Village!Council!Act!1999!was!introduced!legalising!and!defining!the!role!and!power!of!local!councils!further!empowering!them!to!become!involved!in!decisionQmaking!at!local!levels.!The!Government!of!Belize!is!structured!into!15!ministries.!
! 10! !
!
Table.1.Belize.country.overview.(country.statistics.source:.CIA.World.Factbook,.www.cia.gov;.*Burke.&.Maidens.2004)..Country!statistics. .Land!area!(km2). 22,966!Continental!or!island. Continental!Shelf!area!to!30m!within!Maritime!Claim!(km2)*! 7850!Caribbean!coastline!length!(km)*! 2220!Land!area!draining!to!Caribbean!(km2)*! 22965!Population!(2014!est.). 340,844!Population!change!1990Q2000!(%!change)*! 21.9!Population!density!2014!est.!(people/km2)! 15!GDP!per!capita!(US$)!(2013!est.). 8,800!GDP!%!contribution!tourism. 23.2!Reef!area!(km2)*! 1420!%!of!reefs!facing!high!or!very!high!threats*! 34!%!at!med/high!risk!from!coastal!development*! 11!%!at!med/high!risk!from!landQbased!sediment!and!pollution*! 49!%!at!med/high!risk!from!marineQbased!pollution*! 8!%!at!med/high!risk!from!fishing!pressure*! 37!Number!of!MPAs. 19!
3.1.3 Coral!reef!ecosystems!
Belize!has!1,420!km2!of!coral!reefs,!ranging!from!the!barrier!reef,!which!is!the!second!longest!in!the!world,!to!patch!reefs.!The!barrier!reef,!approximately!250km!long,!runs!along!the!majority!of! the! country’s! coastline! and! is! part! of! the! Mesoamerican! reef! system.! The! barrier! reef!encloses!approximately!6,000!km2!of! lagoon!and! includes!over!1,000!cays;!outside!the!barrier!reef!are!three!atolls!(Harborne,!McField,!and!Delaney!2000).!The!lagoon!is!20Q40!km!wide!and!is!much!shallower!in!the!north!(as!little!as!a!few!meters!deep)!than!it!is!in!the!south!(up!to!50!m)!and!home!to!many!coral!patch!reefs.!The!cays!and!atolls!along!the!reef!total!approximately!690!km2!in!area.!The!interconnected!reef!and!mangrove!ecosystems!were!estimated!to!contribute!approximately!US$395Q$559!million!each!year!in!coastal!protection,!tourism,!and!fishing!goods!and!services!(Cooper,!Burke,!and!Bood!2009).!
The! 2011! Reefs! at! Risk! report! rates! 63%! of! Belize’s! reefs! as! being! threatened! by! human!activities! (Burke! et! al.! 2011).! The!most! common! threats! to! country’s! reefs! are! sediment! and!pollution! from! landQbased! sources! (especially! from! Honduran! and! Guatemalan! rivers),!overfishing,!and!coastal!development.!There!has!been!rapid!development!due!to!tourismQbased!activities! in! some! of! the! larger! cays! and! tourism! areas,! such! as! Ambergris! Caye! (Burke! and!Maidens! 2004).! The! growing! cruise! ship! industry! causes! additional! concern! due! to! negative!environmental!impacts!(Cooper,!Burke,!and!Bood!2009).!The!coastlines!of!Belize,!including!the!reefs,!have!been!severely!affected!by!a!number!of!hurricanes.!The!combination!of!widespread!coral! bleaching! (in! 1995! and! 1998)! and! Hurricane!Mitch! in! 1998,! caused! a! dramatic! loss! of!corals! (about! 50%! loss! in! coral! cover! due! to! bleaching)! and! the! combination! of! events! are!thought!to!have!exacerbated!the!rate!of!reef!decline!(Burke!and!Maidens!2004;!Wilkinson!and!Souter! 2008).! A! region! wide! coral! bleaching! event! in! 2005! also! affected! the! reefs,! though!resulted!in!much!less!mortality!than!the!1998!bleaching!(Wilkinson!and!Souter!2008).!Disease!
! 11! !
and! invasive! species! have! additionally! caused! degradation! to! the! reefs! and! widespread!reduction!of!species.!
3.1.4 Coral!reef!use!
Fishing!
The! fishing! industry! in!Belize! is! incredibly! important! for!both! local! consumption!and!exports,!with!estimates!for!proportion!of!sales!at!25%!and!75%,!respectively!(Cooper,!Burke,!and!Bood!2009).!Reef!related!fisheries!have!been!valued!at!US$13Q$14!million!and!the!export!of!marine!products,!such!as! lobster!and!conch,! is!one!of!the!top!valued!exports! in!the!country!(Cooper,!Burke,!and!Bood!2009;!Statistical!Institute!of!Belize!2012).!!
In!2011,!there!were!2,582!registered!fishers!and!752! licensed!fishing!boats! (CRFM!2012).!The!fishing!industry!in!Belize!is!primarily!made!up!of!smallQscale!artisanal!fishers!who!fish!inside!the!shallow!protected!waters!of!the!barrier!reef!and!the!atolls.!Fishing!generally!takes!place!from!fibreglass!skiffs,!sailing!dories,!or!motorised!dories!3.5!to!9!metres!in!length!and!fishers!target!a!range!of!species!according!to!seasonality!and!geography!of!stocks.!A!wide!range!of!gears!are!used,! including! gill! nets,! beach! seine,! cast! nets,! hook! and! line,! rod! and! reel,! lobster! and! fish!traps.!
Tourism!
The!Belize! economy! relies! heavily! on! tourism!as! its! number!one! source!of! foreign!exchange,!directly!contributing!12%!of!total!GDP!in!2011,!with!growth!in!the!sector!expected!to!continue.!The! indirect! contribution! of! tourism! was! estimated! at! 33.2%! of! GDP! in! 2011! (WTTC! 2012).!There!were! over! one!million! international! visitors! to! Belize! in! 2011,! including! approximately!727,000!cruise!ship!passengers!and!250,000!overnight!visitors.!Peak!months!for!arrivals!tend!to!be!November!to!April!(Statistical!Institute!of!Belize!2012).!Tourism!and!travel!generated!14,500!jobs!directly! in!2011! (11.2%!of! employment),! and! contributed! to!30.1%!of! total! employment!through!jobs!directly!and!indirectly!supported!by!the!industry!(WTTC!2012).!.
While!Belize!offers!a!number!of!attractions!to!visitors,!including!diverse!wildlife!and!a!number!of!Mayan!ruins,!an!estimated!twoQthirds!of!visitors!come!for!the!reefs,!mangroves,!and!beaches!(Cooper,!Burke,!and!Bood!2009).!The!2011!Visitor!Expenditure!&!Motivation!Survey!conducted!by! the!Belize! Tourism!Board! (BTB)! revealed! that! 64.6%!of! visitors! participated! in! snorkelling,!26.2%!in!scuba!diving,!and!23.3%!in!fishing!activities!(Belize!Tourism!Board!2011).!Additionally,!this!survey!showed!that!the!number!one!visited!site!in!Belize!is!the!barrier!reef,!with!over!half!of!visitors!visiting!the!reef.!!
The!country! is!considered!to!have!been!more!successful!than!other!countries! in!the!region!at!creating! local! jobs! in! the! tourism! industry,! and! the! industry! supports! a!number!of! fishermen!and!former!fishermen!through!employment!as!guides!(Cooper,!Burke,!and!Bood!2009;!Diedrich!2006).! It!was! estimated! that! in! 2007,! tourists! associated!with! reefs! and!mangroves! spent! an!
! 12! !
estimated!US$150–$196!million!on!accommodation,!reef!recreation,!and!other!expenses!(equal!to!12–15!per!cent!of!GDP)!(Cooper,!Burke,!and!Bood!2009).!
3.1.5 Coral!reef!governance!
In! March! of! 2012,! the! ministries! in! Belize! underwent! restructuring.! At! this! time! multiple!departments!responsible!for!the!environment!and!sustainable!development!were!brought!into!one! ministry,! the! Ministry! of! Forestry,! Fisheries! and! Sustainable! Development,! in! order! to!counter!fragmented!approaches!to!governance.!This!ministry!is!responsible!for!the!majority!of!agencies!directly!related!to!reefs,!including,!the!Fisheries!Department,!the!Forest!Department,!the! Department! of! the! Environment,! Coastal! Zone! Management! Authority! and! Institute!(CZMAI),!and!the!Protected!Areas!Conservation!Trust!(PACT).!!
Tourism! is! represented! through! the!Ministry!of! Tourism!and!Culture! and! its! incorporation!of!environment! and! sustainable!development! into! its! new!National! Sustainable! Tourism!Master!Plan!(NSTMP).!The!Belize!Tourism!Board!(BTB),!a!statutory!body!under!the!Ministry!of!Tourism,!assists!to!implement!tourism!policies,!help!to!market!Belize!tourism,!and!develop!initiatives!and!programs! such! as! the! required! tour! guide! training.! Other! ministries! have! indirect!responsibilities! related! to! the! governance! of! the! reefs! such! as! the!Ministry! of! Labour,! Local!Government,!Rural!Development,!National!Emergency!Management!Organisation!!(NEMO),!and!Immigration!through!its!responsibilities!for!local!government!and!disaster!management.!
Current!legislation!concerning!fisheries!and!reefs!include!the!National!Parks!System!Act!(1981),!the!Forest!Act!(1927),!the!Coastal!Zone!Management!Act!(1998),!and!the!Fisheries!Act!(1948),!all!revised!in!2000,!and!the!Environmental!Protection!Act!(revised!2000,!amended!2007)!(Task!Force! on! Belize's! Protected! Areas! Policy! and! Systems! Plan! 2005).! A! number! of! pieces! of!legislation! are! also! in! place! regulating! specific! areas! or! species.! The! Aquatic! Resources! Bill!(2012),!which!would!repeal!the!Fisheries!Act,!was!in!final!draft!form!at!the!time!of!this!study.!This! is!a!comprehensive!bill!establishing!the! legal! framework!for! fisheries!management!plans,!fisheries! research,! international! cooperation,! conservation,! marine! reserves,! fisher! and! boat!licensing,! and! law! enforcement! functions! of! the! Fisheries! Department! (CRFM! 2012).! Further!promoting!integration!are!policy!frameworks!and!strategies!put!in!place!to!provide!guidance!on!environmental!decisions! (e.g.!National!Protected!Areas!Policy!and!Systems!Plan,! the!National!Integrated! Coastal! Zone! Management! Strategy,! and! the! Cayes! Development! Policy),! more!recently!these!strategies!exhibit!the!importance!of!sustainability!and!an!ecosystem!approach.!!
Belize! has! a! well! established! system! of! protected! areas,! including! marine! protected! areas.!Protected! areas! represent! 36%! of! Belize’s! terrestrial! areas! and! 13%! of! its!marine! area! (Task!Force!on!Belize's!Protected!Areas!Policy!and!Systems!Plan!2005).!Most!MPAs!are!coQmanaged!between! either! the! Fisheries! Department! or! Forest! Department! and! a! local! NGO! or! CBO.!Enforcement!of!fisheries!regulations!is!shared!across!the!Fisheries!Department,!members!of!the!Maritime!Wing!of! the!Belize!Defence!Force! (the!Coast!Guard),! and! the! local! coQmanagement!partners! who! have! the! training,! authority,! and! designation! of! a! Fisheries! Officer.! Additional!actors! involved! in! reef! governance! in! Belize! include! environmental! NGOs,! the! University! of!Belize,! and! stakeholder! associations.! Belize! also! has! several! networks! and! committees! that!
! 13! !
function! to!bring! together!a!diverse!set!of! stakeholders!and!government!actors! to!work!on!a!specific! theme! (e.g.! the! Spawning! Aggregation! Working! Group! which! brings! together!representatives!of!NGOs,!the!Environmental!Research!Institute!(ERI),!the!Fisheries!Department,!and!local!fishers).!!
Site.Profiles.3.2
Two!southern!sites!on!mainland!Belize!and!one!site!on!Ambergris!Caye!were!selected!for!the!governance!and!livelihoods!research!as!part!of!the!FORCE!project:!San!Pedro!on!Ambergris!Cay,!Hopkins,! and! Placencia! (Figure! 3).! Reef! use! characteristics! for! these! sites! are! predominantly!tourism,!predominantly!fishing,!and!mixed!fishing!and!tourism,!respectively.!
3.2.1 Hopkins!
Hopkins!is!recognised!as!a!traditional!Garifuna!community!located!in!the!Stann!Creek!District,!approximately!50!miles!south!of!Belize!City.!The!village!has!an!estimated!population!of!1,610!people!and!has!a!long,!slender!footprint!that!runs!along!the!coast!(Statistical!Institute!of!Belize!2013).!The!community!has!limited!infrastructure,!it!is!connected!to!the!Southern!Highway!by!an!unpaved!dirt!road!and!has!only!dirt!or!gravel!roads!within!the!community.!The!nearest!airstrip!is!located!in!Dangriga,!over!30!km!away.!There!is!no!hospital,!fire!service,!or!Coast!Guard,!and!police!are!limited!in!terms!of!resources!(IICA!2010).!
Hopkins! is! a! traditional! fishing! village.! Fishers! use! a! mixture! of! gear! to! harvest! their! catch!including!diving!with!hook!sticks!and!spear!guns! for! lobster,!conch!and!fish,!and!using! fishing!lines!and!rods!for!fish!such!as!snapper!and!barracuda!(Gibson,!Lizama,!and!Pomeroy!2005).! It!has! been! estimated! that! up! to! 1,000! lb! of! catch! are! landed! daily! by! Hopkins’s! fishers!(predominantly! snapper,! grouper,! lobster!and!conch)! (IICA!2010).! Fishers! typically! travel! long!distances! to! locations! including!Glover’s!Reef!Atoll,!Gladden!Split,! and! the! Laughing!Bird! and!South!Water! Cayes.! Hopkins! does! not! have! a! fishers’! cooperative,! though! some! fishers! are!members! of! the! Northern! Fisherman’s! Cooperative! or! the! Placencia! Producer’s! Cooperative!Society.!A!fishing!association!is!present,!though!not!highly!active.!
The!southern!end!of!Hopkins!has!seen!more!building!and!development,!particularly!in!terms!of!tourism! accommodations.! There! are! two! dive! shops! in! Hopkins,! one! of! which! is! a! resort!specifically!catering!to!divers.!Several!individuals!run!private!fishing!and!snorkelling!boat!tours.!A! nonQreef! related! attraction! for! visitors! is! the! Garifuna! drumming! centre! and! the! village’s!traditional! culture.! The! Tour!Guide! Association! for! Hopkins! residents! serves! the!wider! Stann!Creek!District,!and!although!the!office!had!recently!moved!to!Hopkins,!some!perceived!it!to!be!relatively!inactive!at!the!time!of!this!research.!
!
! 14! !
.. ..Photos:.Hopkins.
Marine!resource!users! from!the!Hopkins!area!use!multiple!MPAs,!all!of!which!have!zones! for!different!extractive!and!nonQextractive!uses.!These!MPAs!are!coQmanaged!between!NGOs!and!government!agencies.! Southern!Environmental!Association! (SEA)! is! the! coQmanaging!NGO! for!several!MPAs!located!in!southern!Belize.!SEA!is! located!in!Placencia,!but!conducts!community!outreach!activities!in!Hopkins!and!works!with!stakeholders!in!the!community.!Resource!users!in!Hopkins!also!use!the!area!of!Glover’s!Reef!Marine!Reserve,!home!to!the!Glover’s!Reef!Research!Station,! operated! by! the! Wildlife! Conservation! Society! (WCS),! which! is! active! in! research,!informing!and!advocating!policy!decisions,!capacity!building,!and!community!engagement.!
3.2.2 Placencia!
Placencia! is! a! coastal! village! located! in! the! Stann! Creek! District! in! southern! Belize.! The!community! is! located! at! the! end! of! a! peninsula! that! is! 19! km! long! and! 1.6! km! at! its!widest!(Placencia! BTIA! 2013).! The! communities! on! the! Placencia! Peninsula! are! accessible! by! the!Southern!Highway,!or!a!small!airport! in!Placencia.!Placencia!is!bordered!by!the!Caribbean!Sea!on! the! east! and! the! Placencia! Lagoon! on! the! west.! The! village’s! population! has! increased!substantially!over!the!past!decade;!the!2010!census!estimated!the!population!of!the!village!at!1,753!people,! up! from!500!people! at! the! time!of! the!2000!estimation! (Statistical! Institute!of!Belize!2013;!Key!2002).!The!community!has!been!described!as!being! in!a!period!of! transition!from! fishing! to! tourism,! though! fishing! is! still! important! for! many! households! (Brune! and!Sanders!2008).!With!the!increase!in!tourism!development,!infrastructure!within!the!community!is!expanding,!the!community!is!attracting!a!large!number!of!expatriates,!and!there!is!increasing!difficulty! for! people! to! purchase! land! due! to! foreign! land! ownership! and! lack! of! access! to!financial!services!such!as!bank!loans!(Brune!and!Sanders!2008).!
!
! 15! !
!! !Photos:.Placencia.
Placencia!has!historically!been!known!as!a!fishing!community,!composed!of!mainly!artisanal!or!smallQscale!fishers.!Fishing!in!the!area!is!characterised!by!a!multiQspecies,!multiQgear!approach!to!ensure!a!greater!possibility!for!income.!Fishers!use!gill!nets,!beach!seine!nets,!cast!nets,!hook!and!line,!rod!and!reel,!lobster!and!fish!traps,!longline!and!diving;!however!the!hand!line!is!the!most!popular!gear!in!the!area!(Pomeroy!and!Goetze!2003).!Though!fishers!mainly!fish!on!a!dayQtrip! basis,! some! camp! on! the! cayes! during! the! fishing! season! for! several! days! at! a! time!(Pomeroy!and!Goetze!2003).!The!majority!of! fishers!are!members!of! the!Placencia!Producers!Cooperative,! which! has! a! long! history! in! the! village,! and! sell! their! catch! either! to! the!Cooperative!or!directly!to!restaurants!and!tourist!resorts.!
In! the! last! 10! years! Placencia! has! experienced! rapid! development! of! touristQrelated!infrastructure!including!several!luxury!allQinclusive!hotels,!private!condominium!developments,!guesthouses,! dive! shops,! bars,! restaurants! and! cafes.!Reef! related! tourism! in! the! community!centres!around!SCUBA!diving,!snorkelling,!and!sport!fishing.!At!the!time!of!this!study!there!were!eight! dive! shops! in! the! community,!most! of!which! offered! additional! forms! of! tourism! both!marine!and!terrestrial.!A!study!in!2001!reported!that!residents!in!Placencia!perceive!tourism!as!a!preferred!livelihood!compared!with!fishing,!because!it!offers!the!opportunity!to!make!more!money!with! less!effort! (Palacio!2001,!cited! in!Pomeroy!and!Goetze!2003).!All! tour!guides!are!members!of!the!local!chapter!of!the!Tour!Guide!Association.!
Southern! Environmental! Association! (SEA),! a! NGO! responsible! for! coQmanaging! marine!protected! areas! in! southern! Belize,! is! based! in! Placencia.! The! NGO! has! responsibilities! over!Laughing! Bird! Caye! National! Park,! the! Gladden! Spit! and! Silk! Cayes!Marine! Reserve,! and! the!Sapodilla!Cayes!Marine!Reserve.!SEA!has!a!number!of!outreach!activities!within!the!community!and!the!organisation!is!responsible!for!enforcement!in!the!protected!areas.!In!a!study!of!three!Belize!communities,!Placencia!was!found!to!have!the!highest!level!of!community!participation,!including!organisations!such!as!the!Placencia!Producers!Cooperative,!the!Placencia!Tour!Guide!Association,! the!Placencia!BTIA,!and!at! the! time!of! this! study! the!Placencia!2020!project,! the!Peninsula!Citizens!for!Sustainable!Development,!and!the!Placencia!Mooring!Masters!(Brune!and!Sanders!2008).!However,!the!fishers!cooperative!has!become!a!weaker!organisation!over!time,!
! 16! !
in!part!due!to!diminishing!fisheries!resources!and!the!establishment!of!regulations!(Brune!and!Sanders!2008)..
3.2.3 San!Pedro!
San! Pedro! Town! is! located! on! Ambergris! Caye! in! northern! Belize.! The! caye! is! the! largest! of!Belize’s! islands,! approximately! 40! km! long! and! 1.6! km!wide,! paralleling! the! barrier! reef.! San!Pedro!had!a!population!of!11,765!in!the!2010!census,!nearly!three!times!the!population!during!the! 2000! census! (Statistical! Institute! of! Belize! 2013).! The! community! is! accessible! to! the!mainland!via!air!and!ferry.!San!Pedro!has!seen!rapid!tourism!development,!and!an!increase!in!infrastructure!such!as!paved!roads!and!the!introduction!of!large!grocery!stores.!The!community!has!the!highest!concentration!of!visitor!accommodations!in!Belize.!
Though!San!Pedro!started!as!a!fishing!town,!the!importance!of!fishing!has!greatly!decreased!in!the!community!as!it!has!been!replaced!by!tourism.!The!Caribeña!fishers!cooperative,!previously!in!operation!for!the!fishers!of!the!island,!closed!in!2010.!At!the!time!of!this!study!fishers!sold!their!catch!locally!or!to!the!National!Fishermen’s!Producers!Cooperative!Society!in!Belize!City.!Fishers!in!San!Pedro!are!artisanal!or!smallQscale,!and!tend!to!use!multiple!gear!types.!The!main!fishing!methods!for!fishers!are!line!fishing,!free!diving!(e.g.!for!lobster),!and!trap!fishing!(either!for!fish!or!lobster).!
!
. .Photos:.San.Pedro.
!
The! principal! economic! activity! in! San! Pedro! Town! is! tourism,! with! 61%! of! households!economically!dependent!on! income! from!tourism!and!70%!of! interviewees!valuing! reefs!as!a!means!to!attract!tourists!(Diedrich!2007).!At!the!time!of!this!study!there!were!19!dive!shops!in!the!community!and!several!more!tour!operators! that!ran!boat! tours,! fishing!tours,!or!snorkel!trips.!All!tour!guides!are!members!of!the!local!Tour!Guide!Association.!
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To! the! southeast! of! San! Pedro! is! Hol! Chan! Marine! Reserve! (HCMR),! designated! in! 1987! to!protect!reefs!from!fishing!and!watersports,!and!one!of!the!first!MPAs!in!Belize.!Local!residents!in!San!Pedro!helped!in!the!designation!of!the!HCMR,!in!order!to!reduce!reef!destruction!from!uncontrolled! fishing! and! marineQbased! sports! (Brune! and! Sanders! 2008).! HCMR! covers!approximately!7.8!km2!and!comprises! four! zones:! the! reef,! seasgrass!beds,!mangrove,!and! in!1999! ‘shark! ray! alley’! was! added! to! the! area! protected.! HCMR! is! one! of! the! most! visited!protected!areas!in!Belize!with!nearly!55,000!visitors! in!2011!(Belize!Tourism!Board!2011).!The!HCMR!Trust!Fund!Committee!manages!the!reserve,!and!the!administration!and!management!of!the!reserve!also!falls!under!the!responsibility!of!the!Belize!Fisheries!Department!(CZMAI!2001).!
Demographics.3.3
The! following! tables! give! an! overview! of! the! demographics! of! the! household! interviews!conducted! in! each! community! (Table! 2a! and! b),! types! of! reef! fishing! conducted! in! each!community! (Table!3),! and! the! types!of! reef! related! tourism!conducted!by! individuals! in!each!community!(Table!4).!
Material!style!of!life!(MSL),!based!on!a!household’s!possessions!(e.g.!television,!computer)!and!structure!(e.g.!building!material,!plumbing)!has!been!used!as!an!indicator!of!relative!wealth!or!social!status!(Cinner,!Daw,!and!McClanahan!2009).!A!composite!MSL!indicator!was!derived!from!principal!component!analysis!of!14!household!assets!and!attributes.!Mean!MSL!for!households!in!each!community!was!calculated!and!ranked!within!each!study!country!(Table!2a).!
Table.2a.Interviewees’.household.characteristics.
HOUSEHOLD.CHARACTERISTICS. Hopkins!(n=76)!
Placencia!(n=75)!
San!Pedro!(n=76)!
Household!size! ! ! !Mean!(St.!Deviation)! 4.2!(2.7)! 3.2!(2.1)! 3.7!(1.9)!Number!of!dependents!in!household! ! ! !Mean!(St.!Deviation)! 2.5!(2.4)! 1.4!(1.8)! 1.6!(1.8)!
Occupations!held!by!household!members!(%!of!households)! !ReefQrelated!fishing! 76! 93! 71!FishingQrelated! 0! 1! 0!NonQreef!fishing! 1! 1! 3!ReefQrelated!tourism! 43! 71! 80!MaritimeQrelated! 0! 20! 4!Other!tourism! 18! 12! 13!Public!sector!employment! 12! 8! 13!Service!industries! 45! 49! 41!Other!salaried!employment! 11! 28! 26!Construction!and!skilled!labour! 30! 25! 37!Farming! 33! 5! 0!Informal!sector! 17! 11! 8!Other! 9! 16! 0!
Ranked!mean!material!style!of!life!(MSL)!(1E3;!highestElowest)! 3! 2! 1!
.
.
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Table.2b.Demographics.of.household.interviewees.
CHARACTERISTICS.OF.INTERVIEWEES. Hopkins!(n=76)!
Placencia!(n=75)!
San!Pedro!(n=76)!
Type!of!resource!use!(%!of!respondents)! ! ! !Fishing! 43! 37! 20!Tourism! 11! 11! 17!Both! 22! 43! 43!Neither! 24! 9! 20!
Gender!(%!of!respondents)! ! ! !Male! 63! 76! 72!Female! 37! 24! 28!
Age! ! ! !Mean!(St.!Deviation)! 41!(14)! 41(13)! 36!(13)!Education!(%!of!respondents)! ! ! !None! 1! 2! 1!Primary! 36! 31! 16!Secondary! 34! 43! 50!Professional/Vocational! 11! 7! 7!College/university/postgraduate! 17! 17! 13!No!response! 1! 0! 13!
Involved!in!a!reef!related!group!(%!of!respondents)! ! ! !Fishing!cooperative!or!association! 5! 23! 0!Tourism!association! 25! 37! 38!
Table.3.Percentage.of.commercial.fishers. interviewed.from.each.community.who.participate.in.a.given.fishing.method..! %!of!fishers!using!each!gear!type!
FISHING.ACTIVITY/GEAR!Hopkins!(n=28)!
Placencia!(n=23)!
San!Pedro!(n=14)!
Diving!(free)! 50! 100! 71!Diving!(SCUBA)! 0! 0! 0!Line! 93! 96! 86!Trolling! 32! 35! 14!Net/seine! 11! 4! 0!Traps! 14! 13! 29!Average!number!of!gears!used!per!fisher! 2.00! 2.48! 2.00!! ! ! !Boat!owners! 61! 57! 57!Crew!members! 32! 30! 43!Shore!fishers! 0! 4! 0!
Table.4.Percentage.of.interviewees.involved.in.reefRrelated.tourism.activities.
.%!of!household!interviewees!participating!!
in!each!type!of!reefQrelated!tourism!
REEFRRELATED.TOURISM.ACTIVITIES.Hopkins!(n=76)!
Placencia!(n=75)!
San!Pedro!(n=76)!
Diving! 15! 33! 42!Snorkelling! 25! 39! 43!Catamaran! 0! 0! 1!Boat!tours! 5! 0! 4!Watersports! 0! 4! 1!Fishing!trips! 11! 24! 25!
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4 HISTORICAL.TIMELINES.
A!timeline!exercise!was!completed! in!each!of! the! initial! community!meetings!and!at! the! first!national!consultation!meeting.!The!purpose!of!the!timeline!was!to!learn!more!about!the!history!of! the! community,! or! country,! and! the! changes! or! events! that! have! been! important! in!influencing!people’s!relationships!with!coral!reefs.!The!exercise!was!used!as!a!starting!point!for!further!discussion!on!the!changes!that!had!the!most! important!effect!on!how!people!use!the!reefs.!Participants!were!asked!to!identify!two!events!or!changes!that!they!felt!had!the!greatest!impact! on! the! relationship! between! people! and! reefs.! The! timelines! produced! from! this!exercise!and! the!key!events! identified!by! those!at!each!meeting!are!presented! in!Figures!4Q8!and!discussed!here.!
Changes!or! key! events! on! the! timeline!were! identified! in! relation! to! themes! selected!by! the!research!team:!
NationalRlevel.consultation.themes:!socioQeconomic,!environment,!tourism,!fisheries,!and!regional!or!international!CommunityRlevel.meeting.themes:!fisheries,!tourism,!and!the!community!
National.key.events.4.1
A!wide! range!of! changes!were!prioritised!as!having!an! impact! in!Belize,! influencing! the! coral!reef! and! how! people! use! this! resource.! Some! of! the! changes! highlighted! were! negative,!including! the! increase! in! fishing! pressure! in! the! 1970s! and! consequent! decline! in! fish! stocks!from!the!1980s,!the!impact!of!activities!such!as!shrimp!trawling!and!agricultural!runoff,!and!the!effects! of! mass! bleaching! and! hurricanes! on! the! reef.! Increased! shipping,! pollution! and!inappropriate! coastal! development! related! to! the! growth! of! the! tourism! industry! and! cruise!ships!were!also!seen!as!important!impacts!on!the!reef.!!
Positive! changes! highlighted! included! the! start! of! the! cooperative! movement,! which! was!central!to!the!growth!of!the!fishing!industry!and!the!development!of!coastal!communities.!The!introduction!of!marine!protected!areas!since!the!1980s!was!the!most!highly!prioritised!change,!and! other! changes! related! to! protection! of! the! marine! environment! were! also! prioritised,!including!World!Heritage!Site!designation,!a!recent!Tourism!Master!Plan,!and!a!greater!effort!in!research,!monitoring! and! collaboration! among! national! groups.! Several! future! changes!were!also!prioritised,!including!a!need!for!improved!enforcement!of!fisheries!regulations,!and!greater!harmonisation!of!regional!and!international!laws!and!policies.!!
Hopkins.key.events.4.2
Shrimp! trawling! was! prioritised! by! nine! people! as! having! the! greatest! impact.! Participants!stated!that!this!caused!a!lot!of!dead!fish!floating!in!the!water,!overturned!coral,!made!the!water!murky!with!silt!and!sediment,!and!caused!the!coral!to!die!when!the!sediment!settled!down!and!was! deposited! on! the! corals.! People! also! mentioned! that! there! has! been! a! decline! in! the!numbers!and! sizes!of! fish!around!Hopkins,! and! that! they!believed! this!was!as!a! result!of! the!
! 20! !
shrimp!trawling.!Participants!felt!that!the!trawling!did!not!benefit!the! local!community! in!any!way.!Other!prioritised!changes!relating!to!fishing! included!the! introduction!of!gill!nets,!closed!seasons!for!grouper,!and!the!marine!reserves!that!mean!it!is!tougher!to!catch!fish!and!people!cannot!fish!in!their!traditional!fishing!areas.!!
Participants! felt! that! tourism! in! general! has! had! a! big! impact.! Many! of! the! major! changes!prioritised!related!to!tourism,! for!example,! the!opening!of! the!Sandy!Beach!resort,! the!cruise!ships!that!stopped!in!front!of!Sandy!Beach!in!the!1980s,!and!the!fact!that!people!in!the!village!are!now!more!dependent!on!resorts!than!on!fishing!for!their! livelihoods.!Tourism!has!created!positive! benefits! through! employment! opportunities! from! the! resorts! and! restaurants,! but! it!has!also!led!to!a!decline!in!many!of!the!traditional!activities!in!the!village.!
Other!changes!mentioned!by!participants! related! to! the!community.! For!example,! the!access!road!had!a!big! impact!on!the!village.! It!meant!that!people!could!travel!away!from!the!village!with!greater!ease!and!have!better!access!to!commodities.!Some!people!also!felt!that! it!made!the! villagers! less! independent,! and! they! have! since! lost! some! of! their! traditional! customs.!People! also! expressed! concerns! about! land! around! Hopkins! being! sold! to! foreigners,!environmental!changes!as!a!result!of!increasing!development!in!the!bay,!and!the!fact!that!many!of!the!children!of!the!village!now!speak!to!each!other!in!Creole!rather!than!Garifuna.!!
Local! people! have! seen! changes! in! the! marine! environment! and! coral! reefs.! In! the! 1950s!Hurricane! Janet! caused! rough! seas! and!damage! to! the! reefs,! and! from! the!1950sQ70s! fishers!noticed! a! decrease! in! their! catch.! In! the! 1970s! and! 1980s! fishers! noticed! that! they!were! no!longer!catching!certain! fish,! such!as!black!grunts,!yellow!nannies,! rock!hinds!and!velvets.!Sea!plates,!seamoss!and!urchins!also!started!to!disappear.!The!decline!in!the!reef!was!attributed!at!least! in! part! to! the! establishment! of! the! power! plant.! Later,! in! the! 1990s! there! was! a!widespread! ‘fish!kill’,!and!rock!hinds!and!other!groupers!disappeared.!Since!then,!people!feel!that! the! ‘Hot! Pot’!water! has! affected! the! reef,! and! overfishing! is! also! a! problem.! There!was!concern!that!further!declines!in!fish!would!happen!in!the!future!and!fishing!would!die!out!as!an!occupation.!
Placencia.key.events.4.3
Overfishing!was!prioritised!by!five!people!as!having!the!greatest!impact.!Participants!stated!that!there!are!less!fish!in!the!water,!less!fish!to!eat,!and!people!need!to!fish!for!more!days!per!trip!to!cover! the! cost!of! fuel.! People!also! said! that!when! there!are! less! fish! to!eat,! the!price!of! fish!increases.!People!are!also!concerned!about!fish!moving!into!deeper!water,!and!said!that!in!the!future,! if! things!don’t! change! there!will!be!a! lot! fewer! fish.!This!would!affect! the!community!because!there!wouldn’t!be!any!more! ‘pretty!reef’,!which!would!mean! less!tourism!because! it!would!make!the!reef!less!attractive!to!tourists!who!want!to!dive!and!snorkel.!!
Several!other!changes!were!prioritised!that!had!affected!fishing!in!Placencia.!The!introduction!of! outboard! engines! in! the! 1970s! allowed! fishers! to! travel! further,! but! the! increase! in!Sartenejan!fishers!operating!in!local!waters!has!added!pressure!on!local!fish!stocks,!and!people!are! concerned! about! the! impact! of! illegal! fishing! in! the!marine! reserve! areas,! particularly! at!
! 21! !
night.!Since!2010!a!Jamaican!fish!buyer,!Rainforest!Seafood,!has!begun!to!buy!fish!of!any!size!or!type!from!certain!fishers,!and!people!think!this!may!have!a!negative!impact!on!fish!stocks.!The!recent! ban! on! shrimp! trawling! was! seen! as! having! a! positive! impact! on! the! marine!environment,!as!this!activity!is!perceived!to!be!very!destructive.!!
Other! changes! related! to! the! community! and! the! development! of! tourism.! The! cooperative!bringing!electricity!to!Placencia!in!the!1970s!was!seen!as!an!important!change,!and!the!growth!of!tourism!and!its!impact!on!the!local!culture!was!also!prioritised.!The!movement!of!fishers!into!tourism!activities!was!an!important!shift!in!local!livelihoods.!
San.Pedro.key.events.4.4
Participants!prioritised!the!tourism!boom!in!the!1980s!and!90s,!and!the!tourism!development!that! followed! in! the!2000s!causing!a! loss!of!mangrove!habitat,!as!having!a!big! impact!on!San!Pedro.!Around!this!same!time,!there!was!also!a!rise!in!population,!as!people!came!to!the!island!in!search!of!employment.!The!resident!population!fluctuates!depending!on!whether!it!is!low!or!high!tourist!season.!!
Participants! stated! that! there! are! positive! and! negative! impacts! of! tourism.! This! industry! is!good!for!San!Pedro!because!it!provides!jobs!and!income.!There!used!to!be!more!fishermen!in!the!community,!but!many!people!have!switched!from!fishing!to!tourismQrelated!work,!and!this!is!considered!a!positive!shift!as!it!may!have!less!of!an!impact!on!the!reef.!However,!people!also!mentioned!some!negative!aspects!of!tourism,!such!as!increased!boat!traffic!and!tourists!on!the!reef! causing! physical! damage,! higher! demand! for! fish! and! shellfish,! and! loss! of! habitat! from!development.!People!said!that!they!are!concerned!for!their!children!and!future!generations!if!the!healthy!reef!is!not!going!to!be!there!in!the!future.!!
Several!other! changes!were!prioritised! that!affected! the!community!and! its! relationship!with!the! reef.! Participants! discussed! the! importance! of! the! San! Pedro! Fishers! Cooperative! that!started! in! the! 1980s,! bringing! electricity! to! the! island,! and!which! also! triggered! a! lot! of! the!development!in!San!Pedro.!The!cooperative!was!also!responsible!for!bringing!the!first!vehicles!to!the! island.!Other!changes!that!were!prioritised!by!participants!were!the! increase! in! fishing!since! the! 1950s,! when! people! only! fished! for! home! use,! and! the! issue! of! garbage! disposal.!Participants!expressed!concern!that!garbage! is!being!dumped!in!the! lagoon,!and!that!this!has!an!impact!on!the!health!of!the!lagoon!ecosystem!as!well!as!on!the!nearby!reef.!!
! 22! !
Figure' 4' Timeline' (Part' 1:' pre41950s42000s)' produced'by' participants'at' the'national' consultation,'18' July' 2012;'events' identified' by' participants' as'having'an'effect'on'the'relationship'between'people'and'reefs'indicated'in'bold'and'larger'text'size,'larger'text'size'indicates'the'event'was'identified'by'more'participants.'
1980s 1990s&cont.
Salted'fish'trade Reef'health'was'good'until'the'1980s Hawksbill'extraction'bannedPre/1950s Population'is'mostly'on'the'coast Tourism'boom,'early'1980s Turtle'exclusion'devices
Independence'1981 Started'using'lobster'shades1950s
First'fisheries'ordinanceFirst'MPA'1982,'more'in'1990s
Diadema&die&off&1983
Fishing'cooperatives,'1950sI1980s
Diving'tourism'boomed
1960s Fish&stocks&decreasing,&1980s&onwards
MPAs'attracted'tourists,'1980s'onwards
Coral'diseases'(e.g.'white'band)Shark'fishing,'exported'to'Mexico Diadema'die'off
UN'Law'of'the'Sea'introduced
1970s MaricultureEnforcement'by'Fisheries'Department
Skiffs'introduced"Brain'Drain",'1980sI1990s WWF'and'WCS'started'work'in'Belize
1990s
Increase'in'fishermen,'1990sI2000s
Closure'of'Caribeña'Cooperative
Rio'Conference,'1992NOTE:&Left&side&of&line&/&Given&by&date Right&side&of&line&/&Given&by&decade
SocioIeconomicResistance'to'new'rules'and'changes Environment
TourismStart'of'small'scale'coastal'tourism FisheriesIncreased'data'collection Enforcement'of'regulations Regional/International
Kyoto'Protocol
Major&reef&decline&due&to&mass&bleaching&and&
hurricanes&1998
World&Heritage&Site&designation&1996
Coastal'Zone'Management'Project'(UNDP)'initiated'1993
Department'of'Environment,'new'regulations'and'lawsMarine'protected'areas'1970sI
1980s
Fishing&pressure&increased&(due&to&population&increase&
and&introduction&of&boat&engines),&late&1970s&
onwards
Introduction'of'size'limit'and'closed'seasons'for'lobster
Environmental'Protection'Act'(established'NEAC,'grants'
environmental'clearance'for'developments),'1992
Illegal'fishing'(both'Belizeans'and'foreigners)Shrimp'farms'started'(took'out'
seagrass'beds,'runoff'created'anoxic'conditions)
Increase'in'environmental'policies,'agencies,'NGOs,'and'civil'suits'in'the'USA.''This'expands'to'other'
countries,''1970s'onwards
Extraction'of'Nassau'Grouper'(they'were'in'great'abundance'and'easier'to'catch)
Belize'Tourism'Bureau'established,'early'1990s
Fishers'sold'catch'directly'to'hotels'(black'market)
The'Nature'Conservancy'(TNC)'comes'into'Belize,'1991Exportation'of'conch'and'lobster'
to'USAStrong'NGO'base.''More'capacity'to'work'with'stakeholders,'better'relationships
Jacques'Cousteau'came'to'Blue'Hole,'opened'up'Belize'for'dive'
tourism
Establishment'of'reserves,'both'terrestrial'and'marine
Black'Stone'Report,'the'first'tourism'master'plan,'late'1990sGill'nets'banned'in'MPAs,'1980sI
1990s
Tourists'in'sensitive'areas'of'the'reef'for'diving'and'snorkelling
Hotel'and'Cruise'taxes'introduced,'late'1990sIncrease'in'environmental'media'
(e.g.'underwater'documentaries),'1970s'onwards
Began'using'lobster'traps,'previously'only'caught'by'free'diving
Large'cruise'ships'started'coming,'late'1990s
Using'reef'for'necklaces'and'other'things'to'sell
Introduction'of'gill'nets,'1960sI1970s
Agriculture'industry:'sugar'cane,'banana,'citrus
Tourism'boom,'increase'in'damage'to'the'reefs'(e.g.'physical,'sunscreen)
MPAs&and&no/take&zones&introducedTraditional'fishing'grounds'lost'to'
reserves,'1980sI1990sMore'organised'tourism'groups'
(e.g.'BTIA,'BHA,'Tour'Guide'Associations),'late'1990s
Jacques'Cousteau'dived'the'Blue'Hole,'1971
Clearing'of'mangroves'for'accommodation
Fishers'expand'their'grounds'(e.g.'now'include'Glovers'Reef),'and'fish'less'in'grounds'close'to'San'Pedro
Lack'of'consultation'regarding'MPAs,'1980sI1990s
CRFM'headquarters'established'in'Belize
Flyfishing'tourism'(which'has'stayed'small'scale,'locally'owned,'and'sustainable),'1960s'onwards
Move'from'fishing/farming'mix'to'only'fishingFisheries'Act'passed,'Fisheries'
Department'establishedInternational'aid'(e.g.'from'World'
Bank,'USAID),'1980s'onwardsAcropora'started'to'show'signs'of'
white'band'disease,'1998
Cruise&ships&start&coming&in
Hawksbill'turtles'extracted'for'jewellery,'1960sI1970s
International'conventions'started'to'be'signed'(e.g.'RAMSAR,'SPAW,'
Cartagena),'1980s'onwardsRegulations'under'EPA'(including'
EIAs,'pollution,'dumping'and'disposal),'mid'to'late'1990s
Start&of&cooperative&movement&(help&negotiate&better&prices,&
increase&in&export),&1950s/1960s
Hurricane'Mitch'caused'damage'to'the'reef'and'loss'of'fishing'gear'
and'boats,'1998Use'of'motorised'engines,'allowed'for'expansion'of'fishing'grounds
Start'to'get'funding'from'Caribbean'Development'Bank'and'International'Development'Bank
Not'much'big'international'NGO'involvement
Agricultural&runoff&damages&reef&(e.g.&from&sugar&cane,&bananas,&
citrus),&late&1980sImproper'fishing'practices'used'
1960s'and'earlier Aquaculture'of'shrimp'and'tilapia'started,'mainly'for'export NGO'response'to'coral'bleaching,'
1998
Belize'Tourism'Bureau'changed'into'Belize'Tourism'Board,'1995
TRIIGOH'(TriINational'Alliance'for'the'Conservation'of'the'Gulf'of'Honduras)
Forest'industry'was'important'to'national'economy,'used'rivers'to'float'timber Fisher'permit'system,'$2'per'
person'and'boat
World'Heritage'Status'for'7'reserves,'1996
Lobster'and'conch'started'to'be'exported,'attracting'people'to'fisheries
Small'scale'cruise'tourism'(less'than'300'passengers'per'boat),'
late'1980s
Protected'Areas'Conservation'Trust'(PACT),'midI1990s
Improper'fishing'practice'regionally'with'development'of'technology,'e.g.'trawling
Tour'guide'licenses'required,'midI1990s
Start'governing'own'resources'with'independence'1981
Shrimp&trawlers&introduced&(affected&sea&bottom,&had&a&lot&of&bycatch)
Sarteneja'switched'to'fishing'as'primary'livelihood'(Hurricane'Janet'
contaminated'soil'for'tomato'farming)'1955
! 23! !
!
Figure'5'Timeline'(Part'2:'2000s4Future)'produced'by'participants'at'the'national'consultation,'18'July'2012;'events'identified'by'participants'as'having'an'
effect' on' the' relationship' between' people' and' reefs' indicated' in' bold' and' larger' text' size,' larger' text' size' indicates' the' event'was' identified' by'more'
participants.'
2000s 2000s$continued 2010s$continued
Lionfish,)2008Sea)cucumber)fisheries)started Lionfish,)2008
Lionfish,)2009
NowStart)of)shark)fin)trading
Oceana,)~2009<2010
Global)economic)crisis,)late)2000s Future
Continued)decline)of)reef)health Creation)of)Marine)Endowment)FundCITES)(Conch)is)on)Appendix)II) Localised)reef)restoration Production)will)continue)to)be)steady Insurance)scheme)for)reefsWhale)Shark)ban Lionfish$fishery$6$local$and$for$exportBan)on)extracting)all)species)of)turtleConch)quota)introducedShrimp)trawlers)banned Impact)of)Rio)20+Introduction)of)SPAGs,)11)sites Lobster)quota)system
2010sCopenhagen,)~2010
More)management)of)fishing)areasCo<management)system)for)MPAs Introduction)of)sea)cucumber)quota More)access)to)education
Tourism)numbers)increasingNurse)shark)fishing)bannedTrawling)ban)on)shrimp
National)ban)on)trawling,)2010
Closing)of)USAID Sewage)plant)planned)for)PlacenciaMAR)FundOSPESCA Increased)penalties)for)infractionsFAO)Code)of)ConductMore)NGO)involvement Deep)water)port)in)Big)Creek,)2010More)regional)reef)conservation)projectsHealthy)Reefs)InitiativeRegional)fisher)exchange)initiatives
Sugar)cane)started)using)fertilizers
Lower)CPUE)(catch)per)unit)effort))for)lobster)and)conch,)early)2000sBareboat)charters)started,)these)are)a)risk)to)the)reefs)due)to)non<
local)captains,)early)2000s
Would)like)to)see)improved)water)management
Oil)exploration)and)the)potential)for)oil)spills
Shark)finning)starts,)demand)from)increase)in)local)Asian)trade)and)growing)export)trade
CSME)fishing)issues)(e.g.)Jamaican)demand)
Decline)in)agriculture)(banana,)sugar,)citrus,)shrimp))leads)more)people)into)fisheries
IUCN)Red)Listing)of)Staghorn)and)Elkhorn)coral
Larger)hotels)and)mega)resorts)(have)large)plots)of)land)that)they)intend)to)develop),)early)to)mid<
2000s
Introduction)of)invasive)species)such)as)the)lionfish)(from)vessels),)2010
Regulations)for)fisher)license,)increase)to)18)years)old)for)licenseMAR)Leadership)Program)(local)
leadership)training),)~2010
Managed)Access)Programme)within)marine)reservesConch$season$closed$early,$conch$flooded$the$Guatemala$market
More)community)stewardship)(big)international)NGO)involvement),)
2010
Sport)fishing)regulated,)permits)required
Cruise)ship)tourism)in)South)Big)Creek)starting,)needs)proper)
management,)2010
Algal)blooms)due)to)agricultural)runoff)(affected)tourism)and)
suffocated)fish),)2011Agricultural)cooperatives,)agro<processing
Catch)for)individual)fishermen)has)gone)down)(more)fishers)now)
Further)reef)decline)from)increased)sea)water)temperatures
Fishing)industry)still)will)be)a)major)source)of)foreign)exchange
More)local)opportunities)in)environmental)work,)there's)an)increase)in)local)education)(UB))and)increase)in)human)capacity
Tour)guide)course)and)licence)becoming)more)specific)(e.g.)
marine,)rainforest,)ruins)
Decrease)in)biodiversity)due)to)negative)impacts)of)invasive)species)and)overfishing,)now)to)the)future
Off<shore)oil)exploration)(requiring)specialized,)non<Belizean,)workforce),)now)to)future
Increased)human)capacity)for)reef)and)environmental)management,)2010s)onwards
Environmental)projects)will)have)a)climate)change)focus
Younger)generation)will)seek)employment)in)new)areas)(e.g.)
shipping,)entrepreneurship)Limit$fisherfolk$license/permit$system$to$reduce$number$of$fishers
New)cruise)ship)terminal)(in)the)South)or)Belize)City?)
Increased)food)production)to)support)tourism,)shipping)to)cayes
There$will$be$more$policies,$implementation,$and$stricter$enforcement$for$the$reefs
Improved$enforcement$in$fisheries$(essential$to$stabilize$fishery)
Need)more)action)on)reef)conservation
Open)access)to)limited)entry)(Belize)pilot)
National$Protected$Area$System$Plan,$2005
Protection)of)manatees)and)turtles,)2002
Tourism$leads$to$coastal$development$and$service$based$
employment,$2005
Gulf)of)Honduras)Project,)development)of)commercial)
shipping)lanes)for)Belize,)Guatemala,)and)Honduras,)2005)
onwards
Amendments)to)EPA)regulations)require)EIAs)for)tourism)
developments)of)a)certain)size,)2007
Signed)IMO)(International)Maritime)Organisation))
Conventions,)but)local)regulation)and)enforcement)lacking,)2008
New)generation)will)be)more)environmentally)conscious
Most)agriculture)is)for)export)only,)political)influence)thought)to)favour)oversees)markets
Fishing)of)grazers)(e.g.)parrotfish))due)to)decrease)in)other)commercial)species
Tobacco)Caye)Marine)Reserve,)2008
Pig)rearing)in)the)north)as)an)alternative)livelihood)for)fishers,)
2008
Increase)in)cost)of)fuel,)2008)and)2010
Fishers)displaced)due)to)closed)areas,)closed)seasons,)catch)share,)and)enforcement
Caribbean)Community)Climate)Change)Centre)(CCCCC))opens)in)Belize)
Behavioural)changes)in)reef)species)due)to)increased)tourism)and)human)interference,)now)to)
the)future
Rationalisation$exercise$for$protected$areas
Increase$in$shipping$vessels$in$Belize$led$to$pollution$and$grounding$incidents
Belize)Tourism)Board)<)more)awareness,)tour)guide)rules)(e.g.)1:8)ratio)guide)to)tourist)per)trip)
Tourism)has)increased)the)demand)for)fish)(largest)demand)for)fish)other)than)export)
Cruise)ship)tourism)increased)(leading)to)more)damage)on)the)reefs)Increase)in)environmental)
education)in)all)levels)of)schools,)late)2000s
Sea)cucumber)fishery)started,)late)2000s
Earthquake)off)of)Honduras)damages)reefs,)2008/2009Earthquake)affects)reefs)in)
southern)to)central)Belize)2009Ban)on)fishing)of)parrotfish)and)
herbivores)2009
Hurricane)Iris)caused)damage)to)the)reef)and)loss)of)fishing)gear)
and)boats,)2001
Livelihood)change)<)transition)from)fishing)to)tourismLack)of)education)opportunities)for)fishing)families
Increased$effort$in$research,$monitoring,$and$collaboration$within$national$groups
New$Tourism$Master$Plan,$using$NRM6based$approach,$
completed$2011
Greater$coordination$with$regional$counterparts
More$harmonised$regional$and$international$policies$
and$laws$for$the$environment
Mesoamerican)Barrier)Reef)System)(MBRS))Project,)~2005
Want)more)proportional)budget)allocations
Tour)guide)course)dramatically)improved,)early)2000s
Shift)to)Managed)Access)Plan)for)fisheries,)from)open)access
Foreign)owned)property,)leads)to)increase)in)property)values)and)low)wage)jobs)for)Belizeans
Mangrove$clearance$increased$for$coastal$developmentSedimentation$from$dredging$for$coastal$development$
Cruise)ship)tourism,)but)without)equitable)distribution)of)benefits
COMPACT$programme$(funding$for$alternative$livelihoods$and$
education),$2000s$onwards
Grey$water$dumping$from$cruise$ships$and$private$boats
Harmonisation)of)lobster)regulations,)2010)onwards
! 24! !
Figure'6'Timeline'(Pre/1960s/Future)'produced'by'participants'at'the'Hopkins'community'meeting'3'July'2012;'events'identified'by'participants'as'having'an'effect' on' the' relationship' between' people' and' reefs' indicated' in' bold' and' larger' text' size,' larger' text' size' indicates' the' event'was' identified' by'more'participants.'
Pre$1960s 1990s 2010s
Village'got'electricity,'about'1992 Saltwater0Caye0Marine0Reserve02010
1960s
Sail'and'paddle'dories'were'usedFuture
1970s Tourism'will'blossom There'will'be'fewer'fishers
Access0road0to0HopkinsMore'infrastructure
1980s
2000sGlover's'Marine'Reserve'~2004
Sandy0Beach0was0the0first0resort
NOTE:0Left0side0of0line0$0Given0by0date Right0side0of0line0$0Given0by0decade
CommunityTourismFisheries
EIAs0are0biased,02000s0to0now
People'here'will'adjust'to'any'future'changes,'they'are'resilient
Fishing'was'easier,'more'fish'were'bitingFishing'was'the'major'source'of'living
The'number'of'fishers'started'to'decline
People'started'diving'for'conch'and'lobsterThere'were'only'5'or'6'divers'at'the'beginning
Hopkins0Bay0Resort0was0developed,0causing0more0erosion,0
lost0beach,0and0large0environmental0problems,0mid$
2000s
More'people'coming'in'leading'to'more'mixed'cultures,'Hopkins'
used'to'be'only'Garifuna'people,'2005'onwards
With'outboard'engines,'could'fish'further'fishing'grounds,'and'get'to'grounds'faster
Paving'of'the'road,'will'be'both'positive'(bringing'more'tourists'in)'
and'negative'(bring'more'crime'and'problems)
Local'people'will'own'their'own'tourism'businesses
There0will0be0fewer0fishers,0but0those0left0will0be0more0profitable
There'will'be'more'movement'from'fishing'to'tourism
People'will'still'fish,'"it's'part'of'the'culture"Won't'have'young'fishers,'because'there'are'less'fish'and'they'won't'have'a'chance'to'learn'to'fish
Before0the01980s,0Hopkins0was0more0traditionally0a0fishing0and0
farming0village
Gill0nets0and0trawlers0were0introduced0for0fish0and0shrimp
Started'creating'areas'closed'to'(or'restricting)'fishing
Scepticism0in0fishers0grew0after0laws0were0put0in0place0without0consulting0fishers0first
First'seasonal'closures'S'e.g.'lobster'and'conch
Jamaican'companies'bringing'in'longlinersJamaican'companies'buying'fish'indiscriminatelyBad0road,0leading0to0damaged0cars0and0increasing0maintenance0costs
Foreigners0don't0look0out0for0us.0We0need0to0keep0our0say.'0Locals0
need0to0maintain0a0voice0in0decisions0in0their0community.0
Now0to0the0future
Shrimp0trawlers0were0in0the0area0(this0had0many0
negative0effects0on0fishing),0late01980s
Tourism0took0away0the0traditional0activities0in0the0village
Jaguar'Reef'was'the'first'major'resort,'1994
Reserves0mean0it0is0tougher0to0catch0fish,0there's0a0loss0of0traditional0fishing0areas
Children0are0not0speaking0Garifuna0now,0they0are0speaking0
Creole0with0each0other,020080onwards
Initiation0of0grouper0seasons0in0some0areas"Everything'is'seasonal'now,'if'you'
get'caught'with'fish'out'of'season,'you'get'fined",'midS2000s
Hamanasi'trained'locals'to'do'scuba'divingYounger'generation'has'less'farmland'because'the'government'has'started'to'sell'it
A0big0increase0in0land0around0Hopkins00being0sold0to0foreigners,0
20050onwards
Fishers'started'selling'to'resorts'rather'than'locals,'midS1990s
"We0fish0for0rejects0now",0the0best0fish0are0in0the0reserves
People'from'Corozal'come'to'Hopkins'to'buy'fish'wholesale,'midS
1990s
Declines0in0fish0numbers0and0sizes0(a0result0of0shrimp0
Trammel'nets'started'being'used'in'the'lagoon
Hopkins'Fishers'Cooperative,'1983S1989
Cruise0ships0came,0stopped0in0front0of0Sandy0Beach
Fish'traps'started'to'be'used'(easier'to'catch'fish'than'with'a'
hand'line),'1980sS1990sEmployment'started'changing'
from'fishing/farming'to'tourism,'late'1980sS1990s
People'stopped'fishing'from'the'beach,'only'kids'will'still'do'it'now
More'technology'(TVs'and'phones)'made'people'lazy,'late'1990s
Gradual'shift'from'thatch'houses'and'roofs'to'concrete
Tourism'created'more'jobs'in'the'community,'late'1990s
With'electricity,'had'more'bars,'restaurants,'and'recreation
Fishers'started'coming'in'from'areas'outside'of'HopkinsBefore0the0road,0Hopkins0was0more0independent
People'started'using'outboard'engines'about'1978
Hol'Chan'Marine'Reserve,'late'1970s'S'early'1980s
Movement'away'from'traditional'fishing'and'farming'livelihoodsChildren'are'getting'more'education'to'diversify'livelihoodsPeople'started'to'migrate'to'the'USA'for'work'and'would'send'money'home
Sandy'Beach'Women's'Cooperative'started,'first'women's'
coop'in'Belize,'1982
Hopkins'fishers'started'to'join'the'Northern'Fishers'Cooperative
Introduction'of'TV'and'technology'with'electricity,'this'also'increased'the'influence'from'Americans
Used'to'fish'off'the'beach'S'but'that'has'mostly'stopped,'midS
1990s
People0are0more0dependent0on0resorts,0less0on0fishing,0late01990s0
onwards
Started'putting'fish'on'ice'for'preservation,'rather'than'using'salt
Hand'lining'was'common'due'to'abundance'of'fish
! 25! !
!Figure'7'Timeline'(1960s/Future)'produced'by'participants'at'the'Placencia'community'meeting'20'June'2012;'events'identified'by'participants'as'having'an'effect' on' the' relationship' between' people' and' reefs' indicated' in' bold' and' larger' text' size,' larger' text' size' indicates' the' event'was' identified' by'more'participants.'
1960s 1990s 2000s'continued
Sartenejans'coming'to'fish Had$a$sand$road$into$the$village
Fishers$cooperative$created$1962Heavy$investment$in$dive$tourismMore$development,$bigger$resorts
Mangroves$destroyed$since$Iris Houses$being$built$bigger$and$higherMore$selling$of$land$to$foreigners
Tourism$has$increased$since$1995
1970s 2010s
LionfishProposals$for$large$cruise$ships$2010
Paved$road$finished$2011
Had$to$start$locking$doors$at$night
2000s
Private$airstrip$built1980s Hurricane$Iris$2001
OverfishingDuring/After'Hurricane'Iris'2001
Late'80s
A$shift$to$ecotourism90%$devastation$of$the$village Future
The$village$got$running$waterCharter$flights$started$coming$in Development$of$malls$and$casinos
NOTE:'Left'side'of'line'H'Given'by'date Right'side'of'line'H'Given'by'decade
CommunityTourismFisheries
Difference$in$treatment$between$the$locals$and$the$foreign$developers
Placencia$will$be$turned$into$a$town
The$road$to$Placencia$was$upgraded$to$a$clay$road
Fishers'started'moving'into'
tourism
More$people$are$involved$in$fishing
Huge$jump$in$the$numbers$of$dive$shops
Need$a$license$to$cut$mangroves,$but$this$disproportionately$hurts$the$poor$people$because$developers$can$pay$for$the$permits$and$will$cut$more$mangroves
Increase$in$crime$after$the$paving$of$the$road
No'more'shrimp'trawling'
(Oceana'involved'in'getting'this'
done)'2011
Fish'moving'deeper'(divers'are'
chasing'the'whale'sharks'
pushing'them'deeper,'which'is'
pushing'the'fish'deeper)
Tourism$has$led$to$the$perception$that$there$is$more$money$here$and$crime$has$increased
Used$to$be$only$one$dive$shop$L$Seahorse$(only$shop$doing$whale$
shark$tours)
Education$about$the$ecosystem$and$fishingMore$people$coming$in$to$the$community$to$work
Increase$in$rules$on$fishing,$e.g.$can't$catch$Nassau$grouper,$closed$seasons$put$in$place,$MPAs
Started$constructing$cement$houses More$deep$sea$fishing$because$
reefs$will$be$fished$out
Not$enough$resources$to$go$around$due$to$increase$in$population,$this$will$continue$to$increase
Community$was$more$isolated,$the$road$was$made$of$dirt$and$harder$to$pass
A$gradual$shift$started$with$fishers$becoming$tour$guides
Reserves$created$at$Gladden$Spit$and$Silk$Cayes$for$whale$sharks$
and$spawning$aggregations$2000
Population$growth$increased$the$numbers$of$people$fishing
Fishing$grounds$destroyed$in$Iris,$took$a$couple$years$to$rebuild
Seafood$production$fell$with$an$increase$in$tourism
Piped$water$from$Maya$Mountains$(piped$under$the$lagoon)
Introduction$of$modern$fishing$gears$(e.g.$fish$finders,$GPS,$mechanised$winches
Lost$cashew,$mango,$and$guava$trees$during$Iris
More$rules$came$in$(relating$to$the$sea,$building,$etc.)
Need$different$licences$to$fish$(but$these$can$be$expensive$for$nonLcommercial$fishers)Tourism'changed'the'culture,'
more'people'coming'to'Placencia'
for'both'business'and'pleasure
"The$secret$got$out"$about$Belize$and$more$people$started$coming$
after$a$National$Geographic$documentary$came$out$late$1970s
The$fishers$cooperative$was$heavily$involved$in$shrimp$trawling
Divers$(fishers)$became$more$professional,$more$commercial
The$fishers$cooperative$owned$3$shrimp$boatsThe'fishers'cooperative'was'the'
backbone'of'the'village,'it'
processed'and'sold'fish'and'
brought'electricity'to'the'
community
More$marketing$and$advertising$for$tourismProduct$was$abundant$(lobster,$conch,$sea$shrimp)
Placencia$became$an$economic$hub$(brought$on$initially$by$the$fishers$cooperative)
Increase$in$construction$and$increase$in$size$of$buildings
Community$and$tourism$became$more$organized
Paving$of$the$road$brings$more$people$in
Television$brought$information$to$fishers$on$why$environmental$
changes$were$happening,$starting$in$2005
Beginning$of$sea$cucumber$harvesting$2011
Rainforest'Seafood'(a'new'
Jamaican'fish'buyer'that'is'
buying'nearly'everything)Much$less$fish$now,$no$yellowtail$snappersThe$road$to$Placencia$was$paved,$this$is$considered$both$a$'blessing$and$a$curse'$because$it$brings$more$people$inNew$dock$being$built$(some$believe$it$will$allow$cruise$ships$to$come$to$Placencia)
Fishermen'(e.g.'from'Honduras'
and'Guatemala)'are'still'fishing'
in'the'MPAs,'often'at'night
Increasing$population$due$to$tourism,$but$didn't$have$the$
services$to$support$this,$1990s$onwards
Mutton$and$yellowtail$snapper$fishing$became$more$commercialised,$more$for$profit
Laughing$Bird$became$no$take$L$didn't$affect$the$fishing$much$as$
the$area$was$more$valued$area$for$tourism$1996
The$number$of$fishers$in$the$area$increased$due$to$Guatemalans,$Honduran,$and$Sarteneja$fishermen$
Had$an$informal$rule$against$fishing$with$scuba$tanks,$later$had$an$official$rule$against$this
Before$the$cooperative,$boats$came$to$buy$fish$(e.g.$from$Jamaica)
Seaspray$was$one$of$the$first$hotels$in$Placencia$1960
First$time$people$went$underwater$to$fish,$late$1960sLearly$1970sIntroduction'of'outboard'
engines,'before'this'used'
canoes'and'sailboats,'late'1960sH
early'1970s
Rum$Point$and$Buccaneer$Beach$L$early$hotels
! 26! !
'
'Figure'8'Timeline'(1950s/Future)'produced'by'participants'at'the'San'Pedro'community'meeting'25'July'2012;'events'identified'by'participants'as'having'an'effect' on' the' relationship' between' people' and' reefs' indicated' in' bold' and' larger' text' size,' larger' text' size' indicates' the' event'was' identified' by'more'participants.'
'
1950s 1980s 2010sFirst&dive&shop&-&Coral&Beach
Airstrip&builtDeclines&in&fish&catch Future
1960sSan&Pedro&was&a&small&fishing&village Fish&will&continue&to&declineFishers&cooperative&started
Gas&station&opened&1965
1990s
Increase&in&drugsIncrease&in&crime
More&people&started&to&fish
2000s Tourism&affecting&the&reef NOTE:3Left3side3of3line3;3Given3by3date Right3side3of3line3;3Given3by3decade
Community1970s Started&catching&less&fish Tourism
Population3boom FisheriesCrime&increases
Streets&were&paved&2009
Families&working&in&cocomut&industry&started&to&clear&land&to&build&housesThe3only3fishing3in3San3Pedro3was3for3personal3useCommercial&fishing&for&conch&and&lobster&began
Fishers&cooperative&brought&first&vehicle&to&the&islandStarted&to&get&engines&for&fishing&boats
Fishers&cooperative&brought&full&time&electricity&to&San&Pedro&(before&was&only&on&certain&hours)
Fishers3cooperative3started3development3in3San3Pedro,3this3helped3keep3more3money3here
Hol&Chan&Marine&Reserve&established&1987
Tourism&brings&increase&in&immigration,&late&1980s-90s
Tourism&brings&in&more&money&to&San&Pedro,&1980s-1990s
Bad&management&of&the&fishers&cooperative&led&to&it's&closure
Bridge&constructed&leading&past&Boca&del&Rio,&late&2000s
Increase&in&unskilled&tour&guides&with&the&boom&in&tourism
Garbage3is3being3thrown3everywhere3(e.g.3in3the3lagoon)
Fish&are&gone/done,&San&Pedro&now&has&to&get&some&of&its&fish&from&the&mainland
Started&fishing&grazers,&e.g.&angelfish&and&parrotfish
Locals&are¬&able&to&compete&with&foreigners
More&people&started&to&fish,&1960s-1970s
Hol&Chan&was&overfished,&ideas&of&the&reserve&started&as&an&experiment&to&protect&it
Tourism&will&decrease&or&be&gone&completely,&and&oil&will&replace&tourism
Fishers&started&to&sell&their&product&to&hotels&rather&than&the&cooperative
San&Pedro&was&a&close&knit&Mestizo&community,&started&to&become&more&diverse&in&the&1980s
Tourism3development,3which3leads3to3a3loss3of3habitat3such3as3mangroves
First&high&school&in&San&Pedro,&late&1970s
Tourism3boom,3late31980s;90s
Continued&environmental&damage&-&from&development&and&garbage&
disposal
Fishers&could&travel&further&with&engines,&so&travelled&to&the&reef&to&fish&more&easily.
! 27! !
5 REEF%HEALTH%
Perceived%drivers%of%reef%health%5.1
Changes!to!the!health!of!reefs!can!be!caused!by!drivers!acting!directly!on!the!reef!(proximate!drivers;! e.g.! coral! bleaching,! sedimentation,! algal! blooms)!or!drivers!which!may!be!physically!removed!from!the!reef!(ultimate!drivers;!e.g.!coastal!development,!poverty,!poor!governance).!Management!of!coral!reefs!typically!focuses!on!the!proximate!drivers,!those!that!act!directly!on!the!reef.!However,!understanding!ultimate!drivers!is!key!to!improving!management.!
Perceptions! of! reef! health! and! causes! of! changes! in! reef! health! were! assessed! within! the!governance!interviews!and!the!household!interviews.!Community!level!views!on!reef!health!can!be!found!in!Section!5.2.!
To!assess!perceptions!about!drivers!of!reef!health,!two!questions!were!asked!in!the!governance!interviews:!
1. What!do!you!think!are!the!most!important!impacts!to!reefs!in!your!area/country?!2. What!are!the!causes!of!these!impacts?!!
These!questions!elicited!combinations!of!factors!that!lead!to!proximate!stressors!on!the!reefs,!for!example:!
Proximate%driver%! %reef%health!! ! e.g.!sediment!affects!the!reefs!Ultimate%driver%! %proximate%driver!! e.g.!poor!agricultural!practices!lead!to!
sedimentation!Ultimate%driver%! %ultimate%driver!! e.g.!lack!of!awareness!leads!to!poor!
agricultural!practices!
!
The!results!indicated!a!wide!range!of!proximate!and!ultimate!drivers!of!reef!health!identified!by!interviewees.!Across! the! four! studied! countries,! a! total! of! 116!discrete!drivers!of! reef!health!were!identified,!including!37!proximate!and!79!ultimate!(see!Tables!5!and!6!for!examples).!The!116!drivers!of!reef!health!were!categorised!into!31!themes,!and!the!percentage!of!respondents!mentioning!each!theme!was!calculated!(Tables!5!and!6).!
All! identified!links!between!drivers!and!between!drivers!and!coral!reefs!were!coded!to!reflect!the!causal!chains!(including!those!mentioned!in!other!portions!of!interviews;!Figure!9).!Among!the! 116! drivers,! a! total! of! 685! perceived! causal! links! were! identified! (each! link! being! one!relationship!between!two!drivers).!!
! 28! !
!
Table% 5% Proximate% driver% themes%with% a% description% of% the% drivers%within% each% theme% and% the% percentage% of%respondents%that%mentioned%each%theme.%PROXIMATE%DRIVERS! Respondents!(n=38)!
mentioning!each!theme!(%)!Theme! Description!of!drivers!included!in!theme!
Acidification! References!to!ocean!acidification!! 8!
Algae! References!to!algae!growing!on,!or!covering!coral!reefs! 26!
Bleaching!&!water!
temperature!
Coral!bleaching,!including!descriptions!of!corals!turning!white,!and!references!
relating!to!increasing!water!temperature!
71!
Coastal!habitat!
destruction!
Drivers!relating!to!loss!of!mangrove,!wetland!and!seagrass!habitats,!and!sandmining! 32!
Coral!disease! References!to!coral!disease,!including!specific!mention!of!a!disease!(e.g.!white!band!
disease)!!
11!
Fishing!impacts!
(direct)!
General!and!specific!issues!relating!to!unsustainable!fishing,!including!fishing!in!
protected!areas!or!out!of!season,!fishing!undersized,!mentions!of!bycatch,!
discarded!gear!and!fewer!herbivores!
92!
Invasive!species! Specific!issues!relating!to!lionfish,!and!general!issues!relating!to!invasive!species!on!
reefs!
16!
Other!ecological!
changes!
A!broad!range!of!other!ecological!drivers!mentioned!infrequently,!including!fish!
migration,!red!tides,!fish!kills!and!Diadema!die]off!3!
Physical!damage! General!and!specific!issues!relating!to!physical!damage,!including!boat!and!anchor!
impacts,!extraction!of!corals,!and!diver!and!snorkeller!impact!
68!
Pollution! General!and!specific!mention!of!pollution!issues,!including!chemical!and!organic!
waste,!rubbish!and!sewage,!oil!and!gasoline!and!sun!cream!
74!
Sedimentation!&!
dredging!
References!to!sedimentation,!dredging!and!erosion!affecting!corals! 50!
Storms!&!natural!
disasters!
Drivers!relating!to!rough!seas!and!hurricanes,!earthquakes,!sea!level!rise!and!high!
tides,!as!well!as!general!mention!of!natural!disasters!
50!
!
! %
Figure%9%Example%of%an%interviewee%response%and%how%it%was%coded%to%the%drivers%
!“Sure!the!thing!is!that!you!might!make!a!report!but!you!may!not!get!anything!done!about!it!because!again!it!comes!back!to!the!legislative!framework.!If!you!don't!have!the!framework!then!what!can!I!enforce?!So!clearly!you!need!laws”!
!
! 29! !
Table% 6% Ultimate% driver% themes% with% a% description% of% the% drivers% within% each% theme% and% the% percentage% of%respondents%that%mentioned%each%theme.%ULTIMATE%DRIVERS% ! Respondents!(n=38)!
mentioning!each!theme!(%)!Theme% Description!of!drivers!included!in!theme!
Agricultural!changes! Range!of!drivers!relating!to!agricultural!impacts,!including!shrimp!farms,!changes!in!agricultural!practices,!overgrazing!and!vegetation!removal!
37!
Climate!changes! References!to!climate!change!and!global!warming,!carbon!emissions,!changes!in!seasonality,!flooding,!and!El!Niño!and!La!Niña!events!
74!
Coastal!development!&!changes!
General!issues!relating!to!poor!coastal!development,!as!well!as!drivers!relating!to!quarrying,!removal!of!coastal!vegetation!and!poor!drainage!
61!
Enforcement! Issues!of!lack!of!effective!enforcement,!non]compliance!with!rules!and!regulations,!and!inadequate!penalties!for!infractions!
95!
Fishing!impacts!(indirect)!
Indirect!impacts!relating!to!unsustainable!fishing,!including!increased!fishing!pressure,!technological!changes!and!displacement!of!fishing!effort!
37!
Funding!issues! Issues!such!as!dependence!on!donor!funding!for!reef!management,!and!changes!to!funding!climate!influencing!management!
8!
Governance!architecture!
Drivers!relating!to!structures!or!arrangements!in!place!for!reef!governance,!for!example!institutional!arrangements,!legislation!and!policy!
84!
Governance!process! Drivers!relating!to!processes!and!principles!guiding!interactions!and!decision]making,!for!example!leadership!and!engagement!!
100!
Marine!transport!&!industry!
Issues!relating!to!shipping!and!increases!in!boat!traffic,!and!factories!and!industrial!sites!
8!
Management! Drivers!relating!to!the!implementation!of!reef!management!measures,!for!example!a!lack!of!marine!protected!areas,!seasonal!closures,!and!alternatives!for!resource]users;!and!issues!relating!to!inadequate!sewage!treatment,!watershed!management!and!rubbish!disposal!
74!
Management!planning!
Drivers!relating!to!a!lack!of!specific!management!plans,!and!a!reliance!on!ad!hoc!management!for!reefs!
26!
Markets! Issues!relating!to!market!demand!for!coral!reef!resources! 13!
Non]local!impacts! Reference!to!general!impacts!from!non]local!sources,!and!specific!issues!such!as!pollution!!
50!
Prioritisation! Drivers!highlighting!a!lack!of!prioritisation!or!differences!in!priorities!for!reef!management,!and!differences!in!value!systems!affecting!decision]making!
61!
Resources!&!capacity! Drivers!relating!to!either!a!lack!of,!or!an!ineffective!use!of,!resources!and!capacity!for!management!of!reefs!
92!
Social!drivers! Social!drivers!influencing!reef!management,!including!political!differences,!changes!in!lifestyle!affecting!people’s!behaviour!and!the!dynamics!of!small!societies!
11!
Socio]economic!issues!
General!and!specific!mention!of!socio]economic!issues,!relating!to!livelihood!dependency!and!access!to!resources,!poverty,!education,!unemployment,!population!increase!and!health!
58!
Tourism! Drivers!relating!to!tourism,!including!snorkelling!and!diving!impacts,!issues!of!irresponsible!tour!guiding,!cruise!ships,!and!the!curio!and!aquarium!trade!
79!
Tradition!&!culture! Issues!relating!to!cultural!factors,!local!customs!and!traditions!impacting!reef!health!and!management!
3!
! 30! !
The!most!commonly!mentioned!themes!in!Belize!were!those!that!categorised!ultimate!drivers,!with! 100%! of! respondents! mentioning! governance! process! (100%),! enforcement! (95%),!resources! and! capacity! (92%),! and! governance! architecture! (84%)! (see! Tables! 5! and! 6! for!details).!Governance!and!management!issues!were!commonly!mentioned,!though!these!issues!were!prompted!in!other!parts!of!the!interview!and!may!reflect!this!focus.!The!main!proximate!drivers! identified! in! Belize! were! direct! impacts! from! fishing! (92%! of! respondents),! pollution!(74%),!coral!bleaching!and!water!temperature!(71%),!and!physical!damage!(68%).!All!proximate!and! ultimate! driver! themes! identified! within! the! four! countries! studied! were! mentioned! in!Belize!by!at!least!one!interviewee.!
Household%perceptions%of%reefs%5.2
Perceptions! of! coral! reefs! were! assessed! at! the! community! level! through! a! number! of! reef!related!questions!in!the!household!interview.!!
5.2.1 Importance!of!coral!reefs!
The!majority!of! respondents! in!Belize!believed!that!coral! reefs!are! important! (96%,!99%,!and!99%!in!Hopkins,!Placencia,!and!San!Pedro!respectively).!Interviewees!were!asked!to!explain!why!reefs! were! important,! and! responses! were! categorised! into! seven! categories:! fishery! (e.g.! a!place! to! fish,! a! source! of! food),! habitat! (e.g.! a! habitat! for! fish! or! other! species),! coastal!protection! (e.g.! protection! from!waves! or! hurricanes),! sanitation! (e.g.! bathing,!washing! fish),!tourism! (e.g.! recreational! activities! such! as! snorkelling! and! diving),! education! (e.g.! benefits!gained!from!knowledge!about!the!marine!environment),!and!cultural!(e.g.!to!do!with!traditions,!spiritual! uses)! (following! Hicks,! Graham,! and! Cinner! 2013).! When! asked! why! reefs! were!important,!the!majority!of!responses!related!to!providing!a!habitat!for!marine!life!and!coastal!protection,!followed!by!fishery!services!(Figure!10).!Responses!about!tourism!services!followed!the!reef]dependency!of! the!communities;!San!Pedro,!as!a!community!dependent!on! tourism,!had!a!higher!number!of!respondents!offer!tourism!related!responses,!and!Hopkins,!as!a!more!fishing!dependent!community,!had!the!lowest!tourism!related!responses.!
Households!consumed!seafood!an!average!of!over!two!times!per!week!(Table!7).!Consumption!was!higher!in!Hopkins!than!the!other!studied!communities.!Approximately!half!of!interviewees!responded! that! they! ate! food! from! the! reefs! less! often! than! they! did! 10! years! before.! The!majority! of! respondents! believed! that! their! household! consumption! of! food! from! the! reefs!would!either!be!the!same!or!less!often!in!the!future.!!
!
! 31! !
%
Figure% 10% Categorised% responses% from% household% interviewees% to% the% question% "Why% are% reefs% important?"%(Number%of%responses:%Hopkins%n=76;%Placencia,%n=75;%San%Pedro,%n=76)%
!
Table%7%Household%interviewees%responses%to%questions%about%frequency%of%seafood%consumption.%Food%from%the%sea%Responses!
Hopkins!(n=76)!
Placencia!(n=75)!
San!Pedro!(n=76)!
How!often!do!you!eat!food!from!the!sea?!(times!per!week)!Mean!(St.!Deviation)! 3.57!(2.23)! 2.63!(1.60)! 2.03!(1.72)!
Do!you!eat!food!from!the!reef!more!or!less!often!than!10!years!ago?!(%)! ! ! !Same! 28! 28! 41!
Less! 46! 48! 47!
More! 24! 21! 12!
Unsure! 0! 0! 0!
Not!answered! 2! 3! 0!
Do!you!think!it!will!be!more!or!less!often!in!the!next!10!years?!(%)! ! ! !
Same! 22! 20! 30!
Less! 46! 39! 38!
More! 17! 20! 8!
Unsure! 5! 13! 11!Not!answered! 10! 7! 13!
!
5.2.2 Health!of!coral!reefs!
Interviewees!were!asked!to!describe!a!healthy!coral! reef;! responses!were!coded! into! themes!representing!different!attributes!of! the!coral! reef!environment! (Figure!11).!The!abundance!of!marine! life! (e.g.! fish,! lobster)!was! the!most! commonly!mentioned! attribute! across! the! three!communities.!!
!
!
!
0!5!
10!15!20!25!30!35!40!45!50!
Fishery! Habitat! Coastal!Protecgon!
Sanitagon! Tourism! Educagon! Cultural!
%%of%respo
nden
ts%
Ecosystem%services%
Hopkins!
Placencia!
San!Pedro!
! 32! !
Two!scaled!questions!were!asked!to!assess!perceptions!of!reef!health!(Figure!12):!
1. “How!healthy!do!you!think!the!reefs!are!here?”!(response!options:!very!healthy,!healthy,!unhealthy,!or!very!unhealthy)!
2. “In!terms!of!the!number!of!fish!on!the!reef,!do!you!think!there!are!very!many,!many,!few,!or!very!few?”!
More! than! half! of! respondents! in! each! of! the! studied! communities! perceived! the! reef! as!healthy!or!very!healthy.!Perceptions!of!reef!health!were!the!highest!in!Hopkins!and!San!Pedro.!Perceptions! of! the! number! of! fish! on! the! reef!were! lower! than! reef! health! in! all! sites,!with!perceptions!of!number!of!fish!highest!in!Hopkins,!and!lowest!in!San!Pedro.!
!
%Figure%11%Household%perceptions%of%attributes%of%a%healthy%reef.%Responses%were%to%the%question%“If%you%think%of%a%healthy%reef,%what%would%it%look%like?”%Responses%were%coded%into%one%or%more%themes%and%the%percentage%of%respondents%mentioning%attributes% in%a%given% theme%presented% from%each%community.% (Number%of% responses:%Hopkins%n=76;%Placencia,%n=75;%San%Pedro,%n=76)%
!
0!
10!
20!
30!
40!
50!
60!
%%of%respo
nden
ts%
A`ributes%of%a%healthy%reef%
Hopkins!
Placencia!
San!Pedro!
! 33! !
%Figure%12%Household%interviewees’%responses%to%the%questions%“How%healthy%is%the%reef?”%and%“How%many%fish%are%on%the%reef?”%(unsure%and%unanswered%responses%removed)%
5.2.3 Reef!change!
In! response! to! questions! about! changes! observed! in! coral! reefs! over! the! past! ten! years,! the!majority!of! respondents!described!negative! changes! they!had! seen! in! the! coral! and! reef! fish!(Table!8).!A!small!number!of!respondents!perceived!positive!changes!in!coral!or!reef!fish!over!the!previous!10!years!(4]13%!of!individuals).!
Table%8%Perceptions%of%reef%change%! %!of!household!interviewees!Questions%about%changes%in%the%reefs%Responses!
Hopkins!(n=76)!
Placencia!(n=75)!
San!Pedro!(n=76)!
Perceived!changes!in!the!reefs!over!the!past!10!years!+!Positive!changes!in!coral! 8! 4! 11!]!Negative!changes!in!coral! 49! 73! 67!
+!Positive!changes!in!reef!fish! 4! 13! 11!]!Negative!changes!in!reef!fish! 61! 77! 68!
Do!you!think!there!will!be!any!changes!in!the!future!that!could!affect!the!reefs!here?! ! ! !Yes% 37! 56! 45!No% 5! 7! 5!Unsure% 11! 3! 7!Not!answered% 47! 35! 43!
Do!you!think!climate!change!will!affect!the!reefs!here?! ! ! !Yes! 70! 83! 62!No! 13! 5! 11!Unsure! 3! 1! 1!Not!answered! 14! 11! 26!
!
The! three! communities! differed! in! terms! of! perceptions! of! future! changes.! Respondents! in!Placencia! were!more! likely! to! believe! that! there! would! be! changes! in! the! future! that! could!affect!the!reefs!in!the!area!(56%!of!respondents)!and!that!climate!change!would!affect!the!reefs!
0%! 20%! 40%! 60%! 80%! 100%!
Number!of!fish!
Reef!health!
Number!of!fish!
Reef!health!
Number!of!fish!
Reef!health!San!Pe
dro!
Placen
cia!
Hopkins!
Very!healthy/very!many! Healthy/Many! In]between! Unhealthy/Few! Very!unhealthy/Very!few!
! 34! !
in! the!area! (83%).!Hopkins!was! less! likely! than!the!other! two!studied!communities! to!believe!that!there!would!be!changes!that!would!affect!the!reefs! in!the!future!(37%),!but!the!majority!believed! that! climate! change! would! affect! the! reefs! (70%).! In! San! Pedro,! just! under! half! of!respondents! (45%)! believed! that! there! would! be! changes! in! the! future,! while! 62%! of!respondents! believed! that! climate! change! would! affect! the! reefs,! the! lowest! of! the! three!communities.!!
5.2.4 Fishers’!responses!to!hypothetical!changes!in!reef!fish!populations!
In!response!to!hypothetical!changes! in!the!size!and!quantity!of! fish! in!their!catch!(Figure!13),!fishers!were!asked!about!whether!their!fishing!effort!would!change.!With!25%!declines!in!fish!abundance!and!size,!the!majority!of!fishers!would!maintain,!reduce!their!fishing!effort,!or!stop!fishing.!With!drastic!declines!(50%)!in!fish!size!or!abundance,!a!much!larger!number!of!fishers!indicated!that!they!would!stop!fishing!altogether!(34]52%).!The!majority!of! fishers!responded!that! they!would! either! reduce! fishing! effort! or! stop! fishing! completely! in! the! case! of! drastic!declines! in! catch.! A! small! number! of! fishers! across! all! communities! stated! that! they! would!increase! fishing! effort! in! response! to! small! or! drastic! changes! in! fish! catch.! This! was! most!apparent! in!Hopkins! in! response! to!a! small! reduction! (25%)! in! fish! size!where!32%!of! fishers!stated!that!they!would!respond!by!increasing!fishing!effort.!
Although!there!were!varying!anticipated!responses!to! improvements! in!catch,!the!majority!of!fishers!indicated!that!they!would!either!fish!the!same!as!present!or!increase!effort.!
!
! 35! !
Figure% 13%Hypothetical% responses% of% reef% fishers% interviewed% in% Belize% to% scenarios% relating% to% changes% in% the%abundance%and%size%of%fish%in%their%catch%five%years%in%the%future.%
25%$More$
25%$Fewer$
50%$Fewer$
25%$Larger$
25%$Smaller$
50%$Smaller$
KEY$
0%#
20%#
40%#
60%#
80%#
100%#
Pile#
Six#
Hole
Move#loca5on# Fish#More# No#change# Fish#less# Stop#fishing#
0%#
20%#
40%#
60%#
80%#
100%#
Hopkins#######(n=48)#
Placencia###(n=55)#
San#Pedro###(n=44)#
0%#
20%#
40%#
60%#
80%#
100%#
Hopkins#######(n=48)#
Placencia###(n=56)#
San#Pedro###(n=44)#
0%#
20%#
40%#
60%#
80%#
100%#
Hopkins#######(n=47)#
Placencia###(n=55)#
San#Pedro###(n=44)#
0%#
20%#
40%#
60%#
80%#
100%#
Hopkins#######(n=48)#
Placencia###(n=55)#
San#Pedro###(n=44)#
0%#
20%#
40%#
60%#
80%#
100%#
Hopkins#######(n=47)#
Placencia###(n=55)#
San#Pedro###(n=44)#
0%#
20%#
40%#
60%#
80%#
100%#
Hopkins#######(n=44)#
Placencia###(n=55)#
San#Pedro###(n=42)#
! 36! !
6 GOVERNANCE%OF%REEFS%
Policy%Analysis%6.1
A! policy! cycle! review! exercise! was! conducted! with! participants! during! the! first! national!consultation! meeting.! This! activity! was! designed! to! explore! the! groups! and! organisations!involved! in! reef! management! and! governance! in! Belize.! Participants! identified! government,!non]government! and! private! sector! stakeholder! groups! involved! in! formal! and! informal!governance!structures!that!exist!to!support! livelihoods!and!govern!natural!resource!use.!Each!of!these!groups!was!then!mapped!onto!the!stage!in!the!policy!cycle!where!they!were!involved!(Figure! 14).! Table! 9! gives! a! summary! of! the! number! of! different! organisations! that! were!identified!in!the!policy!cycle.!
The!biggest!weakness!identified!in!the!policy!cycle!was!between!the!Review!&!Evaluation!stage!and!the!Data!&!Information!stage.!Participants!commented!that!there!is!both!a!lack!of!review!and!evaluation,!and!a! lack!of! feedback! in! the!system,! resulting! in!an! incomplete!policy!cycle.!Participants! felt! that! not! enough! people! are! looking! into! adaptive! management! and! more!groups!were!needed!in!this!area.!One!example!given!was!that! in!2009!there!was!an!excellent!report!produced! reviewing! the!MPAs! in!Belize,!but! the! recommendations!of! the! report!were!not!carried!through!into!management,!partly!due!to!a!lack!of!resources.!Participants!also!noted!a! lack! of! resources! in! the! implementation! phase;! there! are! a! lot! of! decisions! made! and!management!plans!created,!but!not!enough!resources!to!implement!them.!
Table%9%Summary%of%number%of%organisations%identified%as%involved%in%the%policy%cycle%Organisations%involved%with%reefs% Count!National!govt.!ministries/departments/institutes!! 34!Local!govt.!departments/divisions/institutes! 2!National!organisations! 28!Local!organisations! 12!Regional!organisations! 3!Non]governmental!organisations! 15!Educational/university!institutions! 4!Private!interest/industry!groups!! 7!
!
! 37! !
!Figure%14%Organisations%and%groups%involved%in%each%stage%of%the%policy%cycle,%as%identified%by%participants%at%the%national%consultation,%18%July%2012%
Household%perceptions%of%reef%governance%6.2
As! part! of! the! household! survey,! respondents’! perceptions! of! coral! reef! governance! were!measured! using! questions! designed! to! reflect! established! principles! of! good! governance! for!natural!resources!(Lockwood!et!al.!2010;!J.!Graham,!Amos,!and!Plumptre!2003).!Respondents!were! given! a! series! of! statements! and! asked! whether! they! agreed! or! disagreed.! Responses!illustrate!the!communities’!perceptions!about!local!coral!reef!governance!(Figure!15).!!
Interviewees!were! subsequently!asked!who! they! thought!was! responsible! for! coral! reefs!and!who!they!received!information!from!about!reefs.!Responsibility!for!the!reefs!was!perceived!to!be! split! between! government! departments,! the! community,! resource! users! or! resource! user!associations,!and!NGOs!(Table!10).!NGOs!or!other!organisations!were!the!most!common!source!of!reef!related!information.!
Fisheries:(Fisheries(Dept,(Cabinet,(OSPESCA,(CITES(
Tourism:(Min.(of(Tourism(and(Culture,(Min.(of(Finance,(Min.(
of(Foreign(Trade,(Cabinet(and(House,(Fisheries(Dept,(Forest(
Dept,(DOE,(Port(Authority,(Bureau(of(Standards,(NICH,(BTB(
Environmental:(Min.(of(Natural(Resources,(Agriculture(and(
Lands;(Min.(of(Fisheries,(Forestry(and(Sustainable(
Development;(Min.(of(Economic(Development;(Min.(of(
Energy,(Science(and(Technology;(Min.(of(Tourism(and(
Culture(
Coastal(Development:(Ministers,(Cabinet,(Chief(
Environmental(Officer((DOE)(
Community(Development:(Cabinet,(local(government,(
Mayan(Alcaldes((inland),(Chairpersons(of(Village(Councils
Fisheries:(Fisheries(Dept,(StaNsNcal(Inst,(CRFM,(FAB,(coOmanagers,(marine(
reserve(advisory(commiPees,(NGOs,(HRI,(SPAGS,(NCRMN,(researchers(and(
universiNes(
Tourism:(Min.(of(Tourism(and(Culture,(Min.(of(Economic(Development,(
StaNsNcal(Inst,(DOE,(CZMAI,(BTB,(PACT,(Central(Bank,(Port(Authority,((coO
managers,(HRI,(CORAL,(BNTOA,(BACSP,(BHA,(BTIA(
Environmental:(Fisheries(Dept,(CZMAI,(ERI,(WCS,(Ecomar,(WWF,(TNC,(SEA,(
TIDE,(Wild(Tracks,(Blue(Ventures,(PCSD,(naNonal(networks(and(working(groups(
(e.g.(NCRMN,(SPAGS,(Manatee(WG,(Sea(Turtle(Network,(Whale(Shark(WG)(
Coastal(Development:(NEAC,(developers,(communiNes(
Community(Development:(Fisheries(Dept,(StaNsNcal(Inst,(UB(Calabash(
Research(StaNon,(APAMO,(BTIA,(Oceana,(advocates,((Help(for(Progress
IMPLEMENTATION
REVIEW(&(
EVALUATION
DATA(&(
INFORMATION
DECISION(
MAKING
ANALYSIS(
AND(ADVICE
Fisheries:(Fisheries(Dept,(
enforcement(agencies((e.g.(police,(
Coast(Guard,(Customs,(BAHA),(coO
managers,((fishers(cooperatives(
Tourism:(Forest(Dept,(Fisheries(Dept,(
DOE,(Dept(of(Immigration,(BTB,(
NICH,(Coast(Guard,(Port(Authority,((
Police,(coOmanagers,(Beltraide(
Environmental:(DOE,(Fisheries(Dept,(
Forestry(Dept,(Geology(Dept,(Coast(
Guard,(BTB,(TIDE,(SEA,(BAS,(SACD(
Coastal(Development:(Geology(Dept,(
Fisheries(Dept,(Forest(Dept,(Physical(
Planning(Unit,(CZMAI,((((Central(
Building(Agency,(DOE,(NEAC,(
developers(
Community(Development:(DOE,(Port(
Authority,(Fisheries(officers,(coO
managers,(APAMO,(international(
NGOs,(advocacy(groups((e.g.(
Oceana)
!Fisheries:(Fisheries(Dept,(FAB((includes(BFF(and(BFCA),(
CITES,(coOmanagers,(NGOs(
Tourism:(Min.(of(Tourism,(BTIA,(coOmanagers(
Environmental:(Fisheries(Dept,(HRI,(SEA,(TIDE,(Wild(Tracks,((
Blue(Ventures(
Coastal(Development:(CZMAI,(NEAC(
Community(Development:(Regulatory(authorities((e.g.(
Fisheries(Dept),(APAMO,(coOmanagers,(project(managers,(
independent(reviewers((consultants(and(donors)
Fisheries:(Fisheries(Dept,(fishers(
cooperaNves,(ERI,(BFF,(coOmanagers,(
environmental(NGOs,(visiNng(
researchers(
Tourism:(Min.(of(Economic(
Development,(DOE,(Dept(of(
ImmigraNon,(Central(Bank,((StaNsNcal(
Inst,(Port(Authority,(CZMAI,(BTB,(PACT,(
coOmanagers,((HRI,(CORAL(
Environmental:(Government,(StaNsNcal(
Inst,(DOE,(Fisheries(Dept,(Smithsonian(
InsNtute,(ERI,(HRI,(WCS,(BAS,(TIDE,(SEA,(
Ecomar,(SACD,(Blue(Ventures,(
independent(researchers(
Coastal(Development:(CZMAI,(DOE,(
Private(firms((for(EIAs)(
Community(Development:(Min.(of(Rural(
Development,(Min.(of(Lands,(Fisheries(
Dept,(Dept(of(CooperaNves,(DOE,(Port(
Authority,(StaNsNcal(Inst,(APAMO,(coO
managers,((internaNonal(NGOs,((
electoral(community(boundaries
! 38! !
Figure'15'Household'interviewees’'perceptions'of'good'governance'(unsure'and'missing'responses'removed).'
KEY$ Agree$ Some,mes$ Disagree$
Placencia$ San$Pedro$Hopkins$
When%people%in%charge%make%decisions,%informa4on%is%provided%to%the%community%
The%people%%that%look%a:er%coral%reefs%in%this%area%do%a%good%job%
There%are%ways%you%can%challenge%rules%made%about%reefs%
I%have%an%opportunity%to%par4cipate%in%decisions%made%about%reefs%
Rules%that%affect%how%people%use%the%reef%are%enforced%fairly%
Different%groups%(e.g.%fishers,%tourism%operators,%government)%that%have%an%interest%in%coral%reefs%work%well%together%
The%people%%in%charge%of%reefs%have%enough%resources,%training%and%knowledge%
The%people%%in%charge%of%reefs%have%plans%in%place%to%respond%to%emergencies%or%future%changes%
I%understand%who%is%in%charge%of%the%reefs%
100%%50%%0%%
When%people%in%charge%make%decisions,%informa4on%is%provided%to%the%community%
The%people%%that%look%a:er%coral%reefs%in%this%area%do%a%good%job%
There%are%ways%you%can%challenge%rules%made%about%reefs%
I%have%an%opportunity%to%par4cipate%in%decisions%made%about%reefs%
Rules%that%affect%how%people%use%the%reef%are%enforced%fairly%
Different%groups%(e.g.%fishers,%tourism%operators,%government)%that%have%an%interest%in%coral%reefs%work%well%together%
The%people%%in%charge%of%reefs%have%enough%resources,%training%and%knowledge%
The%people%%in%charge%of%reefs%have%plans%in%place%to%respond%to%emergencies%or%future%changes%
I%understand%who%is%in%charge%of%the%reefs%
100%%50%%0%%
When%people%in%charge%make%decisions,%informa4on%is%provided%to%the%community%
The%people%%that%look%a:er%coral%reefs%in%this%area%do%a%good%job%
There%are%ways%you%can%challenge%rules%made%about%reefs%
I%have%an%opportunity%to%par4cipate%in%decisions%made%about%reefs%
Rules%that%affect%how%people%use%the%reef%are%enforced%fairly%
Different%groups%(e.g.%fishers,%tourism%operators,%government)%that%have%an%interest%in%coral%reefs%work%well%together%
The%people%%in%charge%of%reefs%have%enough%resources,%training%and%knowledge%
The%people%%in%charge%of%reefs%have%plans%in%place%to%respond%to%emergencies%or%future%changes%
I%understand%who%is%in%charge%of%the%reefs%
100%%50%%0%%
! 39! !
!
Table&10&Household&interviewees’&sources&of&reef8related&information&&! %!of!household!interviewees!!
!Hopkins!(n=76)!
Placencia!(n=75)!
San!Pedro!(n=76)!
Who$do$you$think$is$responsible$for$the$reefs?$ ! ! !Government!departments! 33! 24! 32!Marine!park!managers! 5! 5! 17!NGO! 14! 24! 8!Scientists/researchers! 0! 3! 3!Resource!users! 20! 27! 25!Everybody/community! 30! 31! 25!God/nature! 1! 0! 1!Nobody! 4! 1! 4!Unsure! 13! 3! 8!! ! ! !Who$do$you$receive$information$from$about$coral$reefs?$ ! ! !Government!sources! 14! 18! 11!Organisations! 38! 29! 52!Resource!users!or!resource!user!associations! 21! 7! 19!Self! 12! 18! 16!None! 0! 8! 3!
7 SOCIAL&NETWORK&ANALYSIS&
A!wide!range!of!actors,!both!public!and!private,!are!involved!in!the!use!and!governance!of!coral!reefs.!These!actors!range!from!those!who!depend!on!the!reefs!for!their!livelihoods,!to!the!local!organisations!who!manage!the!reefs,!to!government!agencies!involved!in!policy!and!legislation!development.!The!relationships!between!the!actors! involved! in!governance!can!contribute! to!the!failure!or!success!of!governance!and!management!outcomes.!Social!network!analysis!(SNA)!provides!a!quantitative!way!to!study!these!relationships.!
In! SNA,! data! are! collected! on! relationships! between! individuals! and/or! organisations.! Some!examples!of! these! relationships! include:! family! ties,!exchange!of! resources! such!as!money!or!information,!assistance!given!or!received,!membership!of!similar!groups!and!shared!attitudes!or!beliefs.!Actors!(individuals!or!organisations)!are!called!nodes!and!relationships!are!called!ties.!!
Social! network! analysis! was! conducted! on! reefYrelated! informationYsharing! relationships! in!Belize!to!better!understand!the!relationships!involved!in!coral!reef!governance.!
Two!questions!were!used!to!describe!the!informationYsharing!relationships:!
1. In!the!past!year,!who!have!you/your!organisation!received!information!about!reef!or!marine!resources!and!their!use?!!
2. In!the!past!year,!who!has!received!information!from!you/your!organisation!about!reef!or!marine!resources!and!their!use?!!
! 40! !
Figure!16!presents!the!informationYsharing!networks!for!Belize.!Nodes!(circles)!either!represent!a!government!agency,!an!organisation!or!institution,!association,!or!a!group!of!resource!users!divided! by! type! of! resource! use! (e.g.! reef! fishers,! SCUBA! shops).! InformationYsharing!relationships!are!represented!by!ties!(lines)!between!the!nodes.!The!network!diagram!shows!no!distinct!subgroups.!A!number!of!nodes!formed!a!core!in!the!middle!of!the!network!where!there!was!a!high!number!of!connections!within!the!core!and!fewer!connections!to!nodes!outside!the!core!(located!at!the!perimeter!of!the!network).!
Further! information! on! the! structure! of! the! network! is! presented! in! Table! 11.! Density! of! a!network! is! a! common! measure! used! in! SNA;! it! represents! the! number! of! total! ties! in! the!network!divided!by!the!total!number!of!possible!ties,!such!that!a!network!with!all!possible!ties!realised! would! have! a! density! of! 1.! Density! is! associated! with! overall! information! flow! and!higher!densities!can!promote!knowledge!development,!exchange!of! ideas!and!resources,!and!build! trust.! However,! very! high! densities! can! have! potential! negative! benefits! such! as! a!reduction! of! new! information! and! innovation! and! reduced! capacity! to! adapt! to! changes.!Density!in!this!network!was!relatively!low!at!0.15.!However!there!were!a!high!number!of!actors!involved! in!this!network!compared!to!similar!work!completed! in!small! island!states.!Although!density!would!be!expected!to!be!lower!in!larger!networks,!this!network!had!a!similar!density!to!smaller! networks! from! other! countries! studied! during! FORCE! research,! indicating! a! greater!amount! of! cohesion! within! the! informationYsharing! networks! in! Belize.! Over! half! of! the!information! relationships! in! this! network! were! perceived! to! be! twoYway! (information! both!given!and!received).!
The! reef! related! informationYsharing! network! for! Belize! was! not! highly! centralised! (where! a!single!actor!holds!most!of!the!ties!and!is!more!central)!and!several!actors!hold!central!positions!(network!centralisation!=!0.47Y0.51,!maximum!possible!=!1).!In!terms!of!degree!centrality!(the!number!of!ties!each!node!has),!the!most!central!actors!were!a!mix!of!government!departments!and!NGOs! (primarily! those!with! responsibilities! for! coYmanaging!MPAs).! The!most! connected!actors! were! receiving! information! from! 40Y64%! of! nodes! in! the! network! and! sharing!information!with!50Y61%!of!nodes.!!
Brokers! connecting! resource! users! to! decisionYmaking! bodies! are! thought! to! be! critical! in!adaptive!management.!Their!position!allows!them!to!hold!information!from!a!range!of!sources,!respond!early!to!threats!and!changes,!and!see!new!opportunities!(Berkes!2009).!In!Belize,!both!government! agencies! and! coYmanaging! NGOs! held! key! positions! to! be! able! to! broker! reefYrelated!information!to!or!from!resource!users.!!
!
! 41! !
Figure& 16& Reef8related& information8sharing& networks& in& Belize.& Each& node& represents& a& different& actor.& Node&colour& represents& actor& type:& black& =& government,& grey& =&NGO&and&educational& institutions,&white& =& resource&user&groups.&Node&size&represents°ree¢rality;&larger&nodes&are&more¢ral.&Lines&(ties)&between&nodes&represent&information&sharing&between&the&actors&in&at&least&one&direction.&
&
Table&11&Network&analysis&on&information8sharing&networks&Network&measurements! Value!Network!size!–!number!of!nodes! 57!Data!completeness!(%!of!nodes!with!interview!data)! 84!Network!density!(number!ties/number!total!possible!ties)! 0.15!Average!degree!(average!number!of!relationship!ties!per!node)! 8.44!Reciprocity!(%!of!relationships!that!were!perceived!to!have!twoYway!information!sharing)! 50.3!Network!centralisation:!information!sources*! 0.47!Network!centralisation:!information!recipients*!! 0.51!Average!distance!(average!number!of!ties!between!any!two!nodes!in!the!network)! 2.10!A!network!centralisation!of!1!would!indicate!that!a!single!node!is!connected!to!all!other!nodes!in!the!network,!but!none!of!the!other!nodes!are!connected!to!each!other!(e.g.!star!shape).!
8 SUMMARY&
The! purpose! of! this! document!was! to! share! findings! of! governance! and! livelihoods! research!conducted! as! part! of! the! FORCE! project.! The! FORCE! project! aims! to! contribute! to! the!understanding! of! coral! reefs! and! the! communities! that! depend! on! them.! In! addition,! the!project! sought! to! broaden! the! understanding! of! coral! reef! governance! and! the! governance!constraints! on! effective!management! of! the! reefs.! It! is! a! primary! objective! of! the! project! to!disseminate!the!findings!of!the!research!to!those!in!the!region.!As!such,!this!report!provides!a!detailed!summary!of!governance!and!livelihoods!findings!at!a!community!and!national!level.!A!
! 42! !
FORCE!handbook,!available!on!the!FORCE!website,!provides!a!collection!of!brief!summaries!of!all! FORCE! project! research! together! with! possible! implications! and! recommendations! for!management!of!Caribbean!coral!reefs.!
Further! information! and! reports! can! be! found! at! http://cermes.cavehill.uwi.edu,!http://www.imm.uk.com,!and!http://www.forceYproject.eu/.!
9 REFERENCES&Barbier,!Edward!B,!Sally!D!Hacker,!Chris!J!Kennedy,!Evamaria!W!Koch,!ADRIAN!C!STIER,!and!
Brian!R!Silliman.!2011.!“The!Value!of!Estuarine!and!Coastal!Ecosystem!Services.”!Ecological$Monographs!81!(2).!Eco!Soc!America:!169–93.!
Belize!Meteorological!Service,!ed.!2014.!Belize$Climate$Summary.!Accessed!April!1.!http://www.hydromet.gov.bz/climateYsummary.!
Belize!Tourism!Board.!2011.!Belize$Travel$and$Tourism$Statistic$Digest$2011.!Belize!City:!Belize!Tourism!Board.!
Berkes,!Fikret.!2009.!“Evolution!of!CoYManagement:!Role!of!Knowledge!Generation,!Bridging!Organizations!and!Social!Learning.”!Journal$of$Environmental$Management.!
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