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 Fundamentals of Semiconductor Physics Zhejiang Institute of Modern Physics [email protected] http://zimp.zju.edu.cn/~xinwan/ Fall 2007
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Page 1: Fundamentals of Semiconductor Physics - zimp.zju.edu.cnzimp.zju.edu.cn/~xinwan/semiphys07/notes/chapter1.pdf · characteristics of semiconductor devices. ... Ions only see a timeaveraged

   

Fundamentals of Semiconductor Physics

万 歆Zhejiang Institute of Modern Physics

[email protected]://zimp.zju.edu.cn/~xinwan/

Fall 2007

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Preview• The electrical properties of a single­crystal materials are determined by the 

chemical composition and  the arrangement of atoms in the solid. This can be understood in the quantum theory of solids. 

• In a real crystal, the lattice is not perfect, containing imperfections or defects. The presence of substitutional impurity atoms can dramatically alter the electrical properties of a semiconductor material; in fact, we intentionally add impurities (by doping) to it to change its conductivity. 

• The number of electrons in a semiconductor is very large, which should be treated by statistical mechanics. One is interested in the statistical behavior of the system.

• The process by which electrons move is called transport. Near­equilibrium and nonequilibrium processes are needed to understand the current­voltage characteristics of semiconductor devices.

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Chapter 1. Fundamentals1.1 Bonds and bands

1.2 Impurities and defects

1.3 Statistical distribution of charge carriers

1.4 Charge transport

Total 6 hours.

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Resistivity of Conductors, Semiconductors & Insulators

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Semiconductor­forming Elements

TeSbSnInCd

SeAsGeGaZn

SPSiAl

ONCB

Yu/Cardona

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Chapter 1. Fundamentals

1.1 Bonds and bands– Crystal structures– Bond picture– Band picture

• “Nearly free”  electron model• Tight­binding model (LCMO)• k∙p perturbation

1.2 Impurities and defects

1.3 Statistical distribution of charge carriers

1.4 Charge transport

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An Apparently Easy Problem

Solid

Nuclei Electronsinteraction

In principle, by solving Schrödinger's equation

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Formal Treatment

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Approximation 1Separation of electrons into 

valence electrons and core electrons

Ion cores = core electrons + nuclei

e.g. Si: [Ne] 3s23p2

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Approximation 2

Born­Oppenheimer or adiabatic approximation

To electrons, ions are essentially stationary.

Ions only see a time­averaged adiabatic electronic potential. 

electron­phonon interaction

ionic motion

 Lattice vibration (phonons)

electronic motion

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Separation of Motion

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Approximation 3Mean­field approximation: Every electron experiences the same 

average potential V(r)

V(r): by first principle (ab initio), or by semi­empirical approach

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Can we calculate everything?• Yes.

– First principle band calculations

– Slater, …

• No.

– Disordered & strongly correlated systems

– Mott, Anderson, …

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1.1.1  Lattice & Unit CellCrystal = periodic array of atoms

Crystal structure = lattice + basis

The choice of lattice as well as its axes a,b,c is not unique. But it is usually convenient to choose with the consideration of symmetry 

Unit cell: Parallelpiped spanned by a,b,c

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Cubic Lattices

Q: How many atoms are there in each of the unit cells?

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Miller Indices

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Reciprocal Lattice• Definition: The set of all wave vectors K that yield plane waves 

with the periodicity of a given lattice is known as its reciprocal 

lattice.Try to verify the following bi form the reciprocal lattice of the lattice spanned by ai.

In 1D, we have simply K = 2nπ / a, where a is the lattice constant.

R=manbpc

e i K⋅rR =ei K⋅r

e i K⋅R=1

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FCC  BCC

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FCC Lattice & its Brillouin Zone

Lattice (fcc): real space

Reciprocal lattice (bcc)

Diamond structure

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Construct the Brillouin Zone

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Translational Symmetry• Define operator TR 

• Discrete translational symmetry

• Bloch’s theorem: 

( ) ( )RT f x f x R= +

( ) ( )( ) ( )

ik rnk nk

R nk nk

r e u rT u r u rψ ∠=

=

T RV x=V xR=V x [H , T R]=0

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Elemental SemiconductorsSi, Ge: 4 valence electrons

14Si: 1s22s22p63s23p2 32Ge: [Ar]3d104s24p2

Tetrahedral symmetry

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1.1.2  Covalent Bond

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Complex Lattices(a) Diamond: Si, Ge

(b) Zinc blende: GaAs, ZnSInterpenetrating fcc lattices

Same atoms

Different atoms

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Wurtzite LatticeZnS

Question: Please compare the nearest neighboring and next nearest neighboring environment of an atom in a zinc blende lattice and a wurzite lattice. 

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1.1.3  Band: An Alternative PictureFrom hydrogen atom to molecule

H H

H2

bonding

antibonding

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Band FormationN degenerate levels evolve into an energy band

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Silicon

14Si: 1s22s22p63s23p2

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ResistivityConduction band, valence band & band gap

constant ,T 0 ∞ ,T 0

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Example: 1D Empty Lattice

( )( ) ( ), ( )i k nG x ikx inGxnk nk nkk nG e e u x u x eψ ++ = = =

• V  0: 

• We assume an imaginary periodicity of a. Define the 

reciprocal lattice constant G =  2π / a. We can therefore 

restrict k within the range of [­G/2, G/2].

No or vanishingly small crystal potential!

En k =ℏ

2knG

2

2 m

E k =ℏ2 k 2

2 m , k x =e ikx

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1.1.3.1  Free Electrons in 1DV  0: 

Extended zone scheme Reduced zone scheme

En k =ℏ

2knG

2

2 m , nk x =e iknG x

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Comments• The wave vector k is not momentum p/ħ,  since Hamiltonian does 

not have complete translational invariance. Rather, ħk is known as 

crystal momentum (quantum number characteristic of the 

translational symmetry of a periodic potential).

• The wave vector k can be confined to the first Brillouin zone.

• More in A/M Chapter 8.

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“Nearly Free” Electrons

We assume the crystal potential is not vanishing, but still small. So perturbative calculation can be carried out. At the B.Z. boundary, we need to apply degenerate perturbation.

These UK’s are often obtained from some smooth effective potential, or pseudopotential. 

V x=V xa

V x=∑K

U K e iKx

[ℏ

2 k 2

2m U K

U Kℏ

2K−k 2

2m ]

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Nearly Free & Pseudopotential

SiDiamond­type crystal

Symmetry, a subject studied by (point) group theory, plays an important role here. For detail, please refer to the Yu/Cardona book.

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1.1.3.2  Overlap of Molecular Orbitals

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Si – Ge – α­Sn

Si Ge

α­Sn

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ComparisonNearly free e­’s + pseudopotential

• Electrons nearly free

• Wave functions approximated by 

plane waves

• Electrons in conduction band are 

delocalized, so can be approximated 

well by nearly free electrons

Tight­binding or LCMO approach

• e­’s tightly bound to nuclei

• Linear combination of atomic wave 

functions

• Valence electrons are concentrated 

mainly in the bonds and so they 

retain more of their atomic 

character.

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Tight­binding or LCMO

hopping

E(k)

k

2D: z = 4 nearest neighbors

H=−t∑⟨ij ⟩

c i c jh.c.

E=−2t {cos k x acos k y a}

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Example: Direct Band Gap GaAs

H so=ℏ

4 c2 m2 ∇V×p ⋅

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Example: Indirect Band Gap Si & Ge

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Band Diagram

Conduction band

Valence band

E

k

Conduction band

Valence band

Allowed states

Allowed states

Forbidden band gap

Ec

Ei

Ev

Eg

E=ℏ2 k 2

2 m∗

1m∗

=1ℏ

2d 2 E k

dk 2

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Electrons and Holes

0J cb=∑

i∈cb−∣e∣v i J vb=∑

i∈vb−∣e∣v i

J vb= ∑i∈ filled band

−∣e∣vi− ∑i∈empty states

−∣e∣v i= ∑i∈empty states

∣e∣vi

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1.1.3.3  The k∙p MethodYu/Cardona

This can be generally solved by symmetry (with knowledge of group theory).

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Conduction Band (nondegenerate, for symplicity)

pure imaginary

p=−i ℏ∇

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Comment on k∙p Method• Band structure over the entire BZ can be extrapolated by the zone center 

energy gaps and optical matrix elements. 

• One can obtain analytical expression for band dispersion and effective mass 

around high­symmetry points. (e.g. by Dresselhaus et al.)

• Nondegenerate perturbation is applicable to the conduction band minimum in 

direct­bandgap semiconductors (zinc­blende, wurtzite); degenerate 

perturbation to top valence band (diamond, zinc­blende, wurtzite). 

• The trend of m* in III­V and II­VI direct band gap semiconductors can be 

explained.Strongly recommend those who are interested in spin­orbit coupling and its consequences in spintronics to read Yu & Cardona, pp. 68­82.

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Chapter 1. Fundamentals1.1 Bonds and bands

1.2 Impurities and defects

– Classification of defects

– Point defects

– Shallow (hydrogenic) impurities

– Heavy doping

1.3 Statistical distribution of charge carriers

1.4 Charge transport

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1.2.1  Classification of Defects• Point defects

• Line defects

• Surface states

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1.2.2  Point Defects

VAIA

CA

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More Classifications• Intrinsic vs extrinsic 

– Intrinsic: native, such as vacancies or antisite defects

– Extrinsic: foreign, Si:P

• Shallow vs deep – “effective mass approximation”

• Donors, double donors, isovalent center

– Examples: Si:P, Si:Se, Si:C

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1.2.3  Shallow Impurity States

reHH cryst ε

2

−= impurity potential

TeSbSnInCd

SeAsGeGaZn

SPSiAl

ONCB

Si:P

Effective mass approximation

• Break translational symmetry

• No Bloch’s theorem!?

Screened Coulomb potential

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Hydrogenic Wave Function

1s

E

2s 2p

...

0( ) ( ) ( )kr u r C rΨ =

Bloch wave

Hydrogenic envelope

Hydrogenic bound states 1s, 2s, 2p, ...

+ continuum (conduction band)

“Rydberg”

“Bohr radius”

10 meV (Ge)

30 meV (Si)

50 Å (Ge)20 Å (Si)

−1

2 m∗∇

2−

e2

r C r =E C r

ℏ2

m∗ e2 ~

m∗ e4

2 2ℏ2 ~

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Band Diagram

Donor (Si:P, Ge:As)

C. B.

V. B.

Acceptor (Si:B)

E

k

Conduction band

Valence band

Allowed states

Allowed states

Forbidden band gap

EcEd

Ei

EaEv

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Effective Mass Approximation1. Introduce Wannier Functions (indexed by lattice vector in real 

space): Fourier transforms of Bloch functions

For very localized electrons, Wannier functions are roughly atomic orbitals.

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Effective Mass Approximation1. Express H in the basis of Wannier functions

Assume

3. Parabolic, isotropic, nondegenerate

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Envelope Wave Function

Approximation valid for large effective Bohr radius a*(small ∆k).  

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Comment on EMA• The net effect of the crystal potential on the donor electron 

inside the crystal is to change the electron mass from the 

value in free space to the effective mass m* and also to 

contribute a dielectric constant ε of the host crystal.

• Only conduction band states over a small region of 

reciprocal space around the band minimum contribute to the 

defect wave function if the effective Bohr radius a* is much 

larger than the lattice constant a0.

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1.2.4  Heavy Doping• Light doping: impurity atoms 

do not interact with each 

other  impurity level

• Heavy doping: perturb the 

band structure of the host 

crystal  reduction of 

bandgap

E

ρ(E)

EcEd

Ev

Eg

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Metal­Insulator Transition• Average impurity­impurity distance = Bohr radius

• Mott criterion

N d aB3 ~ 1/64

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Chapter 1. Fundamentals1.1 Bonds and bands

1.2 Impurities and defects

1.3 Statistical distribution of charge carriers

– Thermal equilibrium

– Mass­action law

– Fermi level

1.4 Charge transport

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Thermal Equilibrium• Thermal equilibrium is a dynamic situation in which every 

process is balanced by its inverse process.

E1

E2

Generation of an electron­hole pair

Recombination of a pair of electron and hole

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Mass­Action Law

• Electron­hole pairs: generation rate = recombination rate

• Generation: G = f1(T) f1: determined by crystal physics and T

• Recombination: R = npf2(T)

– Electrons and holes must interact to recombine

• At equilibrium, G = R

• Intrinsic case (all carriers result from excitation across the forbidden 

gap):  n = p = ni

2 1( ) ( )npf T f T= 213

2

( ) ( )( ) i

f Tnp f T nf T

= = =

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Fermi Level• Fermi­Dirac distribution

• Boltzmann distribution

• Density of electrons

(not too heavily doped)

E−E F≫k B T

F D E =1

1exp [E−E F /k B T ]

F BE =exp [−E−E F

k B T ]

n=∫cb

F D E N c E dE

p=∫vb[1−F D E ]N v E dE

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Intrinsic Semiconductors

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A Parabolic Band

E=Ecℏ2 k 2

2 m∗ dE= ℏ2 k

m∗dk

N E dE=N k d 3 k= 223

4 k 2 dk

N E = 4

2m∗

h2 E−Ec1/2

n=∫ F E N E dE=N C exp {−EC−E F

k B T } 2∫0

d E−EC

k B T exp {− E−EC

k B T } E−EC

k BT 1/2

n=N C exp {−EC−E F

k B T } , N C=22mC k BT 3/2

h2

1

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Comment• Multivalley, such as Si: 

– additional factor of number of valleys

• Anisotropic band

– Effective mass: Geometrical average of mass components

• Valence band: NV

– replace m* by hole effective mass

– Sum of heavy hole, light hole (neglecting split­off band)

Density of states effective mass

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Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

n=N C exp {−EC−E F

k B T } , N C=22mC k B T 3/2

h2

n=N V exp {−E F−EV

k B T } , N V=22mV k B T 3/2

h2

ni2=np=N C N V exp {−EC−EV

k B T }=N C N V exp {− E g

k B T }

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Extrinsic Semiconductors

Conduction band

Valence band

EcEd

Ei

EaEv

EF

ni=N C exp {−EC−E i

k B T }E i=

ECEV

2

k B T2

lnN V

N C~

ECEV

2

n=ni exp {−E f−Ei

k B T }p=ni exp {−E i−E f

k B T }

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Doped Semiconductors• Assuming full ionization, 

charge neutrality 

• With intentional doping, 

typically for n­type 

• Majority carriers

• Minority carriers

• Compensation

N d p=N an

n− p=n−ni

2

n =N d−N a

n=N d−N a

2{ N d−N a

2 2

ni2 }

1/2

N d−N a≫ni

n=N d−N a

p=ni

2

N d−N a

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Carrier Concentration vs T

ni2=N C N V exp {− E g

k B T }

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Fermi Energy in Si

Eg ↓Nonmonotonic 

behavior

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Occupation of Impurity level 

0 Ed Ed 2Ed + ∆

nd=N d1e−Ed−E F/k B T

12

e−Ed−E F /k B T11

2e−E d−E F/ k B T

∞ ,nd

N d=

112 e−Ed−E F / k B T

1

nndN a= p paN d

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Chapter 1. Fundamentals1.1 Bonds and bands

1.2 Impurities and defects

1.3 Statistical distribution of charge carriers

1.4 Charge transport

– Drift, diffusion, recombination, generation, thermionic emission, 

tunneling, …

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What You May Have Known• Ohm’s law

• Equipartition of energy

• Room temperature (300K)

V IR=

* 21 32 2th BE m v k T= =

2

2 3

7

~ 30meV, 0.5MeV, * / 0.07 (GaAs)

/ 3 / * ~ 10

~ 10 cm/s

B RT e e

th B

th

k T m c m m

v c k T m cv

= =

=

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1.4.1 Drift• In the absence of field:

– Electrons move randomly, scattered by ions, impurities, and other scattering centers.

– Mean free path: average distance between collisions, typically 10­5 cm.

– Mean free time: average time between collisions, typically 1ps.

• In the presence of an electric field:– Drift velocity: velocity achieved in 

addition to the random thermal motion. 

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Mobility• Ratio of the drift velocity a carrier achieves in a field E, to the field strength. 

• It allows us to disentangle two distinct sources of temperature dependence in 

the conductivity of semiconductors. 

– Carrier concentration (T­independent in metal!)

– Collision rate

−e E n=mn∗vn , vn=−

en

mn∗

E n=en

mn∗

e E p=m p∗ v p , v p=

e p

m p∗

E p=ep

m p∗

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Matthiessen’s Rule• The total collision rate is the sum of collision rates due to separate 

mechanisms:

• Validity: Relaxation­time approximation; assume a k­independent relaxation time for each mechanism. See further discussion in A/M, Chapter 16.

1=∑

i

1i

, 1=∑

i

1i

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Two Scattering Mechanisms• Lattice (phonon) scattering

– More effective as temperature increases because the lattice vibrations increase with temperature

• Impurity scattering– Less effective as the temperature increases because the faster moving 

carriers interact less effectively with stationary impurities

Dominated by impurity scattering

Dominated by lattice scattering

Low ­­­­­­Temperature ­­­­­­ High

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Mobility of n­type Silicon• Mobility affected by scattering 

mechanisms: 

– lattice scattering: 

decrease with T

– Impurity scattering: 

increase with T

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Conductivity & Resistivity

( )1, 1

n p

n

p

pn p

n

ne

J J J ne pe E E

np

ee

peσ µ µ

σ

ρµ

µ µ

σ µ= = =

+

=

+

= + = +

J n=I n

A =∑i=1

n

−e vi =−n e vn=n en E

J p=I p

A =∑i=1

p

e vi =n e v p=n e p E

n=en

mn∗

, vn=−en

mn∗

E

p=e p

m p∗

, v p=e p

m p∗

E

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Band Picture of Conduction

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Technique I: Four­Point ProbeHow to measure resistivity?

CF=

ln 2~ 4.53, for large d / s

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Resistivity of Si & GaAs

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Technique II: Hall Effect• How to measure carrier type and concentration?

e E y=ev x

c B z E y=v x

c B z

E y=J p

p e c B z=RH J p B z

RH=1

p e c for holes

RH=−1n e c for electrons

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1.4.2 Diffusion

J n=−eF=−12

v th { [ n 0− dndx l ]−[ n 0 dn

dx l ] }=e v th l dndx=e Dn

dndx

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Einstein Relation• Relates the two important constants that characterize free­carrier 

transport by drift and by diffusion in a solid.

Dn=vth l=v th2 n

12

mn∗vth

2=

12

k B T Dn=k B T

e n

n=en

mn∗

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Current Density• In the presence of both a spatial variation of carrier densities (not 

important in metals due to high conductivities) and an electric 

field nx n n

px p p

x nx px

dnJ ne E eDdxdpJ pe E eDdx

J J J

µ

µ

= +

= −

= +

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1.4.3 Generation & Recombination• Equilibrium: pn = ni

2

• Nonequilibrium: 

– Carrier injection leading to excess carriers

– Tendency to return to equilibrium

Important for direct band gap semiconductors, such as GaAs.

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Recombination (Direct Band Gap)

Extrinsic doping 

low injection

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Lifetime

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Diffusion Length (Long Sample)

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Question: Short Sample

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Indirect Recombination

Important for indirect band gap semiconductors, such as Si.

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Surface & Auger Recombination

2 2 or AugR Bn p Bnp=High carrier concentration:

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Equation of Continuity

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Putting Together

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Final Equations

n n n

p p p

dnJ ne E eDdxdpJ pe E eDdx

µ

µ

= +

= −

∂n p

∂ t =n pn∂ E∂ x n E

∂n p

∂ x Dn∂

2 n p

∂ x2 Gn'−

n p−n p0

n

∂ pn

∂ t = pn p∂E∂ x p E

∂ pn

∂ x D p∂

2 pn

∂ x2 G p'−

pn− pn0

p

Extrinsic doping, low injection ==> minority carriers rule

Gn−Rn=Gn'G th−Rn=Gn

'−U=Gn

'−

n p−n p0

n

G p−R p=G p'G th−R p=G p

'−U=G p

'−

pn− pn0

p

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Poisson’s Equation

• Relates charge density with electric field

( )

s

s

s D A

dEdx

e p n N N

ρε

ρ + −

=

= − + −

In principle, equation of continuity and Poisson's equation, together 

with appropriate boundary conditions, lead to a unique solution. In 

most cases, however, we will simplify the equations by physical 

considerations before we solve them.

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1.4.4 Thermionic Emission

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Tunneling

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Strong Field Effect

Si

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GaAs

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Negative Differential Mobility (GaAs)

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Impact Ionization