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Title Teacher learning in communities of practice: improving teachingthrough analysis of classroom videos

Advisor(s) Yung, BHW

Author(s) Lo, Fei-yin.; ç˜Û Õ.

Citation

Issued Date 2012

URL http://hdl.handle.net/10722/173838

Rights The author retains all proprietary rights, (such as patent rights)and the right to use in future works.


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Teacher Learning in Communities of Practice:

Improving Teaching through Analysis of Classroom Videos

Lo Fei Yin

Ph.D.

The University of Hong Kong

2012


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Abstract of thesis entitled



Submitted by

Lo Fei Yin

for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

at The University of Hong Kong

in June 2012

Due to the new demands placed upon schools in our current learning society, teachers are

expected to learn continuously. However, not much is known about how teachers learn. Three

major problems are identified in the emerging literature. First, little is known about what

constitutes meaningful learning from the teachers’ own perspectives. Second, there is a lack of a

common framework for analysing and comparing findings across different studies on the

process of teacher learning. This is a major obstacle in advancing the field. Third, factors

affecting teacher learning are often studied in an isolated manner without acknowledging the

interaction among these factors. As a result, this fails to provide a holistic picture of how teacher

learning can be enhanced or impeded.

In view of the above, this study adopted a teacher perspective to investigate teacher learning and

the factors affecting it in a holistic manner, using an interpretive framework that can be applied

across different studies. The study was situated in the context of a year-long school-based

teacher professional development (TPD) programme. Seven teachers of two different schools

participated in the study. Teachers in each school formed a community of practice that made use

of classroom videos to improve their practice.

A case study approach was used to document the content and process of teacher learning, as

well as to illuminate how various factors interact to affect teacher learning within the two

communities. Data was collected from individual teacher interviews, teacher reflection tasks,

discussion in the TPD meetings and non-participant observation. The Interconnected Model of

Teacher Professional Growth (IMTPG) and Community of Practice (CoP) were adopted as the

interpretative frameworks for data analysis.


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Besides gaining knowledge and skills, the teachers also exhibited affective and social learning.

More than half of the teachers considered affective learning (e.g., confidence in their own

identity as a good teacher) and social learning (e.g., building a trusting relationship with

colleagues) as the most important learning to them. The idiosyncratic and recursive nature of

teacher learning is consistent with existing literature. Three types of factors that have a bearing

on teacher learning were identified. First, the individual factors, which include the teacher’s will

to learn, level of reflectivity and time available for professional development. Second, the

communal factors, which include: (i) the ways in which members in a CoP engage with each

other (i.e., engagement), (ii) the ways in which members construct an image of themselves (i.e.,

imagination), and (iii) the ways in which members coordinate perspectives, interpretations, and

actions so that the CoP can realise higher goals (i.e., alignment). Third, the features of the TPD

programme that were reported by teachers as helpful in facilitating their learning, including the

multiple strategies adopted, videos, and facilitation from a university educator.

Implications for video-based TPD and for research on teacher learning were identified, in

particular, a need for more r esearch on teacher learning from the teachers’ own perspective in

order to better understand teachers’ authentic learning experiences and to build a more holistic

model of teacher learning.


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by

Lo Fei Yin

B.Sc. CUHK

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirementsfor the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

at The University of Hong Kong

June 2012


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i

Declaration

I declare that this thesis represents my own work, except where due acknowledgement is made,

and that it has not been previously included in a thesis, dissertation or report submitted to this

University or to any other institution for a degree, diploma or other qualifications.

Signed: _____________________

(Lo Fei Yin)


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ii

AcknowledgementsI would like to express my sincere gratitude to the following people. First, heartfelt thanks must

be given to the participating teachers and the schools for their time, energy and support. Given

the busy work schedule under the new education reform, the teachers spared their leisure time towork on the tasks of the TPD and attend the TPD meetings. Without their sacrifices, this study

would not be possible.

My advisory committee, Dr. Tammy Kwan, Dr. Fung Ping Ng, and Dr. Benny Yung, offered me

their invaluable advice throughout this study. In particular, I owe an enormous debt of gratitude

to my supervisor, Dr. Benny Yung, for his patience, guidance and encouragement throughout the

whole process from data collection, data analysis, and thesis writing. His devotion in facilitating

the TPD meetings and teacher learning was immense to this study. It is a blessing for me to have been his student. I could not have found a more supportive and caring supervisor.

I am grateful to my colleagues in HKU for their comments and suggestions. We learn and grow

together professionally and personally. Special appreciation must be extended to Jennifer. The

videos and related materials used in Video Workshops of the TPD were adopted from her study.

Her work has laid a solid foundation for this study. Definitely I won’t forget her.

Finally I would also like to thank my family, in particular my mother and sister, and friends whohave been accompanying and supporting me through the ups and downs in the past years.


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iii

Table of ContentsDeclaration .................................................................................................................................... i

Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... ii

Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................ iii

List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... viii List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... ix

List of Appendices ....................................................................................................................... x

Abbreviations and Conventions ................................................................................................ xi

Chapter 1 – Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1

1.1. Background ................................................................................................................... 1

1.1.1. Teacher Learning as a Research Issue ................................................................... 1

1.1.2. Gaps in the Research on Teacher Learning ........................................................... 1

1.1.3. Context of the Study .............................................................................................. 2

1.2. Research Questions ....................................................................................................... 3

1.3. The Interpretative Frameworks ..................................................................................... 3

1.3.1. Interconnected Model of Teacher Professional Growth (IMTPG) ........................ 3

1.3.2. Community of Practice (CoP) ............................................................................... 5

1.4. Significance ................................................................................................................... 7

1.5. Outline of the Subsequent Chapters .............................................................................. 7

Chapter 2 – Literature Review ............................................................................................. 9

2.1. Research on Teacher Learning ...................................................................................... 9

2.1.1. Research on the Content of Teacher Learning....................................................... 9 2.1.1.1. Teacher learning as gaining knowledge and skills ................................ 9 2.1.1.2. Teacher learning in the affective domain ............................................ 11 2.1.1.3. Summary ............................................................................................. 12

2.1.2. Research on the Process of Teacher Learning ..................................................... 13

2.1.3. Research on Factors Affecting Teacher Learning ................................................ 17

2.1.3.1. Prior knowledge and beliefs ................................................................ 17 2.1.3.2. Teachers’ will to learn ......................................................................... 18 2.1.3.3. Level of reflection ............................................................................... 20 2.1.3.4. The context of school .......................................................................... 21

2.1.3.5.

Collaboration among teachers ............................................................. 21

2.1.3.6. Presence of a facilitator ....................................................................... 22 2.1.3.7. Video as a learning tool ....................................................................... 23 2.1.3.8. Summary ............................................................................................. 24

2.2. The Interpretive Frameworks ...................................................................................... 25

2.2.1. The Need for Two Interpretive Frameworks ....................................................... 25

2.2.2. IMTPG for Analysing the Path of Teacher Learning .......................................... 26

2.2.2.1. The four domains ................................................................................ 26 2.2.2.2. The mediating processes ..................................................................... 28 2.2.2.3. The change environment ..................................................................... 29

2.2.3. CoP for Analysing Teacher Learning in Different Communities ........................ 30

2.3. Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 34


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Chapter 3 – The Video-based TPD Programme ............................................................... 35

3.1. Rationale for the TPD Design ..................................................................................... 35

3.1.1. Professional Development through E xamining One’s Own Practices ................ 35

3.1.2. Professional Development through the Use of Exemplary Cases ....................... 35

3.1.3. Professional Development through the Use of Videos ........................................ 36 3.1.4. Summary ............................................................................................................. 37

3.2. An Overview of the TPD Programme ......................................................................... 37

Chapter 4 - Research Methodology ................................................................................... 39

4.1. Research Approach ...................................................................................................... 39

4.2. Participants .................................................................................................................. 40

4.3. Data Collection ............................................................................................................ 40

4.3.1. Overview of the Research Activities ................................................................... 41

4.3.2. Sources of Data and Research Instruments ......................................................... 42

4.3.2.1. Questionnaires ..................................................................................... 42 4.3.2.2. Reflection tasks ................................................................................... 43 4.3.2.3. Semi-structured interviews .................................................................. 44 4.3.2.4. Meetings in the TPD programme ........................................................ 45

4.3.3. Summary ............................................................................................................. 46

4.4. Treatment and Analysis of Data .................................................................................. 48

4.5. Reporting of Data and Findings .................................................................................. 49

4.6. Validity, Reliability and Ethics .................................................................................... 50

4.6.1. Validity ................................................................................................................ 50

4.6.2. Reliability ............................................................................................................ 51 4.6.3. Ethical Issues ....................................................................................................... 52

4.7. Generalisability, Generativity and Exemplarity of Findings ....................................... 52

Chapter 5 – Teacher Learning in Bright Future College ................................................. 54

5.1 Background Information of the School ....................................................................... 54

5.1.1 The School and the Students ............................................................................... 54

5.1.2 Department of Integrated Science ....................................................................... 54

5.2 Ben .............................................................................................................................. 55

5.2.1 Background Information ..................................................................................... 55

5.2.2 Most Important Learning .................................................................................... 55

5.2.3 A Recursive Journey on Lesson Planning and Assessing Students ..................... 55

5.2.3.1 Prior beliefs and practices .................................................................... 55 5.2.3.2 The recursive learning journey ............................................................. 56 5.2.3.3 Factors contributing to Ben’s learning ................................................. 65

5.2.4 Summary ............................................................................................................. 66

5.3 Felix ............................................................................................................................. 67

5.3.1 Background ......................................................................................................... 67

5.3.2 Most Important Learning .................................................................................... 67

5.3.3 A Learning Journey in Search of Self-Actualisation ........................................... 68


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5.3.3.1 Prior beliefs and practice ...................................................................... 68 5.3.3.2 The invigorating learning journey ........................................................ 68 5.3.3.3 Factors contributing to Felix’s learning ................................................ 72

5.3.4 Summary ............................................................................................................. 73

5.4 Chloe ........................................................................................................................... 73

5.4.1 Background Information ..................................................................................... 73 5.4.2 Most Important Learning .................................................................................... 74

5.4.3 A Reliant/Reactive Journey on Listening to Students’ Voices ............................. 74

5.4.3.1 Prior beliefs and practice ...................................................................... 74 5.4.3.2 The reliant/reactive learning journey ................................................... 75 5.4.3.3 Factors Contributing to Chloe’s Learning ............................................ 80

5.4.4 Summary ............................................................................................................. 81

5.5 Summary of the Most Important Learning to Teachers in BFC .................................. 81

5.6 A CoP with a High Level of Learning Energy ............................................................ 82

5.6.1 A Joint Enterprise ................................................................................................ 82 5.6.2 Mutual Engagement ............................................................................................ 85

5.6.3 A Shared Repertoire ............................................................................................ 88

5.6.4 Summary of the Characteristics of the CoP in BFC ............................................ 91

Chapter 6 – Teacher Learning in Sunset Valley High School .......................................... 93

6.1. Background Information of the School ....................................................................... 93

6.1.1. The School and the Students ............................................................................... 93

6.1.2. Department of Integrated Science ....................................................................... 93

6.2. Sam .............................................................................................................................. 94

6.2.1. Background Information ..................................................................................... 94

6.2.2. Most Important Learning .................................................................................... 94

6.2.3. A Learning Journey of Restoring Confidence and Reconstructing Identity ........ 94

6.2.3.1. Prior beliefs and practices ................................................................... 94 6.2.3.2. The undulating learning journey ......................................................... 95 6.2.3.3. Factors contributing to Sam’s learning .............................................. 100

6.2.4. Summary ........................................................................................................... 101

6.3. Victor ......................................................................................................................... 102

6.3.1. Background Information ................................................................................... 102

6.3.2. Most Important Learning .................................................................................. 102 6.3.3. A Refreshing and Empowering Learning Journey ............................................ 102

6.3.3.1. Prior beliefs and practices ................................................................. 102 6.3.3.2. The refreshing learning journey ........................................................ 103 6.3.3.3. Factors contributing to Victor’s learning ........................................... 107

6.3.4. Summary ........................................................................................................... 108

6.4. Hugo .......................................................................................................................... 109


6.4.2. Most Important Learning .................................................................................. 109

6.4.3. A Journey of Acquiring Skills for Critical Lesson Analysis .............................. 110 6.4.3.1. Prior beliefs and practices ................................................................. 110


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6.4.3.2. The practice-prominent learning path ............................................... 110 6.4.3.3. Factors contribut ing to Hugo’s learning ............................................ 113

6.4.4. Summary ........................................................................................................... 114

6.5. Stone .......................................................................................................................... 114


6.5.2. Most Important Learning .................................................................................. 114

6.5.3. Rediscovery of the Importance of Patience in Teaching ................................... 115

6.5.3.1. Prior beliefs and practices ................................................................. 115 6.5.3.2. A doubtful and questionable learning journey................................... 115 6.5.3.3. Factors hindering Stone’s learning .................................................... 119

6.5.4. Summary ........................................................................................................... 120

6.6. Summary of the Most Important Learning of Teachers in SVHS ............................. 120

6.7. An Unstable CoP ....................................................................................................... 121

6.7.1. A Yet-to-develop Joint Enterprise ..................................................................... 121

6.7.2. Unequal Mutual Engagement ............................................................................ 122 6.7.3. An Unevenly Shared Repertoire........................................................................ 125

6.7.4. Summary of the Characteristics of the CoP in SVHS ....................................... 126

Chapter 7 – Looking across the Cases ............................................................................. 128

7.1. What Teachers Learn ................................................................................................. 128

7.1.1. Knowledge and Skills ........................................................................................ 129

7.1.2. Affects and Emotions ........................................................................................ 131

7.1.3. Social Learning ................................................................................................. 133

7.1.4.

Summary ........................................................................................................... 135

7.2. Process of Teacher Learning ..................................................................................... 136

7.2.1. The Idiosyncratic Nature of Teacher Learning Process ..................................... 139

7.2.2. The Recursive Nature of Teacher Learning Process ......................................... 140

7.2.3. Learning Process Being Influenced by the Design of the TPD ......................... 142

7.2.4. Summary ........................................................................................................... 143

7.3. Factors Affecting Teacher Learning .......................................................................... 144

7.3.1. The Individual Factors ...................................................................................... 144

7.3.1.1. Will to learn ....................................................................................... 144

7.3.1.2. Level of reflectivity ........................................................................... 145 7.3.1.3. Availability of time ............................................................................ 146

7.3.2. The Communal Factors ..................................................................................... 147

7.3.3. A Holistic Picture of Factors Affecting Teacher Learning ................................ 149

7.4. Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................... 153

Chapter 8 – TPD Features Affecting Teacher Learning................................................. 154

8.1. A Metaphor of Growing Apples ................................................................................ 154

8.1.1. Sowing a Seed of Learning – Completing the Preparation Task Individually .. 155

8.1.2. Cultivating the Seed of Learning – Discussion in the Workshops .................... 155

8.1.3. Harvesting the Fruit of Learning – Completing the Follow-up Task ................ 157 8.1.4. The Farmer of Learning – the Facilitator .......................................................... 157


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8.1.5. Other Key Features of the Farming Metaphor .................................................. 157

8.2. The Affordances of Video ......................................................................................... 158

8.2.1. Increasing Awareness of Alternative Strategies and Classroom Situations ....... 159

8.2.2. Providing Exemplary Models of Teaching and Proof of Existence of Good

Practice ........................................................................................................................... 159

8.2.3. Promoting and Facilitating Reflection and Comparison ................................... 161

8.2.3.1. Critical reflection ............................................................................... 161 8.2.3.2. Meaningful comparison ..................................................................... 162

8.2.4. Fostering Community Building ......................................................................... 163

8.2.5. Summary ........................................................................................................... 165

8.3. Challenges of Using Videos in TPD .......................................................................... 165

8.4. The Roles of the TPD Facilitator .............................................................................. 168

8.4.1. Knowledge Enhancer ........................................................................................ 168

8.4.2.

Emotion Booster ................................................................................................ 171

8.4.3. Community Fosterer .......................................................................................... 172

8.4.4. Overview of the Contributory Roles of the TPD Facilitator ............................. 173

8.5. Summary of the Chapter ........................................................................................... 175

Chapter 9 – Conclusions & Implications ......................................................................... 177

9.1. Summary of the Results and Findings ....................................................................... 177

9.1.1. What Teachers Learned in the TPD programme ............................................... 177

9.1.2. Process of Teacher Learning ............................................................................. 178

9.1.3. Factors Affecting Teacher Learning .................................................................. 179

9.1.3.1. Individual factors ............................................................................... 180 9.1.3.2. Communal factors ............................................................................. 180 9.1.3.3. Factors related to the TPD and its design features ............................ 182 9.1.3.4. Towards a holistic picture of the factors affecting teacher learning .. 183

9.2. Implications and Suggestions for TPD ...................................................................... 185

9.2.1. Affective and Social Learning is as Important as Knowledge & Skills ............ 185

9.2.2. Opportunities to Revisit Important Learning .................................................... 186

9.2.3. The Essential Roles of Facilitation .................................................................... 186

9.3. Implications for Research on Teacher Learning ........................................................ 187

9.3.1.

Theoretical Frameworks for Studying Teacher Learning .................................. 187

9.3.2. Adopting a Teacher Perspective to Study Teacher Learning ............................. 188

9.4. Limitations of the Study ............................................................................................ 189

9.5. Suggestions for Future Research ............................................................................... 190

References ................................................................................................................................ 192


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List of FiguresFigure 1.1 Interconnected Model of Teacher Professional Growth ............................................... 4

Figure 2.1 The Implicit Model of Teacher Professional Development ....................................... 14

Figure 2.2 Guskey’s Model of Teacher Change .......................................................................... 14

Figure 2.3 Interconnected Model of Teacher Professional Growth ............................................. 15

Figure 2.4 Summary of the Use of the Two Frameworks ........................................................... 34

Figure 4.1 An Overview of the Research Design ........................................................................ 47

Figure 5.1 Ben’s Learning Path on Lesson Planning and Assessing Students ............................ 57

Figure 5.2 Felix’s Learning Path in Search of Self -Actualisation ............................................... 72

Figure 5.3 Chloe’s Learning Path on Listening to Students’ Voices ........................................... 80

Figure 6.1 Sam’s Learning Path on Regaining Confidence in Teaching and his Identity ......... 100

Figure 6.2 Victor’s Learning Path on Empowering to Keep Le arning ...................................... 107 Figure 6.3 Hugo’s Learning Path on Critical Lesson Analysis Skills ....................................... 113

Figure 6.4 Stone’s Learning Path on Waiting for Students’ Answers Patiently ........................ 119

Figure 7.1 Learning Paths of the Seven Participating Teachers ................................................ 137

Figure 7.2 The Refined Model of Teacher Learning ................................................................. 150

Figure 7.3 An Illustration of the Learning of Ben and Chloe Using the Refined Model .......... 151

Figure 7.4 An Illustration of the Learning of Sam and Stone Using the Refined Model .......... 152

Figure 9.1 The Refined Model of Teacher Learning ................................................................. 184


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List of TablesTable 2.1 Summary of the Definitions of the Four Domains ...................................................... 27

Table 2.2 An Inventory of Teachers’ Levels of Reflectivity ........................................................ 29

Table 2.3 Wenger’s Matrix of Community Dimensions .............................................................. 32

Table 2.4 Modified Wenger’s Matrix of Community Dimensions used in this Study ................ 33

Table 3.1 Summary of the Activities of Each Workshop/Meeting .............................................. 38

Table 4.1 Summary of the Information of the Participating Schools .......................................... 40

Table 4.2 Summary of the Information of the Participating Teachers ......................................... 40

Table 4.3 Summary of the TPD and Research Activities, as well as Data Collection Instruments

..................................................................................................................................................... 42

Table 5.1 Comparison of the Critical Features of a Good Tour Guide and Prominent Features of

Mr Mark’s Teaching .................................................................................................................... 69 Table 5.2 Summary of the Most Important Learning to Teachers in BFC .................................. 82

Table 5.3 Summary of BFC Teachers’ Perceptions of their Roles in the CoP ............................ 87

Table 5.4 Summary of the Characteristics of the CoP in BFC .................................................... 92

Table 6.1 A Table Extracted from a Student Worksheet used in the Research Lesson ................ 96

Table 6.2 Summary of the Most Important Learning to Teachers in SVHS .............................. 120

Table 6.3 Attendance of Teachers in SVHS .............................................................................. 121

Table 6.4 Summary of Teachers’ Perceptions of their Roles in the CoP ................................... 124

Table 6.5 Summary of the Characteristics of the CoP in SVHS ............................................... 127 Table 7.1 Teachers’ Most Important Learning ........................................................................... 128

Table 7.2 Characteristics of the Two Communities of Practice ................................................ 133

Table 7.3 Teachers’ Will to Learn .............................................................................................. 144

Table 7.4 Level of Reflectivity Exhibited by the Teachers ....................................................... 145

Table 8.1 Summary of the Affordances of Videos in Bringing about Teacher Learning ........... 165

Table 8.2 Summary of the Roles of a Facilitator in the TPD context ........................................ 174


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List of AppendicesAppendix I – Details of the Video-based TPD Programme ...................................................... 203

Appendix II – Questions to Probe into School Context in Planning Meeting .......................... 217

Appendix III – Preparation Task for a Video Workshop ........................................................... 218Appendix IV – Follow-up Task for a Video Workshop ............................................................. 223

Appendix V – Video Workshop Questionnaire ......................................................................... 224

Appendix VI – Video Workshop Interview Protocol ................................................................ 225

Appendix VII – Follow-up Task for Lesson Planning Meeting ................................................ 228

Appendix VIII – Preparation Task for Lesson Analysis 1 Meeting........................................... 229

Appendix IX – Follow-up Task for Lesson Analysis 1 Meeting ............................................... 230

Appendix X – Preparation Task for Lesson Analysis 2 Meeting .............................................. 231

Appendix XI – Follow-up Task for Lesson Analysis 2 Meeting ............................................... 234Appendix XII – Lesson Study Questionnaire............................................................................ 235

Appendix XIII – Lesson Study Interview Protocol ................................................................... 236


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Abbreviations and Conventions

Abbreviations

CoP(s) Community of PracticeDC Domain of Consequence, IMTPGDP Domain of Practice, IMTPGED External Domain, IMTPGFT(s) Follow-up task(s) of the TPD programmeIS Integrated ScienceIMTPG Interconnected Model of Teacher Professional GrowthLA1/2 Lesson analysis 1/2 meeting in the TPD programmeLS Video-based lesson study in the TPD programmeLSIn(s) Lesson Study Interview(s)PD Personal Domain, IMTPGPT(s) Preparation task(s) of the TPD programmeTPD Teacher professional developmentVW(s) Video workshop(s) in the TPD programmeVWIn(s) Video Workshop Interview(s)

Referencing Conventions for Excerpts from Interviews/Meetings

As an example, (Ben, VWIn, 58:33) means that the excerpt is extracted from the VideoWorkshop Interview at time 58 min 33 sec.

Referencing Conventions for Excerpts from Teacher Reflection Tasks

As an example, (Felix, LA2-FT) means that the excerpt is extracted from the follow-up task ofLesson Analysis 2 meeting.

Transcript Conventions used in the Interview/Meeting Excerpts

[ ] Words enclosed in square parentheses aid understanding and readability of the dialogue.

… Indicates a section of the dialogue from within the excerpt has been omitted.

(Felix, LA2-FT)

Source of the excerptTeacher’s Name

(Ben, VWIn, 58:33)

Source of the excerpt (VWIn, LSIn, VW1-4, LP, or LA1-2)

Teacher’s Name Time of the interviews/meetings atwhich the excerpt is extracted


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Chapter 1 - Introduction

1

Chapter 1 – Introduction

This study investigates teacher learning in a community of practice that makes use of classroom

videos for improving teaching. This chapter explains the background, the aim and the

significance of the study and introduces the interpretive frameworks. It concludes with an

outline of the content in the subsequent chapters.

1.1. Background1.1.1. Teacher L earni ng as a Research I ssue

There is a general agreement in the educational research community about the important role of

teachers’ professional development (TPD) in improving education. However, there is no

consensus about how such a process occurs and how it can be analysed and promoted. This may

be because it was only in the last decade that the nature and development of teacher knowledge

began to be understood by educational researchers (Munby, Russell, & Martin, 2001). Currently,

much emphasis is being placed on characterising both the ways in which teachers learn and the

factors that promote or hinder their learning. Not much is known about ‘how teachers learn’.

However, knowing how teachers learn could lead to improvements in teacher professional

development practices. The present study is a response to the call for more research in this area,

in particular, with a focus on how experienced teachers learn (Beijaard, Korthagen, & Verloop,

2007). Such a research agenda is highly relevant and significant in our current learning society

in which teachers are expected to learn continuously.

1.1.2. Gaps in th e Research on Teacher L earn in g

To further establish the significance of the present study, I briefly report below the gaps in the

research literature on teacher learning and how the present study can contribute to bridging

those gaps. A more detailed discussion is found in Chapter 2.

Studies on teacher learning can be grouped into three categories: the content of teacher learning,

the process of teacher learning, and the factors that affect teacher learning. Below is a list of

research gaps identified in the corresponding bodies of literature:

Studies on the content of teacher learning often focus on pre-determined teacher learning

outcomes and content from the perspectives of teacher educators or TPD developers, rather

than from the teacher perspective (Webster-Wright, 2009). The current study is an attempt to

fill this gap by asking teachers to report on their most important learning, and to reflect on

the process and impact of their learning from their own perspective as teachers.


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Little is known about how teachers, in particular experienced teachers, learn specific content

and how they change their cognition and/or behaviour (Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002;

Hoekstra, Beijaard, Brekelmans, & Korthagen, 2007; Putnam & Borko, 2000). The current

study addresses this gap by delineating the process of teacher learning with the use of the

Interconnected Model of Teacher Professional Growth (IMTPG) proposed by Clarke &

Hollingsworth (2002).

The teacher learning process is rather complex (Gravani, 2007) and idiosyncratic in nature

(Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002). There is also a lack of a common framework to analyse

and describe the process of teacher learning (Justi & van Driel, 2006). This hinders the

synthesis of findings across different studies. This study contributes to the search for a

common analytic tool by adopting and combining the interpretive frameworks of Clarke &

Hollingsworth’s (2002) IMTPG and the Community of Practice (CoP) of Wenger (1998,

2003).

With regard to factors affecting teacher learning, most studies focus either on the factors

pertaining to individual teachers or the communal factors of the community to which the

teachers belong. The studies often consider these factors in an isolated manner without

acknowledging the potential effects of any possible interaction between them (Richardson

& Placier, 2001; Webster-Wright, 2009). Also, they fail to account for the dynamic nature of

the relationship between teacher learning and other various factors. The present study tries

to bridge this gap by considering both individual and communal factors in a holistic manner,

as well as exploring the interactive and dynamic relationship between teacher learning and

the factors affecting it.

In sum, the present study attempts to fill current gaps in the research by studying the content and

process of teacher learning from the teacher perspective. It considers both the individual factors

and communal factors in a holistic manner, and treats these as dynamic factors that may change

and interact with each other during the course of teacher learning.

1.1.3. Context of the Study

The context of this study is a school-based TPD project involving two secondary schools in

Hong Kong. The Integrated Science teachers in each school, with input from a science educator,

formed a CoP using classroom videos as a tool for their professional learning. The TPD

programme comprised: (i) analysis of exemplary videos in video workshops (VWs), and (ii)

analysis of teachers’ own videos in a video -based lesson study (LS). The use of video in the

design of the TPD is supported by the relevant literatures:

Imbedding teachers’ learning in their everyday work, or that of their colleagues, increasesthe likelihood that this learning will be meaningful (A. Lieberman, 1996).


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3

Research on lesson study revealed that in order to benefit from lesson study, teachers will

first need to learn how to apply ‘critical lenses’ to their examination of lessons (Fernandez,

Cannon, & Chokshi, 2003, p. 182).

Use of exemplary ca ses increases teachers’ exposure to alternatives, provides existence

proof of new practice and demonstration of actions (Black & Atkin, 1996). Teachers may

gain moral support and deepen their understanding by viewing exemplary cases.

Analysis of classroom video provides opportunities for teachers to acquire a new “analytic

mind set” to look at classroom teaching (Sherin, 2004, p. 13).

More details about the TPD design and activities can be found in Chapter 3.

1.2. Research Questions

While I feel obliged to provide readers with detailed information about the context of the study,

against which they can make better sense of the reported teacher learning, I must stress at the

outset that the present study is not an evaluation study of the effectiveness of the TPD

programme in bringing about teacher learning (though this is a major concern for the

programme developer i.e., my supervisor). Rather, my prime focus is on how and what teachers

learn in the context of this TPD programme, including any unintended learning outcomes. In

other words, I will look at teacher learning from the teachers’ own perspectives, rather than

comparing their learning outcomes against predetermined criteria laid down by the researcher.

Using a case study approach, this study looks closely at the nature and process of teacher

learning through their participation in a CoP that aims to improve teaching through analysis of

classroom videos. The following set of interrelated research questions guide the study:

1. What do teachers learn in the communities of practice?

2. How do teachers learn and what are the processes involved?

3. What are the factors that promote or impede teacher learning?

1.3. The Interpretative FrameworksThe present study adopts IMTPG developed by Clarke and Hollingsworth (2002) and Wen ger’s

(1998, 2003) CoP as the interpretive frameworks for analysis of teacher learning. A brief

introduction of the two frameworks follows, along with the reasons for their adoption. A more

detailed discussion is found in Chapter 2.

1.3.1. I nterconnected M odel of Teacher Professional Growth (I M TPG)

Previous literature on models of TPD paid little attention, if any, to the context in which


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teachers learn and the way in which a change in one aspect (e.g., teaching practice) was

transcended into another (e.g., teacher knowledge and beliefs). With reference to these

limitations, Clarke and Hollingsworth (2002) proposes IMTPG. The model is represented in

Figure 1.1 and briefly described below.

According to IMTPG, the teachers’ world is encompassed by four distinct domains: the Personal

Domain (PD) (teacher knowledge, beliefs and attitudes), the Domain of Practice (DP)

(professional experimentation), the Domain of Consequence (DC) (salient outcomes), and the

External Domain (ED) (sources of information, stimulus or support). The four domains are

connected by the mediating processes of enactment and reflection. Change in one domain may

lead to change in another domain through either enactment or reflection. Enactment, accordingto Clarke & Hollingsworth (2002), is not simply acting, but translation of a belief or a

pedagogical model into action; each action represents the enactment of something a teacher

knows, believes or has experienced. Reflection is “active, persistent and careful consideration”

(Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002, p. 954).

The multiplicity of possible pathways between the four domains reflects the complex,

idiosyncratic and dynamic nature of teacher learning. The model recognises not only that

teacher learning is non-linear but is also a continuous process involving teachers’ reflection andenactment. Its application across different studies may help to fill the gap of the lack of a

External Source of

Information or

Stimulus

Knowledge,

Beliefs and

Attitudes

Salient

Outcome

Professional

Experimentation

Personal Domain

External Domain

Domain of Practice

Domain ofConsequence

The Change

Environment

Figure 1.1 Interconnected Model of Teacher Professional Growth

Enactment

Reflection


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common tool to analyse, discuss and hence compare the findings in different studies that are

conducted in different contexts (Justi & van Driel, 2006). In the present study, IMTPG is

adopted to delineate the path of teacher learning, and to identify the specific factors in the four

domains that promote or restrain teacher learning.

Despite its strong descriptive and explanatory power in accounting for the process of teacher

learning, IMTPG falls short of explaining the changing and evolving patterns of interaction

among teachers, and the mutual relation and trust formed among teachers as reflected in the data

of the current study. Clarke & Hollingsworth (2002) do briefly talk about how the social settings

in which teachers learn (i.e., the change environment in IMTPG) afford and constraint teacher

learning. However, they do not give enough attention to the characteristic features and dynamic

nature of the social settings and the mutual constitution of the individual and the social. Indeed,

as the data of the present study emerged, I discovered that the CoPs formed by the participating

teachers were evolving throughout the TPD programme as a result of teacher learning, and that,

in turn, had affected the learning of individual teachers. To fully explain my data, I turned to

look at literature on the situated perspective on learning and found Wenger’s (1998, 2003) CoP

framework most appealing.

1.3.2. Community of Practice (CoP)

Wenger’s (1998, 2003) Community of Practice (CoP) framework is grounded in a situated view

of learning in which individual development and social and cultural-historical activities and

practices are mutually constitutive; development occurs in the course of the individual’s

participation in social practice, which in turn contributes to the development of these social

practices and activities (Tsui, Edwards, Lopez-Real, & Kwan, 2009, p. 30). Based on his work

with Lave (Lave & Wenger, 1991), Wenger (1998) elaborates the theory more fully and

identifies three elements of CoP, namely mutual engagement, a joint enterprise and a shared

repertoire, which constitute the source of coherence of a community.

Mutual engagement exists because people are engaged in actions whose meanings they

negotiate with one another. A joint enterprise is the result of a collective process of negotiation

through mutual engagement in practice over time. A shared repertoire is a set of resources

shared within a community for the negotiation of meaning in the community. Wenger (2003)

further elaborates the above three elements into three dimensions of a CoP as follows (p.81):

Enterprise connotes the level of learning energy of the community, which must show

leadership in pushing its development along and maintain a spirit of inquiry.


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Mutuality indicates the depth of social capital of the community, in which members must

know and trust each other well enough to know how to interact productively and feel

comfortable speaking truthfully and addressing real problems together.

Repertoire denotes the degree of self-awareness of the community. Being reflective on its

repertoire (including the concepts, language and tools used) enables a community to

understand its own state of development from multiple perspectives, reconsider assumptions

and uncover hidden possibilities, and use this self-awareness to move forward.

To differentiate the different forms of participation in a CoP, Wenger (2003) identifies three

modes of belonging that can shape the social learning systems of the communities concerned

(pp.78 – 79):

Engagement is “doing things together, talking and producing artefacts. The ways in which

members engage with each other, and with the world, profoundly shape their experience of

who they are. They learn what they can do and how the world responds to their actions. ”

Imagination is members constructing “an image of themselves, of their communities, and of

the world in order to orient themselves, to reflect on their situation, and to explore

possibilities. ”

Alignment is about making sure that “local activities are sufficiently aligned with other

processes so that they can be effective beyond their own engagement. This is not a one-way

process of submitting to external authority, but a mutual process of coordinating

perspectives, interpretations, and actions so that the CoP can realise higher goals. ”

Wenger (2003) combines the three dimensions of a CoP and the three modes of belonging to

construct a matrix (see Chapter 2 for details) to illustrate how the modes of belonging affect the

dimensions of a CoP. This matrix framework is adapted for the analysis of the changes

occurring in the CoPs during the course of this study. The three dimensions of CoP are used to

describe the characteristic features of the CoPs formed by the participating teachers, whereas the

modes of belonging are considered as the factors that promote or impede the development of the

CoPs. This can complement the inadequacy of IMTPG in explaining the evolution of the change

environment and the mutual constitution of individual teacher learning and community building.

To summarise, the two frameworks are adopted to describe and explain the data in this study.

The IMTPG framework is used to delineate the learning path of individual teachers, whilst the

CoP framework is used to describe the evolving forms of the CoPs formed by the teachers and

teacher learning in relation to the CoPs. I believe, as will be demonstrated in later chapters, that

IMTPG and CoP frameworks can complement each other to provide a useful tool to capture and

explain the content and process of teacher learning, as well as the individual and communal

factors affecting it.


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1.4. SignificanceThis study is of both practical and theoretical value. Practically, understanding how teachers

learn, what the impeding and promoting factors are, and how these factors interact among

themselves and relate to the process of teacher learning will provide valuable information for

teacher professional developers in designing their TPD programmes. Theoretically, the study

contributes to the literature on teacher learning in relation to the search for a common analytic

tool by adopting and combining IMTPG and CoP frameworks. It sheds light on how the two

frameworks can be combined to explain and describe the learning of teachers in TPD contexts.

More importantly, it contributes to the literature on teacher learning by building a holistic model

of teacher learning through investigating the content, process, and the factors of teacher learning

from the teacher perspective.

1.5. Outline of the Subsequent ChaptersIn this chapter, I have introduced the background, the gaps in research on teacher learning and

the interpretive frameworks adopted for this study. I have also explained the significance of this

study.

Chapter 2 provides a thorough and detailed review of the literature on teacher learning, and

explains in detail why IMTPG (Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002) and CoP (Wenger, 1998, 2003)

have been chosen and the adaptations made for the analysis of teacher learning in this study.

In Chapter 3, I describe the context of this study – the TPD programme – in order to provide

readers with the background information necessary for a better understanding and appreciation

of the findings on teacher learning reported in this study.

In Chapter 4, I describe and explain the methodology used. I also explain how the research

design takes into consideration of the issues of trustworthiness and other ethical considerations.

In Chapters 5 and 6, I report the results and findings in the form of case study reports, one for

each of the participating schools. Each begins with reports on the learning of individual teachers

(using the IMTPG), followed by information on the characteristics features of the CoP

concerned and its evolving changes during the course of study. The communal factors involved

are also reported here.

Chapter 7 compares and discusses the learning of the seven participating teachers and the

characteristic features of the two CoPs. The aim is to identify the similarities and differences in


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the content and learning paths of teachers and those of the two CoPs, as well as to detail the

influences of the individual and communal factors on teacher learning.

Chapter 8 analyses and discusses features of the TPD that had an impact on teacher learning and

details the ways in which the TPD factors affected the learning of teachers.

In Chapter 9, I conclude the thesis by summarising the findings reported in previous chapters,

discussing the implications and limitations, and providing suggestions for future research.


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Chapter 2 – Literature Review

9


Section 2.1 of this chapter reviews the literature on teacher learning in three areas: the content

of teacher learning, the process of teacher learning, and the factors that affect teacher learning.

Section 2.2 introduces the theoretical frameworks that will guide the analysis of data collected

in this study.

2.1. Research on Teacher LearningIn the present study, teacher learning is referred to the changes in teacher knowledge (i.e.,

cognitive), skills, affects and/or emotions (i.e., affective), and the relationships between

colleagues and/or ways they work with each other (i.e., social learning or community building).

Teacher learning has emerged as an important research topic in the last decade (Fishman &Davis, 2006). It provides important information about teachers as they attempt to improve their

teaching (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999; Fischer, 2006). In my review of the literature, I

found that researchers mainly focused on three aspects: (i) the content/outcome of teacher

learning, (ii) the process of teacher learning, and (iii) the factors that affect teacher learning. As

the context of this study, the TPD programme, consisted of video workshops and video-based

lesson study, the following sections will briefly draw on the relevant literature on the use of

video for TPD and lesson study. To avoid replication to the later chapters, the discussion here

will be kept to a minimum. A more substantial amount of literature on the use of video andlesson study can be found in Chapter 8.

2.1.1. Research on th e Content of Teacher L earni ng

For the purpose of this review, the content of teacher learning refers to what teachers learn from

their daily teaching practice or their participation in teacher professional development (TPD). It

includes knowledge, skills, affects and emotions. Social learning/community building will be

discussed in a later section in this chapter.

2.1.1.1. Teacher learning as gaining knowledge and skills

Since the 1970s, cognitivism has been the dominant paradigm in psychology and also in

educational psychology (Fishman & Davis, 2006). The cognitive view of learning believes that

individuals acquire skills, knowledge and understanding in one setting, and subsequently are

able to apply these skills, knowledge and understandings elsewhere. The unit of analysis or

focus for learning is in the mind of the individual. This originates from the work of Jean Piaget

(1950, cited in Hoban, 2002), who believes that learning is a process of continually reworking

an individual’s knowledge based on personal experiences. This idea of learning is highlighted in


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constructivism, which states that knowledge is not passively received but actively built up by

individuals. From the personal constructivist view of learning, teachers enter into TPD with

existing beliefs and knowledge. Through reflection, teachers relate new knowledge and concepts

to their prior knowledge and experience, thus adding meaning and understanding to the new

knowledge and concepts.

Studies of teacher development and/or teacher learning mostly focus on the knowledge teachers

need to have in order to teach effectively (Bransford et al., 2006). In particular, many

researchers consider the knowledge base of teachers an important area to look into (e.g.,

Berliner, 1986; Borko & Putnam, 1996; Freeman, 1989; Grossman, 1990, 1991; Grossman,

Wilson, & Shulman, 1989; Peterson, 1988; Shulman, 1986b, 1987). Shulman’s (1986a, 1986b,

1987) framework of teacher knowledge has been widely adopted by researchers in this field as

the basis for their studies. Shulman (1986a, 1986b, 1987) categorised seven types of knowledge

that he believes teachers should possess in order to teach: (i) subject matter knowledge; (ii)

general pedagogical knowledge; (iii) curriculum knowledge; (iv) pedagogical content

knowledge; (v) knowledge of students’ learning; (vi) knowledge of the educational context, such

as the school and the classroom; and (vii) knowledge of educational ends, purposes and values.

In sum, studies along the line of inquiry point to the importance of helping teachers to expand

and elaborate their professional knowledge base. That is, they treat this as one important

component of teacher learning (Borko & Putnam, 1995). Some studies on video-based TPD

have also focused on this area to help teachers develop their professional knowledge (e.g.,

Givvin, Lemmens, & Santagata, 2007; Lampert & Ball, 1998; Olivero, John, & Sutherland,

2004; Roth et al., 2011; Strickland & Doty, 1997). For instance, the study of Ruth et al (2011)

investigated elementary teacher’s development of science content knowledge through analysis

of science teaching practice using video cases.

There is a body of research studying how novice and expert teachers differ in terms of their

knowledge and skills (Berliner, 1988; Leinhardt & Greeno, 1986; Sabers, Cushing, & Berliner,1991). For example, Berliner and his colleagues (Berliner, 1988; Sabers, et al., 1991) compared

the interpretation of classroom situations among expert teachers, advanced-beginning teachers

(student teacher and high-quality first-year teachers), and novice teachers (no professional

training) by using tasks simulating different aspects of teaching. In one of the tasks, teachers

were asked to watch a lesson displayed simultaneously on three video screens showing the

lesson from different camera angles. The novice teachers and advanced-beginning teachers

found the video confusing and interpreted the classroom situation inconsistently. The expert

teachers, however, were quickly able to capture the complexity of the classroom situation,interpret and make hypotheses about student needs and the nature of the ongoing activity. The


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researchers concluded that expert teachers had developed context-embedded and situated

knowledge of classroom activities and were more easily able to interpret what they saw.

In view of the difference between expert teachers’ and novice teachers’ ability to captur e the

complexity of classroom situations and interpret student needs, one line of research on the use

of video for TPD purposes investigates a different type of knowledge and skills in teachers,

namely ‘professional vision’ or the ability to notice pedagog ically significant events (see for

example, Eilam & Poyas, 2006; Rosaen, Lundeberg, Cooper, Fritzen, & Terpstra, 2008; Sherin

& Han, 2004; Sherin & van Es, 2005; van Es, 2004). In the studies of Sherin & van Es (2005)

and van Es (2004), groups of pre-service and in- service teachers’ developed their ability to

notice classroom interactions in the context of video clubs. The results suggested that teachers

changed their focus from pedagogy to student thinking, identified significant interactions,

discussed the classroom events from evaluation to interpretation, and increased the use of

evidence from the videos. In other words, the teachers’ ability to notice what is happening in

their classroom increased with the use of videos. In the study of Eilam & Poyas (2006), besides

the shift of perspectives, teachers also increased their ability to identify and interpret implicit

and explicit factors and interrelations in teaching-learning processes. The video-mediated

activities also enhanced the teachers’ capacity to link perceived teaching-learning processes to

theoretical knowledge.

2.1.1.2. Teacher learning in the affective domain

Affective learning (Krathwohl, Bloom, & Masia, 1964) does not receive as much attention as

knowledge and skills learning in the teacher learning literature, even though teaching has been

recognised as an emotional practice (Hargreaves, 1998). Little is known about the process of

teacher affective learning and its role in teaching and teacher development. Sutton & Wheatley

(2003) point out that surprisingly little is known about the role of emotions in learning to teach,

the way in which the socio- cultural context of teaching interacts with teachers’ emotions, and to

what extent emotional experiences are an integral part of teacher learning. Hence, we need a better understanding of how emotional responses mediate learning, and how they emerge from

learning (Bransford, et al., 2006, p. 29).

Indeed, the study of emotions in teaching and learning is on the rise (Nias, 1996; Sutton &

Wheatley, 2003; van Veen & Lasky, 2005) . However, research on teachers’ affective learning in

the TPD context is rare. Graven’s study (Graven, 2004) is a rare example. In analysing the data

on teacher learning from an in-service teacher training programme, Graven found, to her

surprise, that confidence emerged as a crucial recurring phenomenon in both teacher descriptionand explanation of their learning. Based on her data, Graven suggested that confidence relates to


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learning as mastery in the practice of being a professional teacher. For teachers, mastery

involved:

Confidence in what they learned and the meaning they constructed in changing

developments in their profession.

Confidence in their ability to participate in the various practices and communities Confidence in their ability to access resources to supplement their learning Confidence in their identity as professional competent teachers Confidence in accepting that there was still much more to learn, and the willingness and

confidence to become a life-long learner

According to Graven (2004), confidence is both a product and a process of learning. It is the

product of the result of learning as well as the process that stimulates or motivates teachers to

learn continuously. The five aspects of confidence in Graven’s stu dy echo with the idea of

personal development given by Bell & Gilbert (1996). Bell & Gilbert assert that personal

development involves teachers accepting an aspect of their teaching as problematic, dealing

with restraints and attending to the feelings and concerns of changing their practice and beliefs

about science education, and feeling empowered to be responsible for their own development.

They further argue that personal development is important in the process in that personal and

social development are intertwined, personal development precedes professional development,

and the pace of personal development influences the pace of professional development.

It is rare for research in video- based TPD to focus explicitly on developing teachers’ confidence

or other affective learning, although a few studies do report teacher learning in the affective

domain (e.g., Gunning & Mensah, 2011; Yoon et al., 2006). For example, in the study of

Gunning and Mensah (2011), reviewing videos helped to boost pre-service el ementary teachers’

self-efficacy and confidence to try new teaching practices as the videos provided the teachers

with vicarious experiences, in which they could witness peers modelling situational

competencies and visualise themselves in similar situations. Similar findings are also observedin studies for practicing teachers who reviewed and reflected on their own teaching videos. The

teachers who used videos to reflect on their practice showed a significant greater increase in

their science teaching efficacy than those who did not use videos (McConnell et al., 2008).

2.1.1.3. Summary

Research on the content of teacher learning is usually conducted from the researcher’s

perspective. The learning content is often studied in relation to the intended learning outcomes

that are pre-determined by the teacher educators or developers of TPD, instead of by the

teachers themselves. It does not explain which content is more useful and meaningful for


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teachers (i.e., from their own perspective) and how teachers learn to cope with the complexity of

their work by using this newly learned content. Indeed, research on the content of teacher

learning from teachers’ own perspective is relatively rare. Webster -Wright (2009) argues that

more research on teacher learning from the teacher perspective is needed in order to unveil the

authentic learning experience of teachers. The present study attempts to fill this gap. Hence, at

the end of each of the professional learning activities in this study, teachers will be asked to

reflect on questions such as: What are the most impressive things in this meeting and why?

Have you gained any new insights from this meeting? If yes, what are they? What is the

implication/impact of these insights on you and/or your teaching?

Certainly, by focusing on the content of what teachers learned, these kinds of studies allow

researchers and teacher educators to understand the ends of teacher learning. However, they do

not help us to understand the processes that teachers go through to reach those ends (Feiman-

Nemser & Remillard, 1996). In order to help us to understand how teachers reach these ends

and learn to use the content of teacher learning in their work, the process and the nature of

teacher learning both need to be examined in detail, along with the factors that can influence

teacher learning (Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002; Feiman-Nemser & Remillard, 1996; Hoban,

2002). However, limited research has been conducted to explore this area of research (Beijaard,

et al., 2007; Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002; Putnam & Borko, 2000). The present study aims to

fill this research gap by addressing the following research questions: What do teachers learn as a

result of the participation in learning communities? What are the factors and processes involved?

2.1.2. Research on the Pr ocess of Teacher Learni ng

As Gravani and John (2005) suggest, how teachers learn should be as important as what they

learn. Recently, researchers began to emphasise the importance of understanding the process of

how teachers learn in the hope of applying the research findings in facilitating and optimising

teacher learning both in initial teacher education and the further professional development of

teachers (Beijaard, et al., 2007; Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002). Since the research literature onthe process of teacher learning is relatively new, the current study also reviews literature on the

process of teacher change and TPD if it is related to the learning process through which teachers

move towards expertise.

Based on their review of the literature, Clark & Hollingsworth (2002) claim that early literatures

on the process of teacher learning tended to treat teacher learning as a linear process with

specific starting and ending points. For example, they note that many teacher education

programmes att empt to change teachers’ beliefs and attitudes, expecting that a change in beliefsand attitudes will lead to changes in classroom practices and, ultimately, changes in student


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learning outcomes as the goal of TPD. Often this goal is implicitly, rather than explicitly, spelt

out. Hence, they refer to this as the implicit model of teacher professional development (see

Figure 2.1).

Guskey (1986) argues that the assumption that a change of teachers’ beliefs and attitudes can

lead to a change in their classroom practices might be inaccurate since, from the research on

teacher change, TPD programs seldom result in significant change in teachers’ attitudes or

beliefs and/or classroom practices. He puts forward an alternative model (see Figure 2.2), which

suggests that significant changes in beliefs and attitudes are likely to take place only after

changes in student learning outcomes are evident. Changes in teachers’ beliefs and attitudes are

primarily a result , rather than a cause , of change in the learning outcomes of students (Guskey,

1986). In other words, evidence of improvement in student learning outcome becomes the key

element for the change of teachers’ beliefs and attitudes.

Although the two models discussed above differ in the sequence of the change process and the

reasons for the change taking place, the common feature is that they both assume that the

process of teacher change/teacher learning is linear and has specific starting and ending points.

Arguably, teachers are individuals with different past experiences, different existing knowledge

and beliefs, and different teachers may learn best in different ways.

More recent studies suggest that the process of teacher learning, rather than being viewed as a

Professional

Development

Change inStudent

LearningOutcomes

Change inTeachers

ClassroomPractice

Change inTeachersBeliefs &Attitudes

Figure 2.2 Guskey’s Model of Teacher Change

Professional

Development

Change inTeachers’

ClassroomPractice

Change inTeachers’

Knowledgeand Beliefs

Change inStudent

LearningOutcome

Figure 2.1 The Implicit Model of Teacher Professional Development


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linear, step-by-step event, should be seen as a complex process (Gravani, 2007) that may be

cyclic with multiple entry points (Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002; Zwart, Wubbels, Bergen, &

Bolhuis, 2007). In other words, these two models may not be able to adequately represent the

idiosyncratic and dynamic nature of the process of teacher learning. Moreover, they do not take

into consideration the context where teachers learn and how a change in one aspect (e.g.,

practice) is transcended into another one (e.g., knowledge/beliefs). With reference to the

limitations of these two models, Clarke & Hollingsworth (2002) propose the Interconnected

Model of Teacher Professional Growth (IMTPG). Their model is represented in Figure 2.3 and

briefly described below.

According to this model, the teachers’ world is constituted by four distinct domains that changethrough mediating processes of ‘reflection’ and ‘enactment’ (represented as arrows linking the

domains. The multiplicity of possible pathways between the four domains reflects the

complexity of teachers’ learning processes. That is, this model recognises not only that teacher

learning is non- linear but also a continuous process involving teachers’ reflection and enactment.

Justi & van Driel (Justi & van Driel, 2005, 2006) demonstrated the fruitfulness of using IMTPG

as an analytical tool in studying the process through which five beginning science teachers

developed their knowledge on the use of models and modelling in science teaching. After

External Source of

Information or

Stimulus

Knowledge,

Beliefs and

Attitudes

Salient

Outcome

Professional

Experimentation

Personal Domain

External Domain

Domain of Practice

Domain ofConsequence

The Change

Environment

Figure 2.3 Interconnected Model of Teacher Professional Growth

Enactment

Reflection


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attending a special course on the use of models and modelling in teaching science, the teachers

chose one of the aspects discussed as the basis of research projects that they conducted in their

own classes. As part of their research projects, the teachers collected classroom data (for

instance, written materials produced by their students, video recordings of classroom

discussions) that they analysed for reflective reports. They then presented their reports during a

final group meeting a bout their research. Data regarding teachers’ learning were collected

during the study through questionnaires and individual teacher interviews, as well as through

written materials produced by teachers during the professional learning meetings and the

discussions that took place during these meetings.

Using IMTPG as the analytic tool, Justi and van Driel (2006) were able to abstract from the data

nine pictorial representations of the teacher’s learning process regarding the use of models and

modelling in science teaching for each of the five teachers. A total of 45 pictorial representations

of teachers’ learning process were drawn. Results showed that only two teachers (two

representations) expressed the same change sequence for the development of pedagogical

content knowledge on the purpose of the use of teaching models. Thirty-two representations

involved three or more relationships between the four domains; of these relationships sometimes

‘reflective relationships’ predominated, sometimes ‘enactment relationships’ predominated, and

sometimes no one particular relationship predominated.

Overall, the study indicated that the learning process of teachers is rather complex and

idiosyncratic. More importantly, Justi and van Driel (2006) have successfully demonstrated the

crucial role of using IMTPG in their analysis of the teachers’ knowledge growth. The four

domains of IMTPG and the subsequent establishment of relationships between the four domains

allowed the researchers to analyse the data in a way that promoted their understanding of the

processes of each teacher’s knowledge development. By identifying relationships between the

four domains, IMTPG made it possible for the researchers to understand each teacher’s

development in a detailed way.

Zwart et al (2007), also adopted IMTPG to analyse the learning process of teachers in their

study. The learning trajectories of eight experienced teachers in four coaching dyads were traced

and analysed over a one-year reciprocal peer coaching arrangement. Data sources included

audiotapes of coaching conferences, semi-structured learning interviews conducted by phone,

and digital diaries with teacher reports of their learning experiences. Thirty-four pictorial

representations of the teacher learning processes were identified. The researchers studied the

entry points, the ending points and the pattern of the pictorial representations. They found thatall four domains had been the entry point for the learning of the eight teachers, not necessarily


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teachers who need a strong sense of self-belief if they are to survive (Day, Stobart, Sammons, &

Kington, 2006). It is found that the self efficacy of beginning teachers is more likely to be

reinforced in a supportive environment of openness and trust. Such a collegial approach,

however, requires shared understanding, values and goals developed through sustained contact

among individuals who participate in joint productive or co-joint activities (Lasky, 2005).

Nonetheless, there is no guarantee that teacher learning will definitely take place, even in a

supportive and conducive environment such as the one described above. For example,

Kwakman (2003) studied the degree of teacher participation in several professional learning

activities at the teachers’ work place and found that powerful opportunities for teachers to learn

went unused. In other words, professional learning is not self-evident and there are clearly

occasions when teachers simply do not learn. This brings us to the next individual/personal

factor affecting teacher learning.

2.1.3.2. Teachers’ will to learn

The phenomenon of “not learning” can possibly be explained by various personal and

contextual factors. In Van Eekelen, Vermunt and Boshuizen’s (2006) study, they chose to focus

on a personal factor that has received very little attention from researchers, namely, teachers’

“will to learn”. They considered a “will to learn” a necessary prerequisite for teacher learning,

not just a conducive learning environment. Teachers must take an active role in order to learn,

and a “will to learn” typically precedes such active involvement.

In Van Eekelen et al.’s (2006) study, they asked the question: Which behaviours of experienced

teachers within the workplace indicate the presence or absence of a will to learn? They carried

out the research with 15 teachers in a school. First, they conducted a semi-structured interview

with each of the teachers, followed by an observation study, and a retrospective interview based

on the observations. The observation study and the interviews were conducted to collect

samples of situations in which teachers may learn, and to have teachers reflect upon thosesituations and determine whether they learned something. Teachers were asked for their

thoughts on why they had or had not learned in each case.

The following behaviours were found to be indicative of a will to learn among the teachers:

having the ambition to explore new practices; being open to experiences and other people; being

pro-active; being able to attribute successes and mistakes to internal causes; asking critical

questions about on their performance; undertaking action to learn; and being able to recognise

learning processes and results. Using the data from the observation study and interviews, theresearchers differentiated the participating teachers into three groups based on the different


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manifestations of their will to learn: (i) teachers who do not see the need to learn; (ii) teachers

who wonder how to learn; and (iii) teachers who are eager to learn. The researchers believed

that the manifestations can help teacher educators and TPD developers to identify the presence

or absence of a will to learn in teachers and thus to understand and facilitate teachers’ learning

in a mor e individual and unique manner. Hence, this method of differentiating teachers’ will to

le

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