Full page photo...Balpande, Shubhangini M. And Cherian K.J. 12. Counteractive impacts of plant growth regulators over uv-b radiation damage on certain physiological and biological

CONTENTS

1. Histopathological effect of testosterone propionate on male and hydroxyl progesterone caproate on female rain quail, Coturnix coromandelica. Pravin Charde, Jyoti Ramteke and Suresh Zade

2. Assessment of ambient noise level in the city of Bareilly (U.P.)

Singh, Vikas; Bhadauriya, Gaurav, and Matta, Gagan

3. Evaluation of present water quality status of Sapta Sarovars at Ujjain

Bhadauriya, Gaurav; Matta, Gagan and Singh, Vikas

4. Population ecology of the Indian torrent catfish, Amblyceps mangois (hamilton- buchanan) from Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India Ram Krishan, A. K. Dobriyal, K.L.Bisht, R.Kumar and P. Bahuguna

5. Deterioration of water quality of some eco-efficient Himalayan rivers in India Ankur Kansal, Nihal A. Siddiqui and Ashutosh Gautam

6. Seasonal variation in bee forage of Apis cerana bees in urban area of Nagpur due to the varied plant diversity S. D. Godghate, K.J. Cherian and M. Bhowal

7. Organic farming a necessity for sustenance of soil algal flora for agricultural fields Bhowal, M., Cherian, K. J., Vishwakarma, S. and Matta, Gagan

8. Influence of early and late mounting on economic parameters in autumn Rearing of PM × CSR2 larvae of silkworm, Bombyx mori L. Shamin Ahmed Bandey and Amardev Singh

9. Pollution, a threat to conservation of biodiversity in fresh water body of Chulband River, Gondia Dist., Maharashtra Cherian K.J. and Shahare P.C.

10. Evaluating economic sustainability of ponds (talab) of Dhar town (M.P.)

Preeti Chaudhary

11. Antibacterial activity of plant extracts of cyperus rotundus and vetiveria zizanoides on the air borne micro-organisms of some houses in Nagpur city Balpande, Shubhangini M. And Cherian K.J.

12. Counteractive impacts of plant growth regulators over uv-b radiation

damage on certain physiological and biological aspects in wheat crop

Panwar, S. K. and Dhingra, G. K.

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[ISSN 0975 - 6272] Charde et al.

Volume II Number 2 2011 [1-7]

1Histopathological effect of testosterone propionate on male and hydroxyl progesterone caproate on female rain quail, Coturnix coromandelica.

Histopathological effect of testosterone propionate on male and hydroxyl

progesterone caproate on female rain quail, Coturnix coromandelica.

Pravin Charde1, Jyoti Ramteke1 and Suresh Zade2

Received: January 2, 2011 ⏐ Accepted: July 3, 2011 ⏐ Online: October 20, 2011

Abstract

Adult rain quail are sexually diamorphic. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of testosterone propionate and hydroxyl progesterone caproate on gonads and some other endocrine glands of male and female rain quail. 15 male and 15 female rain quails were treated with testosterone and progesterone daily for 7 and 15 days respectively. The study reveals that after the treatment of testosterone, the spermatogonia were detached and show hypertrophy as well as the germ cells were enlarged and vacuolated every degenerates, thyroid and adrenal shows hypertrophy.

Keywords: Testosterone Propionate ⏐ Hydroxyl Progesterone Caproate⏐Sexual Dimorphism ⏐ Gonads ⏐ Rain Quail.

Introduction

Quails are almost tailless patridge like bird popularly known as “Batter”, belonging to the class Aves and family Phasianidae. Batter is a good table bird known for its delicacy since olden days. They are used as food before chicken was domesticated. Meat is rich in vitamins, amino acids, unsaturated fatty acid etc., which are very vital for health of human being. Quail meat therefore can be recommended to be included in diet of children, pregnant mother and convalescent patient for speedy recovery.

Perusal of literature on quail reproduction reveals that, little is known about these aspects in exotic and tropical species. The reason is that more critical experiments have not been successfully undertaken in Indian quail species. Studies on these species are confined mainly to the changes in the reproductive organs and rarely endocrine glands during different phases of reproductive cycle. No experimental studies have been made in these species endocrine glands in reproduction. Fundamental knowledge of reproductive process and the endocrine mechanism that control process is therefore, invisible for profitable management and production of these birds in large scale. The paucity of information on reproduction

International Journal for Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation Volume II No. 2 2011 [1-7] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]

For Correspondence: 1Principal, Sevadal Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Nagpur-

440009 (M.S.)

2Professor, P.G.T.D. Zoology, Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University, Nagpur (M.S.)

Email: [email protected]




endocrinology of Indian quail motivated me to undertake this investigation.

The present study was undertaken on rain quail, Coturnix coromandelica. This bird was selected for this work because it offers the advantages of endocrinological works. The aim and objective this investigation is to study the histopathological effect of testosterone propionate and hydroxy progesterone caproate on gonads and other endocrine glands and to investigate the mechanism of action of this steroids in both sexes of this Rain quail.

In the present study testosterone propionate and hydroxyl progesterone caproate obtain from German Remedies Limited, Bombay under trademark of Schering AG, West-German. MATERIAL AND METHODS The Indian rain quail C. coromandelica has been selected for present investigation. Adult quail are sexually dimorphic. Reproductive behaviour is sexually differentiated in quail. The adult rain quail is about 6½ to 7 inches in size (without tail) and body weight is 85 to 90 gms. Temperature, light, floor space, humidity and feed are most important factors for good housing and maintenance of quails. The maximum daily amount of feed given was equivalent to 20 to 25% of body weight. To identify individual quails from each groups, they were marked with numbered aluminium strips using bands. The rain quail utilized in this study were collected from various places in Nagpur district and Amravati district of Maharashtra State. The birds were trap over a period of four months during October to January and consisted of 60 adult males and 40 adult females weighing 70 to 90 gms. Before commencement of the experiments all birds

were acclimatized in laboratory for at least 2 to 3 weeks. The males are divided into four groups of 15 animals each. The ground II and IV are given intramuscular injection of testosterone propionate 0.15 mg/kg/day for 7 and 15 consecutive days respectively. The I and III group receive equivalent volume of physiological saline for the same period. For another experiment 40 female birds were divided into four groups of 10 birds each. The group II and IV were given intramuscular injection of hydroxy progesterone caproate 0.15 mg/kg/day consecutive for 7 and 15 days respectively. The I group and II were used as a control and treated with equivalent volume of physiological saline for the same period. Birds of experimental and control groups were weighed before and at the end of the experiments and maintained under same husbandry condition. At the end of each experimental animals were sacrificed. For histopathological studies reproductive organs and endocrine glands were dissected, weighed and fixed in various fixatives. All endocrine glands were fixed in formal sublimate for 24 Hrs. and other tissue were fixed in Bouin’s fluid. The tissue were dehydrated in various grades of alcohol cleared in xylene and after embedded in paraffin blocks were prepared. Paraffin sections were cut at 5 to 6 µm thickness. Sections were stained with haematoxyline and eosin. HISTOMORPHOLOGY Testis – The testis consists of compact convoluted seminiferous tubules which are lined by single or double layer of germinal cells. The tubules are composed of primary spermatogonia, secondary spermatogonia and sectoli cells. Further stages of spermatogenesis such as spermatocytes, spermatids and spermatozoa are not observed. Similarly, the sertoli cells are inconspicuous




and regressed. Since, the control males are sacrificed in the month of January which is sexually inactive period in rain quails, the testis have showed regression. In the interfollicular region blood capillaries, connective tissue and regressed Leydig’s cells are present.

Figure 1: Photomicrograph of control testis showing convoluted seminiferous tubules with germ cells, sertoli cells and interstitial cells. Ovary: In the rain quail single ovary and oviduct is present which is situated on the left side of the cephalic end of kidneys and attached the body wall by ligament. In rain quail, the ovary contains several primary follicles and blood haemorrhage. Developing follicles are composed of germinal vesicle granulose cells, theca interna and theca externa. Some degree of atresia is observed at primary follicular stage. Rarely degeneration is visible in large follicles.

Figure 2: Photomicrograph of control ovary showing primary follicles and germinal follicles with theca externa, theca interna and interstitial cells.

Adrenal gland of rain quail is paired, triangular in shape and yellow or orange in colour. It locates anterior and medial to the cephalic lobe of kidney and posterior to the lungs. It is surrounded by thick capsule which is made up of connective tissue.

Pineal gland is present on the dorsal side of the brain in triangular space between cerebellum and cerebral hemisphere. Pineal grain in rain quail is creamisa brown, club-shaped conical structure. Pineal gland is composed of lobules and each lobule consists of follicles which are separated by intralobular septa.

Thyroid gland of the male and female rain quail is composed of two separate lobes which are reddish in colour, situated on either side of the trachea in between jugular and carotid blood vessels. The normal thyroid gland is encapsulated and composed of well organized compact follicles.




Parathyroid gland in the rain quail is paired, well vascularised and closely attached to the posterior part of the thyroid gland. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Pineal: 7 days after treatment: No significant changes were observed in the vasculature of pineal gland. Lumen of the follicle was slightly obliterated. Type-I i.e. polygonal cells shows regression whereas Type-II i.e. tall cells shows hypertrophy and degranulation.

15 days after treatment: Showed more pronounced hypertrophy of Type-II i.e. tall columnar cells as compared to 7 days of testosterone propionate. The cell debris in lumen was evident. Type-I i.e. polygonal cells showed more regression. Thyroids: 7 days after treatment: Testosterone propionate treatment resulted in hypertrophy of the follicular epithelial cells and thickness of follicular wall. It induced hypertrophy and hyperplasia in small follicles. Large follicles showed little regressive effect.

15 days after treatment: Induced changes in thyroid follicles. Diameter of follicles were increased. The gland contained several empty follicles. The colloid contained few vacuoles at the peripheral region. The reduction in the amount of colloid was more evident. Parathyroid: 7 days after treatment: Testosterone propionate treatment induced hypertrophy and vacuolization in the cells of parathyroid cells of parathyroid gland. Small circular vacuoles appeared adjacent to the nucleus.

15 days after treatment: The above mentioned effect of testosterone propionate were same, rather more pronounced were same, rather

more pronounced in the fifteen days treated birds. Adrenal: 7 days after treatment: No significant changes were found in the vasculature of the gland. No changes were evident in Type II cells while Type I cells showed slight hypertrophy and degradation. 15 days after treatment: More significant changes were seen in the internal cells. The internal cells shows hypertrophy and were degranulated and vacuolated. No significant changes were observed in Type II and showed little hypertrophy as compared to control. Testis:

7 days after treatment:

Figure 3: Photomicrograph of testis 7 days treatment of testosterone propionate showing detached spermatogonia in the lumen.

The germinal epithelium was not affected after treatment of testosterone propionate. Debris formation in the lumen of the seminiferous tubules was seen. Regressive changes were observed in peripheral seminiferous tubules. Primary spermatogonia and secondary spermatogonia were detached




and seen accumulated in the lumen of seminiferous tubules. In some tubules lumen disappeared because of hypertrophy of germ cells. No changes were observed in the vasculature of gland.

15 days treatment:

Figure 4: Photomicrograph of testis 15 days treatment of testosterone propionate showing completely obligated lumen, hypertrophy of sertoli cells and degenerative effect on Leydig’s cells (Interstitial cells)

In most of the tubules germ cells detached and accumulated as debris in the lumen. Germ cells were enlarged and vacuolated. Lumen of seminiferous tubules disappear enlarged size of the primary spermatogonia and secondary spermatogona showed hypertrophy. Reydig’s cells were degenerated while sertoli cells showed hypertrophy. Blood vessels because dilated. Ovary

The atretic primary follicles and formation of space between the haemorrhage and ovarian stroma changes. Haemorphage become more

viscous. The large follicles shows regressive changes.


Figure 5: Photomicrograph of Ovary 7 days treatment of hydroxyl progesterone caproate showing primary follicles and formation of space between ovarian stroma and blood haemorrhage


Figure 6: Photomicrograph of Ovary 15 days treatment of hydroxyl progesterone caproate showing greatly regressed germinal vesicle, degenerating large follicles and disturbed interstitials cells.

The space between blood haemorrhage and ovarian stroma is more pronounced. Follicular cytoplasm and germinal vesicle shows regressive changes. There was no significant effect on the theca interna and theca externa, but these two layers started to separate from each other in large follicles. In stroma interstitial cells shows more degenerative changes.




CONCLUSION: From the present study it has been concluded that the doses of testosterone propionate stimulates the spermatogenesis in male rain quail. Similarly the treatment of hydroxyl progesterone caproate in female stimulates the secretion of FSH of pituitary and development of ovarian follicles.

References

Abalain, J. H., Amet, Y. Dahiel, J. Y. and Floch, H. H. (1983). Testosterone stimulation of DNA- Dependant DNA polymerase activities in the cloacal and uropygial glands of the male quail (coturnix coturnix japonica). Gen. Comp. Endocrinology. 52, 164-171.

Alison, M. R. and Wright, N.A. Testosterone 5 alpha reductase activity as related to proliferative status in mouse accessory sex glands: J. endocrinology; 81;83-92, 1979.

Ambadkar, P. M. and Chauhan, B. C. (1980). Observations on influences of pinealectomy on certain aspects of testicular functions in Indian house crow (Crovus splendens). Pavo 18, 39-52.

Arneja, D.V., George, G.C., Mehta, S.N. Dixit, V.P. and Razdan, M. N. (1984). Plasma testosterone concentration in relation of thyroid status in Japanese quail. Indian J. Poultry Science, 19, 207-209.

Arneja, D.V., Sharma, D. W. and Razdan, M.N. (1985). Histomorphology of parathyroids in white perkin drakes. Ind. Journal Poultry Sci. Vol.20, 58-60.

Bently, P. J. (1976). Comparative invertebrate endocrinology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, London, New York.

Bhatia, A.J. and Wade, G.N.(1989). Progesterone can either increase or decrease weight gain and adiposity in ovariectomized Syrain Hamsters Physiology and Behaviour, 46:273-278.

C. Berg, L. Holni, I. Brandt and B. Brunstrom, (2001) Anatomical and histological changes in the oviduct of Japanese quail coturnix japonica, after embryonic exposure to ethynyloesstradiol. Reproduction 121, 155-165.

Charde, P. N. (1998). Influence of Exogenesis Pharmacological Compounds on Reproductive Biology of Coturnix coromandelica. Thesis submitted for Ph.D. Degree Nagpur University, Nagpur.

Follet, B. K. (1984a). In Marshal’s Physiology of Reproduction. Vol. 1: Reproductive Cycles of Vertebrates (G.E. Lamming Ed.), pp.283-350.

Fuladi, R. S. (1992). Histopathological and biochemical effects of some drugs on gonads and endocrine glands of grey quail, coturnix coturnix. Thesis submitted for Ph.D. Degree, Nagpur University, Nagpur.

Gorbman, A. and Bern, H. A. (1962). A textbook of comparative endocrinology, John Wikey and Sons, New York.

Hervey, E. and Hervey, G. R. (1967). The effects of progesterone on body weight and composition in the rat.




Journal of Endocrinology. 37: 361-384.

M.A.Ottinger, S. Pitts and M.A. Abdelnabi (2001). Steroid hormones during embryonic development in Japanese quail; plasma gonadal, and adrenal levels. Paultry Science 8; 795-799.

N. Aste, G.C. Panzica, C. Viglietti. Panzica, N. Harada, J. Balthazar (1998).

Distribution and effects of testosterone on aromatase mRNA in the quail forebrain. A non-radioactive in situ hybridization study. Journal of Chemical Neuroanatomy 14, 103-115.

[ISSN 0975 - 6272] Krishan, et al.


8Assessment of ambient Noise level in the city of Bareilly (U.P.)

Assessment of ambient Noise level in the city of Bareilly (U.P.)

Singh, Vikas2; Bhadauriya1, Gaurav, and Matta, Gagan2

Received: May 02, 2011 ⏐ Accepted: August 01, 2011 ⏐ Online: December 27, 2011

Abstract

In the present study ambient noise level of Bareilly city (Uttar Pradesh) was monitored by using noise meter. Monitoring was carried out for a year from October 2009 to September 2010 to assess the ambient noise level at different locations in the city of Bareilly. Different locations were categorized as Commercial, Residential and Silence Zone area. After analyzing the data it was found that noise level was found above in compression of standard given by Central Pollution Control Board.

Keywords: dB (A) ⏐ Leq. ⏐ Ambient ⏐

Sensitive ⏐ Silence zone

Introduction

Bareilly is prominent city in Bareilly district in the northern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh Standing on the Ramganga River. It is the commisonary of the Bareilly division and the geographical region is also called as Rohilkhand. It is located 252 kilometres (157 mi) north of state capital, Lucknow and 250 kilometres (155 mi) east of national capital New Delhi. Bareilly is extended from latitude 28°10’in the north to longitude 78°23”in the east and has moderate climate. Total area under Bareilly is of about 235 km2 (90.7 sq mi). The four distinct season’s autumn, winter, spring and summer can be seen here. In this rapid age of industrialization and urbanization environmental pollution is a common problem in both developing and developed countries. As a result of increase in Urbanization and population day by day numbers of vehicles are also increasing. Besides this due to power failure in large no. of DG sets are also used mostly in commercial and industrial areas that cause Noise pollution. Number of studies has been conducted on noise pollution in various cities of India (Edison et al 1999; Yilmaz et

al. 2009; 2000; Tandel et al. 2011; ETI,

International Journal for Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation Volume II No. 2 2011 [8 – 15] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]

For correspondence: 1Department of Environmental Science, Bareilly College,

Bareilly, U.P., India

2Dept. of Zoology and Environmental Science, Gurukula

Kangri University, Haridwar Uttarakhand, India

[ISSN 0975 - 6272] Singh et al.

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Volume II Number 2 2011 [8 – 15]

2003). The Urban population is exposed to high level of noise and air pollutants due to motor vehicle pollution. It is worldwide phenomena and problem is more acute especially in developing countries because of fast growth rate, slow adaptability of upgrade technology and other socio economic factors (Bacow 1980). The potential health effects of noise pollution are numerous, pervasive, persistent, and medically and socially insignificant. Noise produces direct and cumulative adverse effects that impair health and that degrade residential, social, working, and learning environments with corresponding real (economic) and intangible (well-being) losses.The impact of noise on human health is a matter of great concern. The reason being the adverse consequences that high noise levels have on human health.

A Noise meter was used to observe the values of sound level at different places. Methodology of sound level monitoring was adopted as per the manual of the instruments and CPCB guidelines. The measurement of sound pressure levels at each sites were carried out the day (6 AM to 10 PM) and night time (10 PM to 6 AM) with the help of Noise level Meter. During each sampling of noise, 20 readings of SPL were recorded at an interval of 30 seconds in a period of 10 minutes. The noise monitoring was carried out as per protocols given by (Maiti, 2003).

MONITORING STATIONS:

In this present study data were collected for one year (2009-10) from six sampling sites in

Bareilly city on the basis of vehicular density and population i.e.

Site-I (Indian Oil Corporation Limited Office):- This sampling site is a residential site situated on the main highway No- 24 (Lucknow-Delhi) various vehicles going to different parts of the different cities pass through this sampling site.

Site-II (Satellite Bus Stand):- The main "Inter-city Satellite Bus Stand" is located just outside the city on the intersection of National Highway 24 and Pilibhit By-pass Road (National Highway 74. This is a new improvement over the cramped older Bus Stand.

Site-III (Shyamtganj):- This forms the central point of all important traffic routes connecting different parts of the Bareilly city such as Rampur Garden, Rajendra Nagar, Satellite Bus Stand, Roadways, and Railway Station. This sampling site is one of the busiest areas of city with lots of commercial activity.

Site-IV (Kutubkhana):- This sampling site lies in the heart of the city and one of the congested areas of the city. This zone forms the main focal point of the commercial activity in the Bareilly city.

Site-V (Indain Veterniry research Institute):-This site is without commercial activity and lies outside of the city and treated as silent zone.

Site-VI Cantonment Board):- This site is situated at the end point of city and has no


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commercial activity.this sampling site is treated as silent site.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

Traffic noise is the main source of noise pollution caused in urban areas. With the ever-increasing number of vehicles on road, the sound caused by the cars and exhaust system of autos, trucks, buses and motorcycles is the chief reason for noise pollution. The results of Noise level are given in Table-1 It is cleared from the Table-1 that during day time noise level values varied between 50.1 dB - 78.84 dB and during night time the values of noise level found between 23.3 dB (A) to 55.1 dB (A) The average values of noise level during day time monitoring recorded 63.97±8.41 dB (A) and during night time monitoring average values was observed 49.23±5.33 dB (A) of all sampling stations.

Sampling site I (IOCL Office)- at sampling site I the values of maximum and minimum noise level were observed 65.2 dB(A) and 59.4 dB(A) and their average value observed 62.61±2.00 dB(A) during day time while during night time maximum and minimum values were found as 54.7dB(A) and 50.2 dB(A) and its average values were found as 51.77±1.25 dB(A) respectively at the monitoring point- I. The average values of day and night time both are found above the prescribed standards given by CPCB. Similar trends were observed by Ingle et al. (2001), Edison et al. (1999).

Sampling site II at sampling site II the values of maximum and minimum noise level were observed 62.4 dB(A) and 58.3 dB(A) respectively and their average value observed 60.98±1.19 dB(A) during day time while during night time maximum and minimum values were found as 57.1dB(A) and 50.0 dB(A) and its average values were found as 53.25±1.89 dB(A) respectively at the monitoring point- A. At this sampling site the average values of day and night time both are found above the prescribed standards given by Central pollution control board. Chandrasekar (2003) Mangalekar et al. (2009) also found similar finding during his study.

Sampling Site III- During day time the values of sound level at monitoring point –III ranges between 78.4 dB (A) (maximum) to 71.5 dB (A) (minimum) and its average value was found 74.25±1.77 dB(A). During night time the values of noise level found between 58.8 dB (A) (maximum) to 50.1 dB(A) (minimum) and its average value observed 52.29±2.27 dB(A).The maximum and minimum values of day and night time both are obtained above the standards limit for commercial area which may be due to light and heavy vehicular movements, traffic jam and working of DG sets during day time. Kankal and Gaikwad (2011), Meenakshi and Sasthran (2003) found similar observation during his study on noise pollution monitoring.


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Month IOCL Office

Satellite Bus stand

Shyamatganj Kutubkhana IVRI Cant

Zone Residential Residential Commercial Commercial Silent Silent Standard October 60.3 61.6 76.2 75.3 57.3 56.3 November 65.2 62.4 78.4 75.5 56.8 57.9 December 63.3 62.0 73.9 74.3 56.8 54.3 January 63.4 61.3 73.6 72.1 57.4 52.3 February 64.8 61.5 71.5 72.5 58.2 53.4 March 61.4 58.3 74.6 76.4 58.3 50.1 April 59.4 59.6 73.8 72.5 58.0 52.5 May 64.5 59.8 74.0 74.8 57.5 54.5 June 60.5 61.0 72.8 74.0 57.0 55.0 July 64.8 62.0 72.9 72.8 58.4 54.5 August 61.3 60.8 74.0 74.5 56.5 56.0 September 62.5 61.5 75.4 75.0 57.5 55.8 Average

62.61±2.00 60.98±1.19 74.25±1.77 74.14±1.38 57.47±0.63 54.38±2.09

Month IOCL

Office Satellite Bus stand

Shyamatganj Kutubkhana IVRI Cant

Zone Residential Residential Commercial Commercial Silent Silent Standard October 52.6 54.2 52.1 54.3 43.4 44.7 November 54.7 57.1 58.8 53.5 43.1 48.7 December 51.6 53.9 51.4 54.0 43.1 42.8 January 52.8 55.3 52.9 52.0 42.1 41.7 February 52.1 53.7 50.1 51.5 42.5 41.7 March 50.3 54.0 53.8 54.3 43.5 40.0 April 51.6 51.2 51.6 52.6 42.5 42.1 May 52.1 50.0 51.5 53.5 41.0 42.5 June 50.4 52.4 52.0 53.0 42.0 41.5 July 51.4 52.6 51.6 53.5 42.5 40.5 August 50.2 51.8 51.2 52.9 43.1 41.5 September 51.5 52.8 50.5 54.5 41.0 40.0 Average 51.77±1.25 53.25±1.89 52.29±2.27 53.30±0.94 42.48±0.84 42.30±2.39

Table.1.2: Average Noise Level dB (A) during Night Time for the period 2009-10

Table.1.1: Average Noise Level dB (A) during Day Time for the period 2009-10


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Sampling Site IV At monitoring station-IV the range of sound pressure level observed maximum 76.4 dB(A) and minimum 72.1 dB(A) and its average value was found 74.14±1.38 dB(A) during day time while during night time the range of noise level observed maximum 54.5 dB(A) and minimum 51.5 dB(A) and its average value was found 53.30±0.94 dB(A).The maximum and minimum value of day and night time found beyond prescribed standards limit at this sampling site was due to movement of light and heavy vehicles, blowing of horns, working of DG sets. Pandya and Shrivastava (1999) Singh et al. (2000) found that the noise levels in the Commercial areas in the range of 65-84 dBA and due to vehicle horn, traffic jam and presence of other noise sources.

Sampling Site V- At monitoring station-V the range of sound level observed maximum 58.4 dB(A) and minimum 56.5 dB(A) and its average value was found 57.47±0.63 dB(A) during day time while during night time the range of noise level observed maximum 43.5 dB(A) and minimum 41.0 dB(A) and its average value was found 42.48±0.84 dB(A).The maximum and minimum value of day and night time found beyond prescribed standards limit given for silence zone which may be due to movement of light and heavy vehicles on roads. Kerketta et al. (2011), Babu (2003) found that the noise levels at the junction points of national highways are due to heavy traffic density.

Sampling Site VI- At monitoring station-VI the range of sound pressure level observed maximum 57.9 dB(A) and minimum 50.1

dB(A) and its average value was found 54.38±2.09 dB(A) during day time while during night time the range of noise level observed maximum 48.7 dB(A) and minimum 40.0 dB(A) and its average value was found 42.30±2.39 dB(A).The minimum and maximum value of day and night time found beyond prescribed standards limit given for for silence zone which may be due to movement of light and heavy vehicles on road and trains on the nearby railway track. Pathak et al. (2008), Sampath et al. (2004) investigated that the noise levels in the cities are increasing due to heavy traffic density.

Highest average values was found at monitoring point III during day time as compared to monitoring point-I,II,IV, V and VI which may be due to heavy traffic, traffic jam, blowing of horns, operation of DG sets during power failure, sirens of ambulance and VIP vehicles at the national highway. Whereas during night time the average values of the noise level were observed height at monitoring points-IV as compared to other monitoring point this may be due to negligence of vehicular movements at these points. Agrawal and Swami (2010) reported 65.0 dB(A) to 81.0 dB(A); Gangwar et al. (2006) reported 71.9 dB(A) to 77.8 dB(A) and Babu (2003) reported noise level 30.0 to 90.0 dB(A).

Higher noise level pollution can disturb our work. There are many side effects of the noise pollution. It affects the general health and hearing power of the human beings. The high intensity of noise and its continued use can cause injury to the ears. It may lead to the


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permanent loss of hearing. A large explosion can cause the injury to tympanic membrane. It may cause anxiety and stress which may lead to the fright. It causes the disturbance in nervous systems of urban babies and lead to the emotional disturbances along with the abnormal behavior. It may increase the heart rate, decreased output, constriction of vessels and impaired vision. In case of animals it can affect the heart, liver and brain. It may also affect the brain by dilating the blood vessels. It may also affect the eyes by dilating the pupil and cause the digestive spasms. It may also lead to the increase in cholesterol level in blood.

In modern society, transportation systems – including cars, trains and airplanes – are one of the most common sources of noise pollution since they can be particularly loud and unrelenting in certain areas. In general, people who live in urban centers are more likely to be exposed to noise pollution due to population density and the increased presence of the transportation systems described above. Living in an urban city may also mean that people are more exposed to the noises of construction, which is another major source of noise pollution. While those in larger cities are more likely to experience noise pollution, those in rural settings may also experience this problem as well. A key example of rural noise pollution is farming, which may include a variety of machines that produce harsh or loud noises. Additionally, things like barking dogs or neighbours playing loud music can also be sources of noise pollution.

Conclusion:

Continuous exposure is a matter of concern with respect to health of Lucnowites in the long run. The result of this study show that the levels of noise pollution in Bareilly city far exceed the acceptable limit during peak days (Saturday, Sunday, Thursday and National Holidays) and Festival Days as per set by CPCB Even the residential area and vulnerable institutions like school and hospitals faces noise which has much higher noise level than acceptable limit. For overcoming this problem in Bareilly city Uttar Pradesh, India government should take necessary action. There are four fundamental ways in which noise can be controlled: reduce noise at the source, block the path of noise, increase the path-length, and protect the recipient. In general, the best control method is to reduce noise levels at the source.

Acknowledgement: Authors are thankful to authorities and staff of IVRI and Indian oil Corporation for their kind permission to carry out the study and cooperation in conducting the noise level survey at different times.

References:

Agarwal, S. and Swami, B.L. (2010): Status of Ambient Noise Levels in Jaipur City, Environment Conservation Journal., 11(1&2):105-108.

Bacow L.S., (1980): The Technical and

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Protection 18(6): 454-458.



16Evaluation of present water quality status of Sapta Sarovars at Ujjain

Evaluation of present water quality status of Sapta Sarovars at Ujjain

Bhadauriya, Gaurav; Matta, Gagan and Singh, Vikas

Received: April 29, 2011 ⏐ Accepted: September 12, 2011 ⏐ Online: December 27, 2011

Abstract

In the present investigation Assessment of physico-chemical parameters were carried out during the period July 2008 to June 2009 from seven sarovars namely the Rudra Sagar, Pushkar Sagar, Kshir Sagar, Goverdhan Sagar, Ratnakar Sagar, VishnuSagar and Purushotam Sagar located in Ujjain , an ancient city of central India in the Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh. Sites I, II, II IV, VI and VII were subjected to various anthropogenic activities of man, passing through the urban residential areas while sites V were located in a forested village and have heavy human disturbances. Parameters studied were Temperature, pH, Conductivity, Total solid, free CO2, DO, BOD, Alkalinity, Hardness and Chlorides.

Keywords: Physicochemical parameter ⏐ Saptasarovar ⏐ Water quality ⏐ DO ⏐ BOD

Introduction

Water is one of the most vital natural resources. Compared with other resources water is generally very utilizable resource. Hence we can say that Water is one of the most important components for survival of any kind of living organism. It covers nearly three fourth of the surface of the earth. Fresh water is the most precious resource on earth. Today, the easy availability of fresh water is a major problem as 80% rivers are getting polluted. Singh et al.(2002).There are serious water quality problems in the cities, towns and villages using these waters. Water borne diseases are rampant, fisheries are on decline, and even cattle are not spared from the onslaught of pollution. Ujjain is situated on a unique geographical location (Latitude 23°-11” N Longitude 75°-45” E) from where tropic of cancer passes. It is the 'Greenwich Mean Time' of India for Panchang. The tilting of earth at angle of 23½ ◦ on its axis and geographical line of tropic of cancer has special cosmic influence making it fit for absolute time location. Ujjain city is situated on the bank of river Kshipra, the only river that travels straight from south to north. Water intended for human consumption

International Journal for Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation Volume II No. 2 2011 [16 – 22] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]

For correspondence: Dept. of Zoology and Environmental Science

Gurukula Kangri University, Haridwar

Uttarakhand, India


17

Volume I Number 1 2010 [16 – 22]

should be safe and wholesome i.e. free from pathogenic agent and harmful chemicals, pleasant to taste and useable for domestic purpose (Parashar et al., 2006). Present study comprises of interpretation and analysis of water samples collected from seven polluted water bodies of Ujjain city and found that heavy pollution occurred due to urbanization, anthropogenic activities; increased human Interventions in the water bodies have been ascertained.

Sampling Sites:

Sampling Site I (Rudra Sagar):Rudra Sagar is situated on the west side of the Mahakaal Temple Complex. Being part of the Sapta Sarovar the tank has a great religious and historical significance.

Sampling Site II (Pushkar sagar): is situated at Naliabakhal is one of the Seven Holy Tanks of the city Ujjain. Due to rapid urbanization and absence of public drainage system in the city this water body is converted in to a collection tank of dirty water.

Sampling Site III (Kshir sagar): is situated at Nai sadak in the city Ujjain.

Sampling Site IV (Goverdhan sagar): this sampling site is in main city situated at Nikas Chourha.

Sampling Site V (Ratnakar sagar): this sampling site is situated in odasa village.

Sampling Site VI (Vishnu sagar): is situated in ankpat behind the temple ram laxaman

Sampling Site VII (Purushotamsagar): is situated Near the Ankpat Darwaja it is also called as Solah Sagar

Material and method:

Water samples were collected from different location of Sapt sarover in Ujjain city. Monthly sampling was done for a period of twelve month from July-2008 to June 2009.The water samples were collected between 7.00 a.m. to 9.00 a.m. in plastic container as possible to avoid unpredictable changes in physico-chemical characteristics from each sampling sites. The testing of samples was done according to the procedure prescribed by APHA (1998), S.K. Mati (2004) and Trivedy and Goel (1986). The pH, electrical conductivity and turbidity were estimated at sampling sites. DO was fixed at the sampling site and other parameters were measured according to standard procedure given by APHA (1998), Trivedy & Goel (1986) and S.K. Matti (2004) in the laboratory.

Result and discussion:

The physicochemical characteristic provides a fair idea of the water quality of any water body. The physico-chemical analysis carried out from the different site during different seasons has been presented in table 1.

Temperature is one of the most important factor which influence chemical, physical and biological characteristics of water bodies. The present study revealed that temperature varied from 26.22±3.19 °C to 27.41±3.43 °C however maximum temperature was found at sampling site VII and minimum was at sampling site VI. Average value of temperature was found 26.62±0.43 °C during study period. Similar pattern were observed


18


for temperature by Prasad (1952), Sivakumar et al. (2003) during their study on water quality of the river Ambarapalaym. pH is an important parameter which is important in evaluating the acid-base balance of water.The pH values ranged from 7.50±0.12 to 8.20±0.20. Maximum pH was found at sampling site VII and minimum was at sampling site I. Average value of pH was found 7.94±0.23 during study period. Ellis (1937) has observed that a pH range of 6.7 to 8.4 is suitable for the growth of aquatic biota.Alkaline Ph was also obserbed by Shaikh and Yeragi (2004) in river Tansa while Varma (1998) have observed acidic nature of ph during his study.Turbidity of water is an important parameter, which influences the light penetration. The turbidity value of sapta sarovars varied from 67.21±4.58 JTU to 75.28±8.97 JTU however maximum turbidity was found at sampling site VI and minimum was at sampling site IV. Average value of turbidity was found 72.11±2.57 JTU during study period. Similar pattern for turbidity was observed by Shrada et al. (2011), during physiochemical study on water quality of narmada river and Singh et

al. (2002) during Hydrobiological studies of two ponds of satna M.P. Electrical Conductivity measures the capacity of a substance or solution to conduct electrical current. In the present study, lowest conductivity value (171.76±16.74 µmhos/Cm2 )was observed at Station-VI and highest value of conductivity (212.70±61.74 µmhos/Cm2 )was observed at Station-I. Average value of conductivity was found 200.86±14.15

µmhos/Cm2 during study period. Similar study was made by Abida, (2008), Badrinath (1980) and Saksena et al. (2008).Total Solid was found highest in monsoon period and minimum in winter. The concentration is high during the monsoon, which may be due to addition of solids from the runoff water. Caroline (1992).Total solid varied from 1525.36±68.97 mg/l to 1814.40±49.06 mg/l however maximum total solid was found at sampling site VI and minimum was at sampling site II. Average value of total solid was found 1642.67±131.74 mg/l during study period. Chacko Ganapathy, (1949) and Fokmare et al. (2002) has made the same observation Alkalinity of water is a measure of weak acid present in it and of the cations balanced against them. In the present investigation also, total alkalinity level reduced in the post-rainy months. Higher level of alkalinity 272.31±32.62 mg/l was found at sampling site II during study period and lower 159.54±1309 mg/l at sampling point I. Average value of alkalinity was found 207.51±36.04 mg/l during study period. Similar observation has also been reported by Singh and Rai (1999); Garg et al. (2010). The alkalinity varies in accordance with the fluctuation in the pollution load (Parashar et

al. 2006).Hardness is very important parameter in decreasing the toxic effect of poisonous element.The water hardness was higher in monsoon but it was highest during summer season which might have caused increased concentration of salts by excessive evaporation as also observed by Jitendra et al. (2008). Hardness varied from 178.52±5.74


19


mg/l to 198.45±45.32mg/l however maximum hardness was found at sampling site III and minimum was at sampling site I. Average value of hardness was found 187.62±6.54 mg/l during study period. Present observations are in agreement with similar ones made by Das, (2000); Mahor (2009). Chloride is one of the important indicators of pollution. Chlorides are present in sewage, effluents and farm drainage. Main sources of chloride in any water bodies are sediments, sewage and trade and industrial effluents, if present. Sewage bring with urine, which is rich in chloride content. Chloride varied from 24.04±1.80 mg/l to 42.84±2.45 mg/l. The value of chloride concentration in the present study was highest at sampling station II and lowest at sampling station III. Average value of chloride was found 35.24±6.84 mg/l during study period Rajkumar, 2004; Rai (1974) also reported similar findings in their study on different water bodies.Dissolve oxygen is a one of the important parameter in water quality assessment its presence is essential to maintain variety of forms of biological life in the water and the effect of waste discharge in a water body is largely determined by the oxygen balance of the system. Dissolved oxygen is regulator of metabolic activities of organisms and thus governs metabolism of the biological community as a whole and also acts as an indicator of trophic status of the water body (Saksena and Kaushik, 1994). The mean value of the dissolved oxygen ranged between (9.71±0.53 mg/l ) to (11.76±0.79 mg/l ). Lowest DO means maximum pollution due to effluent and human activities. Annual

average value was observed at all sampling site 10.98±0.71 mg/l. Dissolved oxygen concentration more than 5.00 mgl/1 favours good growth of flora and fauna (Das, 2000). The dissolved oxygen ranged from 3.41 to 6.21 mgl/1 in Seetadwar lake (Tewari and Mishra, 2005), from 5.30 to 9.00 mgl/1 in Deoria tal (Rawat and Sharma, 2005) and from 3.00 to 6.00 mgl/1 in Kandhar dam (Surve et al., 2005). Biological oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen in the water that is required by the aerobic organisms. The biodegradation of organic materials exerts oxygen tension in the water and increases the biochemical oxygen demand (Abida, 2008). In this study value of BOD varied from (2.57±0.41) mg/l to (5.38±0.67) mg/l in sapta sarovar water samples. Average value of BOD for all sampling site was observed 4.28±1.17 mg/l. Desirable limit for BOD is 4.0 mg/l and permissible limit is 6.0 mg/l according to Indian standards. BOD demand below 3 mg/l or less is required for the best use. Fokmare and Musaddiq (2002) recorded high value of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) as 20.00 mgl/1 in river Purna. Rajkumar et al. (2004) and Jitendra et al. (2008) also reported maximum BOD value in winter and minimum in summer in their study. The chemical oxygen demand (COD) ranged from (12.56±0.35) mg/l to (20.23±0.82) mg/l (Table 1). And average value was found 16.17±2.31 mg/l. The test is commonly used to indirectly measure the amount of organic compounds in water. Most applications of COD determine the amount of organic pollutants found in surface water,


20


making COD a useful measure of water quality. It is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/l), which indicates the mass of oxygen consumed per liter of solution (Clair 2003). COD is the measure of the oxygen required for chemical oxidation of organic matter. In this study maximum value of COD was found at Station-II and minimum value at Station- IV. Vyas et al.(2006) and Das (2000) also suggested a similar finding during his study.The pH, alkalinity and free carbon dioxide are interrelated in aquatic ecosystems. Most of the free carbon dioxide in water comes from the decomposition of organic

matter and from respiration of organisms (Singh and Rai 1999). In polluted water, the free carbon dioxide is generally high. In Chambal river, free carbon dioxide ranged from non traceable amount at all stations. the maximum value of free CO2 was found 4.10±0.52 mg/l at sampling station VIII and minimum 2.68±0.48 mg/l was at sampling station I . average value was recorded as 3.42±0.43 mg/l. Good oxygen saturation and low free carbon dioxide indicate no pollution load in the river at all Stations.

Parameter Site I Site II Site III Site IV Site V Site VI Site VII Average

pH 7.50 ± 0.12

7.90 ± 0.14

8.10 ± 0.20

8.00 ± 0.19

7.80 ± 0.15

8.10 ± 0.21

8.20 ± 0.20

7.94 ± 0.23

Temperature ( °C) 26.55 ± 2.65

26.30 ± 2.79

26.52 ± 2.92

27.00 ± 2.60

26.36 ± 3.12

26.22 ± 3.19

27.41 ± 3.43

26.62 ± 0.43

Conductivity (µmhos/Cm2)

212.70 ± 61.74

202.24 ± 31.03

212.24 ± 77.86

206.56 ± 33.72

205.34 ± 28.81

171.76 ± 16.74

195.21 ± 54.53

200.86 ± 14.15

Turbidity (JTU) 74.31 ± 13.81

72.19 ± 13.02

71.29 ± 10.76

67.21 ± 4.58

72.42 ± 13.10

75.28 ± 8.97

72.10 ± 13.20

72.11 ± 2.57

Total Solid (mg/l) 1537.29 ± 51.34

1525.36 ± 68.97

1703.45 ± 74.59

1517.90 ± 48.37

1590.85 ± 27.40

1814.40 ± 49.06

1809.49 ± 46.01

1642.67 ± 131.74

BOD (mg/l) 2.57 ± 0.41

5.38 ± 0.67

3.17 ± 0.42

4.78 ± 0.56

3.52 ± 0.51

5.24 ± 0.62

5.35 ± 0.65

4.28 ± 1.17

COD (mg/l) 14.97 ± 0.41

20.23 ± 0.82

15.82 ± 1.32

12.56 ± 0.35

15.85 ± 1.35

16.82 ± 1.38

16.95 ± 1.42

16.17 ± 2.31

DO (mg/l) 9.71 ± 0.53

11.76 ± 0.79

11.10 ± 0.47

10.45 ± 0.42

10.90 ± 0.43

11.35 ± 0.46

11.65 ± 0.56

10.98 ± 0.71

Free CO2 (mg/l) 2.68 ± 0.48

3.27 ± 0.32

3.33 ± 0.39

3.58 ± 0.41

3.35 ± 0.33

3.65 ± 0.46

4.10 ± 0.52

3.42 ± 0.43

Alkalinity (mg/l) 159.54 ± 1309

272.31 ± 32.62

187.17 ± 6.13

195.25 ± 6.32

192.20 ± 3.24

225.46 ± 30.42

220.68 ± 30.05

207.51 ± 36.04

Hardness (mg/l) 178.52 ± 5.74

191.72 ± 44.69

198.45 ± 45.32

185.65 ± 42.21

182.60 ± 41.56

190.45 ± 43.25

185.98 ± 42.55

187.62 ± 6.54

Chloride (mg/l) 32.41 ± 1.51

42.84 ± 2.45

24.04 ± 1.80

35.65 ± 1.24

30.45 ± 1.15

38.68 ± 1.35

42.65 ± 1.68

35.24 ± 6.84

Acknowledgement: authors are thankfull to head of the department of School of studies in Environment Management, Vikram

University Ujjain for providing lab facility for the present study.

Table 1: Physico-chemical characteristics of Sapta sarovar at different sampling stations during 2008-09


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23Population ecology of the Indian torrent catfish, Amblyceps Mangois (hamilton- buchanan) from Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India

Population ecology of the Indian torrent catfish, Amblyceps mangois (Hamilton - buchanan) from Garhwal, Uttarakhand, India

Ram Krishan 1, A. K. Dobriyal 2, K.L.Bisht3, R.Kumar4 and P. Bahuguna4


Abstract

The paper deals with population study of Indian torrent catfish Amblyceps mangois (Ham-Buch) from rivar Mandal in between Rathuadhab and Banjadevi (longitude 78017’15”E - 78055’20” E and latitude 290450N-29055’40”N) during January, 2008 to December, 2010 in district Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand. Sex ratio from a sample size of 114 specimens was analysed moth wise and also season wise to see whether there is any disturbance in population or not for being a factor of its low population. The significance was tested by Chi-square test. It was observed that during breeding season (Monsoon months), the sex ratio differed significantly being 1 male: 3.17 female (χ²0.01 = 6.67).

Keywords: Amblyceps mangois ⏐ Habitat ecology ⏐ Population structure ⏐ River Mandal ⏐ Sex Ratio

It clearly indicates that the low size of male population may lead into low fertility of the species and hence it should be taken care of during conservation efforts of the species.

Introduction

A large number of rivers, rivulets and streams form a vast network in the central himalayan mountains (Garhwal and Kumaun region; latitudes 2905’-31025’ N and longitudes 77045’-810 E) and have a large number of indigenous fish species. About 65 species of fish have been reported from Garhwal region (Singh et.al., 1987). Major rivers of Garhwal are the Alaknanda, Mandakini, Bhagirathi, Asiganga, Bhilangana, Ganga, Nayar (Eastern and Western Nayar), Song, Suswa, Khoh, Mandal and the Pinder, etc. All these rivers and most of fish inhabiting these streams are biologically investigated by earlier workers (Badola and Singh, 1980; Nautiyal, 1982; Dobriyal and Singh, 1987, 90, 93; Dobriyal et

al., 2000, 2004; and Bahuguna, 2008). Amblyceps mangois (Ham-Buch), is a torrent hillstream catfish whose population structure and bio-ecology has not been studied so far. Thus to fill up the lacuna in literature and to generate basic data for the eco-conservation

International Journal for Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation Volume II No. 2 2011 [23 - 28] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]

For correspondence: 1 Department of Zoology, Government S P College, Srinagar (J & K) 2 *Department of Zoology, H N B Garhwal, Central University Campus, Pauri Garhwal-246001, Uttarakhand. India 3Department of Zoology, P.D.B.H. Government P.G. College Kotdwara Garhwal, India 4.Department of Zoology, LMS Government PG College, Pithoragarh,




of this minor species, it is decided to work out the conservation biology of this interesting fish species. Sex composition study shows the abundance of any sex at a particular time or season. It emphasizes on whether the population is in natural ratio or not. The nature allows a sex-ratio of 1:1 between males and females. It is considered as healthy population. However, sometime this ratio differs greatly, which points towards some disturbance in population. Under those circumstances the reasons thereof should be traced out. Some important contributions in this area of research in fishes during recent years have been made by Dobriyal et.al.(2000), Jameela Beevi and Ramachandran (2005), Panwar and Mani (2006) and Bahuguna et.al (2010). Materials and Methods The fish was monthly collected from river Mandal in between Rathuadhab and Banjadevi (longitude 78017’15”E-78055’20” E and latitude 290450N-29055’40”N) during January, 2008 to December, 2010 in district Pauri Garhwal (Fig 1) with the help of small net made of bolting silk cloth and preserved on the spot after recording basic morphometric data from January, 2008 to December 2010. Sex ration from a sample size of 114 specimens was analysed moth wise and also season wise to see whether there is any disturbance in population or not for being a factor of its low population. The significance was tested by Chi-square test as χ² = ∑ (O – E)2 / E, where O is the observed value and E is the expected value.

Certain important ecological parameters were analysed by following standard methods (Welch, 1948). Results and Discussion Amblyceps mangois (Fig. 2) has been reported from foothills of Garhwal Himalaya, Kangra valley in Himachal Pradesh and Assam in India and also from Bangladesh, Burma, Thialand and Pakistan. Body is elongated. Head is small and broad, depressed and covered with thick skin. Mouth is wide with four pairs of barbels. Nostrils are close together and separated by the nasal barbel. Dorsal spine is weak and concealed. Caudal fin is truncate and emarginated. Colour of body is olive brown often with a dark lateral band. The fish is least populous in the hill-streams of Garhwal Himalaya except the river Mandal which is in the foothill of Uttarakhnad with pebbly bottom and slow flowing water. Collected specimens were in a size range of 4.5 to 8.5 cm. However a maximum size of 12.5 cm is reported by Talwar and Jhingran (1991). Taxonomic details of Amblyceps mangois: (After Talwar and Jhingran, 1991) Genus Pimelodus mangois Hamilton- Buchanan, 1822, Fishes of Ganges: 199, 379 (Type locality: Northen Bihar) Genus Amblyceps Blyth (1858), Proceedings of Asiatic Society, Bengal, 27: 282 (Type species- Amblyceps caecutiens Blyth). Species- Amblyceps mangois (Day, 1877) Fishes of India: 490, pl 102, Fig 6 and pl 117,




Habitat Ecology The abiotic dynamics of any aquatic body play most important role in its biological productivity and life support system. It fact it is most sensitive ecosystem than any other. It is the quality of physico- chemical parameters that determines the density and diversity of biota existing there. In fluvial system, the velocity of water current, gradient at which the river is flowing, temperature, conductivity of ions, hardness and alkalinity along with some important minerals are the important detrimental. In the present communication three selected parameters are discussed. The river Mandal in general is slow flowing stream with pebbly bottom and moderately rich in plankton and benthos. Temperature (Fig. 3) varied from 15- 270C from winter to summer. Dissolved oxygen (Fig.4) fluctuated from 7- 10 mg.-l and pH ranged in between 7.1-8.2. It showed the clarity of water round the year except monsoon. The rich plankton and benthic fauna and suitable substratum heterogeneity supported diverse fauna which included some least populous species like that of Amblyceps mangois. Population structure A collection of 114 specimens in a span of three years is explanatory in itself regarding size of population in the stream. However, it is noticeable that this species do not have this size of population in any other stream of Garhwal Himalaya. On the basis of present study we have tried to analyse the reason of its thin population and the only conclusion available as per data recorded is that during its breeding season the difference in sex ratio

is highly significant (For pooled data of monsoon season- Ratio- 1 Male : 3.17 Female, Significant at 1 % level, χ²0.01 = 6.63; For monthly data of July- August- Ratio- 1 Male : 3- 3.14 Female, Significant at 5 % level, χ²0.05 = 3.84). It might be possible that due to low population of male fish the fertilization percentage is poor because normally in a successful fish species the ration of male is more than female to get good percentage fertility during breeding season. Secondly this is also possible that during monsoon there is a high velocity of water current due to flash flood after heavy rains. It might have disturbed the breeding grounds as we observed the fish under the stones mostly in side waters round the year. Nikolski (1980) has opined that difference in sex ratio may be caused by several ecological factors. In another study we have also observed that Amblyceps mangois is a low fecund fish (Maximum absolute fecundity being about 650). Enough literature is available on the population study of fishes. The nature allows a healthy population a ratio of 1:1. Sobhana and Nair (1976) observed the sex ratio of 1 Male: 1.4 Female in Puntius sarana. The sex–composition in Glyptothorax telchitta and Garra lamta was 1:1.052 and 1:1.18 (Male: Female) respectively in Khoh river as reported by Rautela (1999). Dobriyal et al (2004) reported a sex ratio of 1 male: 1.028 female in Crossocheilus latius latius from the river Mandakini. In Puntius vittatus, Jameela Beevi and Ramachandran (2005) observed a ratio of 1: 2. In Botia dayi Hora, the sex–composition was recorded as 1:1.04 (Male:




Female) by Kumar et.al (2006) from Khoh river. Bahuguna et.al (2007) estimated that the sex–ratio was quite natural in Puntius

conchonius (1 Male: 1.17 Female) which has a very high population in Mandal river.

Months Total No.

of fish

No. of

Males

No. of

Females

% of

Males

% of

Females

Ratio χ² Remark

M F

January 6 3 3 50.00 50.00 1.00 1.00 0.00 NS February 6 2 4 33.33 66.67 1.00 2.00 0.67 NS March 9 3 6 33.33 66.67 1.00 2.00 1.00 NS April 7 3 4 42.85 57.15 1.00 1.34 0.142 NS May 8 5 3 62.5 37.5 1.67 1.00 0.500 NS June 13 6 7 46.15 53.84 1.00 1.16 0.076 NS July 13 3 10 23.07 76.92 1.00 3.34 3.769 * August 12 3 9 25.00 75.00 1.00 3.00 3.0 * September 15 5 10 33.33 66.67 1.00 2.00 1.67 NS October 10 4 6 40.00 60.00 1.00 1.50 0.4 NS November 8 3 5 37.50 62.50 1.00 1.67 0.5 NS December 7 3 4 42.85 57.15 1.00 1.34 0.143 NS

* Significant at 5 % level (χ²0.05 = 3.84), NS= Non significant

Season Total No.

of fish

No. of

Male

No. of

Female

% of

Male

% of

Female

Ratio χ² Remark

Male Female

Winter (Dec.-Feb.)

19 8 11 42.11 57.89 1.00 1.37 0.472 NS

Spring (Mar.-Apr.)

16 6 10 37.50 62.5 1.00 1.67 1.0 NS

Summer (May.-Jun.)

21 11 10 52.38 47.62 1.1 1.00 0.048 NS

Monsoon (Jul.-Aug.)

25 6 19 24.00 76.00 1.00 3.17 6.76 *

Autumn (Sep.-Nov.)

33 12 21 36.36 63.64 1.00 1.75 2.46 **

Pooled Data

114 43 71 37.72 62.28 1.00 1.65 6.876 *

* Significant at 1 % level (χ²0.01 = 6.63), ** Low significance, NS= Non significant

Table 1: Population structure (Sex Ratio) of Amblyceps mangois in the river Mandal during January, 2008 to December, 2010.

Table 2: Seasonal Population structure (Sex Ratio) of Amblyceps mangois in the river Mandal during January, 2008 to December, 2010.




Conservation of the species It was observed that apart from biological facts there are some anthropological, social and agricultural issues which are needed to be properly taken care of. Rural folk usually practice overfishing by the use of illegal fishing techniques which damage the ichthyofauna specially these minor species. Sream bed which is important for feeding and breeding of fish is considerably disturbed by anthropological activities. The river is embanked by agricultural fields which are fertilized with urea and other chemicals. These chemicals generally leak into stream and damage biota. To conserve the species like Amblyceps

mangois, it is essential that these problems are solved through ecological awareness. Plantation should be encouraged on the banks of stream so that the riparian vegetation can be improved which indirectly contributes towards productivity of rivers. Attempts should be made of induced breeding which is easy in case of minor species in aquariums. By introducing fish into its natural habitat may solve the problem of differential sex ratio also. By these conservation efforts the entire aquatic resource can be conserved. References: Badola, S.P. and Singh H.R. 1980. Food and

feeding habits of fishes of the genera Tor, Puntius and Barilius. Proc Indian. natn. Sci. Acad. B 46(1): 58-62.

Bahuguna, P. 2008. Fish biology of Puntius conchonius (Ham. Buch) From

Garhwal, Central Himalaya. D. Phil. Thesis, HNB Garhwal University Srinagar Garhwal.

Bahuguna, P.K., Joshi, H.K. and Dobriyal, A.K. (2007). Fecundity and sex ratio in Puntius

conchonius (Pisces: Cyprinidae) from Garhwal Himalaya. Environment

Conservation J. (1-2): 37-43. Bahuguna, P., Kumar, R. and Joshi, H.K.

(2010). Studies on the reproduction capacity and

Sex ratio in a hill – stream loach fish Noemacheilus denisoni Day from river Mandal of Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand. Uttar Pradesh J. Zool.

vol (30): (Accepted in Press) Day, F. (1889) . The fauna of British India

including Ceylone and Burma.Dawson and Sons Ltd., London.

Dobriyal, A. K. and Singh, H. R. 1987: The reproductive biology of a hillstream minor carp Barilius bendelisis (Ham.) from Garhwal Himalaya, India.Vest cs. Spolec. Zool.51: 1- 10.

Dobriyal, A. K. and Singh, H. R. 1989: Ecology of rhithrofauna in the torrential waters of Garhwal Himalaya : Fecundity and sex ratio of Glyptothorax pectinopterus (Pisces). Vest. cs. Spolec. Zool. 53 : 17 - 25.

Dobriyal, A.K. and Singh, H.R. 1990. Ecological studies on the age and growth of Barilius bendelisis (Ham.) from India. Arch. Hydrobiol. 118: 93 –103.

28

Dobriyal, A. K. and Singh, H. R. 1993: Reproductive biology of a Hillstream catfish Glyptothorax madraspatanum

(Day) from Garhwal Himalaya, India. Aquaculture and Fisheries Management: 24: 699- 706.

Dobriyal, A.K., Kumar, N., Bahuguna, A.K. and Singh, H.R (2000): Breeding ecology of some coldwater minor carps from Garhwal Himalayas. Cold

water aquaculture and fisheries. (Eds H. R. Singh and W.S. Lakra), Narendra Publishing House, Delhi. 177-186.

Dobriyal, A.K., Negi, K.S., Joshi, H.K. and Bisht, K.L. (2004). Breeding capacity of

Crossocheilus latius latius (Pisces: Cyprinidae) in the river Mandakini of Garhwal, uttaranchal. Flora and

Fauna Vol 10 : 151-153. Jameela Beevi, K.S. and Ramachandran, A.

(2005). Sex ratio in Puntius vittatus Day in the fresh water bodies of Ernakulam District, Kerala. Zoos Print

Journal 20(9): 1989-90. Kumar, K., Bisht, K. L., Dobriyal, A. K.,

Joshi, H. K., Bahuguna, P. K., Goswami, S., Balodi, V.P. and Thapliyal, A. (2006). Fecundity and sex ratio in a rare hill-stream fish Botia dayi Hora from Garhwal Himalaya, Uttranchal. Uttar Pradesh

J. Zool. 26 (3): 271-276 Nautiyal, P. (1982). Some aspects of

bioecology of Tor putitora in relation to hydrobiology of some Garhwal

hillstreams. D.Phil.Thesis.HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar Garhwal.

Nikolsky, G.V.(1980).Theory of fish population dynamics. Bishen singh and Mahendar Pal

Singh, India and Ottokoeltz Science Publishers (West Germany), pp. 317

Panwar, B.A. and Mani, U.H. (2006): Sex ratio of Macrones bleekeri (Blecker) from

Sadatpur Lake, Ahmednager, District Maharashtra. J.Aqua. Biol. 21(2): 182-185 (2006).

Rautela, K.K. 1999. Ecological studies on the spawning biology of some coldwater fishes from the Khoh stream. D. Phil. Thesis, HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar Garhwal.

Singh, H.R., Badola, S.P. and Dobriyal, A.K. (1987) :Geographical distributional list of ichthyofauna of the Garhwal Himalay with some new records. J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 84 : 126-132.

Sobhana, B. and Nair, N.B.(1976) Observation on the maturation and spawning of Puntius

sarana subnasutus (Valenciennes). Indian J. Fish. 21(2): 357-359.

Talwar, P.K. and Jhingran, A. G. (1991): Inland fishes of India and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH Publ. Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Pp. 250-295.

Welch, P.S. (1948). Limnological Methods. Mc Graw- Hill Book Co. NY, Toronto, London.



29

Deterioration of Water Quality of Some Eco-efficient Himalayan Rivers in India

Ankur Kansal1, Nihal A. Siddiqui2 and Ashutosh Gautam3


Abstract

Most precious water reservoirs like Himalayan Glaciers, and origin of world famous Himalayan rivers like Ganga, Yamuna and their tributaries is from Uttarakhand state of India. Over the years increased industrial activities and urban growth along the rivers and lakes has resulted in increased load over the water bodies In the present study, a comparison of water quality has been made in the water bodies flowing through the two geographical regions of the state named as Garhwal and Kumaon. The study was carried out at 30 locations in two different seasons viz. winter season (January 2010) and Pre monsoon, (April 2010) to analyze various physiochemical parameters and heavy metals (Fe, Zn, Cu and Pb). The rivers of Kumaon region were found most polluted in terms of heavy metals as well as

other pollutants and exceeded the maximum permissible limits of Bureau of Indian Standards. However, the rivers were found least polluted near the points of their origin. Increased levels of Heavy Metal and other pollutants are found at densely populated stretches of some tourist destinations established along the river Ganga and Yamuna flowing through Garhwal region. Among the heavy metals, Cu shows highest concentration and simultaneously Cu had higher concentration in water bodies of Kumaon region compared to that of Garhwal region. It is concluded that the water bodies of Kuman region are polluted manifolds due to heavy industrial discharge and untreated sewage disposal.

Keywords: Water bodies ⏐ Heavy Metal ⏐ Development⏐ Garhwal ⏐ Pollution⏐

Introduction

Water is the most precious resource essential to sustain the life on earth. For several decades developing countries have been leading the world in the pace of urbanization and water pollution (UN, 1996). Rapid industrialization and urban development results in inclusion of variety of pollutants


For correspondence: 1Uttarakhand Environment Protection and Pollution Control Board, E-115, Nehru Colony, Dehradun Uttarakhand 2University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, 3India Glycols Ltd, Kashipur, Uttarakhand, Email - [email protected]

[ISSN 0975 - 6272] Kansal, et al.

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Volume II Number 2 2011 [29 - 49]


into rivers (CPCB, 2004) including heavy metals having geological origin and entry into river bodies by weathering and erosion (Zhang and Huang, 1993) or due to anthropogenic activities like mining, discharge of industrial and domestic effluent (Abbasi et al. 1998). Among the inorganic contaminants of the river, heavy metals are getting importance for their non-degradable nature and often accumulative characteristics through tropic levels (Jain 1978). Anthropogenic activities like mining, disposal of treated and untreated toxic waste, and metal chelates (Amman et al. 2002) from different industries resulted in deterioration of water quality rendering serious environmental problems posing threat to human beings (Ross 1994) and aquatic life (Ghosh and Vass, 1997; Das et al. 1997). Inadequate urban sanitary infrastructure, lack of formulation of plans, and effective implementation of necessary pollution control measures are making the situation worse (Karan and Harada, 2001). Present study was carried out in the state of Uttarakhand, which is to many important rivers of India including river Ganga and Yamuna. It borders Tibet on north, Nepal on east, and the states of Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh in west and south respectively. Uttarakhand lies between geo-coordinates from 30019’48” N to 7803’36” E. Uttarakhand has geographical area of 53566 Sq Km. Out of the total area, about 85% is hilly/ forest/glacier area and remaining 15% area is burdened with most of the commercial activities. The whole state of Uttarakhand is divided into two geographical areas namely Garhwal and Kumaon area. Garhwal area is

nourished by river Ganga, Yamuna and Tons, while the river Kosi, Ramganga, Gola etc. are flowing through Kumaon area. Almost all the water bodies of Kumaon region, presented in this paper, are of non-glacier origin and mainly seasonal rivers. Naini Lake, an important lake in Kumaon region has also been studied for water quality monitoring. There are many Hydro electric power projects under construction phase and discharge their muck into water bodies resulting in deterioration of water quality of eco-efficient Himalayan Rivers. At present nearly 700 polluting industries have been established in Uttarakhand discharge their effluent along rivers and lakes. Most of the urban development is taking place along the river banks and results in discharge of sewage, sullage and construction waste into the rivers. Effluent mainly from Pulp and Paper Mills, Sugar Industries, Distilleries and sewage are of great concern for contamination of water bodies of the State. As per Uttarakhand Environment Protection and Pollution Control Board report (UEPPCB, 2007) submitted to Central Pollution Control Board of India, Paper Industries discharge nearly 141620 KLD effluent, Sugar Industries discharge nearly 24137 KLD and Distilleries discharge nearly 6000 KLD effluent into river bodies of Uttarakhand. Apart from this 97.37 MLD of sewage either in treated or untreated form find the way into water bodies of Uttarakhand (UPJN, 2009). There have been several studies on water quality monitoring of rivers flowing through Uttarakhand (Semwal and Akolkar, 2006; Okndro et al. 2007; Bhandari and Nayal, 2008; Sati and Paliwal, 2008; Singh et al. 2008; Kaushik et al. 2009; Kumar


31



and Bahadur, 2009). The objective of the present study is to sketch a picture of seasonal variation in water quality of major water bodies of Uttarakhand and to examine levels of various heavy metals along with physico-chemical parameters in surface waters and there interrelationships. Materials and Methods All the rivers and lakes of the study area were grouped into four sectors i) River Ganga System having 15 sampling/monitoring stations, ii) River Yamuna System having 05 monitoring/sampling stations, iii) Kumaon Rivers having 08 sampling/monitoring station and iv) two monitoring stations at Naini Lake making a total of 30 sites. Sampling locations and site characteristics are given in Table-1. Sampling locations have also been presented in the state map at Fig. 1. The locations were selected on upstream and downstream of major urban centers; and before and after confluence of tributaries with the rivers. Samples were collected in the month of January 2010 (winter season), and April 2010 (Spring/pre-monsoon season). Integrated grab samples were collected in high-grade plastic bottles of 2 Liter capacity in triplicate and mixed to get a composite sample. All the sample bottles were stored in ice box till brought to laboratory for analysis. On site analysis of Dissolved oxygen was done gravimetrically; pH, Electrical Conductivity, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) were measured by Eventech Cybernetics Model meters; Temperature data was collected by lab thermometer. Water samples were preserved at pH < 2 in separate 300 ml plastic bottle by adding concentrated HNO3 for heavy metal analysis. Seasonal and temporal water quality

of above four groups was compared statistically. Samples were analyzed for phosphate (PO4) by spectrophotometer; Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Total Hardness (TH), Total Alkalinity (TA), Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Chloride (Cl) gravimetrically; Turbidity by Nephlometer; Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K) by Flame Photometer; Pb, Cu, Fe, Zn by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. A.R. grade chemicals were used for analysis as per the standard methods described by Clesceri et al. (1996). Results and Discussion In the present study, various water bodies were monitored for heavy metals namely Pb, Cu, Fe and Zn. Temporal and spatial distribution of studied heavy metals in different water bodies of Uttarakhand is presented in Table 2. Lead (Pb): Mean value of Pb was 0.15 mg/l in winter season and 0.32 mgl-1 in pre-monsoon in Ganga River System. Very low concentration of lead in river Ganga has been observed in West Bangal (Kar et al. 2008). Higher value of Pb was found at downstream of Uttarkashi in river Bhagirathi, and upstream and downstream of Haridwar town. These two towns sustain comparatively large size of population than other towns situated along the river Ganga and its tributaries in Uttarakhand. Untreated sewage and industrial effluent may be the reason for higher values at Haridwar. However, construction activity of hydroelectric power project at Uttarkashi is the strong possible reason for increased values of Pb in river water bodies. In River


32



Yamuna very low concentration of Pb was observed. Average values of Pb in were 0.07 mgl-1 in winter season and 0.17 mgl-1 in pre-monsoon. Compared to river Ganga System, very less developmental activities and population persists along river Yamuna in the state. Higher average concentration of Pb was observed in Kumaon rivers. It was 2.7 mgl-1 and 3.85 mgl-1 in winter and pre-monsoon season respectively. As per Indian Standard Institute desirable limit of Pb is 0.1 mgl-1 (BIS, 1998). All observed values of Pb except were exceeding the standard limit. However, at few monitoring stations situated at higher latitudes Pb was below the maximum permissible limit. River bodies of Uttarakhand were found to have almost similar concentration of Pb as observed by Zaherrudin et al. (1996) in water bodies of Delhi. Naini lake also had lower value of 0.25 mgl-1 for Pb in both the seasons. Copper (Cu): Copper is discharged from the industrial sources. In present study, Cu showed highest values among all studied metals. The concentration was 0.64 mgl-1 in winter and 0.99 mgl-1 in pre-monsoon season in river Ganga, and 0.32 mg/l and 0.59 mgl-1 in respective seasons in river Yamuna. Highest value of Cu was observed in the Kumaon rivers which were 4.1 mgl-1 and 5.33 mgl-1 respectively in both the seasons. Naini lake showed low concentration of Cu and average value was 0.16 mgl-1 in winter and 0.22 mgl-1 in pre-monsoon season. All values for copper were higher when compared with desirable limit of 0.05 mgl-1 as prescribed by BIS, (1989). A total of 14 observations out of 16 in Kumaon rivers, some locations in river

Ganga system downstream of Haridwar, Uttarkashi and Devprayag represented higher values compared to the maximum permissible limit of 1.5 mgl-1. It was found that water bodies of Uttarakhand had higher concentration of Cu than river Yamuna (Zaherrudin and Shabber, 1996), and river Kaveri (Ayyadui et al. 1994). Iron (Fe): Fe represented average value of 0.28 mg/l in winter and pre-monsoon in river Ganga. Its average value was found 0.16 mgl-1 and 0.17 mgl-1 in respective seasons in river Yamuna. Highest value of Fe was observed in the Kumaon rivers which were 0.94 mgl-1 and 0.99 mgl-1 respectively in both the seasons. Naini lake showed higher values of Fe than other metals. Average Fe concentration in Naini Lake was found to be 0.74 mgl-1 in winters and 0.73 mgl-1 in pre-monsoon season. Iron did not show many variations which clearly indicate the dominant lithological weathering as the source. However, observation show increased values of Fe than desirable limit of 0.1 mgl-1 as prescribed by Indian Council of Medical Research given in BIS, (1989). Kumaon rivers are showing higher values than maximum permissible limit of 0.5 mgl-1. Average values of Iron were also found almost in the same concentration in river Ganga in West Bengal (Kar et al. 2008) as also observed in present study. Zinc (Zn): Zinc shows lower concentrations among all studied metals in the present study. Zn was found almost constant in all water bodies. Out of 60 observations, Zn was not detectable in


33



17 samples and the concentration was always found higher in pre-monsoon than in winters. None of the sample is exceeding with the desirable limit for Zn when compared with Indian Standards (BIS, 1989). Most of the Industrial effluents are generated in Kumaon region (UEPPCB, 2007) and there is not any Sewage Treatment Facility in this area (UPJN, 2009). This is one of the reasons for higher values of heavy metals in Kumaon rivers. Physicochemical parameters: Mean, Standard Deviation and Range (minimum and maximum concentration) of different physico-chemical parameters in different water bodies of Uttarakhand during winter and pre-monsoon period is given in Table 3. Correlation of physico-chemical parameters is presented in Table 4. Phosphate: Temporal and spatial distribution of phosphate is given in Fig 2. Phosphate showed higher positive correlation with Sodium, Potassium, Electrical Conductivity, Total Dissolved Solids and Total Suspended Solids. It is inferred that concentration of phosphate move parallel with the above constituents and phosphate showed opposite behavior with Dissolved Oxygen. Higher DO results in aerobic digestion by microorganisms in water bodies and help in dissociation of Phosphate thus lower the concentration observed. Phosphate in river Ganga System during all sampling periods ranged from not detectable to 732.39 µg/l. It had mean value of 107.66 µgl-1 and 143.74 µgl-1 during winter and pre-monsoon season,

respectively. In river Yamuna, phosphate ranges from not detectable to 381.92 µgl-1 and having mean concentration of 64.53 µgl-1 and 124.66 µgl-1 respectively. River Ganga showed relatively higher concentration as observed and compared to river Yamuna. This may be because of less human settlement and industrial growth in river Yamuna basin in Uttarakhand. Water quality monitoring of Yamuna downstream of the Uttarakhand state has been done by Kaushik et al. (2009) and it was found that phosphate vary from 2.0 µgl-1 to 356.0 µgl-1. Kumaon Rivers were also had slightly higher concentration of phosphate than river Yamuna which ranged from not detectable to 646.71 µgl-1 and having average concentration of 56.51µgl-1 and 207.05 µgl-1 in winter and pre monsoon season, respectively. Phosphate in Kosi river during 2004-05 was varying from 40.0 µgl-1 to 63.0 µgl-1 (Bhandari and Nayal, 2008) and during 2001 and 2002 it varied from 60 µgl-1 to 250 µgl-1 with higher values in pre-monsoon period (Sati and Paliwal, 2008) as observed in the present study. Least variations in phosphate were observed in Naini lake and it varied from 88.65 µgl-1 to 162.8 µgl-1 with mean value of 90.89 µgl-1 in winter season and 172.63 µgl-1 in pre-monsoon season. Phosphate concentration was found always higher in pre-monsoon season than in winter. Sampling location G-8, G-15, Y-4, and K-8 represented higher concentration than at other stations. This may be due to sewage disposal in the river bodies. Relatively higher concentration of phosphate as compared with a study on river water quality of Uttarakhand published in 2006 (Semwal and Akolkar, 2006) showed that the concentration of phosphate in water bodies of Uttarakhand


34



varied from 12.2 µgl-1 to 68.0 µgl-1 during 2004-05. It concludes that during four years rapid industrialization and urban development has lead to pollution in water bodies and concentration of phosphate increased manifold. Temperature and pH: Temperature varied from 13.00C to 25.00C in all water bodies. Lower temperature was found at higher altitudes and higher temperature was found in the water bodies flowing in plains. pH varied from 6.50 to 9.10. Higher variation of pH was found in Kumaon rivers. Most of the wastewater discharging industries are situated in Kumaon region and dispose industrial effluent into rivers and hence the rivers of Kumaon region showed higher fluctuations in pH values. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD): Seasonal variation of DO and BOD and their interrelationship is shown in Fig 3. Concentration of DO varied from 4.20 mgl-1 to 10.20 mgl-1 in river Ganga, 3.70 mgl-

1to8.90 mgl-1 in river Yamuna, 4.0 mgl-1to 8.60mgl-1 in Naini lake. However, very low concentration of DO was observed in river of Kumaon regions which were even zero at many points with average value of 4.65 in winter season and 1.49 mgl-1 in pre-monsoon. Higher values of DO in winter season are due to more dissolution of oxygen at lower temperature. Kumaon Rivers, due low water flow and high industrial waste water discharge during pre-monsoon season, showed lowered DO and higher BOD. BOD in Kumaon Rivers varied from 4.80 mgl-1 to 140 mgl-1. However, river Ganga system,

Yamuna system and Naini lake were found to have BO ranging from 2.10 mgl-1 to 15.60 mgl-1, 3.70 mgl-1 to 15.90 mgl-1; and 3.86 mg/l to 4.80 mgl-1 respectively. Naini lake represented stable and lower BOD. Points of origin of river Ganga and Yamuna werw enriched with higher DO and lower BOD. Dissolved Oxygen is also the function of aquatic life and fishes require 5 mgl-1 of DO for survival. Thus river bodies of Uttarakhand except, Kumaon rivers including river Kosi, are suitable for aquatic life. These results are in contradiction with the findings by other authors (Bhargava, 1989; Pandey and Sharma, 1998). Highest desirable limit for BOD as prescribed by World Health Organization (WHO, 1998) is 1.3 mgl-1. Out of 60 observations in the present study none of the sample was within the WHO prescribed limit. This indicates the load of organic pollutants in the river bodies due to increased urbanization and industrialization and shifting of human settlement along the rivers and lakes. In Kashipur area of Kumaon region, there are 24 highly polluting industries out of which 11 units have very poor pollution control facilities (Down to Earth, 2006). DO and BOD in all the water bodies shows negative correlation means higher the BOD lower DO and vice versa. Apart from BOD, DO also represented negative correlation with other parameters studied except Chloride in Naini lake. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Electrical Conductivity (EC): Temporal and spatial variations in TDS, TSS and EC are presented in Fig 4. Higher values were observed in pre-monsoon season than in


35



winter. All three parameters showed higher positive correlation with each other and negative correlation with Dissolved Oxygen. TDS, TSS and EC showed higher values in Kumaon Rivers. TDS varied from 120 mgl-1

to 548 mgl-1; 112 mgl-1 to 238 mgl-1; 122 mgl-

1 to 1224 mgl-1 and 359 mgl-1 to 417 mgl-1 in river Ganga system, river Yamuna Sysem, Kumaon river and Naini lake, respectively. Higher values of TDS and TSS in river Ganga System were observed at G-8 (river Bhagirathi d/s of Uttarkashi). This may be due to construction of Maneri Bhali Hydro Electric Project on the river side and disposal of muck/debries from construction activity. TSS varied from 24 mgl-1 to 534 mgl-1; 26 mgl-1 to 298 mgl-1; 48 mgl-1 to 1612 mgl-1 and 315 mgl-1 to 390 mgl-1 in river Ganga system, river Yamuna System, Kumaon river and Naini lake, respectively. There was a significant difference in minimum values of TDS and TSS. However maximum values did not show many variations. World Health Organization has recommended limit of TDS as 500 mgl-1 and maximum permissible limit of TDS as 1000 mgl-1 (WHO, 1998). Bureau of Indian Standards has recommended 1500 mgl-1 as maximum permissible limit for TDS (BIS, 1989). In the present study 03 observations in Kumaon rivers were found to exceed the limits in comparison of WHO standards. Out of 60 observations, 06 observation exceeded with highest desirable limit and 04 observations showed higher value than maximum permissible limits and these samples were from Kumaon rivers. This may be due to higher pollution load from industries in Kumaon region. EC varied from 122 µscm-1 to 454 µscm-1 ; 150 µscm-1 to 316 µscm-1 ; 96 µscm-1 to 1254 µscm-1 and 500

µscm-1 to 580 µscm-1 in river Ganga system, river Yamuna Sysem, Kumaon rivers and Naini lake, respectively. During 1998-1999 EC was observed to be 276.7 µscm-1 in Naini lake (Chakrapani, 2002). In a study carried out on river Yamuna in Uttarakhand (Singh et al. 2008), Electrical Conductivity and concentration of Total Solids were reported higher in Pre-monsoon season and lower in winter season as observed in the present. TDS were found much higher in Kosi river compared to that of the study carried out during 2001-02 (Sati et al. 2008). It was observed that average value of 121.33 mgl-1 for TDS, and average value of 236.5 mgl-1 for TSS persists in river bodies of Uttarakhand (Semwal and Akolkar, 2006). However, in present study the overall average of TDS ranged from 155.4 mg/l in river Yamuna system to 710.50 mg/l in Kumaon rivers; TSS 79.80 mg/l in Yamuna river System to 464 mg/l in Kumaon rivers. Observed higher values in the present study may be due to rapid urban and industrial growth in the region. Chemical dissolution of bed rock/minerals plays a central role in determining the geochemistry of natural waters. Higher concentration of TDS and TSS alongwith EC may be result of rock-bed interaction with flowing water (Yadav and Chakrapani, 2006). High relief, tectonic disturbance and large scale human interventions may be responsible for higher sediment load in Indian rivers and thus result in high TDS and TSS (Chakrapani, 2005a). Total Alkalinity (TA) and Total Hardness (TH): Total Hardness was found always higher from Total Alkalinity and both TA and TH were


36



observed with higher values in pre-monsoon season than in winter season in the present study. Total hardness is due to the carbonates, bicarbonates, and hydroxide ions in water. However, alkalinity is due to abundance of hydroxide ion. Hence Total Hardness is higher than Total Alkalinity. In river Ganga system TH ranged from 122 mgl-1 to 290 mgl-

1; and 136 mgl-1 to 224 mgl-1 in river Yamuna system. Kumaon rivers showed higher fluctuations of Total Hardness varying from 88 mgl-1 to 398 mgl-1. Contrary to it Naini lake showed a stagnant pattern and higher value of TH as compared to other water bodies varying from 254 mgl-1 to 392 mgl-1. TH exceeded desirable limits of 300 mgl-1 (BIS, 1989) in most of the samples of Kumaon rivers. Total Alkalinity varied from 54 mgl-1 to 144 mgl-1; 82 mgl-1 to 148 mgl-1; 74 mgl-1 to 36 mgl-1and 146 mgl-1 to 242 mgl-1

at river Ganga system, river Yamuna, Kumaon rivers and Naini lake, respectively. Higher values of Total Alkalinity were also observed in the Kumaon rivers. TA and TH both showed higher positive correlation in all water bodies and this pattern is reflected in Fig 5. TH also shows positive correlation with chloride in all river bodies except in Naini lake. TH and TA in river Kosi was observed from 188 mgl-1 to 227 mgl-1 and 91 mgl-1 to 200 mgl-1 respectively (Kumar and Bahadur, 2009). However present study had a relatively lower concentration of TH and TA which were 154 mgl-1 and 134 mgl-1 respectively in river Kosi which is in contradiction to the study of river Kosi (Sati et al. 2008). River Yamuna also showed higher concentration of total hardness as compared to previous study (Singh et al. 2008). During year 2004-05 average hardness in rivers of Uttarakhand was

found 61 mgl-1 to 96 mgl-1 and average alkalinity was found 37 mg/l to 96 mgl-1 (Semwal and Akolkar, 2006) which is quite lower than the observed value in present study. This is clear indication of increased pollution in the rivers over the years due to industrialization and infrastructure development in the state. Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K): Temporal and spatial distribution of Na and K in different water bodies of Uttarakhand is given in Fig 6. Average values of sodium were always found lower than potassium in all water bodies. This difference in average values of both the parameters was nearly five times in river Ganga System and river Yamuna. However this difference decreased and stands two and three folds respectively in Kumaon rivers and Naini lake. Sodium and Potassium are mainly of natural origin and lately due to the use of fertilizers and rapid runoff in hilly areas. In the present study sodium ranged from 6.24 to 15.89 mgl-1 and potassium ranged from 13.22 mgl-1 to 152.54 mgl-1 in river Ganga system. River Yamuna had relatively lower values of sodium and potassium in different seasons and ranged from 1.85 mgl-1 to 12.32 mgl-1 and 12.80 mgl-1

to 82.57 mgl-1 respectively. Kumaon rivers showed a little closer trend of sodium and potassium i.e. 3.60 mgl-1 to 24.80 mgl-1 and 14.24 mgl-1 to 35.40 mgl-1 respectively. Sodium varied from 3.10 mgl-1 to 3.30 mgl-1

and potassium varied from 10.37 mgl-1 to 12.58 mgl-1 in Naini lake. During 1999 higher values of sodium and lower values of potassium were observed in Himalayan Rivers (Chakrapani, 2005b) which is in contradiction to the results of present study.


37



This is area of debate and further research to conduct more studies to verify the contradictory results. Very small concentrations of Sodium and Potassium were also reported in Himalayan Rivers during 2004-05 (Semwal and Akolkar, 2006). Sodium and Potassium showed positive correlation with all other studied parameters in the present study except DO in all river bodies except in Naini lake. Potassium showed higher positive correlation with BOD, TDS Cl and it interestingly showed negative correlation with Na in Naini lake. Sodium had higher positive correlation with Phosphate and Chloride and higher negative correlation with pH, TDS and BOD. This variation in behavior of Na and K in Naini lake may be due to ecology of the lake having close water circuit and different water strata than rivers. Chloride: Seasonal variation of chloride is also given in Fig 6. Chloride showed maximum values of 21.0 mgl-1, 19.0 mgl-1 and 27.0 mgl-1 in river Ganga System, river Yamuna System and in Kumaon rivers, respectively. Chloride varied from 15 mgl-1 to 27 mgl-1 in Naini lake. Values of Chloride were found higher in winter season and lower in pre-monsoon in all water bodies except in Naini lake where it showed opposite pattern. Higher values in winters may be due to low temperature of water. Naini lake also showed opposite behavior of the chloride correlation with other parameters as compared with other water bodies. This may again be concluded due to the ecology of the lake having close water circuit and different water strata. Average concentration of chloride was found from 8.8 mgl-1 to 20 mgl-1 in a study by Semwal and

Akolkar, 2006 in Himalayan rivers and is almost near to the values observed in the present study. Chloride in river Yamuna ranged from 2.1 to 2.9 mgl-1+ in a study by Singh et al., 2008 and maximum chloride (19 mgl-1) was observed in river Yamuna in the present study. Statistical analysis: All heavy metals had positive correlation with each other in all water bodies except in Naini lake. Lead had negative relation with Fe and Zn; and Fe with Zinc in Naini lake. This shows that higher concentration of Cu and Fe results in lower concentration of lead in Naini Lake. All metals had negative correlation with DO in river Ganga system and vice versa in river Yamuna and Naini Lake. BOD too had positive correlation with metals signifying the presence of a common source. Lead had positive correlation with Potassium, Phosphate and TDS. Copper was negatively correlated with DO in rivers of Kumaon and Naini lake like Fe and Zn. Cu had positive correlation with DO in river Yamuna. Iron represented negative correlation with DO and BOD in Naini lake whereas Zn exhibited positive correlation with BOD and negative with DO. Details of the correlation of different metals with different physicochemical parameters are presented in Table 5. Correlation among heavy metal is presented in Table 6. From the above study it is concluded that rapid industrialization and urban development results in deterioration of water quality over the years. Kumaon Rivers are found more polluted compared to the other river systems because of industrial density and discharge of


38



untreated sewage. After Kumaon rivers, stretch of river Ganga passing through Haridwar and stretch of river Bhagirathi passing through Utttarkashi were observed to be polluted. Cu had maximum concentration again in Kumaon rivers. It was found that values of Pb, Cu and Fe are more than the standard limits. However Zn had lower values than the standard limits. It is concluded that Kumaon rivers were most polluted due to the heavy load of industrial effluent and untreated

sewage in these rivers along with reduced water flow over the year. Acknowledgement: Uttarakhand Environment Protection and Pollution Control Board Dehradun is highly acknowledge for according permission of PhD (part time)n to corresponding author as a result, this manuscript can come into existence.

Table:-1 Sampling Locations and site characteristics Sampling Point

Location Altitude (mt)

Geographical Position

Main source of Water Pollution

River Ganga System

G-1 River Bhagirati Gangotri

3048 30° 59' 0" N 78° 56' 0" E

Origin of river Bhagirati, Clean water.

G-2 River Alaknanda B/c Nandpryag

1358 30.33°N 79.33°E

Sewage and Muck of H.E. projects from Chamoli

G-3 River Mandakani B/c Nanpryag

1358 30.33°N 79.33°E

Sewage and Muck of H.E. projects from Nand Pryag

G-4 River Alaknanda A/c Nandpryag

914 30.33°N 79.33°E

Sewage

G-5 River Alaknanda B/c Karanpryag

1450 30°15'41"N 79°13'10"E

Sewage from Karanpryag

G-6 River Pinder B/c Karanpryag

1450 30°15'41"N 79°13'10"E

Sewage from Karanpryag

G-7 River Alaknanda A/c Karanpryag

1450 30°15'41"N 79°13'10"E

Sewage

G-8 River Bhagirathi Utterkashi Down stream

1165 30°43'40"N 78°26'8"E

Sewage and Muck of H.E. projects from Utterkashi Town

G-9 River Alaknanda Rudrapryag U/s

895 30°19'11"N 78°59'57"E

Sewage Muck of H.E. projects

G-10 River Alaknanda Rudrapryag D/s

895 30°19'11"N 78°59'57"E


G-11 River Alaknanda B/c Deopryag

472 30°9'2"N 78°35'45"E


G-12 River Bhagirati B/c Deopryag

472 30°9'2"N 78°35'45"E


G-13 River Ganga A/c Deopryag

472 30°9'2"N 78°35'45"E


G-14 River Ganga 532 30°6'27"N Sewage and some Industrial


39



Rishikesh up Stream

78°16'49"E Sources

G-15 River Ganga Haridwar Down Stream

250 29°56'26"N 78°8'42"E

Sewage and Industrial Sources

River Yamuna System Y-1 River Yamuna

Yamunotri

3293 31°1′0.12″N 78°27′0″E

Origin of river Yamuna

Y-2 River Yamuna Dakpathar Up stream

490 30°30'15"N 77°47'41"E


Y-3 River Yamuna Vikas Nagar Down Stream

430 30°28'12"N 77°46'28"E

Sewage

Y-4 River Tons Down Stream Dehradun

399 30°20'8"N 77°57'25"E

Sewage, Dairy etc.

Y-5 River Tons before confluence in river Yamuna

427 30°27'22"N 77°44'11"E

Sewage, industrial

Rivers of Kumaon Region K-1 River Gola (U/S

Haldwani) 423 29° 12' 42" N,

79° 31' 8" E Sewage

K-2 River Gola (D/S Haldwani -Lalkua)

423 29.08°N 79.52°E

Industrial Sources, Sewage

K-3 River Kosi (U/S Ram Nagar)

1020 29°13′N 78°57′E

Industrial

K-4 River Kosi (at the point entering in U.P.)

260 29°13′N 78°57′E

Industrial

K-5 River Kailash (U/S Sitarganj)

1550 28°55'42"N 79°42'10"E

Sewage

K-6 River Kailash (D/S Sitarganj)

1550 28°55'42"N 79°42'10"E

Industrial

K-7 River Dhela (Kashipur)

500 29°13'13"N 78°58'17"E

Industrial

K-8 River Bhela (Kashipur)

500 29°13'13"N 78°58'17"E

Industrial

L-1 Naini Lake (Malli Tal)

1938 29°23'9"N 79°30'50"E

Sewage

L-2 Naini Lake (Talli Tal)

1938 29°23'9"N 79°30'50"E

Sewage


40



Table-: 2- Temporal and Spatial Distribution of Different Heavy Metals in Different

Water Bodies of Uttarakhand River Ganga System

Sampling Point

Pb (mg/l) Cu (mg/l) Fe (mg/l) Zn (mg/l)

Jan, 2010 Apr, 2010 Jan, 2010 Apr, 2010 Jan, 2010 Apr, 2010 Jan, 2010 Apr, 2010

G-1 ND ND ND ND 0.14 0.2 ND ND

G-2 0.26 0.24 0.22 0.64 0.16 0.24 ND 0.07

G-3 0.11 0.19 0.27 0.42 0.14 0.26 ND 0.06

G-4 ND 0.08 0.21 0.33 0.16 0.21 ND 0.08

G-5 ND 0.12 0.27 0.74 0.12 0.17 ND 0.02

G-6 ND 0.06 0.33 0.48 0.19 0.21 ND 0.02

G-7 ND 0.04 0.36 0.45 0.17 0.16 ND 0.03

G-8 0.48 0.96 1.88 2.95 0.44 0.41 0.26 0.22

G-9 0.12 0.34 0.88 1.54 0.28 0.32 ND 0.04

G-10 0.18 0.24 0.62 0.84 0.32 0.29 0.05 0.09

G-11 0.22 0.33 0.92 1.54 0.28 0.23 0.03 0.02

G-12 0.14 0.16 0.47 1.08 0.29 0.33 0.02 0.06

G-13 0.28 0.36 0.48 0.93 0.32 0.38 0.03 0.05

G-14 0.34 0.68 1.26 1.36 0.33 0.34 0.28 0.32

G-15 0.66 0.98 1.55 1.59 0.36 0.38 0.3 0.34

Mean + SD 0.15 + 0.18 0.32 + 0.31 0.64 + 0.53 0.99 + 0.72 0.28 + 0.09 0.28 + 0.08 0.06 + 0.11 0.09 + 0.11

River Yamuna System Y-1 ND ND ND ND 0.11 0.09 ND ND

Y-2 0.09 0.11 0.8 0.92 0.18 0.17 ND 0.08

Y-3 0.26 0.51 0.91 1.22 0.23 0.25 0.08 0.14

Y-4 ND 0.22 0.24 0.61 0.15 0.21 ND 0.06

Y-5 ND ND ND 0.21 0.11 0.15 ND ND

Mean + SD 0.07 + 0.11 0.17 + 0.22 0.32 + 0.43 0.59 + 0.49 0.16 + 0.05 0.17 + 0.06 0.02 + 0.03 0.06 + 0.06

Rivers of Kumaon Region K-1 2.6 3.2 5.4 6.6 1.13 0.98 0.06 0.09

K-2 2.8 3.8 5.3 6.1 1.22 1.25 0.08 0.11

K-3 3.54 6.1 5.8 6.9 1.24 1.46 0.06 0.12

K-4 3.78 5.9 5.2 7.3 1.17 1.42 0.03 0.08

K-5 ND ND 0.22 2.3 0.55 0.57 ND 0.04

K-6 ND ND 0.16 2.2 0.42 0.49 ND 0.06

K-7 4.63 5.4 4.97 5.32 0.95 0.86 0.09 0.14

K-8 4.55 6.4 5.33 5.89 0.84 0.88 0.08 0.13

Mean + SD 2.70 + 1.8 3.85 + 2.62 4.1 + 2.39 5.33 + 1.99 0.94 + 0.31 0.99 + 0.36 0.05 + 0.03 0.10 + 0.04

Naini Lake L-1 0.28 0.26 0.14 0.22 0.68 0.73 0.03 0.06

L-2 0.21 0.24 0.18 0.21 0.79 0.72 0.02 0.03

Mean + SD 0.25 + 0.05 0.25 + 0.01 0.16 + 0.03 0.22 + 0.00 0.74 + 0.08 0.73 + 0.01 0.03 + 0.01 0.05 + 0.02


41



Table:3 - Mean Standard Deviation and Range of concentration of different

physicochemical pollutants in different water bodies in Uttarakhand

Ganga River System Yamuna River System Kumaon Rivers Naini Lake

Season

N = 30 N = 10 N = 16 N = 4

Parameter Mean SD Range Mean SD Range Mean SD Range Mean SD Range

PO4 µg/l

W 107.66 191.81 ND-732.39

64.53 82.75 ND- 381.92

56.51 49.44 ND – 646.71

90.89 3.16 88.65- 162.8 P 143.74 232.62 124.66 151.61 207.05 251.01 172.63 13.96

Temp 0C

W 17.47 3.00 13.00– 24.00

17.40 4.04 13.00– 23.00

20.75 2.25 18.00-25.00

20.5 0.71 20.00- 22.00 P 19.33 2.94 18.60 4.83 24.13 0.99 22.0 0.00

DO mg/l

W 7.43 2.11 4.20 – 10.20

6.68 2.04 3.70- 8.90

4.65 3.38 ND- 9.60

6.10 2.97 4.00- 8.60 P 6.94 1.80 7.15 1.54 1.49 2.02 7.00 2.26

pH W 8.05 0.33 7.40 – 8.90

8.09 0.23 7.80- 8.30

7.57 0.66 6.50- 9.10

7.50 0.14 7.40- 8.20 P 8.15 0.29 7.90 0.12 7.00 0.38 8.15 0.07

BOD mg/l

W 6.59 4.44 2.10 – 15.60

7.00 3.60 3.70- 15.90

42.69 47.24 4.80- 140.00

4.00 4.15 3.86- 4.80 P 8.22 3.94 8.62 5.38 69.00 35.92 0.28 0.92

TH mg/l

W 185.87 42.38 122.0-290.0

176.0 33.73 136.0- 224.0

218.75 116.56 88.00- 398.00

274.00 28.29 254.0- 392.0 P 201.33 45.99 187.6 33.12 228.74 107.93 341.00 72.12

TA mg/l

W 97.00 20.04 54.00-144.00

110.8 21.38 82.00- 148.00

182.75 96.45 74.00- 336.00

189.00 57.98 146.0- 242.0 P 102.13 18.72 125.20 36.04 191.50 88.84 194.00 67.88

TDS mg/l

W 169.87 68.95 120.0-548.0

155.40 35.93 112.00- 238.00

577.25 556.78 122.00- 1224.0

383.50 12.02 359.0* 417.0 P 268.27 115.76 197.4 35.62 710.50 603.19 388.00 41.01

TSS mg/l

W 118.13 121.93 24.00-534.00

79.80 104.23 26.00- 298.00

343.00 523.58 48.0- 1612.0

317.50 3.54 315.0- 390.0 P 153.20 137.01 98.80 121.11 464.00 690.45 385.00 7.08

Cl mg/l

W 11.93 4.85 ND-21.00

10.80 0.91 ND – 19.00

7.13 9.48 ND- 27.0

17.00 2.86 15.00- 19.00 P 10.53 3.64 6.80 6.53 7.13 9.19 18.50 0.71

EC W 221.73 72.20 122.0-454.00

210.0 54.63 150.00- 316.00

401.00 373.5 96.00- 1254.0

500.00 0.00 500.0- 580.0 P 264.93 85.41 243.63 66.19 509.63 441.50 565.00 21.21

Na mg/l

W 11.15 2.55 6.24-15.89

8.69 3.83 1.85- 12.32

10.53 6.69 3.60- 24.80

3.25 0.07 3.10- 3.30 P 11.99 2.47 8.65 4.00 10.68 6.53 3.18 0.11

K mg/l

W 54.64 35.28 13.22-152.54

41.21 23.56 12.80- 82.57

22.24 7.57 14.24- 35.40

11.10 0.99 10.37- 12.58 P 60.96 40.77 42.12 23.32 22.44 7.75 11.48 1.56

PO4 = phosphate, DO = dissolved oxygen, BOD = biological oxygen demand,

TA = total alkalinity, TDS = total dissolved solids, TSS = total suspended solids,

Cl = chlorides, EC = electrical conductivity, Na = sodium, K = potassium,

W = winter season, P = pre monsoon


42



Table:4- Correlation of Different Physico-chemical parameters with each other in Different Water Bodies of Uttarakhand

River Ganga System DO pH BOD TH TA TDS TSS Cl EC Na K

PO4 -0.38 0.15 0.40 0.34 0.48 0.85 0.69 0.39 0.73 0.50 0.91 DO -0.41 -0.82 -0.63 -0.45 -0.42 -0.57 -0.53 -0.69 -0.64 -0.38 pH 0.35 0.09 0.43 0.30 0.36 0.43 0.38 0.38 0.25 BOD 0.59 0.64 0.50 0.78 0.32 0.73 0.55 0.30 TH 0.31 0.40 0.44 0.37 0.63 0.49 0.37 TA 0.45 0.73 0.58 0.71 0.62 0.44 TDS 0.71 0.26 0.75 0.46 0.79 TSS 0.32 0.84 0.62 0.64 Cl 0.53 0.67 0.51 EC 0.76 0.69 Na 0.60 River Yamuna System PO4 -0.43 -0.05 0.49 0.54 0.29 0.60 0.89 0.58 0.64 0.56 0.90 DO 0.00 -0.41 -0.13 -0.21 -0.08 -0.50 -0.10 -0.25 -0.04 -0.31 pH 0.22 0.61 0.42 0.31 0.26 0.58 0.45 0.48 0.32 BOD 0.70 0.82 0.70 0.55 0.48 0.79 0.67 0.54 TH 0.84 0.91 0.69 0.74 0.95 0.79 0.71 TA 0.82 0.43 0.48 0.87 0.58 0.38 TDS 0.63 0.51 0.94 0.71 0.65 TSS 0.69 0.74 0.54 0.90 Cl 0.71 0.82 0.83 EC 0.79 0.76 Na 0.79 Kumaon Rivers PO4 -0.46 -0.25 0.43 0.66 0.70 0.66 0.85 0.22 0.64 0.11 0.68 DO 0.25 -0.83 -0.72 -0.71 -0.60 -0.54 -0.45 -0.52 -0.34 -0.64 pH -0.27 -0.01 -0.09 -0.03 -0.13 0.40 -0.11 0.37 0.03 BOD 0.69 0.72 0.54 0.61 0.24 0.46 0.12 0.65 TH 0.97 0.80 0.86 0.64 0.66 0.49 0.96 TA 0.87 0.92 0.50 0.78 0.36 0.96 TDS 0.81 0.54 0.95 0.43 0.84 TSS 0.27 0.75 0.12 0.84 Cl 0.35 0.96 0.65 EC 0.26 0.74 Na 0.51 Naini Lake PO4 0.36 0.98 -0.02 0.52 0.21 0.25 0.99 0.38 0.98 -0.64 0.36 DO 0.45 -0.75 -0.48 0.96 0.37 0.33 -0.69 0.41 -0.91 0.94 pH -0.01 0.50 0.27 0.15 0.98 0.24 0.96 -0.67 0.39 BOD 0.84 -0.90 -0.80 0.04 0.52 -0.15 0.74 -0.90 TH -0.67 -0.53 0.56 0.69 0.40 -0.60 0.66 TA 0.55 0.17 -0.70 0.29 -0.88 0.98 TDS 0.18 0.08 0.40 -0.60 0.66 TSS 0.38 0.98 -0.60 0.31 Cl 0.37 0.34 -0.54 EC -0.70 0.45 Na -0.95


43



Table: 5- Correlation of Different Physico-chemical parameters with Heavy Metals in

Different Water Bodies of Uttarakhand River Ganga System

DO pH BOD TH TA TDS TSS Cl EC Na K PO4

Pb -0.29 0.17 0.30 0.57 0.27 0.75 0.51 0.23 0.57 0.49 0.73 0.66

Cu -0.35 0.28 0.43 0.39 0.57 0.74 0.79 0.35 0.77 0.72 0.79 0.75

Fe -0.50 0.20 0.57 0.58 0.51 0.65 0.79 0.32 0.70 0.66 0.74 0.65

Zn -0.19 0.20 0.14 0.46 0.31 0.68 0.52 0.31 0.53 0.40 0.85 0.74

River Yamuna System

Pb 0.27 0.25 -0.16 0.43 0.26 0.47 0.02 0.20 0.35 0.31 0.15 0.09

Cu 0.40 0.09 -0.26 0.21 -0.01 0.30 -0.05 0.22 0.20 0.38 0.24 0.16

Fe 0.20 0.31 0.01 0.51 0.34 0.54 0.20 0.47 0.51 0.55 0.42 0.30

Zn 0.26 0.20 -0.18 0.36 0.17 0.48 -0.02 0.03 0.30 0.27 0.14 0.10

Kumaon Rivers

Pb -0.21 -0.13 0.16 0.41 0.44 0.48 0.54 0.24 0.44 0.33 0.41 0.48

Cu -0.19 -0.12 0.07 0.21 0.22 0.36 0.21 0.36 0.35 0.51 0.25 0.19

Fe 0.17 0.12 -0.30 -0.10 -014 0.03 -0.13 0.28 -0.02 0.49 -0.09 -0.13

Zn -0.52 -0.11 0.45 0.56 0.56 0.66 0.60 0.49 0.59 0.49 0.59 0.64

Naini Lake

Pb 0.92 0.33 -0.52 -0.40 0.84 0.01 0.17 -0.84 0.18 -0.70 0.75 0.17

Cu -0.04 0.26 0.20 0.63 -0.16 -0.32 0.86 0.93 0.86 0.01 0.03 0.87

Fe -0.74 -0.32 0.18 0.13 -0.58 0.35 -0.17 0.77 -0.09 0.48 -0.47 -0.15

Zn 0.79 0.94 0.89 -0.11 0.73 0.70 0.76 0.51 0.87 0.83 0.84 0.80


44



Table-6: Correlation of Different Heavy Metals with each other in Different Water

Bodies of Uttarakhand River Ganga System

Cu Fe Zn

Pb 0.75 0.64 0.74

Cu 0.79 0.70

Fe 0.72

River Yamuna System

Pb 0.84 0.89 0.93

Cu 0.91 0.85

Fe 0.82

Kumaon Rivers

Pb 0.86 0.72 0.80

Cu 0.87 0.75

Fe 0.49

Naini Lake

Pb -0.32 -0.93 0.48

Cu 0.34 0.56

Fe -0.25


45



Concentration of Phosphate in different water bodies

0.00

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5Y-1 Y-2 Y-3 Y-4 Y-5 K-1 K-2 K-3 K-4 K-5 K-6 K-7 K-8 L1 L2

sampling location

conc

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icro

gm/l

PO4 micro g/l Jan-10

PO4 micro g/l Apr-10

Concentration of DO and BOD in different water bodies of Uttarakhand

0.00

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Sampling Locations

Con

entra

tion

of B

OD

in m

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Con

cent

ratio

n of

DO

in m

g/l

DO mg/l Apr-10DO mg/l Jan-10BOD mg/l Apr-10BOD mg/l Jan-10


46



Concentration of Alkalinity and Hardness in different water bodies of Uttarakhand

0.00

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450.00

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0G-1

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2G-1

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4G-1


sampling locations

valu

es in

mg/

l

TH mg/l Jan-10

TH mg/l Apr-10TA mg/l Jan-10

TA mg/l Apr-10

Ri G Ri Y K Ri N i i L k

Fig-5


Fig-4 concentration of TDS TSS and EC in different water bodies of Uttarakhand

0.00

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400.00

600.00

800.00

1000.00

1200.00

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1600.00

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sampling locations

TDS,

TSS

in m

g/l a

nd E

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rom

ho/c

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TSS mg/l Jan-10TSS mg/l Apr-10

EC Jan-10EC Apr-10


47



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metals in the Environment. Mittal Publications, New Delhi, India (1998)

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Council of Medical Research, Quality criteria of Drinking Water specification in IS: 10500-1989 (1989).

Chakrapani, G.J.: Water and Sediment geochemistry of major Kumaon Himalayan lakes, India in Environ. Geol., 43, 99-107 (2002).

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Chakrapani, G.J.: Major and trace element geochemistry in Upper Ganga river in Hmalayas. India in Environ. Geolol., 48, 189-201 (2005b).

Claesceri, L.S., Greenberg, A.E. and Trussel, R.R.: Standard methods for examinations of water and waste water, Publ APHA, AWWA, WPCF, Washington D.C. (1996).


Concentration of CL, Na and K in different Water Bodies of Uttarakhand

0.00

10.00

20.00

30.00

40.00

50.00

60.00

70.00

80.00

90.00

100.00

110.00

120.00

130.00

140.00

150.00

160.00

G-1 G-2 G-3 G-4 G-5 G-6 G-7 G-8 G-9G-1

0G-1

1G-1

2G-1

3G-1

4G-1


sampling locations

valu

es in

mg/

l

Cl mg/l Jan-10

Cl mg/l Apr-10

Na mg/l Jan-10Na mg/l Apr-10

K mg/l Jan-10

K mg/l Apr-10

Fig-6


48



CPCB: Status of Water Quality in India-2004. Central Pollution Control Board, New Delhi, India (2004).

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Ghosh, S., and Vass, K. K.: Role of sewage treatment plant in Environmental mitigation Proc. of the national seminar Changing perspectives of inland fisheries, Inland Fisheries Society of India, Barrackpore, (1997).

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Singh, J., Agarwal, D.K. and Panwar, S.:. Seasonal variation in different physic-chemical characteristics of Yamuna river water quality in proposed lakhwar hydropower project influence area in Intl. J. Appl. Environ. Sci., 3(1), 107-117 (2008).

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UPJN: Sewage generation from various cities and status of Sewage Treatment Plants along rivers of Uttarakhand. Uttarakhand Pay Jal Nigam (2009).

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Yadav, S.K., and Chakrapani, G.J.: Dissolution Kinetics of rock-water interactions and its


49



implications in Curr. Sci., 90(7), 932-937 (2006).

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Zhang, J., and Huang, W.W.: Dissolved trace metals in Huanghe: the most turbid large river of the world in Water Res., 27(1), 1-8 (1993).



50Seasonal variation in bee forage of Apis cerana bees in urban area of Nagpur due to the varied plant diversity

Seasonal variation in bee forage of Apis cerana bees in urban area of Nagpur due to the varied plant diversity

S. D. Godghate, K.J. Cherian and M. Bhowal


Abstract

Analysis of pollen contents of honey samples provides reliable information regarding floral resources and the preference of bees among the diverse assemblages of plants species in the region. The knowledge of the pollen flora of an area is a basic tool for the development of apiculture. For the present investigation, an apiary of Apis cerana indica colony was setup in the garden of Hislop College, Nagpur. Honey samples and pollen loads were collected during the period Jan 2010 – Dec 2010. For defining the seasonal variation in bee forage components of the vegetation of Nagpur, pollen analysis was done. Total of twenty nine pollen types were identified as bee forage utilized by the bees. It was also observed that bees not only forage on the garden plants but use the crop plants, socio-

Keywords: Biodiversity ⏐ Bee forage ⏐ Apis

cerana indica ⏐ Nagpur ⏐

economic plants, avenue plant, and wasteland plants as a food source and it was found that the bees find the richer biodiversity and much wider range of flower in the urban areas that they visit.

Introduction

Honey bees are the true bio indicators of the nature. The bees and flower are classical example of mutualism and co-evolution and play an important role in pollination in which process they not only enhance agricultural production but also play an important role to maintain the ecosystem, biodiversity and conservation, Deodikar and Suryanarayana, 1977. The bees are entirely dependent on floral resources like nectar and pollen for their development Crane, 1990.The adequate availability of pollen and nectar components has directly helped for the development of colony, for successful beekeeping. The beekeepers must have reliable information on the availability and abundance of pollen and nectar yielding plants during different seasons of the year including their location. Rao, 1998 Some flowers are nectar yielder and some are pollen yielder and some produce both nectar


For correspondence: Department of Botany, Hislop College, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India Email: [email protected],

[ISSN 0975 - 6272] Godghate, et al.

51



and pollen. Thus it is essential to identifying such plants which provide nectar and pollen, because all flowers do not produce nectar & pollen (Phadke, 2005). Evaluation of plants for their utility as sources of bee forage provides the information needed to asses the potential for beekeeping in a area Mosses et al. 1987, Ramanujam, 1991. Thus Melittopalynology as branch of palynology studies pollen and spores in honey help to provide the information needed for bee management and beekeeping development and help to maintain the ecosystem. It seems to play a crucial socioeconomic role for rural people ensuring for them an important melliferous potentials. Numbers of investigation have been related in pollen analysis of honey from India are Sen & Banerjee 1956, Suryanarayana 1966, Seethalakshmi 1980, Jhansi et al. 1994, Agashe & Rangaswamy 1997, Bhusari 2005, Bhargava 2009, Vishwakarma & Ghatak 2009, Attri 2010, Tiwari 2010, Balsubramanyam 2011, Cherian et al. 2011.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

For the present study full grown strong Apiary of Apis cerana indica was setup in the Garden of Hislop College civil lines, Nagpur. Even though Nagpur is a city, it has very good vegetation with a large water tank and several small water bodies and good vegetation in and around the city. 11 honey samples were collected with the help of centrifugal Extractor .And at the same time, the stored pollen load was also collected with the help of forceps according to their color for

pollen analysis. Pollen load were also collected from worker bees directly by trapping few workers at the time of entry into the apiary along with the pollens.

Melittopalynological analysis: -10 gm of extracted honey Capped or Uncapped was dissolved in 25 ml distilled water and centrifuged. The recovered sediment was treated with 5 ml of Glacial Acetic Acid and the mixture was subjected to Acetolysis Erdtman, (1960).Three Pollen slides were prepared from each sample. The recovered pollen types were identified with the help of reference slides prepared from the local flora and relevant literature. All the pollen types were identified to generic and specific levels. A few types which could not be identified even to family level were normally placed under the category, “Unknown”. A thorough survey and study of pollen from vegetation helped to complete identification the pollens observed from the honey samples. The frequency classes and frequencies of the pollen types of each sample were determined in accordance with Louveaux, et al, (1978). Pollen spectra of the honey samples were constructed based on the Frequencies of the pollen types. Discrete pollen loads were observed neatly stacked one above the other in the pollen storing chamber of the combs. A total 26 pollen load were directly taken out with fine needle and forceps from pollen storing chambers, during the month of February to December 2010 on basis of their color. Each pollen load was dispersed in 5 ml of glacial acetic acid. After centrifuging the acid was decanted and the sediment was


52



subjected to Acetolysis technique of Erdtman, (1960). One slide was prepared for each pollen load, the pollen loads were designated as unifloral (exclusively with pollen grains of one taxa, and multifloral or mixed (with pollen grains of two or more than two taxa), Mithilesh Sharma, (1970).

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

Pollen analysis of honey & Pollen load:-

A total of 29 plant species belong to 18 families have been identified as bee forage (Table-I, Table-II & Table-III) for Apis

cerana. Out of 11 honey samples six, sample found to be unifloral, having a predominant pollen types belonging to family Meliaceae (Azadiracta indica A.Juss.), Caesalpiniaceae (Delonix regia (Bojer ex Hook.), Tamarindus

indica L.), Asteraceae (Chrysanthemum sp.) and remaining five samples found to be multifloral consisting of two or more pollen types, forming the secondary pollen types consisting of the member of Brassicaceae (Brassica campestris L.), Anacardiaceae (Mangifera indica L.), Asteraceae (Chrysanthemum sp., Ageratum conyzoides L.), Amaranthaceae (Alternanthera sessilis L.), Meliaceae (Azadiracta indica A.Juss..), Myrtaceae (Syzigium cumini L. Skeels., Psidium guajava L.), Caesalpinaceae (Caesalpinia sp., Tamarindus indica L.), Rutaceae (Feronia elephantum L.), Balsaminaceae (Impatiens balsamina L.), Lamiaceae (Hyptis suaveolens L..), Mimosaceae (Albizia lebbeck L.),Lythraceae (Lagerstromia indica L.) and other important minor pollen were Asteraceae (Ageratum

coinizoides L., ,Gaillardia sp.), Amaranthaceae (Alternanthera sessilis L.), Combretaceae (Terminalia sp., Quisqualis

indica L.), Myrtaceae (Syzigium cumini L. Skeels., Psidium guajava L.),Liliaceae ( Allium cepa L.), Fabaceae ( Pongamia pinnata Pierre.) Portalaceae ( Portulaca

oleraceae L.), Balsaminaceae (Impatiens

balsamina L.),Bombacaceae (Bombex ceiba L.), Lamiaceae (Hyptis suaveolens L.), Mimosaceae (Albizia lebbeck L.), and minor pollen were Ammi majus L. and Parthenium hysterophorous L. ,of family Apiaceae and Asteraceae.

From the analysis of 26 pollen load from a single apiary in the different months showed that out of 26 pollen load 25 pollen loads were found to be unifloral and 1 pollen load was multifloral. The analysis of pollen load showed that the taxa Brassica campestris L., Chrysanthemum sp., Bombex ceiba L., Prosophis julifera (Sw)DC., Delonix regia (Bojer ex Hook.), Caesalpinia sp., Tamarindus indica L., Feronia elephantum L., Psidium guajava L., Alternanthera sessilis L., Parthenium hysterophorous L., Poaceae, represent the major pollen sources and Ageratum coinizoides L., Psidium

guajava L., Ammi majus L., Celosia sp., Albizia lebbeck L, are the secondary major important pollen sources. A detailed account of number of pollen loads collected from each combs and their analysis of pollen contents given in (Table-II).

From (Table-I & II) it is seen that the predominant pollen types more than 45 % in honey was represented by Azadiracta indica


53



A. Juss., Delonix regia (Bojer ex Hook.), Tamarindus indica L., Chrysanthemum sp. It was observed that most of the genera are represented in both the honey sample as well as in pollen load, while the divergence is that some pollen grain of genera Mangifera

indica L, Quisqualis indica L., Terminalia sp., Pongamia pinnata pierre., Lagerstromia

indica L., Azadiracta indica A.Juss., Portulaca oleraceae L.are found only in honey sample and not found in pollen load that means this plants offers only nectar to the bees, so bees only forage on these genera only for nectar source and pollen grain of Celosia

sp., Melia Azadiracta A.Juss., and Poaceae

only found in the pollen loads that means bees preferred these plants only for pollen grains. Some flowers are nectar yielder and some are pollen yielder and some produce both nectar and pollen. Thus it is essential to identifying such plants which provide nectar and pollen, because all flowers do not produce nectar or pollen. Phadke, 2005. So the present investigation is concentrated on identification of these bee forage plants, their flowering period and foraging preference in this area. (Table-III).

Table-I Pollen analysis of honey sample


54



Table-II colour and Botanical source of pollen load of Apis cerana indica


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M=Multifloral, U= Unifloral, N=Nectar, P=Pollen, 1=Major source, 2=Medium source, 3=minor source.

Table-III Identified Bee Forage of Nagpur


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CONCLUSION

It is an established fact that there is more diversity of flowers in cities, since the gardens, parks; road sides’ plantation, wastelands etc were planted with different species. The introduced & original species were maintained basically for beatification of the city by Government agencies. It was also observed that bees not only forage on the garden plants but use the crop plants, socioeconomic plants, avenue plant, and wasteland plants as a food source and it was found that the bees find the richer biodiversity and much wider range of flower in the urban areas for their well maintained and low polluted cities can very well promote the beekeeping due to its richer biodiversity in bee forage that they visit.

REFERENCE

Agashe S. and Rangaswamy B.E. (1997) Melittopalynological studies of honey samples from Bangardka Dakshin Kannada District, Karnataka, India Bee J. 59(1); 8-11.

Attri (2010): Melittopalynological investigations on Apis cerana autumn honey collection from Chamba district, Himachal Pradesh International Journal of Science and Nature Vol.1 (1); 67-72. (2010).

Bhusari N.V., Mate D.M and Makde K.H. (2005): Pollen of Apis honey from Maharashtra Grana. 44; 216-224.

Bhargava. H.R, Jyothi.J.V.A, Bhushnam.M and Surendra.N.S. (2009): Pollen

analysis of Apis Honey, Karnataka, India. Apiacta 44; 14-19.

Balsubramanyam. M. V. (2011): Quantitative chemical variations in repining of honey of Indigeous hive bee Apis

cerana indica .Int. journal of Applied Biology and Pharmaceutical Technology Vol.2.Issue 3; 391-397.

Crane. E. From Honey. (1990): A comphressive survey,Heineman, London; P 175-190.

Cherian. K.J., M. Bhowal & Godghate S.D. (2011): Pollen and Physicochemical analysis of honey produced by Apis

cerana indica of Nagpur, Maharashtra. Journal of Environmental Research and Development Bhopal (India), Vol.5 No.3 Jan-Mar.

Deodikar G.B. & Suryanarayana M.C. (1977): Pollination in services of increasing farm production in India. In Nair P.K.K eds., national Botanical Garden Lucknow, India.Advances in pollen-spore Research 2.60-82.

Erdtman. G. (1960): The Acetolysis methods of Melissopalynology Bee world 59: 139-157.

Jhansi.P, Kalpana T.P. and Ramanujam C.J.K (1994): Pollen analysis of some Apis cerana Fabr honeys from Andra Pradesh, India Apidologie 25; 289-296

Louveaux. J. Maurizio. A. & Vorwohl. G. (1978): Methods of


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Melissopalynology. Bee world. 59; 157.

Mosses T.S., Singh, Joshi, Madhukanta.A., Suryanarayana M.C. (1987): Evaluation of sources of pollen to honey bees at vijayarai (Andhra Pradesh), Proc.5th All India Symp.Palynol. October 7-9, Dept.Bot. Inst.Sci. Nagpur. India. 65-71.

Phadke R.P. (2005): A manual on management of Indian hive bee colonies 333, shukrawar peth, Pune, India. PP. 74.

Ramanujam. C. G. K and Khatija. F. (1991): Melittopalynology of the agricultural tracts in Guntur District Andra Pradesh. J. Indian Inst. Sci. 71; 25-34.

Rao. S. R. K. (1998): Bee flora of Chintapailli Andhra Pradesh Indian Bee Journal 60(3), 162-164.

Sen. J and Banerjee. D. (1956): Pollen analysis of Indian honey Bee World. 37; 52-54.

Suryanarayana M.C. (1966): Studies on the flora of Coorg with emphasis on bee forage plants, 1. Ecological and Botanical features India Bee J.28; 59-75.

Sharma. M. (1970): An analysis of pollen load of honey bees from Kangra. India

J. palynology. (India) 6:104-110.

Seethalakshmi T.S., (1980): Melittopalynological Investigations on some Indian honeys. Proc. 2nd Conf. Apic. Trop. Climates, New Delhi, India pp. 609-620.

Tiwari P., Tiwari J.K. and Ballabha R. (2010): Studies on sources of Bee forage for rock bee forage for rock Bee (Apis dorsata F.) from Garhwal Himalaya, India: A melissopalyno-logical Approach. Nature and Science 8(6); 5-15.

Vishwakarma. R. and Ghatak. S. S. (2009): Bee forage plants in Nadia district of west Bengal.Bee World. Issue 3; 27-33.



58Organic Farming a necessity for Sustenance of Soil algal Flora for Agricultural Fields

Organic Farming a necessity for Sustenance of Soil algal Flora for Agricultural Fields

Bhowal, M1., Cherian, K. J1., Vishwakarma, S1. and Matta, Gagan 2

Received: July 02, 2011 ⏐ Accepted: September 28, 2011 ⏐ Online: December 27, 2011

Abstract

The soil is a living system and the living

components are, the soil organisms. Algae,

the photosynthetic micro flora which as a

group independently synthesizes Carbon and

fix Nitrogen in the soil, adds organic matter to

soil when they die. Its hygroscopic nature

increases water retention capacity of the soil,

while photosynthesizing it liberates large

quantity of oxygen in improving soil aeration.

Most of soil algae act as cementing agent in

binding soil and reduce soil erosion. The

presence of diverse algal species in

agricultural soil indicates a healthy soil.

Algalisation technology for fields was

developed in India, Japan and China. The

technology starts with isolation of strains of

Keywords: Algalisation ⏐ Indigenous ⏐ Isolation ⏐ Phycological ⏐ Pure culture ⏐ Soil Algae

Algae and Cyanobacterias which are then

mass cultured in Soil-Water Medium for

agricultural use. Objective of this work was to

study the indigenous algal flora of

Agricultural Fields which had been

potentially affected by extensive use of

chemical fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides.

The Blue Green Algae have been found

exceptionally difficult to obtain in Pure

Culture largely due to their characteristic

mucilaginous sheaths which harbor

contaminating bacteria. A variety of

approaches has been tried for producing

cultures, but in all instances it involved trial

and error techniques, very dependent upon the

chance removal of microbial contaminants.

All estimation of the population of individual

algal genera was performed by phycological

culture methods. The existence of algal flora

of the soil fields of Nagpur District seems

fairly established; some of the algal genuses

are Gleotheca, Lyngbya, Oscillatoria,

Chlamydomonas, Chlorococum,


For correspondence: 1Department of Botany, Hislop College, Nagpur, India 2Department of Zool. & Environmental Science, Gurukula, Kangri University, Haridwar, India Email: [email protected]

[ISSN 0975 - 6272] Bhowal, et al.

59



Scenedesmus, Ulothrix, Closterium,

Cosmarium, Fragillaria, Synedra,

Achnanthes, Cymbella, Protococus. Our

present day knowledge of algae for

maintaining the richness of soil is of great

importance in colonizing bare soil, or soil

devoid of organic matter. Soil algae affect us

in numerous ways and only after collecting

information on this diversity and their in-

depth study, we will be able to construct a full

panorama.

INTRODUCTION

Soil algae can perform important services for agro-ecosystems and functions as a bioindicators for soil. The chosen agro-ecosystem was an intensively cultivated Soya bean & Cotton fields of Nagpur (Maharashtra). All species identified & cultured were from samples collected twice in Summer & Winter (2010). The nature of the algal flora in different locations is the result of a complex influence of the local type of vegetation, soil properties and climate conditions. It also depends on the input of air borne algal spores. Fertilizers are the basic & inevitable requirement of increased demand of nutrients of the high yielding varieties of the fertilizers; nitrogen being an essential element deserves the vital position. Physiologically it plays the key role & has been considered as a yield limiting factor. However increased cost of the fertilizers is becoming an economic constraint for the farmer of the developing countries. Moreover, the continuous use of chemical fertilizers

causes the ecological and biochemical imbalance in soil. As a consequence, to overcome these dual problems, the concepts of bio-fertilizers are recently being gaining momentum and are successfully practiced. Photosynthesis is one of the basic biochemical processes of photosynthetic microorganisms which convert solar energy into chemical energy. Man has used this natural process of harvesting the sun in the development of algal cultivation.

MATERIALS & METHODS

Collection of Soil Samples

Soil was collected aseptically in sterile screw caped bottles from earth’s surface to 17 cms deep in a block randomly, from the Soya bean & Cotton fields of Nagpur (Maharashtra).

Analysis of Soil

The soil samples were analyzed with respect to their EC (Electrical Conductivity), pH range following the outline. Available Phosphorus, Nitrogen, Organic Carbon %, & macronutrients were determined by methods given in Table No.1.

Primary isolation of Algal Cultures:

Two methods were followed for preparation of algal cultures. All procedure was done under aseptic conditions

1) 5 gram of soil from each sample was transferred in 250ml Erlenmeyer Flasks with Chu10 & Beneck’s media poured separately & kept for growth, in culture room at 20±2ºC under continuous light


60



intensity of 4000 lux, for one month. (Picture No. 1)

Picture No. 1. Primary isolation of Algal Cultures

2) The second method was the moist plate

method in which, 5 grams of soil sample was placed in petridishes and distilled water was added for moisture retention. Then the sterilized filter papers (Whatmann no.7) moistened with either Chu10 or Beneck’s media were placed on the soil sample, kept in petridishes. Those petridishes were incubated for growth, in culture room, 20±2ºC under continuous light intensity of 4000 lux, for one month.(Picture No. 2)

Picture No. 2. Isolation of Algae by Moist Plate Method

Sub Culturing of Algal Cultures:

From the above cultures few cells were drawn into pipette, washed twice with sterilized distilled water & transferred into test tubes containing either Chu10 or Beneck’s media

subsequently in triplicates & incubated for 20 days to get uniform growth of the alga. After getting mixed cultures of algae in the liquid media, the test tubes containing cultures were stirred, each for 10 minutes, in Vortex Cyclomixer to get uniform inoculums for further sub culturing, the algal strains were washed with distilled water and streaked plate in solid media Chu10/ Beneck’s (Picture No. 3). The plates were incubated for growth for one week & few cells were picked by needle and then transferred to the fresh media to get Unialgal culture.

Picture No. 3. Streaking of Algal Inoculum

RESULT

Algal growth appeared after two weeks from incubation, then soil algal taxa were isolated & identified. On the level of biomass of algae cultured, Chu10 media was more productive than that found in Beneck’s. The existence of the diverse algal flora from the soil of crop fields seems fairly well established. Some of the species isolated are enumerated in Table No.2.

Discussion:

According to the physicochemical analysis of soil (Table No. 1), the investigated soil samples showed clay & silt soil with alkaline pH & medium EC, with optimum amount of macro nutrients. Research with soil algae


61



leads to a greater awareness of their importance in soil, it might be anticipated that manipulation of populations in agricultural systems of tropical region will become more widespread with consideration of the potential benefits of soil algae made by Scientists. Rhizosphere micro organisms whether indigenous or artificially introduced can have positive, negative or no effect on plant growth or can interact with other members of the soil

community. Moreover managing the rhizosphere by applying microorganisms or combinations of various microorganisms with multiple purposes to improve crop production could provide plants with chemicals [12]. Manipulation of soil microflora may lead to control soil borne diseases and weeds, as well as growth promotion of crop plants by soil microorganisms.

Table No.1: Analysis of different Soil Components of Soil Samples collected from fields

CONCLUSION

The significant contribution of blue-green algae has been as an alternative source of nitrogen particularly in the development of low cost indigenous technology for mass production of Algae. The sustenance of soil algal flora for agricultural fields will thus depend on isolation of regional specific fast

growing and better nitrogen fixing strains, for the development of starter inoculums. Once obtained, starter cultures can be used to inoculate several new cultures, which will be a boon for organic farming.


62



REFERENCE

Roger, P.A & Kulasooriya, S.A., (1980): Blue green algae and rice. International Rice Instt. Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines, pp 112

Table No.2: Algal Species found from Soil Samples collected from fields

Cherian, K. J., Vishwakarma, S., Shahare, P. C., 2011. Effect of algal extract on the germination & seedling growth of Rice seeds. Bionano Frontier, Vol (4) pp 126-131.


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Gollerbakh, M. M., and Shtina, E.A. (1969): Soil Algae. Pub. Nuka Leningrad, 228 pp

Black, C. A. (1992): Methods of soil analysis Part-1 American Society of Agronomy, USA.

Jugersen, M.F. and Davey, C. B. (1968): Nitrogen fixating blue algae in acid forest and nursery soils. Can. J. Microbioll. 14:1179

Desikachary, T.V. (1959): Cyanophyta ICAR monograph on Algae. New Delhi pp 686.

Randhwa, M. S., (1959): Zygnemataceae ICAR, New Delhi pp478

Smith, G.M. (1982): The Fresh Algae of United States, McGraw Hill Book Company Inc, New York, Toronto London pp719

Prescott, G W (1961): Algae on the Western Great Lakes Area Wm C Brown Company Publishers, Dubuque, Lowa. pp: 977.

Prasad, B. N. & Mishra, P. K., (1992): Fresh water algal flora of Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Vol. II. Bishen Singh, Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun, pp284.

Bolton, H. Jr., Fredrickson, J. K., & L. F. Elliot (1993): Microbial Ecology of the rhizosphere. pp 27-63, Blaine Metting Jr. (ed), Soil microbial ecology. Applications in agricultural and environment.

Paulitz, T. C. and Linder man, R. G. (1991): Mycorrhizal interaction with soil organisms. Pages 77-129 in D. K. Arora, Rai, B., Mukherji, K. G., and G.R. Knudsen (ed), Hand book of applied mycology. Volume 1: Soil & Plants, Marcel Dekker Inc, New York.

Scrath, M. N., and Weinhold, A. R. (1986): Root Colonizing bacteria & Plant Health. Hort. Science 21:1295-1298.



64Early and late mounting on economic parameters in autumn rearing of PM × CSR2 larvae of silkworm, bombyx mori l.

Influence of early and late mounting on economic parameters in autumn rearing of PM × CSR2 larvae of silkworm, bombyx mori l.

Shamin Ahmed Bandey and Amardev Singh

Received: September 08, 2011 ⏐ Accepted: November 30, 2011 ⏐ Online: December 27, 2011

Abstract

Effect of early and late mounting larvae on

some economic traits such as single cocoon

weight, single shell weight, shell %,

cocooning %, defective and good cocoon %

of multi × bi silkworm hybrid (PM × CSR2)

is presented in this paper. All the parameters

studied under this experiment showed better

performance in control batches when the

silkworms were mounted on recommended

day of mounting i.e, 7th day after maturation.

Keywords: Silkworm ⏐ mounting ⏐ early mounting ⏐ late mounting ⏐

Introduction

Mounting operation is one of the times bound and labour intensive activities in silkworm rearing. After feeding on mulberry leaves for several days, silkworms of the 5th instar stop feeding and begin to spin cocoon. To spin cocoons, mature silkworms need mountages (cocoon frames) as supports. The process of moving mature larva onto the cocoons frame is called mounting. Mounting process in silkworm rearing is the most labour intensive operation to be simplified. Mounting should not be delayed when larvae mature as it results in loss of silk besides production of poor quality cocoons. The rearing of silkworm in the state of J & K is a supporting occupation for small and marginal sericulturists to earn livelihood unlike in tropical areas this enterprise is practiced as major activity by the rural masses. The sericulturists in the state generally do not have their own mulberry garden, but are dependent on wild trees growing on road sides, forests, etc. Quite often they are forced to abandon


For correspondence: Department of Zoology. Govt.Degree College, Poonch Email: [email protected]

[ISSN 0975 - 6272] Bandey and Singh

65


Early and late mounting on economic parameters in autumn rearing of PM × CSR2 larvae of silkworm, bombyx mori l.

their rearing even on penultimate day due of seriposition due to non-availability of leaf. Although availability of quality mulberry leaf commensurate with the quantum of seed distributed among silkworm rearers is of paramount importance yet the rearers generally over look this fact and rear more worms and are ultimately encountered with undesirable situations like shortage of leaf, rearing space, mountage, labour etc. Keeping in view, an attempt was made to ascertain the Influence of early and late mounting on economic parameters in autumn rearing of PM × CSR2 larvae of silkworm, Bombyx mori L.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The experiment was carried out at Department of Sericulture, Govt. Degree College, Poonch (J&K). A popular multi × bi hybrid (PM × CSR2) reared as per the method advocated by. Under favourable condition this hybrid completes its larval period in seven days and starts to spin cocoons. The duration of 7 days in 5th age was taken as bench mark (Control).Larvae mounted on 6th day (24h before recommended time of 7 days) formed treatment first (T1). Similarly, larvae mounted on 7th day (20 h after maturation recommended time for 7 days) formed treatment two (T2). Mounting of worms before recommended day i.e., 7th day was considered as early mounting whereas, mounting after recommended 7th day was considered as late mounting. In both the treatments, larvae were handpicked and kept separately in plastic collapsible mountages for spinning. Total four replications in each

treatment including control were maintained. Each replication comprised of 250 larvae. This experiment was conducted in autumn season and the data pertaining to some important cocoons parameters were collected and presented on average performance in the Figures (1-3).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In time mounting of matured larvae have a vital influence on the quality of cocoons. The farmers are often losing their crops owing to poor knowledge about the actual time for mounting the matured larvae. It is clear from mean performance of the experiment data that early mounting and late mounting have negative influence on the economic character as compared to the actual mounting of matured larvae. The important economic parameters such as cocoon weight, shell weight, shell %, cocooning %, defective and good cocoon % were studied under this experiment are depicted in Fig (1-3) and discussed below.

SINGLE COCOON WEIGHT

Cocoon weight is one of the important traits for the rearers point of view because the cocoons are sold by the weight only. The data relevant to this parameter showed that lowest cocoon weight was recorded in early T1 and late mounted larvae T2 (1.53 & 1.59g), but highest single cocoon weight was noticed when worms were mounted on 7th day i.e., control T3 (1.62g). The single cocoon weight is directly correlated to feed quantum ingested during 5th instar. (1) reported that larvae

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REFEREN

Bora, B.,GosiecJ.

Calvez, Bprofo

2]

er 2 2011 [64 -

and late mountin

WLEDGMENT

hors express puty Direcment Departg of Dfls for

NCES

, MahadevmG.R. and Ma

f feed quanilkworms, conomic pa

J. Zool., 14(2

B. 1981. rogramme df Bombyx m

ood intake e

T1‐ 6 d(

T2‐7 d

T3 ‐C

69]

ng on economic

T

their sincerctor, Statetment, Pooncr this experim

murthy, T.S.,agdum, S. Bntum duringBombyx m

arameters. U

2):17-124.

Progress of during the lasmori l. relaecdysteriods

day or 24 h bef(4 replications

day & 20 h aftereplications a

Control‐7 day (average of 4 r

Ba

parameters in au

re gratitude e Sericultuch (J & K) foment.

, Shivakuma. 1994. Effe

g 5th instar omori L., oUttar Pardes

f developmest larval inst

ationship wis and juveni

fore maturatios average)

er maturation average)

( matured larvreplications)

andey and S

utumn rearing of

to ure for

ar, ect of on sh

nt tar th ile

Ch

Ha

12.5

14.

5.75

2.9 22.

on

( 4

vae

Good cocoon

ingh

f PM × CSR2 lar

Fig 3:- Elarvae o

hormon233-23

handrakanth,S.B.Da

Mahadof imp(43): 7-

ague Rufaie,Ganie, Kamililarvae econom(BombInterna

Horticu

2(11); 7

58

.13

9 42.9 6

n % Defec

rvae of silkworm

Effect of earln defective a

ne. J.Insec

9.

, K. S., G.Kandin, V.B.M

devmurthy, 2proved mou-11.

, S.Z., SingN.A., Mal

, S. 2009. Iof differe

mic characyx mori L.)

ational Jour

ulture and

797-800.

87

85

62.9 82.9

ctive cocoon %

m, bombyx mori l

ly and late mand good co

ct Physiol.,

K.ShrinivasMathur and T

2004. Deveuntages.India

h, T.P., Rajik, G.N. anImpact of mnt maturatiters of si

) Green farmrnal of Agr

d Allied

7.1

5.08

93.38

%

6l.

mounting coon %.

27(4):

a Babu, T.S.

elopment an Silk,

ja, T.A., nd Afifa mounting ions on ilkworm

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[ISSN 0975 - 6272] Bandey and Singh

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Early and late mounting on economic parameters in autumn rearing of PM × CSR2 larvae of silkworm, bombyx mori l.

Ito, T. 1967. Nutritional requirement of silkworm, Bombyx mori L. Proc.Jap.Acad., 43:47-67.

Koul, A. 1989. Relationship among leaf consumption, body weight and silk production in Bombyx mori L. Agric.Sci Digest., 9(4): 208-210.

Koul, A., Ram, K. and Singh Darshan 1998. Impact of starvation shock on worm and cocoon character in silkworm (Bombyx mori L.) J. Seri., 6 (1&2): 41-44.

Krishnaswamy, S. 1978. New technology of

silkworm rearing. Bull. No.2. Central Sericultural Research and Training institute, Mysore, India, p.1-24.

Naito, W., Kurashima, H. and Kanematatsu, A. 1987. Studies on the production method of the silkworm cocoon for new use (1) effect of supplied leaf on the size of the cocoon filament. Research. Bull. Aichi-Ken., 19:336-340.

Rajan, R.K., Kuribayashi, S., Meenal, R., Singh, G.B. and Himantharaj, M.T. 2000. Study on the use of saw dust to accelerate mounting of silkworm and

its effect on cocoon quality. Indian J.

Seric., 39 (1): 72-73.

Rajan, R.K. and Himantharaj, M.T. 2005. Silkworm Rearing Technology, published by Central Silk Board, Bangalore.

Singh, G.B. and Kamble, C.K.1994. Effect of

mounting on different days. Annual Report, C.S.R. & T.I., Mysore. p.95.

Sudo, M. and Okajima, S.Y.T. 1981. The relation between the leaf quality at different leaf order on silkworm growth on cocoon quality. J.Seric. Sci.

Jpn., 50:306-310.

Sumioka, H., Kuroda, S. and Yoshitaka, N. 1982. Relationship among food ingestion, food digestion and body weight gain in the silkworm larvae, Bombyx mori L. under the restricted feeding by index. J. Seric. Sci. Jpn., 51:51-56.

Takano and Arai, N. 1978. Studies on food value on the basis of feeding and cocoon productivity in the silkworm Bombyx mori l.1: The amount of food intake and productivity. J.Seric.

Science of Japan., 47(2):183-189.



70Pollution, a threat to conservation of Biodiversity in Fresh water body of Chulband River, Gondia Dist., Maharashtra

Pollution, a threat to conservation of Biodiversity in Fresh water body

of Chulband River, Gondia Dist., Maharashtra

Cherian, K.J. and Shahare, P.C.

Received: May 07, 2011 ⏐ Accepted: September 30, 2011 ⏐ Online: December 27, 2011

Abstract

Algae are frequently found in polluted water as well as unpolluted water bodies. Every alga requires a specific condition for its luxuriant growth and multiplication. The presence of some alga influence the growth of other organisms, both plants and animals. Generally algae are used to determine the quality of water by assessing the degree of pollution or as an indicator of water pollution. Algal samples and water samples were collected from six different locations along the Chulband River in Gondia district. During the summer season of 2010-2011. The percentage of various constituents, colour, odour and turbidity makes the water non-palatable. The grazing animals too do not prefers this water even though the temperature is quite high. In all 18 forms of algae out of which 9 belongs

Keywords: Cyanophyceae ⏐ Chlorophyceae ⏐ Bacillariophyceae ⏐ Chulband River ⏐

to Cyanophyceae, 3 to Chlorophyceae and 6 to Bacillariophyceae were observed. The growth of these forms and the pollutants present prevent the presence of other algae as well as other zooplanktons and fishes

INTRODUCTION

Water is the most abundant and most useful constituent in the world. The fresh water constitutes rivers, streams, lakes, ponds and reservoirs. These water resources are being polluted day by day, due to increased human population, industrialization uses of fertilizers in agriculture and other man made activity. Biological assessment is a useful alternative for assessing the ecological quality of aquatic water bodies since biological communities integrate the environmental effects of water chemistry, in addition to the physical and geomorphologic characteristics of Rivers and lake.Thus Algal community encountered in the water body reflects the average ecological condition and therefore they may be used as indicator of water quality. The growth and abundance of each every algal form in a fresh


For correspondence:

Department of Botany, Hislop College, Nagpur, Maharashtra Email: [email protected]

[ISSN 0975 - 6272] Cherian and Shahare

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Pollution, a threat to conservation of Biodiversity in Fresh water body of Chulband River, Gondia Dist., Maharashtra

water body is influenced by several environmental factors of which the chemical constituents of water body is of prime importance. The physic - chemical charac-teristic of water plays an important role in algal biodiversity and it determines the algal bloom of any specific species. The study of soil algae in Gondia district were studied by different workers by soil cultures, Cyanophyceae were dominating in crops fields.

Phytoplankton communities respond quickly to anthropogenic inputs of nutrients and toxic substances making them good indicators of changes in environmental water quality. Algae are frequently found in polluted and unpolluted water and due to this behavior they are generally considered useful to determine the quality of water. These are very suitable organisms for the determination of the impact of toxic substances on the aquatic environment because any effect on the lower level of the food chain will also have consequence on the higher level. Algae are used for assessing the degree of pollution or as indicator of water pollution of different water bodies. Phytoplankton constitutes the vary basis of nutrient cycle of an aquatic ecosystem. They play a crucial role in maintaining proper equilibrium between biotic and abiotic components of an aquatic ecosystem. The algae are purifiers of environment on one hand and polluting organisms on the other hand. The phytoplankton diversity with the seasonal fluctuation indicates the diversity of ecological niches.

When the biomass of algae becomes too high or certain species become abundant, the water quality may be negatively impacted. The decreased water transparency and consumption of oxygen in bottom waters after settling are two principal consequences of algal over productivity. Decreased water transparency may affect growth and survival of vascular aquatic plants and cause changes in fish populations. Most of the water bodies in India need to be treated before using it in domestic applications by various ions, salts, etc. so if we were using such type of water as potable water then it leads to various water “borne diseases”. Analysis is necessary for monitoring the effectiveness of the treatment processes for human consumption, aquatic life and for other subsequent uses. The presence of Nostoc commune in water body affect the germination of various seeds and spores. Its growth hormone give a promoting effect in the germination as well as the seedling growth in rice. The presence of different types of plants influence positively or negatively the growth of micro-organisms in their vicinity. Rhizosphere of crops plant content more species than the non-rhizosphere in the same depth of soil.

Study area: Gondia (Lat. 21° 28' N & Lon. 80° 29' E) district is situated in the western part of Maharashtra state. The district covers an area of 4843.12 sq.km of which 2644.70 sq.km fall under forest area. The source streams of the Chulband River originate from the Salegaon Dalli near Dodake-Jambhali and Palasgaon hill complex. The Chulband flows southwards with a subparallel valley to that of the Wainganga to its east and joins it at the


72



southern limits of the district near the village Soni. The river has an overall length of 114 km. of which major part falls within the district. The river is crossed by the Great Eastern Highway near Sawangi over a bridge and by the Gondia-Nagbhir railway near Gond Umri.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study Sites

In all six sites were selected along the length of the river falling in the districts for the present study. The sites were 1.Jambhali 2.Murpar 3.Bothali 4.Sadak Arjuni- I 5.Sadak Arjuni- II 6.Saundad. The Site 1 is located in the forest area while Sites 2 to 5 are located in the village populated area. The Site 6 is located in crop field area. All the sites in the village area are polluted with organic wastes and wastes from Brick industries. The sites 4 & 5 are also exposed to pollution from Skin processing units which collect the skin from various slaughter houses in and around the districts.

Collection of water samples Water samples for physico-chemical analysis of water were collected from all the six different selected sites of Chulband River in Gondia district from April to June in summer season of 2010-2011. Water samples were collected in 1 liter plastic bottles and

250 ml BOD bottles during morning hours.

Water analysis The physical analysis like Colour, Temperature, pH and Turbidity was anayalized by using Methodology for water analysis by (IAAB).

Collection of algae from sampling site

Frequent visits to fields during summer season helped me to get maximum algal collections. These fresh collections were made with the help of scalpel, forceps and sieves and were collected in glass bottles. These were brought to the laboratory and identified and developed live cultures from it.

Algal cultures 1. Culture vessels Conical flasks, flat

bottles, petridishes were used in the cultures. These glasswares were well washed first with vim powder, then twice with tap water. These were then rinsed with concentrated sulphuric acid and finally washed with distilled water, 3 to 4 times. Then the flasks and bottles were closed with plugs of non-absorbant cotton, whereas the petridishes were closed with its pair petridishes.

2. Culture Media Two types of cultures, liquid and moist, were prepared for studying the collected algae. The bottles and conical flasks were used for the liquid cultures whereas petridishes were used for the moist cultures.


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The culturing vessels with culture media were sterilized in an autoclave at 2 lbs pressure for 20 minutes prior to inoculation.

The composition of De’s (1939) modified Beneck’s medium is as follows :

KNO3 - 0.2 gm

Mgso4 7H2O - 0.2 gm

K2HPO4 - 0.2 gm

CaCl2 2H2O - 0.1 gm

FeC13 (1%) - 2 drops

EDTA - Traces

Distilled water - 1000 ml

Stock solutions of different chemicals were prepared in distilled water. Ferric chloride solution was freshly prepared whenever required. The pH of the culture media was adjusted prior to autoclaving.

Sterilized bottles and flasks were then filled with convenient amount of the medium and were again sterilized in an autoclave at 15 lbs pressure for 20 minutes. After the bottles had cooled down, approximately 5 ml of the water samples were introduced into separate bottles or flasks with the help of sterile pipettes in aseptic conditions. Sterilized culture solution was added to the cultures at suitable intervals to make up the loss of the culture solution partly lost due to evaporation.

Moist cultures were prepared in petridishes which were sterilized in the same way as in the case of bottles. Convenient amount of collected water sample depending on the size of the petridishes were spread evenly in each petridish and moistened with culture medium in the beginning to promote the algal growth.

Later on, the petridishes were moistened with sterilized distilled water at intervals to prevent drying of the cultures.

All the cultures were placed near open windows facing north where cultures could get only diffused light. From dense growing cultures subcultures were made for the convenience.

Unialgal culture: - In making sub cultures, a few cells were drawn into a fine sterilized pipette and transferred to 1.5 per cent De's modified Beneck's medium with agar in petridishes and test tubes. 1.5 per cent agar medium was prepared by mixing 15 gm of agar in one liter of De's modified Benecks medium. This solution was poured into petri-dishes and test tubes aseptically after autoclaving.

After two weeks, individual algal units were picked up and transferred to fresh agar plates. After 3-4 transfers on agar plates groups of particular algae were transferred to Allen & Arnon's liquid medium for maintenance.

The result of identification of algae collected were given in Table-I. In all 18 forms were found growing abundantly of which, 9 belongs to Cyanophyta, 6 belongs to Chlorophyta and 3 belongs to Bacillariophyta. There can be more forms but must be in very small quantity. Their retardation of growth may be influenced by the physico-chemical condition of water and the dominant algal forms. The Cyanophyta includes Microcystis protocystis Crow., Chroococcus micrococcus. (Kutz.) Rabenh., Oscillatoria curviceps. Ag.


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ex Gomont., Phormidium foveolarum. (Mont.) Gomont., Lyngbya aerugineo-coerulea. (Kutz.) Gomont., Schizothrix tenuis. Woronich., Nostoc commune. Vaucher. ex Born. et. Flah., Anabaena anomala Fritsch., Anabaena laxa. (Rabehn.). The chlorophycean forms are Chlaorococcum humicola (Naegeli) Rabnehhorst, Ulothrix variabilis (Kuetzing) Kuetzing, Spirogyra biformis Jao, Closterium acerosum (Schrank) Ehrenberg, Euastrum dubium Nageli and Cosmarium granatum Brebisson. The Bacillariophycean forms were Fragillaria brevistriata f. elongata Venk, Synedra affinis Kg and Navicula clavata Greg.

3 Cyanophycean, 3 Chlorophycean and 2 Bacillariophycean members were observed from Jambhali (site-I). It is comparatively less polluted. The water do not have any bad odour and its turbidity was also lower than others sites. The wild as well as grazing animals consume this water, which is evident from the foot prints around the banks of water body. The Cyanophycean members observed were Phormidium, Schizothrix and Nostoc. The Chlorophycean members were Chlorococcum, Ulothrix and Spirogyra. The bacillariophycean members are Fragillaria and Navicula.

The Murpar (site-2) and Bothali (site-3) are identical in pollution sources. Murpar showed the presence of 10 algal form out of which 5 belongs to Chlorophyceae, 3 belongs to Cyanophyceae and 2 belongs to Bacillariophyceae. The Chlorophycean members are Chlorococcum, Ulothrix, Spirogyra, Closterium and Cosmarium. The Cyanophycean members are Chroococcus,

Nostoc and Anabaena anomala. The Bacillariophycean members are Fragillria and Navicula. The Bothali region showed 8 algal forms of which 4 belongs to Cyanophyta, 3 belongs to Chlorophyta and Navicula represent the lone member of Bacillariophyta.

The site 4 and 5 i.e. Sadak Arjuni I and II has maximum and dangerous source of pollution as sewage wastes, waste from bricks industries, crematorium and skin processing units reaches the Chulband river. Both sites are represented by 5 forms of algae each and 4 out of 5 forms are common. The common forms include Microcystis, Anabaena laxa, Euastrum and Synedra. Oscillatoria was present in site-4 while Lyngbya was observed in site-5.

Site-6 Saundad has the maximum types of algal forms i.e. 13 out of which 6 belongs to Cyanophyta, 4 belongs Chlorophyta and 3 belongs to Bacillariophyta. The Cyanophycean members are Chroococcus, Phormidium, Lyngbya, Nostoc, Anabaena laxa, Anabaena anomala. The Chlorophycean members are Chlorococcum, Spirogyra, Euastrum and Cosmarium. The Bacillariophycean members are Fragillaria, Synedra and Navicula.

The physical analysis of all the 6 sites of Chulband River is given in the Table-II. The maximum temperature i.e. 34oC was observed in site 2, 3, 4 and 5. The temperature was slightly low in site 1 and site 6. It may be due to the tall tress at the banks of river. The highest pH was observed in site 5 followed by site 4. The pH ranged from 6.8 to 8.6. The


75



taste and odour was proportional to the amount of pollutants. Pungent odour was present in site 4 and 5. It may be due to the washing of processed animal skin in these areas. The growth of algae and amount of pollution creates the colour of the water body. The colour ranged from light green to dark

bluish. The turbidity was also high in site – 4 and site – 5. Only negligible turbidity was observed in site-1 and the water is also palatable. The turbidity ranged from negligible to 305. The highest turbidity makes the water like a syrup solution.

Algal Taxa Site-1 Site-2 Site-3 Site-4 Site-5 Site-6 Cyanophyceae

1. Microcystis protocystis. Crow - - - p p - 2. Chroococcus macrococcus. (Kutz.)

Rabenh. - P P - - P

3. Oscillatoria curviceps. Ag.ex Gomont.

- - P P - -

4. Phormidium foveolarum.(Mont.) Gomont.

P - P - - P

5. Lyngbya aerugineo-coerulea (Kutz.) Gomont.

- - - - P P

6. Schizothrix tenuis. Woronich. P - - - - - 7. Nostoc commune. Vaucher ex. Born.

et.Flah. P P - - - P

8. Anabaena laxa. (Rabehn.) - - - p P P 9. Anabaena anomala. Fritsch. - P P - - P

Chlorophyceae 1. Chlorococcum humicolo. (Naegeli.)

Rabnehhorst. P P P - - P

2. Ulothrix variabilis. (Kuetz.) Kuetzing P P - - - - 3. Spirogyra biformis. Jao P P - - - P 4. Closterium acerosum. (Schrank)

Ehrenberg. - P P - - -

5. Euastrum dubium. Nageli. - - - p p P 6. Cosmarium granatum. Brebisson. - p P - - P

Bacillariophyceae 1. Fragillaria brevistriata f. elongata

Venk. P p - - - P

2. Synedra affinis. Kg. - - - p p P 3. Navicula clavata. Greg. P p P P

Total 8 10 8 5 5 13

Table 1- Showing the presence of Algal Forms


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Parameters Site-1 Site-2 Site-3 Site-4 Site-5 Site-6 Temperature 29-32 32-34 33-34 32-34 32-34 30-31

pH 6.8 7.4 8.3 8.5 8.6 7.6 Taste Agreeable Disagreeable Disagreeable Disagreeable Disagreeable DisagreeableOdour Nil Present Present Pungent

Present Pungent Present

Present

Colour Light Greenish

Greenish Greenish Dark bluish Dark bluish Greenish

Turbidity Negligible 139.33 204 282 305 210

Table 2- Result of water analysis

Pollutant sources of Chulband River of Gondia Dist., from different sites


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RESULT AND DISCUSSION

1. Microcystis protocystis Crow. 2. Chroococcus micrococcus. (Kutz.)

Rabenh. 3. Oscillatoria curviceps. Ag. ex Gomont. 4. Phormidium foveolarum. (Mont.)

Gomont. 5. Lyngbya aerugineo-coerulea. (Kutz.)

Gomont. 6. Schizothrix tenuis. Woronich. 7. Nostoc commune. Vaucher. ex Born. et.

Flah. 8. Anabaena anomala Fritsch. 9. Anabaena laxa. (Rabehn.)

10. Chlorococcum humicolo (Naegeli) Rabnehhorst.

11. Ulothrix variabilis (Kuetzing) Kuetzing. 12. Spirogyra biformis Jao. 13. Closterium acerosum. (Schrank)

Ehrenberg. 14. Euastrum dubium. Nageli. 15. Cosmarium granatum Brebisson. 16. Fragillaria brevistriata f. elongata. Venk. 17. Synedra affinis. Kg. 18. Navicula clavata Greg

CONCLUSION

The polluting activity by human population has changed the Chulband river in to a Chulband nala. The only thing left is a change

in the name in Government record. The river once upon a time was the main source of drinking water the people residing in Gondia


78



district. The depth of the river has decreased day by day due to dumping of non degradable waste in the river. In near future it will become drainage line during the rainy season. The pollution effected in the growth of some unwanted algal forms like Microcystis protocystis, Oscillatoria curviceps, Anabaena laxa, Euastrum dubium, Synedra affinis etc. In fact the growth of these organisms has wiped out the biodiversity in Chulband River. The few left behind fishes also gets killed by the algal forms due its toxic effects during their disintegration.

REFERENCES

Stevenson, R J; Y (1999). Assessing environmental conditations in Rivers and streams using diatoms. In: Stoermer, E F; Smol, J P (eds.) The diatoms. Applications for the environmental and earth sciences. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. pp 11-40.

Bhatt, L R; Lecoul, P; Lekhal, H D; Jha, P K (1999). Physico-chemical characteristic and phytoplanktons for Taudha lake, Kathmandu. Poll.Res.18 (4): 353-358.

Saha, S B; Bhattacharya, S B; Choudhary, (2000) A Diversity of phytoplankton of sewage pollution brakish water tidal ecosystems. Environ.Biol. 21 (1): 9-14.

Cherian K.J and Matta G(2010), Soil above at the different depth of crop field of Nagpur Dist., Essence, Vol.1 No.1,2010(81-87).

Joubert, G (1980). A bioassay application for quantitative toxicity management using the green algae, Selenastrum

Capricornutum. Water Res. 14: 1759-1763.

Trivedy, R K (1986). Role of algae in the biomonitoring of water pollution. Asian Environ. 8 (3): 31-42.

Dwivedi, B K; Pandey, G C (2002).Physico-chemical factors and algal diversity of two ponds (Girija Kund Maqubara Pond), Faizabad, India poll.Res.21 (3): 361-369.

Cherian, K.J., Vishwakarma S and Shahare P.C. (2010). Effect of Algal Extract on the germination of seedling growth of Rice seeds. Bionano Frontier, Vol.4.(1) jan-june2011.

Cherian K.J. (2010). Rhizosphere algae of Vidharbha region of Maharashtra. Essence,Vol.1. No.1 (59-65)

Indian Association of Aquatic Biologists (IAAB), Methodology for Water Analysis.



79Evaluating economic sustainability of ponds (talab) of Dhar town (M.P.)

Evaluating economic sustainability of ponds (talab) of Dhar Town (M.P.)

Preeti Chaudhary Received: September 20, 2011 ⏐ Accepted: November 13, 2011 ⏐ Online: December 27, 2011

Abstract

The significance of ponds as water resources is being appreciated now as never before increasing population in town centers has put more stress on water management .This has necessitated proper management of the ponds economically for better water quality .Dhar town was famous for saddhe barah talab of different sizes spread within its municipal corporation boundary , but now a day’s many of them destroyed by colonizers and construct colonies . Most of the ponds utilize for bathing, washing, irrigation, pisciculture etc.The ponds also have a great ecological importance in environment from climate control to biodiversity.

For the preparation of present paper six ponds of Dhar town studied for firstly aimed quality of water for people, secondly it deals with the issue of sustainable management of such ponds. The present study considers only use values, such as bathing, washing, and immersion of idols and cultivation of Fishes.

Keywords: Pisciculture ⏐ Sustainable management

Introduction

Water is going to become the most natural resources in the 21st Century. In India relatively moderate average rainfall, water has still become a critical issue. Most city authorities cannot provide the required minimum water supply to its citizens. Even in those areas which have high rainfall also facing water scarcity in non rainy season.

Water is considered as the source, where life began thousands of species of flora and fauna found in these water bodies. Water bodies have served both the causes of the conservation of natures as well as human development. This paper focusing on a specific aspect of water resources – economic sustainability of water bodies with special reference to six ponds of Dhar town.

One of the main Functions of ponds is that they serve as receptors for rain water harvesting and maintaining local ground water levels. The Inter relationship of a pond with environment, economy and society is presented in Table-1.


For correspondence:

Department of Zoology, Govt. P.G. College, Dhar (M.P.)

[ISSN 0975 - 6272] Preeti Chaudhary

80


Evaluating economic sustainability of ponds (talab) of Dhar town (M.P.)

Table-1: Role of Ponds in Town

STUDY AREA

Dhar district is located in the western region of the Madhya Pradesh at latitude between 220 1’ 14 and 230 9 ‘ 49 ” N and the meridians 44 0 28’ 27” and 75 0 42’ 43’E. For this present study total No. of Six ponds of the town are selected and studied. These six ponds are as under:-

1. Natnagra Pond

2. Devisaga Pond

3. Sitapot Pond

4. Munj Saga pond

5. Jetpura pond

6. Brumha Kundi Pond

METHADOLOGY

Historically Dhar town was famous for Saade

Barah Taalab (Twelve and half ponds). Maximum population of this town depends on pond water for many water related activities- like bathing, washing, drinking etc. Collection of samples done before 8 a.m. and examined by standard methods of APHA (1998). The Temperature, Turbidity, pH, and D.O. were determined in the field. The collected samples brought to laboratory and analyzed within 24 hours except BOD which

Environmental Components

Activities Description

Water Resource Bathing A large number of people from lower economic background use them for bathing.

Washing Washing of clothes, utensils and other domestic requirements

Rainwater Harvesting Acts as rainwater storage.

Environment Climate control Ponds affect local micro-climate, making it cooler and soothing

Open space Ponds provide an open space providing room for air movement. Space for recreational use.

Trees Generally the pond banks have tree plantations, preserving urban nature

Aquatic Ecology Ponds support many aquatic and other species, a receptacle of biodiversity in town

Economy Fish cultivation Source for local employment and good protein

Social Community gathering People spend time sitting around these ponds. Many ponds have seats around them and are an important place for local community gathering.

Clubs Because of open space, there often exist many clubs by the pond side. These clubs also manage the ponds.


81



requires a period of five days in cubation at 20 0 temp.

No. of people using ponds for their daily activities. Hence its economic study becomes a necessity, then ponds are to be going on sustainability development. Generally the survey data shows that lower income group peoples are more dependent on pond water.

All the ponds are being used for bathing but Some ponds are for washing. Bathing and washing activities are considered as primary health care activities. After these activities the next major activity is the pisciculture . As a pisciculture is related with local employment generation. Some ponds are utilized for immersion of idols and other worship waste materials near the temple region of the ponds.

The ponds surrounding also make significant contribution to the social cultural and ecological environment. The survey found that all the ponds have some trees around them. Nearly half of the ponds have adjacent temples. Some of the ponds have decent sitting facilities around them.

Maximum surveyed ponds are owned by Municipal Council of Dhar town. One of the ponds is under the security of fishery department. Some ponds have leased by fishermen for fishing.

RESULT & DISCUSSION.

Increase in anthropogenic modeling as a consequence of disregard to the socio-economic cultural values of water. There is increase in quality deterioration of water. The

quality of physical and chemical parameters serves as a good index in providing a complete and reliable picture of the conditions of ponds water (Zuber, 2007). The results are depicted in Table-2.

The Colour and Turbidity of the ponds water is comparatively higher due to silt load and idol immersion.

ph regulates most of the biological processes and biochemical reactions. In present study it was ranged from 7.8 to 9.4. Above 8.5. pH water will affect the mucous membrane or water supply system for aquatic life.

Quantitative analytical results of TDS, Alkalinity and Total Hardness show higher concentration. All ponds show slightly Alkaline character due to continuous sewage disposal and improper decomposition of organic waste. In Brumhakundi and Jetpura ponds these parameters found higher than other ponds. High value of Hardness during summer can be attributed to decrease in water volume and increase in rate of evaporation of water (Hujare, 2008).

Chloride considered as one of the basic parameters of classifying pollution by sewage into different categories. Chloride content of pond water was under the desirable limit. Flouride level was also in desirable condition.

In the present study Nitrate shows a level, which is much below the drinking water limits (45 mg/l) but higher for biological growth. The Sulphate value in the present study can be considered high because of bathing and cloths washing activities (Jain, 1996). Phosphate value was higher in the


82



present study. It accelerates growth of algae and vegetations.

Table 2

The value of Flouride, Nitrate, Phosphate and Sulphate are under the desirable limit for irrigation and aqua culture.

D.O. is rising during winter and in summer it became decreases due to higher rate of decomposition of organic matter and limited flow of water in low oxygen holding environment due to high temperature (Rani, 2004).

BOD increase on temperature rising. This may be attributed to the photosynthetic activity and abundance of phyto planton during hot period (Abdo. 2004).

COD is the amount of oxygen required to oxidize the biodegradable organics as well as the non bio degradable organics both. COD increase in summer season. It is mainly attributed to the increase in the air and water

temperatures facilitating the decomposition and oxidation of organic matter (Abdo, 2002).

VALUATION OF WATER BODIES

Unfortunately value of services provide by these ponds often gets unnoticed. A pond like many environmental assets can be used for consumption purpose as well as an input for some productive activities. Therefore it is necessary to form an estimate of the economic value of a pond.

For the present study only useful values of ponds have been considered like fish cultivation, bathing, washing, immersion of idols, recreation uses etc. Fish production of the ponds estimated by the fishery department and fishermen. Bathing, washing and cleaning activities purposes are estimated by proposed water supply cost. Pond committees can


83



charge a fee for immersion of idols and other worship waste materials. The committee can also charge for washing and bathing activities like professional swimming pools. In this way the pond committees can be economically strong.If the values are ecological and economically improved the valuation will be much more.

CONCLUSION

It may be concludes from the above analysis that

i) Utilization of pond users come from the poor section of the society

ii) Govt. Officials have a moral responsibility to ensure that the ponds are to be properly managed and not to be degrade.

iii) Sustainability from the viewpoint of human use and that from the viewpoint of pisciculture may have some mutual in compatibility and therefore requires an integrated approach.

REFERENCES

Abdo, M.H. 2002 Environmental studies on Rosetta branch and some chemical applications at the area exten from El-Kanater El-Khyria to Kafr-El-Zyat City.Ph.D. Thesis, fac. Of Sci., Ain Shams univ., Cairo, Egypt.

Apha. 1992 Standard methods for examination of water and waste water. 18th Edition, Washington D.C.

Beebi, S.K., A. S. Dadhich, and P. Arunkranti. 2004. Monitoring the status of water resources of

Srungavarapukota village area in Andhra Pradesh. Nature Environment and Pollution Technology, 3(3)303-306

Chattopadhyay, Kunal and Krishna Mazumdar (2002) “Economics of Environmental Degradation-East Kolkata Wetlands”, in Kunal Chattopadhyay and Krishna Mazumdar (eds), Kolkata—the city of

Wetlands, Dept. of Fisheries, Government of West Bengal. Pp174

Hujare, M.S. 2008. Seasnal variation of physic chemical parameters in the perennial tank of talsande, Maharashtra. Ecotoxical. Environ. Monit. 18(3): 233-242.

Jain, S.M., Meenakshi Sarma and Thakur Ramesh (1996). Seasonal variation in physic-chemical parameters of Halali resevior of Vidisha district, Indiaan Ecobil. 8(3): 181-188

Mathur P., S. Agrawal and M. Nag 2007. Assesment of physio-Chamical Characteristics and Suggested

Restoration Measures for Pushkar

lake, Ajmer Rajsthan (India). Proceeding of Taal: Work lake conference 1518-1529

Munasinghe, M. (1993) Environmental

Economics and Sustainable

Development’ World Bank Environment Paper Number 3, World Bank, Washington, D.C.

Pearce, D.W. and R.K. Turner (1990) Economic of Natural resources and


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Environment, Harvester Wheatsheaf,

New York.

Rani, R. B.k. Gupta, and K.B.L. Shrivastava. 2004. Studies on water quality assessment in Satna city (M.P.) Seasonal parametic variations. Nat. Environ. & Poll. Tech., 3(4): 563-565.

Ray mohit and Mazumdar Siddhhartha (2005), Evaluating economic sustainability of urban and peri –urban water bodies of Kokata ponds, Biodiversity and quality of life, 135-146.

Zuber, S.M., 2007. Ecology and Economic valuation of Lake Mansar, jammu. Thesis submitted with Department of Zoology, university of Jammu, Jammu.

[ISSN 0975 - 6272] Balpande and Cherian


85Antibacterial activity of plant extracts of Cyperus rotundus and Vetiveria zizanoides on the air borne micro-organisms

Antibacterial activity of plant extracts of Cyperus rotundus and Vetiveria

zizanoides on the air borne micro-organisms of some houses in Nagpur City

Balpande, Shubhangini M. and Cherian K.J.

Received: July 21, 2011 ⏐ Accepted: October 28, 2011 ⏐ Online: December 27, 2011

ABSTRACT

Microorganisms are the primary sources of indoor air contamination. Microbial monitoring of such environment is important for the health of people. In this study presence of various kinds of microorganisms in kitchen of two different zones of Nagpur city were studied. For the present study air samples were collected by personal sampler with the help of air motor for 30 minutes from two sites of Nagpur city. Bacteria were isolated on LB media. Antibacterial activity was screened by disc diffusion method of Aq. Methanolic extract of Cyperus rotundus and Vetiveria zizanoides. The result showed that the extract of Root of Vetiveria

zizanoides, and Inflorescence, Leaf and Stem of Cyperus rotundus shows more activity than others.

Keywords: Airborne bacteria ⏐ Indoor air ⏐ Air sampler ⏐ Antibacterial activity ⏐ hygenic condition

INTRODUCTION

Air, contains significant number of microorganisms acting as a medium for their transmission or dispersal. Microorganisms are abundant in the earth’s atmosphere as particles. They include bacteria, fungi and algal cell. The composition and concentration of these particles are generally related to man’s activities. Microorganisms are the primary sources of indoor air contamination. The indoor air environment can potentially place peoples at greater risk than the outside environment, because enclosed spaces can confine aerosols and allow than to build up to infectious levels. Bioaerosols are airborne particles that are living (Bacteria, viruses and Fungi) or originate from living organisms, which are ranging in size from 1.0 to 5.0 µm generally remain in the air, whereas larger particles are deposited on surfaces. Homes are an important indoor environment for spread of airborne pathogens to the people, where they spend most of the time. For the further study air samples were collected from the different zones of Nagpur city, particularly kitchens of homes. In the domestic environment, the kitchen is particularly important in


For correspondence:

Department of Botany, Hislop College, Nagpur, Maharashtra Email: [email protected]




spreading infectious diseases. Bacterial load of hand towels, steel sinks, chopping board and working surfaces were implicated to be the frequent sites. Raw material is probably the main source of contamination in the kitchen, the area surrounding the kitchen could also act as sources of free living populations of bacteria. Food residues together with the moisture offer a favorable environment for bacterial and fungal growth. These studies have revealed that domestic kitchen sites have been found repeatedly contaminated with a variety of bacterial contaminants. Wet areas including sponges, dishcloths and sink drains continually appear to act as reservoir that harbours and encourages growth of potential pathogens. There were two objectives of this study i.e. a) It was to evaluate, with respect to microbial status of air & b) to find the antibacterial effects of plants extracts on particular bacteria which were commonly observed from the kitchens. For the present study of antibacterial activity, following plants were selected i.e. Cyperus rotundus and Vetiveria zizanoides against some bacteria which were collected from the different homes.

Cyperus rotundus L. (Family Cyperaceae) also known as purple nut sedge or nut grass or Nagarmotha is common perennial weed with slender scaly creeping rhizomes, bulbous at the base and arising singly from the tubers which are about 1-3 cm long. The tubers are externally blackish in colour and reddish white inside with characteristic odour. The stems grow 25 cm tall and the

leaves are linear, dark green and grooved on the upper surface. Inflorescences are small with 2-4 bracts, consting of tiny flowers with a red –brown husk. The nut is three –angled, oblong, ovate, yellow in colour and black when ripe.

Vetiveria zizanoides L. (Family Poaceae) also known as Khus, is densely tufted perennial grass with rootstock branching and spongy aromatic roots. The leaves are basal and cauline with relatively stiff, linear, acute, elongate blades, 30—90 cm long and 4-10 mm wide erect rigid, firm, spongy usually glabrous, more or less hairy, splitting along midrib apically and revolute, rough margins with spines. The panicles is oblong, loose, irregular type of compound inflorescence, 15-30 cm long and comprise numerous racemose, spike-like branches and usually purple with the rachis or stem disarticulating at base of sessile spikelet. The spikeletes are dorsally compressed and paired, one being sessile and perfect, the other pedicellate and staminate or neuter. The pales or caryopsis usually not seen. The pedicellate spikeletes are slightly smaller than the sessile spikelet.

MATERIAL AND METHODS:

Collection of plant materials: - The fresh plant of Cyperus rotundus and Vetiveria

zizanoides was collected in the month of July 2010 from nearby Nagpur and Bhandara District of Maharashtra, India respectively.

Processing of Plant material The leaf, stem root, Rhizome & inflorescence of




C.rotundus and the root, leaf and inflorescence of V.zizanoides was cleaned and shade dried over a period of two weeks. The dried samples were milled into fine powder with the help of mixer and blender and sieved .Finally the powders were kept separately in air tight container until the analysis.

Preparation of Extracts The dried coarse power (20gm) was extracted in soxhlet apparatus in 200ml aqueous methanol (4:1) for 24 hrs. After extracts were filtered and concentrated using evaporator and freeze dried to powdered form. The dried extracts weighed and kept in labeled sterile bottles. The extracts were suspended in Aq.methanol and used for screening the antibacterial activity.

Sample collection Samples of atmospheric air for bacteriological determinations were collected from different homes of Nagpur city. Air samples were collected by self designed air sampler, which consist of a conical flask, rubber cork with inlet and outlet glass tube and air motor. 20 ml Autoclaved distill water is used as a collection medium in a conical flask. Used separate flask set for each sample. The samplers operate by drawing air through an inlet tube. Air motor was made on for 5 minute before taking each sample. 2ml of the liquid sample were inoculated on the Nutrient agar media for Bacterial growth in triplicate. After inoculation colonies of bacteria are allowed to grow on Nutrient agar culture media at 37°C temperature over

24 hrs and then isolates were maintained on Nutrient agar slants as a pure culture. The bacteria were identified by using laboratory methods which include gram staining and biochemical tests. Antibacterial activity was studied on LB agar media.

ANTI-BACTERIAL ASSAY

The anti-bacterial activity of plant extracts of both plants were studied by agar disc diffusion method. Inoculums were prepared by inoculating loopful culture of both type of bacteria into 10 ml nutrient broth and incubating overnight at 37°C for 24 hrs. The sterilized autoclaved LB Agar medium was inoculated with the inoculums of Bacillus

spp. and Staphylococcus spp. (10µl/10ml) and mixture was transferred to sterile petriplates (10ml/petriplates) and allowed to solidify. Sterile disc of 5mm in diameter (made from whatmann filter paper previously sterilized in UV light) dipped in specified concentration of all parts of extracts (100mg/ml) and standard antibacterial agent, Streptomycin was used as positive control were placed on surface of agar plates . The disc dipped in Aq.methanol was used as negative control. The plates were allowed to diffuse at room temperature for 2 hrs.and then plates were incubated at 37º for 24 hrs. and observed for antibacterial activity. The diameter of zone of inhibition were measured in mm and compared with that of standared. The Experiments were repeated three times and the mean values of zone of inhibition were tabulated.




Determination of MIC and Bactericidal Activity

Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was determined by the tube dilution method using nutrient broth. The dilution was taken as 10 to 100 mg/ml.The bactericidal activity of the minimum inhibitory amounts was

determined by spreading o.1 ml of the appropriately diluted broth culture of the MIC tubes, on nutrient agar plates. The petriplates were incubated at 37ºC for 18-24 hrs. The lowest concentration of extract that inhibited visible growth on agar called as MIC.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The results of antibacterial activity of aqueous Methanolic extracts of C.rotundus

and V.zizanoides were given in table 1.The extracts of different parts of the plants shows different potential in antibacterial activities. In case of C.rotundus the extracts of aerial parts showed more antibacterial activity than its underground parts. It’s just opposite in V.zizanoides.

In C.rotundus the extracts of rhizome do not have any antibacterial activity on the selected Bacillus spp. and Staphylococcus

spp.Its root extract showed very negligible inhibitory zone i.e. 02.0 mm while its stem extracts showed considerable antibacterial activity i.e. 10 mm inhibition on Bacillus

spp. and 8 mm on Staphylococcus spp. The

leaf extract showed 13 mm inhibition zone while that of inflorescence showed the highest inhibitory effect is 15 mm on Bacillus spp. Its effect on Staphylococcus

spp. is slightly less i.e. 8.0 mm and 10.0mm inhibition .The trend on the antibacterial property by the extracts is same in both the bacterial spp. but the intensity varies on the type of bacteria comparison with positive control. The result indicates that the active principle of the extract which have the antibiotic property is synthesized in the active live cells or the meristematic cells which are in more quantity in the young leaves and the inflorescence .This active principle either gets disintegrated or looses its antibacterial capability as the cells became older.

Sr.no. Name of Plant Name of Plant Part Zone of Inhibition (mm) of

Bacillus spp.Zone of Inhibition (mm) of

Staphylococcus spp.

1.

C.rotundus

Rhizome -- -- Root 02.0 02.0 Stem 10.0 08.0 Leaf 13.0 08.0 Inflorescence 15.0 10.0

2. V.zizanoides Root 10.0 07.0 Leaf 03.0 04.0 Inflorescence NA NA

3. Positive Control Streptomycin 30.0 25.0 4. Negative Control Aq.methanol NA NA

(NA) = No activity.

Table:-1: Antibacterial activity of Aq.Methanolic extracts of all parts of C.rotundus and V.zizanoides




In V. zizanoides the extracts of roots showed maximum antibacterial activity i.e. 10 mm on Bacillus spp. and 7 mm on Staphylococcus

spp. Its leaf extract showed very less inhibition zone i.e. 3 mm on Bacillus spp. and 4 mm on Staphylococcus spp. Its inflorescence extract do not showed any antibacterial activity at all. This result indicates that the active principle must have been synthesized in the leaf and gets transferred to the roots along with the food. It higher molecular weight must have speed up its transportation to roots while some amount may have retained in the leaf due to horizontal posture of leaf. Both plants showed less than 50% inhibition effect than the positive control. The extract may contain several types of substances which could dissolve in methanol. Some of it may nullify the antibacterial activity of the principle compound. The positive control has the Streptomycin in pure form. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was observed in dilution 70 to 100 mg/ml.

CONCLUSION

The aqueous Methanolic extracts of rhizome of C.rotundus and inflorescence of V.

zizanoides. do not have any antibacterial property. The maximum antibiotic property were shown by the extracts of inflorescence in

C. rotundus and roots of V.zizanoides .The fumigation of kitchens and rooms of houses with inflorescence of C. rotundus or roots of V.zizanoides helps to reduce the population of Bacillus spp. Staphylococcus spp. in the air to give a healthy environment. The present study

also reiterates the importance of fumigation techniques for various disease practiced by our ancestors.

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Lacey, J.(1981): The aerobilogy of conidial fungi. In biology of conidial fungi cote and Kendrick (eds)Academic Press, New York.pp578).

Jaffal A. A., I.M. Banat, A. A. EI Mogheth, H. Nsanze, A. Benar and A.S.Ameen, (1997): Residential indoor airborne microbial populations in the United Arab emirates.Environ,Intern,23(4):529-533).

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[ISSN 0975 - 6272] Bahuguna et al.

Volume I Number 2 2010 [88 - 93]

91Counteractive impacts of plant growth regulators over uv-b radiation damage

Deleterious effects of uv-b radiation on certain physiological, biological aspects

and counteracted by plant growth regulators in wheat crop

Panwar, S. K. and Dhingra, G. K.

Received: April 11, 2011 Accepted: August 23 , 2011 Online: November 30, 2011

Abstract

The aim of study was to evaluate the

appropriate concentrations of plant growth

hormones from various concentrations over the

UV-B damage on Triticum aestivum in case of

chlorophyll isolation. Seeds of Triticum

aestivum was grown in laboratory for the seed

germination and seedling growth and then

sown in field plots (A, B, C, D) with

appropriate concentrations of plant hormones

for the isolation of chlorophyll-a, chlorophyll-

b,protochlorophyll. Plot-A of rice crop was

treated as control and neither sprayed with

growth hormones nor exposed to UVB

radiation. Pot-B was treated with UV-B

radiation (3-hrs. daily) only. Plot-C was

sprayed with IAA concentration of (10-7 M),

plot-D was sprayed with Kn concentration of

(10-5 M), along with UV-B radiation in

Triticum aestivum. IAA was found most

effective in (10-7 M), Kn in (10-5M) sin crop of

Triticum aestivum and observed enhancement

in the chlorophyll at the germinating seedling

stage in the laboratory and field study till to

maturity of crop.

Key words: Triticum aestivum | Plant growth

regulators | IAA Kn | Chlorophyll a |

Chlorophyll b | Protochlorophyll | UV-B

radiation

Introduction

The decrease in stratospheric ozone has

prompted renewed efforts in assessing the

potential damage to plant and animal life due

to enhanced levels of solar Ultraviolet-B (UV-

B, 280-320 nm) radiation (Caldwell, 1971,

1998; Madronich et al., 1998). The effect of

UV-B enhancements on plants includes

reduction in yield and quality, alteration in

species competition, decrease in

photosynthetic activity, susceptibility to

disease, and change in plant structure and

pigmentation (Tevini and Teramura, 1989;

Bornman 1989; Teramura and Sullivan, 1991).

Some species show sensitivity to present levels


For Correspondence: 1 Applied Sciences Deptt. G.R.I.M.T. Raduar, Haryana

2 Department of Botany Govt. P.G. College, Uttarkashi, Uttarakhand

Volume II Number 2 2011 [91 - 106] ISSN: 0975 - 6272


of UV-B radiation while others are apparently

unaffected by rather massive UV

enhancements (Becwar et al., 1982). This issue

is complicated further by reports of equally

large response differences among cultivars of

a species. About two-thirds of some 300

species and cultivars tested appear to be

susceptible to damage from increased UV-B

radiation. Crops such as soybean, winter

wheat, cotton and corn are susceptible to

damage from increased UV-B radiation. All

effects of elevated UV-B on plants should be

considered in the context of other factors such

as water stress, increased atmospheric CO2,

tropospheric air pollution, and temperature.

The effects of UV-B on plants have been

studied mostly under growth chamber,

greenhouse while a few experiments

conducted under field conditions (Krupa,

1989). There are also few studies that have

examined the joint effects of UV-B and other

stress factors of plant response. The effect of

UV-B on plant growth and productivity varies

seasonally and is affected by microclimate and

soil fertility. For instance, soybeans are less

susceptible to UV-B radiation under water

stress or mineral deficiency, but sensitivity

increases under low levels of visible radiation

(Teramura, 1983). Continued studies over

many growing seasons are crucial in any UV-

B impact assessment of agricultural

productivity.

Materials and Methods

The present study was undertaken at the field

of R.C. U. Government Post-Graduate.

College, Uttarkashi during. The proper study

site was located at Purikhet campus of the

college near river Bhagirathi. Four plots

measuring 1 x 1 in each were fenced by barbed

wire to avoid any biotic interference. Certified

seeds of cereals crop Oryza sativa were

procured from extension branch of Indian

Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi.

General Experimental Design: - During

laboratory studies following sets were taken

into consideration:

Control: Seeds were soaked for 24-hr. in

distilled water and placed on moistened filter

paper in Peridishes.

UV-B: UV-B radiation was supplied for 3-hr

daily by sunlamps (300 W), filtered with

quartz interference filters (320 run, ORIEL,

USA).

Growth Regulators: Test solutions of IAA

and Kn were prepared in three concentrations

viz. 10-7, 10-6, 10-5 M (Molarity). Seeds of

Triticum aestivum were soaked for 24-hr in

different concentrations of sd k growth

regulators. Soaked seeds were placed in paired

Petridishes lined with moistened filter paper.

One set of Petridish containing soaked seeds

was allowed to grow without any UV-B

exposure.

Growth Regulators + UV-B: In second set-

one from each concentration of different

growth regulators was treated with UV-B

radiation, for 3-hr daily.

During field study, both the crops were grown

in field and the plot was divided by black

paper. sheets into four blocks. Each field block

was given treatment as:



CONTROL

1. Plot A was taken as control. No

treatment was given to the crop of this

plot.

2. Plot B was irradiated with 3-hr daily

UV-B radiation (24.23 Jm211) by

Sunlamps (300 W) filtered with quartz

interference filters (320 tim, ORIEL,

USA).

3. Plot C was sprayed with IAA (10-.6 M

concentration) daily alongwith 3-hr

supplemental UV-B radiation using the

same source.

4. Plot D was sprayed with Kn (10-6 M

concentration) daily alongwith 3-hr

supplemental UV-13 radiation.

General experimental design may be summarized as:

Treatment of plots in field conditions:

A B

C D

The field for cultivation was prepared before

sowing of seeds as proposed by Dhasmana

(1984). Pre-soaked seeds of the crops were

sown in the experimental plots. The general

experimental plan for different treatments was

laid after full germination of both the crops

(Kumar, 1981; Dhasmana, 1984; Ambrish,

1992; Dhingra, 1999; Neeta Bhatt, 2002).

Chlorophylls:

Fresh leaves (500 mg) were homogenised with

80% acetone, centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 5

minutes. Filtrate was taken out and final

volume was made 100 ml, using 80% acetone.

Optical density was read at different

wavelengths viz. 626, 645, 663 mm with the

help of Systronics Digital Spectrophotometer.

The Chlorophyll COl1tefltS were estimated by

the formula given by Koski and Smith (1948)

which are expressed below:

Chl a, mg/l = 12.67 A 663 - 2.65 A 645-0.29 626

Chl b, mg/l = 23.60 A 645 - 4.23 A 663-0.33 626 Protochl, mg/l = 29.60 A 626 - 3.39 A 663-6.75 645

Anthocyanins

Anthocyanins during germination of seeds or

seedlings were extracted by using the modified

method of Mancinelli et al. (1975). 500 mg,

fresh weight of seedlings was grinded in

methanolic HCl (80 ml methanol, 20 ml water,

Treatments Concentration

Con

trol

UV-B IAA Kn UV-B+IAA UV-B+Kn

(3-hr) 10-7 10-6 10-5 10-7 10-6 10-5 10-7 10-6 10-5 10-7 10-6 10-5

UV – B

UV‐ B+IAA

(3‐hr daily) +IAA

10‐6 M

UV‐ B +Kn

(3‐hr daily)



1 ml HCI). Homogenised tissue was

transferred into glass stoppered bottle using

appropriate amount of methanolic HCl, stored

them overnight in refrigerator. It was

centrifuged at 4000 rpm and collected in

conical flask. Final volume was made 25 ml

with methanolic FTC. Absorbance was taken

at 530 nm and 660 nm, with the help of

Systronics - Digital UV-spectrophotometer.

Calculation was determined by using the

formulae given by Mancinelli et al. (1975).

As = at 530 — 1/3 A at 660

Where As = Anthocynins

A = Absorbance

Enzymes:

1. Protease:

Extraction

Ptotease enzyme was extracted in laboratory

conditions from germinating seeds of different

treatments of both the crops. One gram of

germinated seeds were homogenised in chilled

Tris-HCI bufferntrifuged at 5000 rpm for 5

minutes and then supernatant was used as

enzyme source. The volume of supernatant

was made 25 ml by adding Tris-HCI buffer.

All the operations were carried out at 4 to 5°C

(Sadasivam and Manickam, 1996).

Assay

Protease activity in extracted material was

measured by modified method of Green and

Neurath (1954). One ml of extracted material

in TrisHC1 buffer, extracted earlier and

preserved at 4°C, one ml Of protein solution

and one ml of Tris-HC1 was incubated at 40°C

for 1 hr. One ml of TCA was added to the

above and kept in freezer for 3-hr. After that,

the whole solution was centrifuged to get clear

supernatant. In supernatant solution, 1 ml of

1.5 N NaOH was added in a separate

volumetric flask and final volume was made to

10 ml with distilled water.

One ml aliquot of the above solution was

mixed with 5-ml. alkaline copper tartrate

solutions and then incubated for 10 minutes at

40° C and then 1 ml. of Folinphenol reagent

was added. After 30 minuted, the absorbance

of the solution was read at 600 rim. A

calibration curve was also prepared following

above method and utilizing standard amino

acids. The released amino acids were measured

through comparisons of assayed and standard

curves.

Peroxidase

The extraction of crude enzyme was carried

out as followed for protease activity

(Sadasivam and Manickam, 1996).

Assay

One ml aliquot of enzyme extract prepared

earlier and preserved at 4°A was mixed with 7

ml distilled water, 2 ml benzidine solution, 2

ml of 6% H202. The optical density of the

solution was measured after 1 minute by

spectrophotometer using quartz cuvettes at 610

nrn. The activity measured was expressed in A

O.D. (difference) (Mahely and Chance, 1967).



Result

Treatments Chlorophyll a Chlorophyll b Protochlorophyll a/b ratio

A 0.33±0.03

0.32±0.03

0.34±0.04

1.03

B 0.24±0.02

0.26±0.03

0.32±0.04

0.92

C 0.29±0.02

0.30±0.03

0.31±0.04

0.96

D 0.27±0.03

0.23±0.04

0.30±0.02

1.17

Table 1: Chlorophyll content at seedling stage after 7 days of germination as affected by UV-B radiation (3-hr daily) individually and combination of IAA and Kn in Triticum aestivum crop

Treatment Chlorophyll 15 30 45 60 75 90 Chlorophyll a 0.34±0.02 0.46±0.02 0.57±0.02 0.57±0.02 0.96±0.02 1.04±0.04

A Chlorophyll b 0.38±0.04 0.52±0.03 0.62±0.02 0.71±0.07 0.87±0.04 0.96±0.03

Protochlorophyll 0.39±0.02 0.55±0.02 0.67±0.02 0.67±0.07 0.82±0.04 0.83±0.04

a/b ratio 0.87 0.83 0.85 1.11 1.17 1.25

Chlorophyll a 0.26±0.04 0.37±0.04 0.48±0.04 0.67±0.03 0.84±0.03 0.98±0.06

B Chlorophyll b 0.23±0.02 0.43±0.03 0.54±0.04 0.69±0.04 0.76±0.02 0.89±0.05


a/b ratio 1.13 0.86 0.85 1.08 1.13 1.24

Chlorophyll a 0.33±0.02 0.42±0.11 0.52±0.06 0.72±0.02 0.90±0.03 1.02±0.03

C Chlorophyll b 0.45±0.04 0.48±0.05 0.60±0.05 0.68±0.06 0.85±0.07 0.96±0.11


a/b ratio 0.73 0.87 0.86 1.05 1.13 1.22

Chlorophyll a 0.38±0.02 0.43±0.03 0.53±0.04 0.75±0.04 0.86±0.05 1.00±0.07

D Chlorophyll b 0.26±0.03 0.50±0.04 0.60±0.04 0.72±0.09 0.83±0.04 0.93±0.07


a/b ratio 1.46 0.75 0.88 1.04 1.03 1.07

Table 2: Chlorophyll contents as affected by UV-Bradiation (5- daily) individually and combition of IAA and Kn in field grown Triticum aestivum.

Treatments Triticum aestivum

A

0.25±0.09

B

0.56±0.07

C

0.46±0.09

D

0.50±0.05

Table 3: Anthocynin as affected by UV-B radiation(3-hr daily) indiidually and in combination of IAA and Kn in field grown Triticum aestivum



0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

A B C D

Chl a (mg/g)

Treatments

Fig.1.1 : Chlorophyll a (mg/g) of Triticum aestium as affected by different treatments

15

30

45

60

75

90

105

120

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

A B C D

Chl b

mg/g

Treatments

Fig 1.1(a) : Chlorophyll b (mg/g) of Triticum aestium as affected by different treatments

15

30

45

60

75

90

105

120



Stage A B C D Dry

3.450±0.004 -

-

-

6-hr 6.780±0.040

9.060 ±0.07

10.68±0.70

8.070±0.70

12-hr 9.650±0.06

13.62±0.80

15.670±0.130

10.470±0.45

24-hr 11.780±0.07

14.770±0.89

18.655 ±0.65

13.430±0.83

Table 4 : Protease activity as affected by UV-B radition (3-hr daily) individually and in combination of IAA and Kn during seed imbibition in Triticum aestivum

Stage A B C D Dry

0.302±0.03 -

-

-

6-hr 0.325±0.02

0.281±0.059

0.294±0.02

0.290±0.03

12-hr 0.327±0.05

0.547±0.051

0.776±0.069

0.626±0.02

24-hr 0.346±0.07

0.64±0.040

0.817±0.062

0.517±0.07

Table 5 : Peroxidase activity as affected by UV-B radition (3-hr daily) individually and in combination of IAA and Kn during seed imbibition in Triticum aestivum

Counteracting effects of most of these

parameters by different plant growth regulators

were also observed during various

experiments. These effects are directly or

indirectly related to the physiological

processes of plants. It can be said that these

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

A B C D

Protochl m

g/gS

Treatments

Fig 1.1(b): Protochlorophyll (mg/g) of Triticm aestivum as affected by different treatments

120

105

90

75

60

45

30

15



morphological changes caused by UV-B are

the result of physiological distortion. So, in the

present study, it is desired to investigate Some

physiological parameters in relation to

individual UV-B exposure and in combination

with certain plant growth regulators.

Chlorophyll pigment during seedling

growth

Surface sterilized seeds of Wheat was imbibed

in water for 6-hr Distilled water washed seeds

were transferred to 9 cm petridish (9 diameter

cm) for germination and seedling growth

studies and treated with UV-B radiation (3-hr

daily) alone and alongwith different

concentration of plant growth regulators.

Chlorophyll a, b and Protochiorophyll were

measured after 7 days of growth in both the

crops as described in material & methods. The

results are presented in table 1.1 for Triticum

aestivum .

A perusal of result in table 1.1 shows that

chlorophyll a (mglpl), chlorophyll b (mg/pl)

protochiorophyll (mg/pl) and ratio of a/b in

control set were valued as 0.33±0.03,

0.32±0.03, 0.34±0.04 and 1.03 respectively.

When the seedlings were studied with UV-B

radiation alone, it showed a marked decline in

contents of different chlorophyll pigments.

The inhibition was recorded as Ca. 27%, 19%,

6% & 11% respectively as compared to

control. When sets C & D were observed

(PGRs + UV-B), a general promotion of these

pigments was observed as compared to set B

(UV-B only). IAA was found to be the most

effective to counteract the UV-B induced

inhibition for all the studied chlorophyll

pigments. Data recorded as Ca. 21%, 15%,

19%, & 4% increase over the UV-13 alone

treatment (set B) in chlorophyll a, proto

chlorophyll & a/b ratio respectively.

Chlorophyll development during crop

growth

Effects of UV-B radiation alone and in

combination with plant growth regulators on

chlorophyll development were also carried out

in the same two cereals, which were grown

earlier for growth pattern studies. Plants for

chlorophyll estimation were sampled regularly

at 15 days interval from seedling emergence up

to maturity.

Table 1.2. & Fig. 1.1, showed that in plot A

(control), values of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll

b, protochlorophyll and chlorophyll a/b ratio,

observed at 15 days stage of crop growth were

amounted 0.34±0.02, 0.38±0.04, 0.39±0.02

mg/pl. and 0.87 mg/pl and recorded a

consistent increase up to 105 days stage and

amounted 1.06±0.04, 0.92+0.033, 92

0.90±0.02 mg/pl and 1.15 for chlorophyll a,

chlorophyll b, protochlorophyll and

chlorophyll a/b ratio respectively.

A decline in all the chlorophyll pigments was

observed at maturity. Plants of plots B were

experienced marked reduction in chlorophyll

pigment as compared to control. Maximum

inhibition of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b,

protochlorophyll and ratio of a/b were noted at

30-day stage and 120-day stage and reduced by

Ca. 17%, 22%, 15% and 18% respectively as

compared to control (Plot A). When the plot C

and D were studied, the promotion of content

of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b,



protochlorophyll and ratio a/b were noted. Plot

C was shown the maximum value of content of

chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and

protochlorophyll at 15 days of growth and ratio

a/b at maturity and noted as Ca. 27% 95%,

21% and 20% as compared to UV-B treatments

alone (Plot B). The plot D was shown the

maximum value of contents of chlorophyll a,

chlorophyll b, protochlorophyll and ratio a/b at

15 days old, 30 days and 120 day stage of

growth and promoted by ca. 96%, ca. 21% &

Ca. 22% as compared to UV-B treatment alone

(Plot B).

Anthocyanins

The effect of UV-B radiation individually and

in combination of IAA and Kn on anthocyanin

development was studied in both wheat and

rice. Seeds of both the crops were presoaked in

distilled water in dark for 24 hours and

transferred in different petridish for

germination and further growth. One petridish

carrying seeds of each crop was exposed to

ordinary white light and treated as control. One

petridish of each crop was exposedto daily 3-

hr UV-B only. Three petridishes of both the

crops were exposed to UV-B alongwith

different plant growth regulators and were

carried out in growth chamber. Three days old

seedlings were taken for extraction of the

anthocyanin as described in material and

method.

Ultraviolet—B radiation has positive effect on

the accumulation of anthocyanin in Triticum

aestivum seedling. Plant growth regulators viz.

IAA (10 -6M) and Kn (10 -6M) were observed

counteracting and lowered down the

anthocyanin accumulation induced by UV-B

treatment. A perusal of data given in table (1.3)

shows that anthocyanin accumulation is

directly related to UV-B irradiation. A 3-hr

daily UV-B exposure in wheat caused by a

marked accumulation of anthocyanin (ca.

124%) as compared to control. IAA and Kn

given alongwith UV-B irradiation were

inhibitory to anthocyanin pigment

accumulation as compared to UV-B individual

exposure. IAA was found to be effective to

inhibit anthocyanin accumulation and this was

inhibited by Ca. 18% as compared to UV-B

exposed alone. In case of Kn it was reduced by

ca. 11% as compared to UV-B treatment

individually.

Enzymes

Protease

Effect of UV-B irradiation alone and in

combination of plant growth regulators on the

protease activity was studied in the seeds of

Wheat. Uniformly selected seeds were soaked

in distilled water for 6 hrs, 12 hrs & 24 brs

respectively. Now these presoaked seeds were

spread in different petridishes (A, B, C, D).

One petridish was kept as control (Neither UV-

B nor PGRs), another was exposed to only 3-

hr daily UV-B radiation and two petridishes

were added with IAA & Kn respectively and

exposed to 3- hrs daily UV-B radiation. After

providing different treatments, development of

protease activity was measured as described in

materials & method.

Table 1.4 showed the effect of UV-B radiation

alone & in combination of PGRs on protease

activity in wheat seeds. After imbibition in



water, there was a considerable rise in activity

of protease. Data obtained form petridish B

(UV-B exposed) showed a marked promotion,

and showed Ca. 34%, 41% & 25% increase at

6 hrs, 12 hrs & 24 hrs respectively as compared

to control. Protease analysis of seeds of

petridish C showed slight inhibition of

protease activity as compared to UV-B

exposed alone. Maximum inhibition was

recorded in seeds soaked in Kn and a reduction

of Ca. 11%, 23%, 8% was reported at 6, 12 &

24 hrs respectively as compared to UV-B alone

treatment.

Peroxidase

In order to test the effect of UV-B irradiation

individually and in combination of IAA & Kn

on peroxides activity, investigations were

made on Triticum aestivum during the course

of seed imbibition.

Table 1.5 showed that there was a considerable

rise in peroxidase activity in control and

reported as 7.7±0.06, 8.73±0.07, 10.28±0.37 at

6 hrs, 12 hrs, 24 brs respectively. Pestridish B

showed a notable rise in peroxidase activity

and was recorded ca. 118.2%, 125%, 163% at

6hrs, 12 hrs, 24 hrs respectively as compared

to control. Petridish C & D showed a rise of ca.

3%, 96% and 96%; 92, 97% and 93% at 6 hrs,

12 hrs, 24 hrs respectively as compared to UV-

B treatment.

Discussion

In The present study, carried out in the

laboratory, destruction of chlorophyll, a, b,

protochlorophyll and chi a/b ratio was noticed

when the crops were treated with UV-B

radiation. In this crop, chlorophyll a and

chlorophyll b were found almost equally

reduced due to 3-hr daily treatment of UV-B.

When the crops were supplemented with PGRs

in addition to the UV-13 radiation, a

promotory effect was noted in the present

study. Kn (10-7M) was found most promising

growth regulator when compared with IAA.

Significant reductions in different chlorophyll

pigment by UV-B exposure were also

investigated by Jain and Goyal (1990), Duysen

et al. (1985), Sharma et al. (1988), Goyal et al.

(1991), Ambrish (1992) and Dhingra (1999).

The chlorophyll content were also analysed in

the field grown crops under the influence of

various treatments. In general, it was observed

that UV-B inhibits the chlorophyll

development throughout the crop age.

However, more reduction was recorded in

early stages of growth and at maturity. Kn,

when applied with UV-B radiation, was found

to enhance the different chlorophyll pigments

level in the crops, however, the other PGRs

also mitigate the adverse effects of UV-B,

marginally.

These findings showed the lethal effects of

UV-B towards chlorophyll development and

repaired by Kn 10-6M. This effect was found

variable with the crop skecies. Vu et al. (1981,

1983) reported that chlorophyll a/b ratio

decreased due to UV-B radiation in soybean

but increased in pea.

Tevini et al. (1981) concluded that UV-B

radiation inhibited the biosynthesis of

chlorophyll b than chlorophyll a. Jain and

Goyal (1990), while working with lentil crop

under field conditions, reported the similar



results. They also emphasized that

interconversion of protochiorophyll to

chlorophyll was retarded. As Kn was found to

improve the synthesis of chlorophyll even

under increased radiation energy (Purohit,

1988), an improvement in different

chlorophyll contents was reported in the

present study under similar conditions. One of

the measures, which plants develop for the

defence towards higher UV-B radiation, is the

development of anthocyanin. Present study

showed that the crops Triticum aestivum

adevelop over 124 % anthocyanin production

as compared to control when treated with 3-hr

daily UV-B radiation. A slight decrease in

anthocyanin content was noted when the crops

were exposed to combined effects of UV-B

and different growth regulators. This shows

that growth regulators caused insignificant

change in the anthocyanin accumulation in

plants towards UV-B radiation. Ambler et al.

(1975) and Bennett (1981) found the

accumulation of anthocyanin as a defence of

cotton plants against enhanced UV-B

radiation. Hashimoto et al. (1991) also

reported the similar observation, while

working with chlorophyll due to enhanced

UV-B radiation can be correlated with each

other. Enhancement of anthocyanin synthesis

can be explained as chloroplast may provide a

large reserve pool for the biosynthesis of

anthocyanin (Mancinelli et al., 1975). UV-B

induced anthocyanins production has also been

reported in mustard hypocotyles, corn, wheat

and rye coleoptiles (Wellmann, 1982).

Arakawa et al. (1985) found synergistic

increase in anthocyanin production caused by

UV-B (312 nm) with white light in apple fruits.

Yatsuhashi and Hashimoto (1985) found multi

facet action of UV-B photoreepto and

phytochrome in the synthesis of anthocyanin

using 290 nm (UV-B radiation).

Similar to anthocyanin, flavonoid

concentration was also increased, in UV-B

treated seedlings after four days of treatment.

In contrast, high UV-B fluence increased the

flavonoid accumulation (Prem Kumar et al.,

2001). According to (Tevini et al., 1990)

flavonoid accumulation is regarded as

protective mechanism in higher plants to

provide against UV-B radiation.

Hence, it is concluded that the UV-B treated

seedlings may activate a defense mechanism

against UV-B damage by increasing flavonoid.

Pal et al, (1999) concluded that flavonoid

concentration can reduce the UV-B penetration

and protect the photosynthetic apparatus upto

some extent, but it depends upon threshold

level which may vary in different species.

However, there is also evidence that flavonoids

may function in plants to screen harmful

radiation, bind phytotoxins and help to regulate

the stress response by controlling auxin

transport (Shirley, 2002).

This study showed considerable rise in

protease and peroxidase activities in the

germinating seeds as compared with the pre-

existing enzymes in the seeds. Experimental

data showed enhancement of protease activity

up to Ca. 8% in UV-B exposed germinating

seeds as compared to control. When the crop

was subjected to combine treatment of PGRs

with UV-B, Kn (10-6M )was found most

mitigatory which lowered the activity of



peroxidase up to 125% while protease activity

was lowered slightly when compared to UV-B

individual treatment. No significant effects

were observed in peroxidase activity with IAA.

Conclusion

1. Experimental studies showed pronounced

effect of UV-B exposure and PGRs

individually and in, combination on

chlorophyll development, of seedlings of

the crops. Results of the present study

show decrease of Ca. 27%, 19%, 6% of


protochlorophyll respectively in case of

Triticum aestivum after 15 days of

seedling growth. When the seedlings were

treated with UV-B alongwith IAA it

showed as 15%, 19%, 4% for chlorophyll

a, chlorophyll b and protochiorophyll in

case of Triticum aestivum, when individual

treatment of UV-B was given to field

grown crops a decline of 22%, 17% and

15% in case of Triticum aestivum. When

these crops were suppleniented with

combination of UV-B and PGRs, an

increase in different chlorophyll contents

was recorded. Out of the two PGRs, was

found to an improved the chlorophyll

contents by 27%, 95% and 21% for


protochiorophyll respectively for (IAA +

UV-B), 96%, 22% and 21% of chlorophyll

a, chlorophyll b and protochiorophyll (Kn

+ UV-B) in case of Triticum aestivum.

Plants develop anthocynin as a protection

pigment against UV-B radiation as

evidenced by present as well as other

experimental studies. When the seedlings

were treated with UV-B, a marked

promotion of Ca. 124% of anthocynin

pigment was recorded due to UV-B

treatment in Triticum aestivum . IAA was

found to mitigate the effect of UV-B

radiation and consequently lowers down

the accumulation of pigment as compared

to UV-B treatment in Triticum aestivum.

2. The protease activity was also enhanced in

germinating seeds of the crops due to UV-

B radiation. A rise of Ca. 34%, 41% and

25%, was recorded after 6 hr; 12 hr. 24 hr

of soaking in Triticum aestivum in treated

seeds as compared to control.

3. 17. A marked increase in peroxidase was

noted in inhibited seeds of both the crops

due to UV-B radiation. An increase of Ca.

118%, 125%, 163% was recorded in

Triticiim aestivum after 6 hr, 12 hr and 24

hr of imbibition respectively due to UV-B

(3-hr daily) radiation as compared to

control. When the seeds were supplied with

PGRs alongwith the above treatment, this

effect was altered significantly and a

decrease of Ca. 11%, 23% and 8% at 6 hr,

12 hr and 24 hr respectively was reported

in Triticurn aestivum.

All the parameters considered during the

present study such as Photosynthetic pigments

viz, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and

protochiorophyll and enzymes Protase as well

as Proxidase were also reduced when subjected

to UV-B radiation. Effect of UV-B on Wheat,

as far as anthocyanin is concerned was

reported an enhancement. It can be assumed

after overall studies that accumulation of

anthocyanin because of UV-B could act as a



screen by absorbing UV-B radiation and in

turn protect the chioroplast from UV-B

induced damage.

When these most important cereals viz. Wheat

was treated with UV-B alongwith PGRs (IAA

& Kn), a counteracting effect was reported in

all the parameters studied. So, it has been

concluded in our study that these plant growth

regulators (IAA & Kn) can mitigate the

hazardous or deleterious effects caused by UV-

B in this cereal crops significantly.

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