Full Measure of Devotion: Animals of the Civil War

Full Measure of Devotion: Animals of the Civil War

By: Alexandra E. Stern

Henri Lovie, “Battle of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee: Sunday Morning, April 6,

1862.” Lovie captioned, "Shell burst in the spot sketched [center left] killed 6 horses & wounded all the postition [sic] and tore Sergeant Tosey previously wounded in pieces." 1

A conflict of many firsts, the American Civil War (1861 – 1865) was one of the earliest

truly industrial wars. The arrival of improved and increasingly mechanized weaponry

technologies to the battlefield, such as repeating rifles, breech-loading weapons, and the rapid

fire Gatling gun, combined with outdated military strategy, contributed significantly to the war’s

status as America’s most lethal conflict.2 The Civil War, however, was also the first war of

“industrialized animal power,” the greatest single event demanding the massive mobilization of

animals and their ability to perform work in the nineteenth century.3 Dogs, oxen, the odd camel

and eagle, and hundreds of thousands of horses and mules participated in the war as agents of

work, war, and companionship. Part of the natural world, as well as one of the oldest military

Full Measure of Devotion: Animals of the Civil War A. E. Stern 2

technologies, animals transformed the scope and speed of the Civil War, powering its supply

lines, forms of attack, and army transportation. These creatures provided solace and comfort to

the soldiers closest to them, as well as became patriotic symbols of a war powered by animal

service. Scholarly attention to the participation and impact of animals during the Civil War

remains somewhat recent, but its diversity, from energy and technology histories to the cultural

studies of the human bond with war animals (and their relics), helps reveal the multitude of ways

animals were an active part of nineteenth century life. The Civil War, and its demand for animal

power and comfort, required the recruitment of people and animals and their ability to work

together on an unprecedented scale. In doing so, the war, despite all its industrial trappings,

offers a glimpse into the ways in which animals have literally put in motion consequential

historical undertakings, as well as provided sources of comfort and familiarity through which

their humans imagined their own dreams, fears, and purpose.

Suggested Reading:

Gene C. Armistead, Horses and Mules in the Civil War: A Complete History with a

Roster of More Than 700 War Horses (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2014)

Dane DiFebo, “Old Baldy: A Horse’s Tale,” The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and

Biography 135, No. 4 (October 2011): 549-552

Drew Gilpin Faust, “Equine Relics of the Civil War,” Southern Cultures 6 (Spring 2000):

22 – 49.

Ann Norton Greene, Horses at Work: Harnessing Power in Industrial America

(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2008), particularly Chapter 4, “Civil War

Horses.”

Cate Lineberry, “The Dogs (and Bears, and Camels) of War” in The New York Times

Disunion: Modern Historians Revisit and Reconsider the Civil War from Lincoln's

Election to the Emancipation Proclamation, ed. Ted Widmer (New York: Black Dog &

Leventhal, 2013): 152 - 155. This article is also available online through the New York

Time’s Disunion portal.

Charles G. Worman, Civil War Animal Heroes: Mascots, Pets and War Horses

(Lynchburg, VA: Schroeder Publications, 2011).

“Behold a pale horse, and Hell followed with him”: The Horses and Mules of the Civil War

Full Measure of Devotion: Animals of the Civil War A. E. Stern 3

The Civil War was a war powered by equines. Rather than reduce the reliance on horses

and mules, industrialization produced the methods and need for horse power on a larger scale

than ever before.4 As historian Ann Norton Greene explains in her book Horses at Work, “In

nineteenth century America, horses occupied the niche of fractional power, as highly mobile,

versatile prime movers complementing the role of the steam engine, which had greater power but

was less versatile.”5 Although originating in nature, horses themselves are a form of early

biotechnology, adapted for use by humans through the processes of domestication and selective

breeding which helped maximize equine strength or speed and turned horses into the “living

machines” that powered Union and Confederate armies by the 1860s.6

Image entitled “Confederate colonel and horse, both killed at the Battle of Antietam,” taken by

Alexander Gardner. This is one of the war’s most frequently seen animal images. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA.7

The acquisition, as well as care, of horses for the war required an enormous amount of

organization and effort. Horses were one of the biggest expenditures of the war budget. Looking

Full Measure of Devotion: Animals of the Civil War A. E. Stern 4

for serviceable horses, the Quartermaster Department wanted sound males (preferably geldings)

between four and nine years old.8 Employed via war contracts, horse dealers and inspectors

were famously corrupt or incompetent, enabled in part by the pressing demand for horses. But

buying horses was just the start of the army’s investment; without training, feed, shoes, proper

fitting tack, and regular maintenance, horses became spent and unusable for military service

quickly. Quartermaster General Montgomery C. Meigs had to frequently remind officers about

the importance of horse maintenance: “Extraordinary care [should] be taken of the horse, on

which everything depends.”9

Army blacksmith and forge, Antietam, Maryland, September 1862. National Archives and

Records Administration, Washington, DC 20408.10

Full Measure of Devotion: Animals of the Civil War A. E. Stern 5

As the biggest source of non-human labor, horses and mules were critical to the war

effort in a variety of occupations. Civil War horses and mules primarily served in three sectors:

cavalry, supply, and artillery. Lacking a strong cavalry tradition, the Union was outmatched in

the first two years of the war by the Confederacy’s equestrian military units, which effectively

and creatively mobilized their horses’ speed to scout and attack supply trains, aided by the

element of surprise.11 Initially Union cavalrymen were divided among infantry units; only in

1863 when the Cavalry Bureau was founded did Union cavalry fight together as a distinct unit

and improved their military effectiveness.12

Federal cavalry column along the Rappahannock River, VA, 1862. National Archives and

Records Administration, Washington, DC 20408.13

Although not iconic as the cavalry mounts, most military horses and mules pulled the

wagons that constituted each army’s extensive supply trains. An army on the move required

considerable wagon trains of food, bandages, ammunition, and other supplies. Making up the

supply trains, individual wagons (usually loaded with between 2,000 and 3,000 pounds) were

pulled by teams of 4 horses or 6 mules, and followed the army from behind. Most of the army’s

Full Measure of Devotion: Animals of the Civil War A. E. Stern 6

mules were put to work pulling wagons, as nineteenth century Americans believed mules were

unsuitable as cavalry mounts or artillery draft. The fact that horses and mules pulled supply

wagons always threatened to perpetually increase the number of wagons needed, as wagon

equines “consumed forage in the process of moving forage.”14 Poor roads, wet weather, lack of

food, and vulnerability to enemy raids often delayed supply trains critical to the army’s survival.

Artillery horses are the least generally known Civil War service equines. They required

both strength and maneuverability, having to haul field guns into place while also needing to be

able to reposition them during combat. Because horse power was crucial to the proper

positioning of an army’s artillery fire, artillery horses were common targets of attack. As a

result, the average artillery horse was expected to live only seven months.

Drawing of horse drawn artillery by artist Edwin Forbes. Library of Congress Prints and

Photographs Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA.15

Throughout the course of the war, horses and mules perished at rates as astonishing as the

human death toll. Historians estimate 1.5 million horses and mules died during their wartime

Full Measure of Devotion: Animals of the Civil War A. E. Stern 7

service. With an estimated 3 million equines participating in the war effort, a figure 36% greater

than the number of soldiers populating the northern and southern armies, approximately 50% of

the mules and horses drafted into the war did not survive it.16 Unfortunately, targeting the horses

that pulled the enemy’s supply wagons and heavy firepower was of strategic signific ance.

Accounts of these animals’ injury and death comprise some of the most common Civil War

writings about animals. In the aftermath of Shiloh, John Cockerill (70th Ohio Infantry) recorded,

“Here and there in the field, standing in the mud, were… poor wounded horses, their heads

drooping, their eyes glassy and gummy, waiting for the slow coming of death.”17 Stories of

horses “exploded” and beheaded by shells, as well as gruesome tales of brutally injured horses

trying to flee the battlefield carnage vividly express the tragedy and destruction of the war.

Dead equine on the Gettysburg battlefield, photograph titled “Unfit for Service.” Library of

Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA.18

Of those that survived their service, many horses suffered from old injuries and chronic

lameness. The demands of the military necessity pushed horses and mules, as well as their

humans, to the brink of their physical capacity. Poor nutrition, starvation, disease, and lack of

Full Measure of Devotion: Animals of the Civil War A. E. Stern 8

general bodily and hoof care quickly wore out Union and Confederate army horse supplies.

Soldiers often suffered alongside their mounts and through shared hardship forged strong bonds

of affection with the horses closest to them. It was thus through the prism of human-animal

relationships and the observation of shared suffering, facilitated by the necessities of war, that

soldiers wrote and thought about their experiences. Writing after the death of a beloved horse, a

Georgia officer mourned, “He had done no one any harm, but his faithful work for man was now

to be rewarded with a grape shot from a cannon’s cruel math. His fate breathes a reproach and

cries out against this inhuman war.”19 Simultaneously heroes and victims, the horses of the Civil

War were of incredible importance to the military, psychological, and environmental impact of

the conflict.

Recommended Media: Check out the PBS documentary “Unsung Hero: The Horse in the Civil,”

available on DVD through PBS and streaming through Amazon Prime.

Full Measure of Devotion: Animals of the Civil War A. E. Stern 9

Sketch by Alfred R. Waud entitled “Momentoes [sic] of the Battlefield” depicting the partially decomposed remains of a Civil War horse. The carcasses of dead and dying equines often

littered the battlefields of the war. The battle of Gettysburg alone produced as much as 5 million pounds of horseflesh that had to be removed and disposed of after the battle.20 Library of

Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA.21

Equine Celebrity

Although most individual Civil War equines quietly served the Confederate or Union

armies, a few found fame and national acclaim through their military service. These famous

horses were often the mounts of the war’s most famous generals and were often viewed as

“extensions of their masters.”22 Although celebrity status made these horses some of the most

well-known animals of war in American history, it also had its drawbacks. The famous human-

animal relationships of the war brought generals’ horses the loving adoration of thousands of

Americans, but also denied them the restful peace they deservingly earned by the very patriotic

service that made them famous.

Full Measure of Devotion: Animals of the Civil War A. E. Stern 10

One of the most famous images of General Robert E. Lee, taken astride his famous and favorite horse, Traveller, “a Confederate grey.”23

Among the most famous equestrian generals of the war was the Confederacy’s Robert E.

Lee. Although Lee owned and rode a number of horses during the war, his most famous and

favorite mount was Traveller, a grey American Saddlebred-thoroughbred cross who survived the

entire war relatively unscathed. Although a “nervous and spirited” four-year-old colt when Lee

purchased him in 1862, Traveller and Lee developed “a perfect understanding” through their

time together.24 A lucky rear “in reaction to violent artillery fire” saved both Traveller and

General Lee at Spotsylvania just as “a cannon ball passed directly under the steed’s belly.”25 As

Lee’s iconic mount, Traveller became increasingly famous after the war; even his hair was a

sought after memento of the war. As President of Washington College in Lexington, Virginia

after the war, Lee wrote to his daughter commenting, “The boys are plucking out his tail, and he

is presenting the appearance of a plucked chicken.”26 Often inquiring after his horse while he

would travel asking “How is Traveller? Tell him I miss him dreadfully,” Lee would ride his

famous grey gelding for the rest of his life.27 Traveller outlived his master by less than a year,

having to be put down after contracting tetanus (1871). Buried for only four years, Traveler was

quickly disinterred and rearticulated for exhibition, only returning to Washington College (now

Washington and Lee) in 1907. Kept first in the university’s museum, then the chapel, Traveller’s

skeleton was continually the subject of student pranks and graffiti scratches (the inscription of

student initials on his bones was thought to provide good luck on exams) until he was reburied in

1971 near the Lee family crypt.28

Union generals were not without their famous mounts as well. General Ulysses S. Grant,

who personally loathed the cruel treatment of animals, rode and was depicted with several of his

horses, including equines Cincinnati (the horse with whom Grant is most often associated), Jeff

Davis, and Egypt. When asked if he would trade the easy gaited pony Jeff Davis (frequently

called Little Jeff) for the Confederacy’s president he reportedly replied, “I would exchange it for

the rebel chief, but for nothing else under heaven.”29

Full Measure of Devotion: Animals of the Civil War A. E. Stern 11

General Grant and his war horse, “Cincinnati” at Cold Harbor, 1864. Library of Congress

Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA.30

General George Meade’s horse Old Baldy lived a fascinating life and has continued in

death to elicit Americans’ Civil War passions. During the Civil War, Old Baldy survived an

amazing number of injuries (14 in total): “the horse was shot in the nose at First Bull Run, the

leg at Second Bull Run, the neck at Antietam, the chest in his master’s triumph at Gettysburg,

and the ribs a year later at Petersburg.”31 Purchased by General Meade in September 1861, Old

Baldy carried his master through the majority of the Virginia campaign, even outliving him by a

decade after the war (Meade died in 1872, Old Baldy in 1882). Immediately after Old Baldy’s

death, the General George Gordon Meade Post #1 had the horse’s head removed and stuffed.32

Old Baldy’s mounted head, today located at the Civil War Museum and Library in Philadelphia,

remains the museum’s most popular exhibit.

Full Measure of Devotion: Animals of the Civil War A. E. Stern 12

General George G. Meade’s horse, “Old Baldy,” photographed in Culpeper, VA, October

1863.33

Dogs of War

Equines were the Civil War’s largest non-human power source; as such, their archival

presence is much larger compared to other animals that experienced and participated in the war.

But soldiers forged relationships with animals beyond the bounds of the work of war. As loyal

animals of comfort and utility, dogs were frequent and valued companions in Civil War camps

and contributed significantly to military morale. Dogs often shared their masters’ rations and

bedding, as well as long marches. Although most praised for their loyalty and companionship,

dogs also acted as couriers during the war. It is said Confederate spy Emiline Pigott, for

example, used her pet dog to ferry secret documents concealed by a fake fur coat sewn around

the canine.34

Full Measure of Devotion: Animals of the Civil War A. E. Stern 13

Officers of the 153rd New York Infantry with their dog. Library of Congress Prints and

Photographs Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA.35

Lt. George A. Custer and his dog during the Peninsular Campaign, May-August 1862. Library

of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA.36

Full Measure of Devotion: Animals of the Civil War A. E. Stern 14

Although technically against orders, soldiers acquired pets of all manner of species

during the war. As Richard Miller Devens’s Pictorial Book of Anecdotes and Incidents of the

War of the Rebellion explained:

Nearly every company, certainly every regiment, in the Army of the Potomac, had a pet

of some kind or other. It mattered not whether the object of their affection was a dog,

cat, possum, cow, or horse – of whatever name or species the brute was loved by all, and

woe be to the outsider who dared to insult or injure one of these pets… Occasionally

these pets became great heroes in their way, and then they became general favorites in the

whole army.37

Particularly heroic dogs gained a kind of celebrity status among the troops; a few were even

commemorated in monument form along with their divisions after the war. Dog anecdotes were

also popular newspaper material, with tales of animal heroics and devotion most enjoyed. Tales

of canine loyalty from the war express common tropes of selfless sacrifice and are particularly

revealing of the tender affection soldiers and their dogs expressed for one another. Civil War

soldiers were right to prize their canine companions, as their bond often lasted into death.

Writing to his aunt in August of 1862, a Georgia soldier recalled coming across the body of a

dead Union solider and his dog: “They tried to coax her to leave her dead master but without

avail. She actually seemed to weep, and when they had at one time succeeded in getting her to

follow them for as much as ten steps, she ran back, whining, to the body and curled herself up

again in his arms.”38

Recommended Media: Check out the Heinz History Center’s video on Jack, Hero Dog of the

Civil War, as well as National Geographic’s Untold Stories From the Civil War: Dogs in Battle.

Camels and Eagles and Bears, Oh My!: The Civil War’s More Unusual Animal Mascots

Horses and dogs were not the only beloved animals that accompanied men onto the

battlefield and eased the traumas of war. Several Wisconsin units boasted unusual mascots: a

raccoon among the men of the 12th Infantry, a badger kept by the 26th Wisconsin Volunteer

Infantry, and a bear as part of the 12th Volunteers, brought as far as Missouri.39 But Wisconsin’s

most famous animal mascot was the “war eagle” Old Abe, a bald eagle belonging to Company C,

Full Measure of Devotion: Animals of the Civil War A. E. Stern 15

8th Regiment Wisconsin Volunteers. Known as the “Yankee Buzzard” to the Confederate

soldiers who tried to capture him, Old Abe “served” through 42 battles and skirmishes, often

flying screeching into battle with his regiment.40 It is said that Confederate General Sterling

Price wanted to capture the eagle so badly he would “rather have the bird than the whole

brigade!”41 Retired in 1864, Old Abe lived in the Wisconsin state capitol building until his death

in 1881.

Old Abe with his unit, the 8th Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry.42

Classroom Activity: Check out Zemen Marrugi’s Civil War Animal Mascots Lesson Plan,

designed for grades 4 -7, provided by the Civil War Trust.

Union soldiers were not the only men with unexpected mascots. Southerners found theirs

in Old Douglas, a dromedary camel, who served along with Company B of the Confederacy’s

43rd Mississippi Infantry. But not all Civil War animal mascots enjoyed happy endings. Shot by

a Union sharpshooter in the final days of the siege of Vicksburg, Old Douglas “may have been

eaten by starving Confederates.”43 Despite the love expressed for the Civil War’s animal

mascots, the clear division between human and animal quickly appeared in times of hardship.

Full Measure of Devotion: Animals of the Civil War A. E. Stern 16

Old Douglas was not the only animal whose final sacrifice kept men fed. As Captain Elisha

Hunt Rhodes of the 2nd Rhode Island wrote of his pet sheep, Dick, who was initially taught tricks

by the men of his regiment: “We took our pet sheep with us, but on reaching Washington, the

field and staff officers found themselves without money, so we sacrificed our sentiment and sold

poor Dick to a butcher for $5.00 and invested the proceeds of the sale in bread and Bologna

sausage.”44 With momentary tenderness giving way to the grim and often deadly realities of

wartime service, such was the nature life for both man and animal during the Civil War.

Remembering the Civil War and its Animal Participants

Civil War drawing by Edwin Forbes, entitled “An old soldier.” Library of Congress Prints and

Photographs Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA.45

The Civil War is doubtless one of the most pivotal human struggles in American history,

although putting a war over the nature and scope of American freedom into motion fell mostly to

animals. As a war of industrialized animal power, the conflict consumed more animals than

Full Measure of Devotion: Animals of the Civil War A. E. Stern 17

people, producing a small cast of non-human heroes along the way. Americans are still drawn to

the animals of the Civil War, seemingly “timeless, familiar in a way many other historical

artifacts do not.”46 Civil War horses, mules, dogs, and other animals, their relics and ancestors,

offer a “means of touching what [we wish to] see as an authentic past.”47 Despite Americans’

love for the Civil War, animals take us no closer to that past. What the centrality of animals to

the war effort, as beings capable of both work and companionship, does offer is a window of

understanding into the ways in which people and animals produced the nineteenth century world

together and may make us mindful of the ways in which we have used and continue to use

animals to put into motion and imagine our present and future.

* * * * *

About the Author:

Alexandra E. Stern has a Bachelor’s degree in American history with honors from the University

of Pennsylvania (2013). She is currently a PhD candidate at Stanford University, specializing in

nineteenth century American history, with particular emphasis on the Civil War and

Reconstruction. Her research focuses on the centrality of the nineteenth century’s “Indian

Problem” to Reconstruction efforts in the West from the 1860s into the 1890s. In her spare time,

she is an active equestrian and proud dog and horse owner.

1 Henri Lovie, “Battle of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee: Sunday Morning, April 6, 1862,” National Geographic, http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2012/05/civil-war-

sketches/img/01-desperate-retreat-battle-of-shiloh-990tt.jpg 2 “Why Was the Civil War so Lethal?” Digital History, Accessed July 29, 2015, http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&psid=3062 3 Ann Norton Greene, Horses at Work: Harnessing Power in Industrial America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2008), 163. 4 Greene, Horses at Work, 121. 5 Greene, Horses at Work, 6. 6 Greene, Horses at Work, 4. 7 “Confederate colonel and horse, both killed at the Battle of Antietam,” Library of Congress, http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.34150 8 Greene, Horses at Work, 128 – 129. 9 Greene, Horses at Work, 159. 10 “Army blacksmith and forge, Antietam, Maryland, September 1862,”

http://www.archives.gov/research/military/civil-war/photos/images/civil-war-009.jpg 11 Greene, Horses at Work, 123. 12 Greene, Horses at Work, 156. 13 “Federal cavalry column along the Rappahannock River, VA, 1862,” http://www.archives.gov/research/military/civil-war/photos/images/civil-war-011.jpg

Full Measure of Devotion: Animals of the Civil War A. E. Stern 18

14 Greene, Horses at Work, 138. 15 “Horse drawn artillery,” Library of Congress, http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.20723 16 Gene C. Armistead, Horses and Mules in the Civil War: A Complete History with a Roster of More Than 700 War Horses (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2014), 3. 17 Armistead, Horses and Mules in the Civil War, 47. 18 “Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. Unfit for service. Artillery caisson and dead mule,” Library of Congress, http://cdn.loc.gov/service/pnp/cph/3g00000/3g01000/3g01800/3g01829r.jpg 19 Faust, “Equine Relics,” 24. 20 Drew Gilpin Faust, “Equine Relics of the Civil War,” Southern Cultures 6 (Spring 2000): 23. 21 “Momentoes [sic] of the Battlefield,” Library of Congress,

http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.21519 22 Faust, “Equine Relics,” 26. 23 “General Lee’s Horses,” Stratford Hall: Home of the Lees of Virginia, Accessed July 29, 2015, http://www.stratfordhall.org/meet-the- lee-family/general-robert-e-lee-1807-1870/general- lees-horses/; Image of General Robert E. Lee mounted on Traveller, his famous "war horse,"

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traveller_(horse)#/media/File:General_R._E._Lee_and_Traveler.jpg 24 “Robert E. Lee on Traveller,” Arlington House, National Parks Service, Accessed July 29, 2015, http://www.nps.gov/museum/exhibits/arho/exb/Military/medium/ARHO-5478-Image-of-Robert-E.html 25 Charles G. Worman, Civil War Animal Heroes: Mascots, Pets and War Horses (Schroeder Publications. Kindle Edition), Kindle Location 3023. 26 Worman, Civil War Animal Heroes, Kindle Locations 3063-3064. 27 Worman, Civil War Animal Heroes, Kindle Locations 3064-3065. 28 Faust, “Equine Relics,” 35. 29 Worman, Civil War Animal Heroes, Kindle Location 4210 30 “General Grant & his war horse,” Library of Congress,

http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/stereo.1s02872 31 Faust, “Equine Relics,” 27. 32 Faust, “Equine Relics,” 28 – 29. 33 http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cwpb.03781 34 Worman, Civil War Animal Heroes, Kindle Locations 2421-2422. 35 “Culpeper, Virginia. Gen. George G. Meade's horse, "Baldy,’” Library of Congress, http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.34203 36 “The Peninsula, Va. Lt. George A. Custer with dog,” Library of Congress,

http://cdn.loc.gov/service/pnp/cwpb/01500/01553r.jpg 37 Richard Miller Devens, The Pictorial Book of Anecdotes and Incidents of the War of the

Rebellion (Hartford Publishing Company, 1866), pg. 504. Available through Google Books (https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Pictorial_Book_of_Anecdotes_and_Inci.html?id=K3APAAAAYAAJ) 38 Worman, Civil War Animal Heroes, Kindle Locations 836-838. 39 Fort Ward Historic Site and Museum, “Civil War Animal Mascots,” Accessed July 29, 2015,

http://alexandriava.gov/historic/fortward/default.aspx?id=40198 40 Fort Ward Historic Site and Museum, “Civil War Animal Mascots,” Accessed July 29, 2015, http://alexandriava.gov/historic/fortward/default.aspx?id=40198 41 Daniel Rolph, “Civil War Mascots,” Hidden Histories, Historical Society of Pennsylvania.

Full Measure of Devotion: Animals of the Civil War A. E. Stern 19

Accessed July 29, 2015, http://hsp.org/blogs/hidden-histories/civil-war-mascots 42 “Old Abe the War Eagle: At War,” Wisconsin Veteran Museum,

http://images.wisconsinhistory.org/700099990031/9999001109- l.jpg 43 Worman, Civil War Animal Heroes, Kindle Locations 2248-2251 44 Worman, Civil War Animal Heroes, Kindle Locations 2352-2353 45 “An Old Soldier,” Library of Congress, http://loc.gov/pictures/resource/ppmsca.20599/ 46 Faust, “Equine Relics,” 48. 47 Faust, “Equine Relics,” 48.