Front Line Dispatches - ICWA

Front Line DispatchesASMARA, Eritrea December 1999

By Marc Michaelson

The Nakfa Front Eritrean War of Independence Active: 1978-88

30 September 1999 Asmara to Nakfa

Through the Savannah Hotel’s tinted lobby windows, I watch a maroonToyota Landcruiser jerk to a sudden curbside halt. Robel bounces out of thedriver’s seat and jogs light-footed up to the front door. We greet, toss my daypackand camera bag into the back seat, and off we go. Fifty meters down the mainroad, around a traffic circle, the Landcruiser sputters a series of dry coughsbefore coasting to a halt. Robel presents a good-natured, apologetic smile, re-vealing a mouthful of braces.The hotel is still in sight, and we’ve had our firstbreakdown. Not a reassuring portent.

"Sorry, I should have filled up the tank before I picked you up."

I offer a half-hearted, "No problem" and Robel goes bouncing down thestreet to buy a few liters of benzine. Actually, it wasn’t a big deal at all. I was justworried about the three-day road trip ahead, out in the harsh, northeastern Sahel.If we can’t get out of eye-shot of the hotel without a gaffe (minor though it maybe), what’s destined to happen when we reach the middle of nowhere? Is Robelgoing to smile and jog off 65 kilometers to the nearest village in search of aspark plug?

Robel returns, twists an old rental-car invoice into a funnel, and skillfullypours in the fuel. He pumps the gas pedal, starts her up, and off we go, leavingAsmara on the Keren road. Immediately I feel better. I’d been in Asmara for thepast ten days, cooped up in offices, meeting government bureaucrats, trackingdown old friends and colleagues, interviewing deportees and generally tryingto get a temperature reading on the state of the nation. How is the economy?(lousy). What is happening on the war front? (minor shelling). What does every-one expect from the peace process? (failure). Mildly interesting stuff, but I waseager to hit the road.

I had made a few futile attempts to coordinate this trip with locally-basedjournalists (Reuters, BBC, Agence France Presse and a visiting correspondent from,of all papers, the Village Voice). Several of them had recently returned from sum-mer holidays (the Ethio-Eritrean border war kindly pauses annually for the rainyseason, providing journalists much-needed vacation time). They were slowlyshaking off memories of London pubs and distant family turmoil, dusting offtheir notepads and reconnecting with their professional lives. Most of them livein Asmara, and thus were unencumbered by the type of time pressures imping-ing on my one-month visit. I had ants in my pants, and expressed this travelbug in several kvetchy efforts to pin down travel plans amid early evening beersat the downtown BarAmerican. For Sami, Alex, Jason, Steve my old and new

Asmara friends my endless prodding and planningwas beginning to echo annoyingly.

I decided to head for Nakfa, and ask Robel, a 28-year-old ex-fighter for Eritrean independence to bemy guide. Robel frequently drives, guides and trans-lates for foreign correspondents, primarily at the warfront, but occasionally to other destinations as well. Wehad traveled together before, with a larger group; thiswould be our first solo journey. I was especially inter-ested in visiting Nakfa with Robel because it’s where hespent much of his childhood.

Nakfa brims with memories and ghosts and holdsgreat nationalistic significance for all Eritreans. Nakfa isa liberation-struggle-era symbol of Eritrean strength,determination, fortitude and cleverness. Since victory in1991, the town has begun rebuilding itself. Now it is ris-ing from the scorched earth into an expression of Eritrea’sself-reliant spirit and tenacity. Even the nation’s newmonetary unit, introduced in late 1997, is called the Nakfa.

A brief history illustrates Nakfa’s emotional content

All boundaries are approximate and unofficial

and strategic importance. In 1978, the EritreanPeople’s Liberation Front (EPLF) controlled the vastmajority of Eritrean territory and were on the verge oftaking Asmara. To rein in the unruly northern prov-ince and avert an embarrassing defeat, Ethiopia’sruler, Col. Mengistu Haile Mariam, turned to his newCold-war patron. Russia responded with generoushelpings of military aid artillery, fighter planes,advisors and commanders. More than 100,000 Ethio-pian troops, mostly conscripts, were mobilized for a mas-sive offensive to crush the trouble-making EPLF onceand for all.

In the most brilliant tactical move of the civil war,Isaias Afeworki and other high-ranking EPLF leadersengineered what has come to be known as the "strategicwithdrawal." To avoid a crushing defeat at the hands ofsuperior Russian technology and weaponry, the EPLFrapidly relinquished control of its territory and retreatedto the rugged mountains of Nakfa. Many fighters disagreedwith the decision and dug in to fight to the end. Isaiasconvinced most, however, to take a longer-term view. TheEPLF had to Weather the impending offensive; they

Dan Connell, Against All Odds: A Chronicle of the Eritrean Revolution. Lawrenceville, NJ: Red Sea Press, 1997. Chapters 10 and11 discuss the EPLF’s "strategic withdrawal" during the series of Ethiopian offensives.

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convoy was trapped on theroad and in the valley. Theycouldn’t go forward andcouldn’t go back. The panickedEthiopian troops abandonedtheir tanks and fled. Fearingthe Eritreans would use thecaptured vehicles againstthem, Ethiopian command-ers called in a desperationair raid on their own equip-ment. Planes dropped napalmon the valley to destroy theequipment, but not beforeEPLF forces escaped with morethan 60 armored vehicles.

Burnt-out tank in the valley near Asherum

would need to give something now to gain more later.

Robel and I pass Keren, leaving the asphalt road andheading toward Afabet and Nakfa. The countrysidehardens, becoming hotter and drier as we progress north-ward. The EPLF lived in these inhospitable, scrub-brush-covered mountains for ten years, patiently repellingEthiopian attacks, and establishing a sophisticated net-work of trenches, supply lines, industries, schools andhospitals. The Eritrean liberation movement literallymoved underground. Within the complex social net-works they built and managed, the seeds of Eritrean self-reliance sprouted and the soul of the nascent nationcoalesced.

Shortly after Afabet, we traverse a narrow mountainpass atAsherum. Robel stops the vehicle near someburnt-out trucks and tanks balancing precariously on the steephillside. The midday sun hammers relentlessly (there areno trees or shade around) as Robel explains what hap-pened here in 1988.

"The Ethiopians used to call this place tesfaya beri,thedoor of hope. If they made it back past this point, theyhad survived hell and could safely get to Afabet. Northof here, they were trapped. There was no escape fromthis valley all the way up to Nakfa and beyond, it issurrounded by high mountains."

In 1988, Ethiopian forces, handily defeated in Nakfa,were retreating in a long convoy of tanks and armoredtrucks toward Afabet. But they never made it throughthe "door of hope." As they scaled the narrow mountainroad, EPLF anti-tank gunners hit the two lead tanks. The

The. momentum hadshifted; Ethiopian forces werein trouble. Less than threeyears later, the EPLF and theirsouthern partners, the TPLF(Tigrayan People’s LiberationFront), collectively overthrewMengistu’s regime. Ironically,

these two liberation-movements-turned-governments are

now fighting each other in a self-destructive war alongtheir common borden

We continue the drive toward Nakfa on sandy river-bed roads. Soon we arrive at a trickling stream wherea woman is washing clothes and her children arewatering the family goats. She watches us with equalparts suspicion and curiosity as we stop the vehicle andwalk over to a cluster of.boulders just off the road. Robel,wearing the trademark black-plastic fighter sandals,(a.k.a. Congos), a’continuing symbol of Eritrean strength,tromps through the stream. He bends down, funnelswater into his cupped hands and pours it over his headto cool off.

"This spot it’s called Ruba Hadai- was a Pris-oner of War camp. We kept eight thousand EthiopianPOWs here; most were captured in Massawa. During theday we kept them camouflaged under trees; sometimeswe’d play football or other games. After some months,the farmers were sent home; the others were kept untilindependence." He points to a mountain just to the west,"That’s Haraz Harmaz, the site of the first big battle whenthe EPLF moved from Nakfa." Robel says Ethiopia had80,000 troops on that front, and the fighting was fierce.

We begin to drive away, but after 200 meters Robelstops the vehicle, briefly turns to me and smiles wist-fully. "See that small tree over there? That’s where I usedto meet my girl friend. Now, every time I pass it, I thinkof her.

The final climb to Nakfa is grueling, the stony road

Institute of Current World Affairs 3

unevenwithjutsandbumps.Justbeforetheascent,Robellightsa Rothmans dgarette. The stereo cranks out the blues:

Papa was a rolling stoneWherever he laid his hat was his homeAnd when he diedAll he left us was alone...lone lone.

It’s an appropriate tune, and we are thrown fromside-to-side in synch with the beat. I grip the handle justabove the window, but it’s hopeless I’m tossed aboutlike a tiny sailboat on a churning, stormy sea. The nextsong seems equally appropriate: "Ramblin’ Man."

At the top of the plateau, we veer off to the left, passthe construction site of a new school, and park in front ofthe trenches. During the liberation struggle, the town ofNakfa was abandoned due to the continuous air barrage.EPLF fighters built and lived in an extensive network oftrenches, stretching more than 400 kilometers (all the wayto the Red Sea). The trenches are 1.5 to 2 meters deep, thewalls fortified with large rocks. Covered sections dot thefront line trenches, the thick tree-trunk roofs (camou-flaged with dirt) provided extra protection during peri-ods of heavy shelling and air bombardment.

Some children are playing in the trenches, following

me around and begging to have their photos taken.Rusted, empty ration cans, shrapnel, empty shells andother war detritus litter the ground. Recently planted eu-calyptus seedlings dot the ridge. Farther down themountainside, a young shepherd follows his goats andsheep.

Robel leads the way as we walk along the labyrin-thine trenches. He stops at a particularly scenic vista. I’madmiring the rugged beauty of the surrounding moun-tains when Robel bangs home the most fundamentalchange wrought by the liberation victory: "I first camehere in 1982, when I was eleven. My teacher Fatimapeeked over the top of the trench and got shot in the eye.I lived in this area for six years, but I never knew whatthis view looked like. You couldn’t stand up or leave thetrenches; if you did you could be shot."

Most striking to me was the shrewdness, the patience,the determination and the long-term vision Nakfa repre-sented. The EPLF lived in this harsh mountain fortressfor 10 years, from 1978-88, waiting for the opportunity tobreak out and resume their struggle to liberate the rest ofthe country. It took unwavering commitment to with-stand the nonstop pounding of heavy artillery and thedaily air attacks. The EPLF and its supporters believeddeeply in their struggle; nothing could stop them from

pursuing their ultimate ends.

Herein lies a crucial military lesson for the cur-rent war on the borden Despite fighting alongsidethe EPLF for years, the TPLF-led Ethiopian govern-ment seems to be suffering from collective amnesia,or perhaps selective memory. They are repeating allof the same propaganda, and using the same ration-ales as the Derg before them. True, Ethiopia is a coun-try of 60 million, while Eritrea is only 3.5 million.True, Ethiopia can field a much larger force, and pro-cure more high-technology military hardware. True,Ethiopia’s economy can better weather the trials ofwar. But can Ethiopia obtain a total military victoryin Eritrea? I believe they can not.

With great human sacrifice and at considerableeconomic expense, Ethiopia can inflict serious dam-age on Eritrea. They may be able to regain control ofthe disputed territories. They can destroy Eritreaninfrastructure and much of the rebuilding andprogress of the past eight years. But can Ethiopiasquelch the Eritrean spirit? Can they remove the ex-tremely popular government of President IsaiasAfewerki, and replace it with a "friendlier" regime?Can Ethiopia destroy the Eritrean military to humbleEritrean arrogance and ensure against future militaryconfrontations?

Trench in Nakfa

I wouldn’t count on it. Eritreans are extremelysensitive about their sovereignty, territorial integrityand hard-won independence. They also possess a

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cafes, restaurants and hotels. As daylight wanes,Muslim Tigre women, colorfully but conservativelywrapped in flowing fluorescent fabrics, stroll acrossthe circle on their way home.

And when he diedAll he left us was alone...lone lone

Robel’s parents were both fighters. He barelyknew his father, who was killed late in the war. Likemany Eritreans, Robel carries ghosts from thestruggle. He still seems haunted by one childhoodincident: "I was in an EPLF school near the coast,and my dad’s platoon passed by. He recognized me,but I ran away from him." Robel pauses for a pen-sive moment, and then continues: "Our teachers toldus never to stop and talk to anyone unless we havepermission." It was the last time he saw his father,his last recollection running away from him.

One of Robel’s four brothers was also killedduring the liberation struggle. His mother, threebrothers and a sister survived. The mother now runsa small business in Asmara, but all four survivingsiblings are actively involved in national militaryservice- one brother is in the navy (in Massawa),two are on the front lines (in Tsorona and Badime)and his sister, an engineer, just completed militarytraining in Sawa.

A Tigre woman

highly trained, skilled and disciplined military machine.Nearly ten percent of the Eritrean population is mobi-lized, and if conditions deteriorate, others vow to jointhe fight.

Eritreans may lose battles and sustain heavylosses, but they are unlikely to compromise oncore issues that affect their freedom. It would besurprising and extremely out-of-character ifEritrea were to surrender. In the short-term,Ethiopia may be able to get some land, or im-pose a settlement, or even temporarily oust theEritrean government. But that will only extendthe conflict. Eritreans seem prepared to take tothe bush yet again they will fight anotherguerrilla struggle if necessary to regain controlof their country. They will not be satisfied witha puppet government with strings manipulatedfrom Addis Ababa.

As a child, Robel desperately wanted to join theEPLF fighters. In his starry eyes, they were heroes.

At the age of 12, he ran away from the RevolutionarySchool to join the fighters. Four times Robel tried to en-list, but was sent back because he was too young. He usedto cut the long pants of his school uniform into shorts, toresemble the trademark uniform of the fighters. After fin,

At sunset, tired from the long journey, wesit outside a bar on the hill in Nakfa’s town cen-ter and sip ice-cold beers. The center is a sprawl-ing circle, as yet largely undeveloped, ringed bylong rectangular buildings housing small shops,

View ofNakfa town. The faintly-visible Mosque in the backgroundwas the only building left standing after the liberation struggle.


Robel

ishing school, he trained as a radio operator and reportedintelligence to commanders from tanks and lookout posts.

After independence, Robel hoped to start a new life.The government tried to convince him to stay in the arm36but he refused, and after four years of lobbying, he wasfinally decommissioned.

1 October 1999 Nakfa to Tsabra, Denden and Afabet

Early the next morning we head north again, follow-ing the narrow river valleys that served as the main EPLFroute to Sudan. Throughout the liberation struggle, theEritreans maintained close relations with the Sudanese

supplies entered Port Sudan and were transported overthe border at night. As many as half a million Eritreanrefugees fled to Sudan during the most brutal periods ofthe war.

bombing. Outside movement was permittedonly at night- to avoid detection by EthiopianMig fighter-jets on their daytime sorties,

In Tsabra, we parkbeneath a tree at the endof a sandy patch where young Robel and hisfriends played soccer. From there we walk alongthe banks of a trickling tributary, and come tothe Tsabra field hospital. During the Nakfa years,the main EPLF hospital was in Orotta, some 80kilometers farther north. Tsabra served as a fieldhospital for casualties from the Nakfa front.

Robel was never wounded during the war,but passed through Tsabra several times. A se-ries of mini-wards (2-3 rooms each), entranceshidden beneath sprawling acacias, dotted theriver banks for a 3-kilometer stretch. "This wardwas for mouth and jaw injuries, that one wasfor stomach, and over there chest wounds."

Most of the doctorsandnursesweretrained atanearbymedi-caltraining site, but some, educated in Europe, the UnitedStates and Russia, had returned from the Diaspora.

There is not much to see in Tsabra, but I close myeyes and soakup the atmosphere, imagining what it musthave been like during the war. During heavy fighting,packed wards attended to 40-60 patients; at night the lessseriously injured would sleep outside under the trees.My mind’s eye pictures thin, afro-topped fighters nim-bly zipping about on home-made crutches; another, onearm in a sling, uses her good hand to cup water and drinkfrom the stream; muffled moans of the more seriouslyinjured echo from the distance.

Today Tsabra is extremely peaceful and relaxingthe babbling brook hums softly and birds sing in the

Interspersed within this valley was avast network of social, military and eco-nomic infrastructures. As we drive towardTsabra, Robel points out several remnantstucked into the mountainside over therea maternity ward, here a technical train-ing school, down that path a tank-repairsite. Most of the valuable wooden roofshave been dismantled by locals, leavingstone building skeletons as gutted remind-ers. Just a decade ago, this area bustledwith urgent activity. Functionally, this wasthe first independent mini-state of Eritrea.

The buildings were camouflaged andtucked inside slender valleys and steeprock cliffs, making them virtually invisibleto Ethiopian planes flying overhead. Struc-tures were also scattered to spread risk andminimize destruction and loss of life from Skeleton of an EPLF hospital ward in Tsabra

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trees. The soothing environmentseems ideally suited to healing; afterour rocky, body-thrashing ride, I feelbetter myself after a few quiet mo-ments here.

We return to Nakfa for lunch andcoffee, and then leave for Afabet. Enroute, we stop at the base of Dendenmountain, the highest peak in theNakfa area. Denden is another endur-ing symbol from the struggle. It pro-vided EPLF scouts an excellent,eagle-eye view of the front lines, andgave commanders a superior vantagepoint from which to monitor fightingand communicate tactics.

After breaking out of Nakfa in1988, the EPLF scored a bold victoryin Afabet, destroying a major garri-son and ammunition depot. Nakfa and Afabet repre-sented psychological turning points in the war. OnceAfabet was captured, Eritrean military victory (and even-tual independence) seemed imminent.

Today Afabet is a peri-urban growth center. The warleft Afabet decimated and nearly empty-- most inhabit-ants had fled to less dangerous areas. Since independence,some 30,000 people have resettled in Afabet and archi-tecturally uninspiring cement rectangles are sproutingout of the rubble. Like most small Eritrean towns, Afabetis quite calm and unremarkable except for its dramatichistory.

In Afabet, we experience two minor disappointmentsnot including the scruffy, water-less hotel that has

lights, but no switches to turn them on or off. Some Ethio-pian Prisoners of War (POWs) are being held at Afabet’smilitary base, so we test our luck to see if we can meetand interview them. I present my general permission let-ter from the Ministry of Information, but to no avail. Thecommanding officer says he would be happy to grantme such access to show the world how well the POWsare treated but first I must obtain special permissionspecifically from the military.

Fair enough, so instead of chatting with POWs weopt to leave town early and return to Asmara via a longer,scenic coastal road. All we need is an extra 30 liters offuel, and off we’ll go. Not so fast. There is no gas for salein Afabet, even on the black market. The military has asupply, but not one that’s accessible to us. Frustrated, wehead back toward Keren, the gas gauge firmly hugging"E" as we pull into town.

Back in Asmara, I immediately begin planning an-

Destroyed tanks in Afabetother trip. My destination, the southern Gash-Barka area,is a popular topic of conversation these days not forbeing the nation’s golden-green breadbasket, but for asmall, unimportant village called Badime, the emotionalepicenter of the border dispute with Ethiopia.

The Badime Front Ethio-Eritrean Border WarActive: May 1998- Present

5 October 1999 Asmara to Unnamed Trenches

Again, early logistical problems. This time we don’trun out of fuel near the hotel. No, this time, we don’teven get that far. One member of our group (who shallremain unnamed) has had a late night of drinking anddebauchery.., and never came home. He is Missing inAction, and the rest of us wait impatiently for him to sur-face. He phones at 8:20 am, groggy, hoarse and apolo-getic. Robel laughs heartily, we pick up our hung-overcolleague and hit the road.

We are a substantial crew two Landcruisers teem-ing with journalists and photographers (mostly those Itried unsuccessfully to rally for the previous week’sjaunt). Last week I had to compete with child-care com-plications and a delicious buffet at the Chinese Embassy’s"50 years of Communism" celebration. This week ourtrip comes together nicely. Everyone is eager; no need toprod and drag.

Despite the late start, we arrive in Barentu, capi-tal of Gash-Barka Region, by about 2:30 p.m. The trip ismuch shorter and less painful than I’d rememberedfrom a year ago. Now the Agordat-Barentu sectionof the road has been asphalted to within 10 kilome-


ters of Barentu, and the ride is smooth.

I hadn’t really planned to visit the front lines. Mymain missions for this trip are to track down the ruraldeportees I interviewed last year, and interview farmersfor a possible article on Eritrean agricultural reforms. Ourgroup plans to part ways in Barentu. Jason and Patrick(from the Village Voice) are eager to sample the warfrontatmosphere and snap some not-too-posed-looking pic-tures of soldiers with tanks and big guns. Alex and Samiof Reuters are off to meet farmers for an Africa Journaltelevision piece.I’m caught in the middle of two attrac-tive possibilities.

On an impulse, I decide to go with Jason, Patrick andRobel to the front. I figure such an opportunity is un-likely to surface again, whereas local farmers will beplanting and harvesting according to cyclical seasonsforever. Plus, access to the front lines these days is scarce.On the Ethiopian side, journalists (I’m registered as oneof them) are forbidden to travel to the entirety of Tigrayand Afar regions, much less tour the front lines. And oflate the Eritrean government has also become increas-ingly stingy with permission.

Actually, we don’t have "official" permission for thistrip. We have Robel.

I’m not sure we’ll get past the military checkpointswithout a letter from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, butRobel seems confident. We have two entry points. First,Major Tewolde, a front-line commander, has accompa-nied us from Asmara. He was on leave and we are inno-cently delivering him back to his post (which just sohappens to be on the back side of amountain where some of Eritrea’s frontline trenches are located). Second, wehave Colonel Yohannes, Robel’s com-mander during the liberation struggle,who we find a few kilometers behindthe front lines. When he sees Robel, hewelcomes him like a long-lost brother.Bear hugs all around. We are in.

week’s trip to the Tsabra valley enter my mind.Sporting the characteristic Tigre big-loop nose rings,these women had lived in the hotbed of the previouswar, so I asked them how life had changed since inde-pendence, One explained, "Our lives improvedgreatly our husbands got work in construction andsuch. But now with the new war with Ethiopia, we fearthings may get worse again. Our sons and daughters arefighting on the borden Some have already died."

I wonder whether any of their children are posted atour destination the Badime front.

It is 5:30 p.m. by the time we arrive. We spend a fewmoments at Major Tewolde’s cave-like one-room houseand hear the rhythmic popping of not-too-distant ma-chine-gun fire. Surprisingly, I’m not nervous. Eventhough I am about to enter the frying pan, I feel comfort-able, relaxed.

On later reflection, I attribute this safe, relaxed feel-ing to the unassuming confidence and competence of ourhosts. The Eritrean military is highly professional, well-trained and disciplined not caught up in showy ma-chismo. They undertake the drudgery of their dailyexistence with such an easy matter-of-fact manner that itfeels almost normal to be there. Strange, since I’ve neverbeen so close to a warfront, and never seen or heardpeople firing guns at each other.

My colleagues are eager to visit the trenches whilethere’s still ample light for photographs. We politelyrefuse an offer of tea and walk for five minutes alonga back path into the trenches, Just before entering, Major

To get to the front lines we drive inand out of mountains and valleys. Wepass abandoned Ethiopian trenches, onland several kilometers inside Eritrea,that Ethiopia occupied after breakingthe line at Badime in February 1999. TheEthiopians held these positions for a fewmonths,: and in April, Eritrea retookthem during an unsuccessful bid to re-capture Badime.

Aswe head for the new front line,three Tigre women from our previous Eritrean troops relaxing at dusk

The names of the military personnel in this section have been changed.

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ing bowls. I wouldn’t dispute that many of themare tough, but during the lengthy lulls in the fight-ing, traditional gender roles emerge.

Dark sets in and a series of shells breaks the silence.A gunfire burst and then the whoosh of a rocket. Justafter the rocket whizzes overhead, Major Tewolde says,’Tune to go inside" and I stomach the first pangs ofner-vousness and apprehension.Adim kerosene lamp castseerie shadows inside the Major’s one-room mud-and-rock house. Along the far wall rests his bed and a fancynew portable stereo (just brought back from Asmara).Besidethebedstandsasimplewoodentablestackedwithpapers and notebooks; along the other wall are a fewsquat stools.

Afemale soldier boiling tea for the troops

Tewolde stops suddenly, turns and calmly imparts a fi-nal pearl of advice: "Keep your heads down. Don’tstand to look at the other side, and you’ll be fine." Wehunch over and continue, but the trenches are deep (1.5-2 meters) making crawling unnecessary (except throughthe fortified covered sections in 20-meter intervals).

The Badime trenches appear eerily identical to theNakfa trenches built two decades earlier. The samedepth, same rock fortification, same covered sec-tions. The only major difference: here there are uni-formed soldiers bearing AK-47s, sniper rifles, grenades,machine guns and rounds oflive ammunition. Some peercautiously through lookout crevices. And only 50-100meters away, behind their own trenches, the Ethiopianarmy is watching and shooting at us.

An exchange of fire, and it sounds to be quite. Close.A few shells are launched from the Ethiopian side,butland far away on a distant hillside. Then; silence.., thetype of uncomfortable silence laden with anticipation,uneasy expectation. This occasional shelling andgunfire characterizes the tense unofficial cease-firealong the borden

We snap a.few photos and retreat to Major Tewolde’sbase. Twentytroops .mingle as the sun sets and darknessenvelopes the mini-camp. Among them are two femalesoldiers, In Eritrea, national military service is manda-tory for both sexes, although fewer women are posted atthe front than men (about 1:3). Women played a centralrole in the liberation struggle, fighting alongside men andearning a mythical reputation for toughness.

Times have changed; Most of these women (and theirmale age-mates) did not enlist by choice. They weresent to Sawa for mandatory military training andthen posted to the front. Throughout our visit, weoften find the female soldiers immersed in domesticwork making tea; cool<ing, Washing clothes, clean-

One of the young female soldiers, Zebib, bringsus tea and then tells of her war experiences. Zebibgrew up in Addis Ababa before returning to Eritrea

a few years back. She is a radio operator,’and was one ofthe 30 women in Major Tewolde’s unit who fought in theheavy battles in Geza Gerlassie last year.

"I speakAmharic so I was put in charge of the POWs.During thebattle, I recognized one of the POWs who sur-rendered to our platoon. His name was Habtom and hewas one of my neighbors in Addis Ababa. I was shockedto see him there and I told him not to worry, we wouldtake good care of them. We gave them water and milk,and washed their clothes not long after the battle ended."

The plot reeks peculiarly of Hollywood a drippy,

Watching the Ethiopian side through a lookout nook


Romadan, Robel, Col. Yohannes and Mikaeli

and her colleagues are medics, providing thefirst level of care and stabilization to thewounded. More serious cases are then trans-ferred to hospitals throughout the country.

As we drink the first mini-cup-’o-java, twoother troops join us, including Romadan, a boy-ish-looking radio operator. He says he’s 18, butlooks closer to 15. Robel brings out some cakesfor the second cup of coffee and Patrick headsfor bed. Drinking coffee at night gives me in-stant insomnia, but we are having fun, chattingand goofing around, so I stay up. The Colonelforces cup number three on me, firmly explain-ing that he’s the commander and I’m his guest,so drink up. I bring out some cookies fromAsmara for cup number four. Then come cupsnumber five and six. Granted, they are smallcups, but nearly as potent as espresso. With allthat caffeine, I am wired like a power station.

tear-jerking modern war flick: Old neighbors caught inthe momentum of history, driven to war. In a tense, cli-matic moment, an orchestral crescendo building in thebackground, they confront one another at gunpoint. Theirminds whirl with memories, confusion and a split-sec-ond ethical dilemma. What to do next?

This scene and the broader war may stink of parodybrother fighting brother but it is horrifically real.

The guns don’t carry blanks and the casualties aren’t ooz-ing ketchup from their wounds. Poignant momentslike Zebib giving milk to her old neighbor Habtomare few. This war is real, and it’s the nasty stuff of mod-ern tragedy.

By the time we leave for Colonel Yohannes’ place, athick darkness and peaceful quiet muffle the front. Wegingerly grope our way down the hillside and MajorTewolde sporadically lights the way with a small flash-light. When we arrive at the Landcruiser, we find onetire flat, change it quickly and head out.

Col. Yohannes is a big sturdy man with a contagioussmile. This friendly demeanor counterbalances hismilitaresque, don’t-mess-with-me air of inner toughness.Shortly after our arrival, Weina, another young femalesoldier, brings a hefty plate of spaghetti and local anbeshabread. I am tired and hungry; I eat ravenously. After din-ner, Patrick, Jason, Robel and I settle back on a canvasarmy cot as Weina and two of her friends prepare a tra-ditional coffee ceremony.

Col. Yohannes’s base camp is about five kilometersfrom the front lines, and thel hum of a generator drownsout the sound of any distant shelling (which, we are in-formed the next morning, did occur further north). Weina

At midnight, we retire. Our hosts have set up somearmy-issue cots outside, and the cool breeze promisesperfect sleeping conditions. Unfortunately, my cot isunstrategically located directly between Patrick and Ja-son, two world-class snorers. I lay down and stare help-lessly at the heavens. The two of them are honking instereo, and I’ve got enough caffeine flowing through myveins to kill a small laboratory rat.

A few hours later, I manage to catch some restlessslumber. I awake near 6:15 am to pesky flies buzzing about

Weina pouring coffeelO MM-17

me and a gorgeous sunrise of wispy clouds painted inpink and orange pastels.

6 October 1999 Unnamed Trenches on Badime Front

A wash of the face, morning tea, some quick greet-ings, and we return to the front lines. Patrick needs cred-ible action shots, so Major Tewolde guides us on anabbreviated tour of his command area. First, we find ateam of soldiers digging a large bunker, about 4 meterssquare and 2 meters deep. The Eritrean army digs con-tinuously, fortifying positions with such care and dili-gence it appears they plan to live there forever. If fightingresumes, and the front line moves forward or is pushedback, they will start the same grueling process againconstructing trenches, bunkers and stone homes. Robelsays, "Even if they are only there for one day, they willdig deep trenches. The Ethiopians just stack some rocksa meter or so high, but we are always digging."

Next we revisit the trenches. Tsega, a female soldier,is preparing a machine-gun firing demonstration. Tsegalooks about 20 years old and packs a sturdy frame. Shehandles the equipment proficiently, and sets up to shootthrough a lookout crack. Four male counterparts watchfrombehind. Patrick and I prepare for the photo op, dramaticcaption: bravefemale soldiers fightfor Eritrea. She opens fire andisjerkedbackbythepowerofthegun. Patrickand IdickawaThe round sprays up and around, certainly missing its tar-get (whatever that might have been) by a great distance.The other soldiers stifle a laugh. Tsega turns and smiles.Unfazed and unembarrassed, she organizes her equip-ment and takes her place amongst the others, posing formore photos, guns pointed at the enemy.

We walk farther along the trenches and MajorTewolde warns us to keep quiet. The front lines are fright-eningly close at this point (about 30 meters). If the Ethio-pians hear voices and activity, they might try to lob agrenade into the trench. Sometimes at night, the two sidesbring their stereos into the trenches and play music foreach other. Just another reminder that these two bitterrivals are actually brothers.., brothers engaged in a deadlyfamily squabble.

Leaving the trenches, we visit a few more mini-campsalong the back side of the front-line mountains. Eritreakeeps its troops and supplies scattered throughout a vastarea. This is strategic concentrations of personnel, ar-maments and equipment are more vulnerable to attack.Likewise, small, highly-mobile platoons are flexible-they can respond quickly wherever needed. The Badimefront spans more than 40 kilometers when heavy fight-ing erupts in one section, reinforcements are called in.

This mobility and adaptability has served the Eritreanarmy well during the liberation struggle and the cur-rent conflict. However, Eritrea’s vulnerability to massivehuman-wave attacks was demonstrated in February 1999

Lentils for breakfast on the front line

when Ethiopian forces breached Eritrean lines and re-gained control of Badime. The defeat and retreat inBadime was a humbling experience. The Eritrean mili-tary failed to anticipate the sheer numbers and over-whelming amount of force the Ethiopians were preparedto use. According to some sources, the Eritreans had lefttheir trenches to counterattack, and after a few minorsuccesses, were routed. Supply lines also failed afterdays of non-stop Ethiopian wave attacks, Eritrean sol-diers ran out of bullets and were forced to retreat fromtheir trenches.

Shortly after the Badime debacle, Eritrean forcesmanaged to repel a massive attack further east nearTsorona. This successful defense restored some pride andconfidence in the nation’s military capabilities. Still,Badime had a psychological impact on Eritrea, and cata-lyzed changes a rethinking of strategy, the procure-ment of more and better weaponry (including improvedair defense systems) and the recruitment of more troops.

Both sides have reassessed strategy, retooled theirarsenals with larger amounts of even more deadly weap-onry, and recruited thousands of additional troops.Should fighting resume in early 2000, it is likely to beeven more deadly than the last round, estimated to havecost in the range of 40,000-70,000 lives. As of this writing,Eritrea has accepted the Organization of African Unity


Digging a bunker

Front line gunners pose for photos

(OAU) peace framework and the two supporting documents (Modalities and TechnicalArrangements for Imple-mentation). Ethiopia has refused, claiming the latterproposals have been unfairly altered to appease Eritrea.This is a diplomatic about-face from a year ago, whenEthiopia accepted and Eritrea rejected the OAU peaceplans.

The legacy of Nakfa should not be forgotten. It doesnot mean Eritrea is invincible. It merely serves as a re-minder that, when determined, Eritrea will fight on in-definitely. Eritrea will not crumble over short-termmilitary setbacks. They will retreat, regroup and return.

Both Ethiopia and Eritrea have some legitimate (andsome illegitimate) claims within this conflict. But theirdisputes can not ultimately be resolved on the battlefield.My (unsolicited) advice to both governments is simple.Set aside the self-delusions of military grandeur; stop theprincipled posturing and inflexibility; quit blaming theUnited States, the United Nations and everyone else. In-stead, enter the peace process and declare a moral vic-tory to massage the ego of your domestic constituencies.

Why? Because who is right and who is wrong is be,coming more clouded and less relevant. Because bothcountries are losing- squandering lives and scarce re-sources. And because in the long-term, a durable solu-tion must be mutually acceptable and negotiated, notimposed on the battlefield. G

12MM-17

A History of Ethiopia 5.2Aba Are 16.4AbdeI-Aziz 13.3Abebaye(Dad) 10.2Abraham, Kinfe 6.2Addis Ababa 1.3, 1.4, 8.1, 11.11Addis Ababa Civil Service College 15.6Addis Pharmaceutical Factory 4.4Adi-Murug (Bada) 4.2Adigrat 3.2, 4.4Adua 5.4Aeroflot 6.3Afabet 17.3Afar 4.2, 5.6, 8.9, 11.9Afeworki, Isaias 17.2"African Renaissance" 4.5, 4.8, 5.2, 9.2Afwerki, Isaias

3.4, 4.1, 4.5, 5.1, 5A, 5.8, 62, 6.6, 9.2, 9.5Agence France Presse 17.1Agere Maryam 11.1, 11.2Agew 5.2aid dependency 6.7Aideed, Mohamed Farah 7.6Air Tajikistan 6.3Al-ltihad Islamic fundamentalists 15.11Al-lttihad 5.3Alaybede 13.5Alemayu 10.4ALF (Afar Liberation Front) 5.9Alga-Aliteina 4.3, 5.5, 5.6Aliteina 4.1, 4.3, 9.1Allemitu 10.4Ambesete Geleba 4.3Amhara 11.9, 15.2Amharic 15.11Andemichael, Wereda 8.9Annan, Kofi 9.1appropriate technology 12.11Arab oil-producing countries 8.6Arap Moi, Daniel 4.8Arba Minch 11.4, 11.10, 11.11Ark of the Covenant 1.6ARRA (Administration for Refugee and

Returnee Affairs) 15.7Arsi Province 11.3"Ask Your Doctor" 11.4Asmara

3.2, 5.9, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 8.1, 16.8, 17.1Asmara airport 4.4Asmara airport bombing 6.1Asmerom, Girma 9.10Assab 4.4, 5.7, 5.8, 6.3, 8.1, 11.10Assab economy 8.6Assab Oil Refinery 8.1, 8.6Assab Port 8.7Assab Salt Works 8.1, 8.8, 8.9assembly 14.4Ato Gebre Egziabehr 12.6Auberay 13.5Awasa 11.10Aweke, Aster 1.5Awel Dewalle 15.3Axumite empire 5.2Axumite Kingdom 14.3Ayder Primary School 4.4azmari beyts (traditional dance bars) 10.7

baboons 11.11

Bada. See also Adi-MurugBadime 3.4, 3.7, 4.1,4.2, 4.3, 4.8, 5.4, 5.5,

5.6, 5.10, 9.1, 9.10, 16.3,17.7Badime front 17.11Badime trenches 17.9Bagoweini village 3.6, 16.1Bahir Dar (Gojjam Region) 5.9Bale National Park 11.12Bale Province 11.2, 11.9, 11.10banking 13.6barabaso (rubber sandals) 12.6"barefoot doctors" 6.4Barentu 3.5, 16.1, 17.7Barre, Mohamed Siad 7.3, 7.4, 7.6, 15.3Bashuka 16.4BBC 17.1begging 11.2Belgium 9.9Benishangul 11.9Berbera 8.8, 13.4, 13.5birr 5.7, 8.8"blood price" 7.7BM-21 rocket launchers 9.9Bole 12.3Bole airport 1.1, 1.3Borama 7.5Britain 5.4British Council library 6.6Bulgaria 9.9Burao 7.3 7.5, 7.6, 7.7Burie 3.4, 4.3, 5.8, 8.2, 8.3, 8.9Burkina Faso 4.8, 9.1bush pig 11.13

C

casualties, battle 4.3casualty reports 9.10China 9.9Christianity 14.3Citizens for Peace in Eritrea (CPE) 9.8civil war (1974-91) 16.1clan differences 15.6Clinton, Bill 4.5, 4.8, 6.1, 9.1, 9.3CNN 10.6coffee 5.8, 13.5coffee ceremony 1.7Colobus monkeys 11.13colonial rule 4.2COMESA (Economic Community of

East and Southern African States) 8.8communications 8.5conspiracy theories 5.9Constitution 6.7Constitution of 1994 14.4, 15.1construction "contracts" 15.8contraband 13.5, 13.7contraceptives 11.3, 11.4corruption 7.8, 8.8, 13.9, 15.5, 15.8counterfeit-currency detector 6.3crocodile 11.11CRS (Catholic Relief Services) 10.7culture 1.7currency 5.8customary law (xeer) 7.6customs duties 13.4, 13.5, 13.7

D

Dabayl 13.5Dallol Airlines 6.3Debre Zeyit 1.4

Deda 16.4Dekamhare 3.2, 16.2Deliberative Chambers 14.3Dembe Jefecke village 3.7, 16.1Denakil Desert 5.4, 8.1Denden mountain 17.7deportation 3.2, 4.5, 8.3, 9.7, 9.8deportees 16.1Derg dictatorship 6.5Derg government 3.5, 4.4, 14.1, 14.3

the Derg 3.4, 5.3, 5.5, 10.4Dhu Nwas 5.2dik-diks 11.11diplomatic recognition 7.11Dire Dawa 13.4Dire Dawa Regional Customs 13.9Director General of the Marine Department of

the Ministry of Transportation andCommunication 8.7

Djibouti 4.4, 4.8, 5.1,5.3, 5.5, 6.2, 7.3, 9.1,11.10

DKT Ethiopia 10.7, 11.3doctors 15.11Dolo Mena 11.12doro wot (spicy chicken stew) 1.7, 10.4Dubai 7.9Durex condoms 11.4

EC (European Community) 4.7, 9.2economic development 6.8economy 5.7, 5.8Education Bureau 15.11Egal, Mohamed Ibrahim 7.5, 7.8Egypt 5.9, 9.1EPDM (Ethiopian Peoples’ Democratic

Movement) 14.3Ephrem, Isaac 9.1Ephrem, Sebhat 4.3EPLF (Eritrean People’s Liberation Front) 3.4,

4.5, 5.1,5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.7, 6.4, 6.6, 6.7,7.3, 9.5, 9.8, 10.4, 17.2

EPRDF (Ethiopian People’s RevolutionaryDemocratic Front) 5.2, 10.4, 10.7, 11.9,

13.9, 14.1, 14.3, 15.1Erde Mattios 4.3Eritrea 3.1, 4.1, 6.1, 11.10Eritrea Profile 3.8, 6.6Eritrean Defense Force 4.2Eritrean military 17.8Eritrean Pride 9.3Eritrean Public Health Program 6.4Eritrean women 6.6Eritrean Women’s Association 6.7Eritrean Youth Association 6.7ERREC (Eritrean Relief and Refugee

Commission) 3.6, 8.6, 16.4Ethiopia 5.4Ethiopia-Eritrea border conflict

33, 4.1, 5.1, 52, 6.1, 82, 9.1, 11.11, 15.11, 16.1,17.1

Ethiopia-Somalia border 13.5Ethiopian Airlines 4.5, 5.10Ethiopian Enterprise Petroleum, 8.6Ethiopian mobilization 9.8, 9.9Ethiopian Orthodox Church 1.4, 14.3Ethiopian Somali Democratic League (ESDL)

15.5Ethiopian Telecommunications Authority 4.5Ethiopian Telecommunications Corporation

15.7

Entries refer to ICWA Letters (MM-1, etc.) and page, with Letter number given before each page entry.


"ethnic cleansing" 9.5Ethnic Federalism 14.1, 15.1, 16.1, 17.1ethnic groups

Amhara 3.5Banar 11.9Gamo 11.9Gedeo 11.9Gofa 11.9Guji 11.9Hamer 11.7, 11.9Karo 11.8, 11.9Konso 11.9Mursi 11.9, 11.12Nara 16.2Oromo 3.5, 11.9Sidama 11.9

Expo ’98 6.8Ezana 14.3

famine of 1983-84 11.10Fatzi 3.2Federalism, Ethnic 14.1, 15.1, 16.1, 17.1female soldiers 17.9ferenji (foreigner) 12.10Fessehai, Habteab 3.7fish, Yemeni-style 6.2Follina 3.7France 9.9Freedom Junior Secondary School 16.6Freemen of Montana 7.1

Gamo-Gofa Province 11.2, 11.6, 11.9, 11.10Gash-Barka Region 3.5, 17.7Gebremariam, Berhane 16.7genital mutilation 14.4geography 11.3Ghebray, Tekeste 4.8, 6.2Ghebretnsae, Woldemichael 3.6Ginir 11.6Goba 11.2, 11.6, 11.10, 11.12Gode 15.3Gojjam Province 11.6, 11.11gomen (spinach) 10.7Gonder Province 5.6, 11.6, 11.11Gouled Aptidon, Hassan 4.8, 6.3Grassroots International 6.4Greater Hanish 5.5"Greater Tigray" 5.6"green line" 7.6Guinea Bissau 5.2Gurage 15.3Gurage Region 12.1guurti (elders’ conferences) 7.5, 7.8Guurti (House of Elders) 7.5

H

Habtekere, Gebreneguse 3.6, 16.1, 16.2Hamdalla, Nursabo 12.1Hanish Islands 5.3, 5.5Harar 13.4, 13.8Haraz Harmaz 17.3Hargeisa 7.3, 7.5, 7.10, 13.4, 13.6hartebeest 11.11Hartisheikh 13.1, 13.3, 13.4, 13.6, 13.8Health professionals 15.11Heret village 3.7highland peoples 14.3Hiwot Trust condoms 11.3, 11.4human rights 14.4human-wave attacks 17.11hydroelectric power 5.9

ICRC (International Committee of the RedCross) 4.6, 8.3, 16.8

infrastructure 11.11injera (flat bread made from fermented batter)

1.3, 5.7, 6.9, 10.7, 11.3Inter-Governmental Authority on Development

(IGAD) 3.4, 4.7, 5.1, 6.2intermarriage 5.4International Committee of the Red Cross

(ICRC) 8.3International Court of Justice 9.4Italian colonization 5.3Italy 5.4, 9.1lyasu, Lijj 10.4

J

Janmeda 1.6, 3.1Japan 9.1Jijiga 13.1, 13.3, 13.5, 13.6, 13.7, 13.8, 15.1,

15.3, 15.4, 15.9Jijiga Customs Office 13.8Jijiga Nurse Training school 15.11Jinka 11.7

Kagame, Paul 4.7, 9.2kai wot (meat in pepper sauce) 11.3, 11.13Karchally prison 10.4, 10.5Kazanchis 12.3kebele (local government) 12.8Kebre Beyih 13.8Kebre Dehar 15.3Kenya 5.2, 9.1, 11.10Key Afer 11.7Khartoum 5.10khat 1.8, 6.2, 7.6, 7.7, 7.8, 7.10, 11.1, 13.3,

13.5, 15.8kickbacks 7.8King Caleb 5.2King Ezana 5.2kiffo (ground beef with spiced butter) 1.9Koka Dam 15.3Kolmay village 11.5Kombolcha 3.1Konso 11.5, 11.7, 11.11Koytobia 16.2

I.

labor supply 8.9Lake, Anthony 4.8, 9.1, 9.3lakes 1.4

Abaya 11.11Bishoftu 1.4Chamo 11.11

Latvia 9.9Legesse, Asmarom 3.8, 9.8Libya 9.1, 9.9life styles 11.7livestock 7.9lowland peoples 14.3

machiato (espresso and milk) 6.4Mago National Park 11.12Mahdi, Ali 7.3, 7.4main market 12.1mamitay (little mom) 10.7Marcus, Harold 5.2Mariam, Mengistu Haile 3.4, 4.4, 5.1,7.3, 9.7,

14.1, 14.3, 15.1, 15.3, 17.2masinko (traditional one string violin) 10.8

Massawa 5.7media 3.3, 6.8Megennanya 12.3Mehare, Zait 3.7, 16.1Mekelle 3.1, 4.4Mekonnen, Yigzaw 8.6Menelik 1.6, 7.2Menelik II 14.3Mengist, Saba 16.5Mengisteab, Dawit 8.7Mereb River 3.7, 5.4, 16.4Meretab 16.5merkato 12.1Mig-24 helicopters 9.9Mig-29 interceptors 9.9Ministry of Defense 8.6Ministry of Foreign Affairs 17.8Ministry of Information 8.6missir (lentils) 10.7Mitchell, Leslie 8.8Mituku, Aboosh 12.8Mogadishu 7.6Mombasa 8.8, 8.9Moyale 11.10, 11.11Mubarak, Hosni 4.8Mulki 3.7Museveni, Yoweri 4.8

N

nakfa 5.7, 6.3, 8.7, 8.8Nakfa town 17.2, 17.3, 17.5National Committee for Somali Region Trade

Promotion (NCSRTP) 13.5national parks 11.11ndemin adderu (good morning) 10.6ndemin nachu (how are you?) 10.6Nebiyou, Hanna- Miss Ethiopia 1997 11.4Nechisar National Park 11.11nepotism 7.8NGOs (non,governmental organizations) 6.7,

7.9Nigeria 5.2Nile River 5.9

O

OAU (Organization for African Unity) 3.4, 4.7,4.8, 5.5, 9.1, 9.2, 9.4, 10.3, 17.11, 17.12

OAU initiative 9.5OAU peace plan 9.10Ogaden Region 7,3, 15.1, 15.11Ogaden War 7.3, 15.2Ogaden Welfare Society (OWS) 15.8OLF (Oromo Liberation Front) 5.9ONLF (Odaden National Liberation

Front) 15.5OPDO (Oromo People’s Democratic

Organization) 14.3"Operation Restore Hope" 7.3Operation Sunset 9.10Oromiya National Regional State 15.11Oromiya Region 15.3Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) 15.11Oromo People’s Democratic Organization

(OPDO) 14.3Orotta 17.6

P

PACT 8.8, 10.7Pan-Somali project 15.2peace plans 17.12Petros, Col. Bezabieh 4.4PFDJ (People’s Front for Democracy and

Justice) 5.2, 6.6


14 MM-17

Piazza 12.3pickpockets 1.7police 1.7population 11.3, 15.3, 17.4port of Djibouti 6.3Port Sudan 17.6press 6.8, 14.4press censorship 16.9press restrictions 16.6propaganda 9.5prostitution 11.1Prudence-brand family-planning pills

11.3, 11.4Purdy, Chris 11.3

Q

Qaddafi, Muammar 3.4, 4.8Qatar 9.9

R

radio advertising 11.4Ras Hailu of Gojjam 10.3Ras Mikhael Seul 5.3Red Sea 4.8, 5.8, 8.6Red Sea Airline 8.5refugee repatriation 6.8Region 5 13.1Regional Health Bureau 15.11Regional Parliament 15.10Regional Planning Bureau 15.8religion 1.4, 14.4Republic of Somaliland 7.3Resolution 1177 4.8Reuters 17.1, 17.8Revolutionary School 17.5Rice, Susan 4.7, 9.2Rift Valley Fever 7.9Robinson, Mary 4.5Romania 9.9Ruba Hadai 17.3Rubattino Shipping Company 8.1Russia 9.9Rwanda 4.7

S

Sahnoun, Mohammed 9.1sales incentives 11.5Saneti Plateau 11.12Savannah Hotel 17.1Save the Children 10.7Save the Children/UK 13.4, 13.8Sawa national military training camp 4.6, 5.5,

9.8, 16.3Selassie, Haile 5.2, 5.4, 10.3, 14.3, 15.1, 15.3SEPDF (Southern Ethiopian Peoples’

Democratic Front) 14.3Setit 4.3Sewa Province 11.6Shabiya 9.5, 9.7Shambuco 3.6, 9.10, 16.1, 16.2, 16.4Sheba 1.6, 14.3Shewa 8.3Shinn, David 15.11shir (traditional Somali congress) 7.4shiro (crushed bean/chickpea sauce) 10.7Sidamo Province 11.2, 11.9, 11.12Sidist Kilo 12.3Sierra Leone 5.2Sifreye Genet 3.7Silte village 12.1Simien fox 11.12smuggling 13.5, 13.8

Solomon 1.6, 14.3Solomonic descent 14.3Solomonic Dynasty 5.2Somali 11.9Somali budget 15.8Somali clans

Abgal 7.3Dulbahante 7.4Gadabursi 7.4Habr Awal 7.5, 7.8Habr Ja’llo 7.6, 7.7Habr Yonis 7.6, 7.7Hawiye 7.3Isaaq 7.3, 7.5, 7.6

Somali language 15.11Somali National Movement (SNM)

7.3, 7.4, 7.5Somali oratory 7.7Somali People’s Democratic Party (SPDP)

15.5, 15.8Somali Region 13.5, 13.6, 15.1Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF)

7.3Somali women 15.9Somalia 5.2, 7.1, 13.5, 15.2Somalia-Ethiopia border 13.5Somaliland, Republic of 7.1,8.1,8.8, 9.1,

13.1, 13.4, 13.5, 13.6constitution 7.8elections 7.8government 7.8, 7.9history 7.2independence 7.2NGO’s 7.9private sector 7.10Protectorate 7.2secession 7.5

Southern Nations, Nationalities and PeoplesRegion 11.9

Soyama 11.5Sudan 5.2, 5.9Sukhoi SU-27 fighter planes 9.9

T

tabot (holy slab) 1.6t’ala (traditional barley beer) 1.8, 10.4Teacher Training Institute (TTI) 15.8, 15.11teff 5.7tej (honey wine) 1.8telecommunications 7.10, 13.6"tena yistilling" (good health) 10.6Tesfaye-Mikael, Worku 3.6Tesfazion, Afeworki 8.6tibs (sauteed meat) 1.4, 10.7Tigray National Regional State 16.1, 16.4Tigray Province 3.2, 4.2, 4.4,5.3, 11.6, 11.9,

11.11Tigrayan nationalism 5.6Tigrinya 3.8, 16.6Tilahun, Ato 13.8Tilahun, Mekbib 11.3Timket, the epiphany 10.4Timket, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church’s

celebration 1.6Tiravolo 16.6Togdheer Region 7.7Togochale 13.5TPLF (Tigray People’s Liberation Front) 3.4,

5.1,5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 9.3, 9.5,9.8, 11.9, 14.3, 17.3

tradition 1.8, 11.8training 15.10, 15.11transportation 1.4, 11.10, 13.4

trenches 17.4Tsabra 17.6Tsegaye, Ato 13.9Tsorona 9.10’q’uur," Abdirahman 7.5, 7.6TV advertising 11.4Twenty-First Century Trading Company 15.8

U

U.S. Embassy travel warning 6.1U.S. Marines 7.3U.S.-Rwandafacilitation process 9.1, 9.2U.S.-Rwanda initiative 9.5U.S.-Rwanda Peace Plan 4.7U.S./U.N. interventions 7.3Uganda 5.2, 5.9, 9.1Ukraine 9.9UN Cartographic Office 4.7UN Cartographic Unit 9.4UN Commissioner on Human Rights. See

Robinson, MaryUNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner

for Refugees) 16.3UNICEF 3.7, 13.5United Nations 4.7, 5.5, 9.2, 9.4United Nations OCHA (Office for the Coordina-

tion of Humanitarian Assistance) 3.6United Nations Security Council 4.8United Nations Task Force (UNITAF) 7.3United Somali Congress (USC) 7.3United States 9.4USAID (United States Agency for International

Development) 11.3, 12.8USAID OFDA (Office of Foreign Disaster

Assistance) 3.6

V

Value-added recycling 12.11Village Voice 17.1, 17.8Voice of America (VOA) 16.6

W

Warsama, Abdi Ibrahim 7.7water 15.3Waugh, Evelyn 15.3weapons 15.11Welo Province 5.2, 5.6, 8.3, 11.6, 11.11Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF)

7.3, 15.2White Horse Whiskey 1.8women 14.4Woyane 9.5, 9.7

Y

Ya’abelo 11.2, 11.11yehabesha dabo (Ethiopian bread) 10.4Yemen 5.3, 7.9Yilma, Teshome 11.3Yirga triangle 5.6Yohannes IV 5.3

Z

Zagwe dynasty 5.2Zaire (now Congo) 5.2Zalanbessa 3.2, 3.4, 4.2, 4.3, 5.5, 9.10, 16.3zebra 11.11Zenawi, Meles 3.4, 4.2, 4.5, 5.1,5.4, 6.2, 9.2,

9.5, 14.3Zimbabwe 4.8, 9.1



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