From CSCE to OSCE: a Timeline

From CSCE to OSCE: a Timeline

This publication is intended to offer a historical perspective on the development of the

Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) and its successor, the

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), over the past 30 years since

their foundation. It does so using the mixed format of a textual timeline and a selection of

contemporary photographs. The timeline conveniently shows, on the top half of the page,

many of the key events in the development of both bodies. The section below sets these

against the broad landscape of international politics that shaped that development.

In doing so, the publication cannot help but offer a reflection on the enormous changes

in the world over the final quarter of the 20th century and the first five years of the new

Millennium.

Europe was a very different place 30 years ago. The challenges facing the CSCE as it

launched the Helsinki Process in 1975 were the challenges posed by the Cold War. Today,

the threat of violence and insecurity confronting the OSCE is of a quite different nature.

Rather than armed multi-national blocs opposing one another across a divided Europe, the

world now faces a series of non-state actors prepared to use terrorism against civil popula-

tions to press their causes on the international stage.

Both the CSCE and the OSCE have demonstrated flexibility in meeting different challenges

in appropriate ways. But while the security environment in the world changed dramatically

at certain points, in 1989 as well as in 2001, what have not changed fundamentally are the

key values and commitments of the participating States. The 35 States of the CSCE are now

the 55 States of the OSCE but their shared values remain at the core of freedom. In meet-

ing these new or renewed challenges facing humanity – from terrorism to trafficking, from

intolerance to torture – it is important never to lose sight of this simple fact.

22 November Preparatory talks for the

Conference on Security

and Co-operation in

Europe (CSCE) begin in

Dipoli, Finland. The talks

conclude on 8 June 1973

with a set of Final Recom-

mendations known as the

‘Blue Book’.

1970s19

70 19

72

DecemberThe visit of West German

Chancellor Willy Brandt

to Poland – and his

gesture of kneeling in

front of a monument for

the Warsaw ghetto

victims – typifies the

importance of Ostpolitik

in restoring confidence

between former enemies.

May United States and

Soviet Union sign

SALT I (Strategic Arms

Limitation Talks) in

Moscow, an agreement

that froze at existing

levels the number of

strategic ballistic missile

launchers of both sides.

3 to 7 July First stage of the CSCE is

held in Helsinki, at which

the foreign ministers of

the 35 participating States

outline their positions

on European security

and adopt the Blue Book,

launching the ‘Helsinki

Process’.

18 September Substantive working

phase of the CSCE begins

in Geneva. Experts from

the participating States

take part in the first-ever

multilateral East-West

negotiating process, which

ends on 21 July 1975.

1973 19

74

October An oil embargo by

a number of Arab

oil-exporting States

against the United

States, Europe and

Japan for their

support of Israel,

provokes a global

energy crisis.

FebruaryNobel Prize winning

writer Alexander

Solzhenitsyn is expelled

from the Soviet Union.

March After five months, the Arab

oil-exporting States decide

to end the oil embargo.

August Watergate scandal provokes

U.S. President Richard

Nixon’s resignation.

September Fifteen States, including

the United States and the

Soviet Union, sign the

Nuclear Non-Proliferation

Pact, curbing the spread

of nuclear weapons.

30 July First CSCE Summit of

Heads of State or Gov-

ernment takes place and

culminates on 1 August

1975 in the signing of the

Helsinki Final Act.

4 October First Follow-Up Meet-

ing to the CSCE Helsinki

Summit begins in Bel-

grade. As agreed in the

Final Act, the participat-

ing States continue the

multilateral process by

periodically exchanging

views on the implementa-

tion of the provisions of

the Act and the tasks de-

fined by the Conference.

The Belgrade Meeting

ends on 9 March 1978.

1975 19

77

1970s

20 June to 28 July Experts from the par-

ticipating States meet

in Bonn to prepare the

Hamburg Scientific

Forum in 1980.

31 October to 11 December First Meeting of Experts

on the Peaceful Settle-

ment of Disputes is held

in Montreux, Switzerland.

June United States and the

Soviet Union sign the

SALT II agreement in

Vienna.

December Soviet Union invades

Afghanistan.

13 February to 26 March Experts meet in Valetta,

Malta to discuss Economic,

Scientific and Cultural

Co-operation in the

Mediterranean.

1978

1979

8

“If the Soviet Union and the United States can

reach agreement so that our astronauts can

fit together the most intricate scientific equipment,

work together, and shake hands 137 miles out in

space, we as statesmen have an obligation to do as

well on Earth. History will judge this Conference

not by what we say here today, but by what we do

tomorrow – not by the promises we make, but by

the promises we keep.”

Gerald R. Ford, President of the United States

of America

“The Conference has proved to be a useful

school of international politics for the

participating States – particularly useful in our

time, when incredible means of destruction and

annihilation exist. The powerful impetus provided

by this meeting of leaders of 35 States participating

in the Conference is intended to help everyone in

and beyond Europe to live in peace.”

Leonid Brezhnev, General Secretary of the Central

Committee of the Communist Party of the Union

of Soviet Socialist Republics

9

July 1975“Helsinki: the largest diplomatic post-war ballet. For three days, the Finnish capital hosted

35 heads of State and Government for the third and final phase of the Conference on Secu-

rity and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE). ... The ‘Final Act’ of this conference, which will be

signed on 1 August, appears as a sort of ‘code of conduct’ or ‘rules of the game’ in Europe.”

Le Figaro, 30 July 1975

© Magnum Photos, Jean Gaumy

1980s18 February to 3 March CSCE Scientific Forum takes

place in Hamburg, Germany.

11 November Second CSCE Follow-Up

Meeting takes place in Madrid.

The event concludes on

9 September 1983.

January Andrei Sakharov, a Russian

scientist and human right activ-

ist, is arrested in Moscow and

exiled to Gorky.

MarchU.S. President Jimmy Carter

announces that the United

States will boycott the 1980

Summer Olympics in Moscow.

AugustLech Walesa leads the first of

many strikes at the Lenin Ship-

yard in Gdansk, Poland.

SeptemberAfter weeks of strikes, the

nationwide independent

trade union ‘Solidarnosc’

is established in Poland.

December Polish Prime Minister

Wojciech Jaruzelski

declares a state of martial

law to prevent disman-

tling of the communist

system by ‘Solidarnosc’.

1980 19

81

7 May to 17 June CSCE experts meet

in Ottawa, Canada to

discuss progress on

human rights.

15 October to 25 November CSCE States hold a

Cultural Forum

in Budapest.

March Mikhail Gorbachev

succeeds Konstantin

Chernenko as leader of

the Soviet Union.1985

17 January 1984 to 19 September 1986Conference on

Confidence- and

Security-Building

Measures and Disarma-

ment in Europe is held in

Stockholm.

MaySoviet Union announces

that it will boycott the

1984 Summer Olympics

in Los Angeles.

1984

4 November 1986 to 19 January 1989Third Follow-Up Meeting takes

place in Vienna. It concludes with

the adoption of a Final Document

in which the CSCE States call for

an agreement on conventional

arms and respect for human rights.

AprilAfter a reactor at the nuclear

power station in Chernobyl melts

down, emitting high discharges of

radioactivity into the atmosphere,

the Soviet Union admits that a

nuclear accident has occurred.

October U.S. President Ronald Reagan and

Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev

meet in Reykjavik, Iceland,

to continue discussions about

scaling back their intermediate

missile arsenals in Europe,

but the talks end with no

agreement.

DecemberSoviet dissident Andrei Sakharov

returns to Moscow after almost

seven years of internal exile.

1986

1987

1980s

DecemberThe Intermediate-

Range Nuclear

Forces Treaty is

signed in Washing-

ton, D.C. by U.S.

President Ronald

Reagan and Soviet

leader Mikhail

Gorbachev.

October Thousands

of Latvians

demonstrate

in the capital,

Riga, for greater

independence

from the Soviet

Union.

9 March Negotiations on Conventional Armed Forces

in Europe begin in Vienna between the

23 CSCE participating States that were mem-

bers of either NATO or the Warsaw Pact.

30 May to 23 June First Meeting of the Conference on the Human

Dimension of the CSCE is held in Paris.

16 October to 3 November Meeting on the Protection of the

Environment takes place in Sofia.

February Soviet Union pulls out its troops

of Afghanistan.

October After 18 years in power, the Communist

leader of East Germany, Erich Honecker,

steps down.

November Entire leadership of the Communist Party

in Czechoslovakia resigns to make way for

democratic changes.

December Brandenburg Gate in Berlin opens for the first

time in almost three decades, with thousands

of people on the streets witnessing an event

that effectively ends the division of East

and West Germany.

December Deposed Romanian President and Communist

party leader Nicolae Ceausescu, and his wife

Elena are shot by a firing squad after a secret

military tribunal found them both guilty of

crimes against the state.

1988

1989

14

19891989

“The re-unification of the Germans is taking place differently from how we had imagined

it. Nobody should pretend at this moment to know what concrete form the relation-

ship between the peoples of both States will take. The only important issue is that they move

into a different kind of relationship, one in which they can develop together in freedom. ... It

was always my conviction that the separation through concrete, barbed wire and lethal borders

stood against the current of history. Only this summer I brought it to paper, without knowing

exactly what would happen in autumn: Berlin will live and the wall will fall. ... The security we

can offer to our neighbours and also to the big powers of this world is that we are not seeking

a solution to our problems that is not part of our duties vis-à-vis peace and Europe. And in the

common conviction that the European community has to be further developed and the frag-

mentation of our continent needs to be overcome definitively.

Willy Brandt, former German Chancellor, speaking in Berlin Schöneberg on 10 November 1989

© Magnum Photos, Guy Le Querrec

15

16

1990

11 January300,000 people

demonstrate in

Lithuania for the

country’s inde-

pendence.

7 FebruaryCentral Commit-

tee of the Soviet

Communist Party

agrees to give

up its monopoly

on power.

13 FebruaryAgreement is

reached on a

two-stage plan

to reunite

Germany.

11 MarchLithuania

declares

independence

from the

Soviet Union.

15 MarchMikhail

Gorbachev is

elected as the

first President

of the Soviet

Union.

24 AprilWest and East

Germany agree

to merge their

currencies and

economies

on 1 July.

19 Marchto 11 AprilConference on

Economic Co-

operation in

Europe is held in

Bonn, Germany.

5 to 29 June Second Meeting of

the Conference on

the Human Dimen-

sion of the CSCE

takes place in

Copenhagen, setting

down specific provi-

sions on commit-

ments in the human

dimension, including

on the conduct of

free elections.

20 MayFirst post-

communist

presidential and

parliamentary

elections are held

in Romania.

1 JuneU.S. President

George H. W.

Bush and Soviet

President Mikhail

Gorbachev sign

a treaty to end

chemical weapons

production and

start destroying

their stockpiles.

17

24 September to 19 OctoberCSCE representa-

tives meet in Palma

de Mallorca for talks

on co-operation

with Mediterranean

States.

3 OctoberEast and West

Germany re-unify.

15 OctoberMikhail Gorbachev

is awarded the

Nobel Peace Prize.

1 and 2 OctoberCSCE foreign min-

isters gather in New

York. Their annual

meetings are later

formalized, first as

the Council of Min-

isters of Foreign Af-

fairs and then as the

Ministerial Council.

17 NovemberNegotiations on

Confidence- and

Security-Building

Measures result

in the adoption

of the 1990 Vienna

Document.

19 to 21 NovemberSecond CSCE Summit of

Heads of State or Govern-

ment is held in Paris. The

meeting ends with the

adoption of the Charter of

Paris for a New Europe,

marking the end of the

Cold War, and the

establishment of a

permanent Secretariat in

Prague and the Office for

Free Elections in Warsaw.

On the sidelines of the

Summit, 22 participating

States sign the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE

Treaty, 19 November).

12 SeptemberIn Moscow, the two

German States and

the Four Powers sign

the Treaty on the

Final Settlement with

respect to Germany,

paving the way

for German

re-unification.

9 DecemberSlobodan Milosevic

becomes President

of Serbia.

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1991

“The CSCE/OSCE has provided Europe with the world’s most dense network

of arms control arrangements, closely interlinked with an ongoing

security dialogue, which has been institutionalized since 1992. The two main pillars

of this unique arms control regime are Confidence- and Security-Building Measures

(CSBMs), later augmented by limitations and reductions applying to conventional

weapons and military personnel under the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in

Europe (CFE 1990) and the Concluding Act of the Negotiation on Personnel Strength

of Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (1992). There are three distinct CSBM

regimes: the Helsinki Final Act regime (in force since 1975), the Stockholm

Document regime (since 1986), and the Vienna Document regime (since 1990).”

The Culture of Dialogue: The OSCE Acquis 30 Years after Helsinki,

Centre for OSCE Research, Hamburg 2005

A Romanian officer supervises the

destruction of a Soviet-made tank on

30 November 1991. The tank is being

dismantled as part of a conventional

weapons reduction plan taking place

under a CSCE agreement.

© Agence France Press/EPA

20

2 and 3 AprilParliamentary

leaders from the

participating States

meet in Madrid

to discuss the

establishment of a

CSCE Parliamen-

tary Assembly.

28 May to 7 JuneA Symposium on

Cultural Heritage

is held in Cracow,

Poland.

19 and 20 JuneFirst Council of

Ministers of

Foreign Affairs

takes place in

Berlin. German

Foreign Minister

Hans-Dietrich

Genscher becomes

the CSCE’s first

Chairman-in-

Office, holding

the post until

January 1992.

9 FebruaryVoters in Lithuania

vote for independence.

15 FebruaryVisegrad Agreement,

establishing co-oper-

ation to move toward

free-market systems,

is signed by the lead-

ers of Czechoslovakia,

Hungary and Poland.

3 MarchLatvia and Estonia

vote to become

independent of

the Soviet Union.

31 MarchAlbania holds

first multi-party

elections.

12 JuneBoris Yeltsin is

elected as

President of Russia.

25 JuneCroatia and

Slovenia declare

their independence

from Yugoslavia.

15 January to8 FebruaryThird Meeting

of Experts on the

Peaceful Settlement

of Disputes is held

in Valletta, Malta.

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1 to 19 JulyExpert Meeting on

National Minorities

is held in Geneva.

10 September to 4 OctoberThird Meeting on the

Conference on the Human

Dimension of the CSCE

takes place in Moscow,

at which the participants

state categorically and

irrevocably that commit-

ments undertaken in the

human dimension are

matters of direct and legit-

imate concern to all CSCE

States. At an additional

ministerial-level meeting

(10 September), Estonia,

Latvia and Lithuania are

admitted to the CSCE as

participating States.

4 to 15 NovemberExperts meet in

Oslo for a Seminar

on Democratic

Institutions.

1 JulyWarsaw

Pact is

officially

dissolved.

18 AugustSoviet President Mikhail

Gorbachev is put under

house arrest while

vacationing in the

Crimea. The attempted

coup collapses in less

than 72 hours.

20 AugustEstonia declares its independence

from the Soviet Union.

21 AugustLatvia declares its independence.

24 AugustUkraine declares its independence.

31 AugustKyrgyzstan declares its independence.

1 SeptemberUzbekistan

declares its

independence.

14 OctoberBulgarians

celebrate the

end of the

rule of the

Communist

Party.

27 NovemberUnited Na-

tions Security

Council unani-

mously adopts

Resolution

721, opening

the way for the

establishment

of peacekeeping

operations in

Yugoslavia.

1 DecemberUkrainian voters

overwhelmingly

approve a referendum

for independence

from the Soviet Union.

8 DecemberLeaders of Russia,

Belarus, and Ukraine

sign an agreement

ending the Soviet Union

and establishing the

Commonwealth

of Independent States.25 DecemberMikhail Gorbachev

resigns as President

of the Soviet Union.

31 DecemberSoviet Union officially

ceases to exist.

December 1991

“Dear compatriots, fellow citizens, as a result of the newly formed

situation, the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent

States, I cease my activities in the post of the U.S.S.R. President. I am tak-

ing this decision out of considerations based on principle. I have firmly

stood for independence, self-rule of nations, for the sovereignty of the re-

publics, but at the same time for preservation of the union state, the unity

of the country. ... We live in a new world. The Cold War has ended, the

arms race has stopped, as has the insane militarization which mutilated

our economy, public psyche and morals. The threat of a world war has

been removed. ... I am leaving my post with apprehension, but also with

hope, with faith in you, your wisdom and force of spirit. We are the heirs

of a great civilization, and its rebirth into a new, modern and dignified

life now depends on one and all. ... I wish all the best to all of you.”

Mikhail Gorbachev, resigning as President of the Soviet Union

on 25 December 1991

© Magnum Photos/Gueorgui Pinkhassov

24

9 JanuarySerbs in Bosnia

and Herzegovina

declare their own

republic.

15 JanuarySocialist Federal

Republic of

Yugoslavia ceases

to exist. Slovenia

and Croatia gain

independence.

1 MarchAfter a majority of

Muslim and Croatian

communities vote

for the independ-

ence of Bosnia and

Herzegovina, despite

the objections of

the Bosnian Serbs,

violent clashes take

place in Sarajevo.

6 AprilBosnia and

Herzegovina

secedes from

Yugoslavia.

5 AprilSiege of Sarajevo

by Bosnian Serbs

begins.

30 and 31 JanuarySecond Council of Ministers in

Prague decides to expand the

mandate of the Office for Free

Elections and renames it the

Office for Democratic Institutions

and Human Rights (ODIHR). Its

mandate includes not only the

observation of elections and train-

ing of election officials but also the

monitoring of participating States’

human rights records.

24 MarchTreaty on Open Skies, setting

out the framework for a regime

of observation flights over

the territory of participating

States, is signed in Helsinki.

At an additional meeting in

Helsinki at ministerial level,

Croatia, Georgia and Slovenia

are admitted to the CSCE as

participating States. In addi-

tion, the participants decided

to convene a CSCE-led confer-

ence to seek a peaceful settle-

ment for the conflict between

Armenia and Azerbaijan over

Nagorno-Karabakh.

1 MayAn opposition rally

in Dushanbe,

Tajikistan marks the

beginning of increas-

ingly violent con-

frontations between

government and

opposition supporters,

spiralling eventually

into a civil war which

will last until 1997.

19921 January // Czechoslovakia

takes over the CSCE Chairmanship

4 MarchNegotiations

on Confidence-

and Security-

Building Meas-

ures produce

the Vienna

Document 1992.

25

3 to 5 JulyFirst Annual

Session of the

CSCE Parlia-

mentary As-

sembly is held

in Budapest.

8 JulyCSCE sus-

pends the Fed-

eral Republic

of Yugoslavia

by ‘consensus

minus one’.

8 SeptemberCSCE Missions of

Long Duration in

Kosovo, Sandjak and

Vojvodina become

the first field opera-

tions to be deployed

by the CSCE.

10 SeptemberCSCE Spillover

Monitor Mission to

Skopje is deployed

to help prevent the

spread of tension and

conflicts in south-

eastern Europe.

6 NovemberCSCE Mission

to Georgia is

established.

13 DecemberCSCE Mission

to Estonia is

established.

14 and 15 DecemberThird Council

of Ministers

takes place in

Stockholm,

and the partici-

pating States

create the post

of Secretary

General.

20 JulyVaclav Havel

resigns as

President of

Czechoslovakia.

3 NovemberBill Clinton defeats

George H.W. Bush in

the U.S. presidential

election.

25 NovemberFederal Assembly of

Czechoslovakia votes

to split the country

into the Czech Re-

public and Slovakia,

with effect from

1 January 1993.

9 and 10 JulyCSCE Heads of State or Gov-

ernment gather in Helsinki for

their third Summit meeting.

The meeting ends with the

adoption of a final document,

The Challenges of Change. The

States also establish the institu-

tion of the High Commissioner

on National Minorities, the Fo-

rum for Security Co-operation

and the Economic Forum.

10 JulyConcluding Act of the Negotia-

tion on Personnel Strength of

Conventional Armed Forces in

Europe (CFE-1A) is signed in

Helsinki.

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March 1992

“Human rights are not a utopian ideal. They embody an international

consensus on the minimum conditions for a life of dignity. Respect for

human rights requires determination and co-operative efforts. It also requires legal

frameworks at the national and international levels within which individuals and

groups can claim their rights. Only that possibility will give human rights their full

meaning for every member of every society – the marginalized and excluded, as well

as the powerful and influential.”

Louise Arbour, UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, 14 January 2005

“The participating States express their strong determination to ensure full

respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, to abide by the rule

of law, to promote the principles of democracy and, in this regard, to build,

strengthen and protect democratic institutions, as well as to promote tolerance

throughout society. To these ends, they will broaden the operational framework of

the CSCE, including by further enhancing the ODIHR, so that information, ideas,

and concerns can be exchanged in a more concrete and meaningful way, including

as an early warning of tension and potential conflict. In doing so, they will focus

their attention on topics in the Human Dimension of particular importance. They

will therefore keep the strengthening of the Human Dimension under constant

consideration, especially in a time of change.”

CSCE Helsinki Document 1992, The Challenges of Change

Albanian refugees

in Brindisi, Italy

© Magnum Photos/

Ferdinando Scianna

28

3 JanuaryIn Moscow, outgo-

ing U.S. President

George H. W. Bush

and Russian Presi-

dent Boris Yeltsin

sign the second

Strategic Arms

Reduction Treaty

(START II).

26 FebruaryIn New York City,

a bomb in a van

parked below the

North Tower of the

World Trade Center

goes off, killing six

and injuring over a

thousand.

4 FebruaryPermanent Council

establishes the

Mission to Moldova.

15 June The CSCE’s first

Secretary General,

Wilhelm Höynck of

Germany, takes up

his official duties.

19931 January // Sweden takes over

the CSCE Chairmanship

20 JanuaryBill Clinton succeeds

George H. W. Bush

as U.S. President.

26 JanuaryVaclav Havel elected

President of the

Czech Republic.

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29

6 to 9 JulySecond Annual

Session of the

CSCE Parliamentary

Assembly is held

in Helsinki.

23 SeptemberMission to Latvia

is created.

25 NovemberA meeting of the Special

Committee of the CSCE

Forum for Security Co-op-

eration in Vienna and Rome

adopts documents regard-

ing stabilizing measures

for localized crisis situa-

tions, principles governing

conventional arms transfers,

military contacts and de-

fence planning.

1 NovemberMaastricht Treaty

takes effect, formally

establishing the

European Union.

9 NovemberThe Stari Most

bridge (Old Bridge)

in Mostar, Bosnia

and Herzegovina, is

destroyed by shelling

from Bosnian Croat

positions.

30 November to 1 DecemberFourth Council of

Ministers takes place

in Rome. The Ministers

agree on the final docu-

ment, CSCE and the New

Europe – Our Security is

Indivisible, and establish

the Mission to Tajikistan.

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1993

“The dissolution of the commu-

nist system in Eastern Europe

proved to be a watershed for Yugosla-

via, encouraging nationalist sentiments

in its republics and laying the ground-

work for the election of several sepa-

ratist-minded governments by 1990 ...

In hindsight, Bosnia’s descent into war

seemed almost unavoidable.”

Washington Post, Special Balkans

Report, October 1998

“The siege of Sarajevo was the

longest siege in the history

of modern warfare. It lasted from

5 April 1992 to 29 February 1996.

... An estimated 12,000 people were

killed and another 50,000 wounded

during the siege. Reports indicate an

average of approximately 329 shell

impacts per day during the course of

the siege, with a high of 3,777 shell

impacts on 22 July 1993. The shellfire

caused extensive damage to the city’s

structures, including civilian and

cultural property.”

www.wikipedia.org

“No building in Sarajevo

represents the magnitude

of destruction more than

the twin Unis Towers in

Sarajevo. Home to the larg-

est commercial enterprise

in Bosnia, it was reduced to

a skeleton of twisted steel

and broken glass.”

www.friendsofbosnia.org

© Magnum Photos/Gilles Peress

32

5 FebruaryA Serb mortar

shell kills 68 and

wounds about

200 in a Sarajevo

marketplace.

9 FebruaryThe so-called

Vance-Owen

peace plan for

Bosnia and

Herzegovina is

announced.

30 AprilLatvia and Russia

sign an agreement on

the Legal Status of

the Skrunda Radar

Station during its

temporary Operation

and Dismantling,gg

establishing an

OSCE Representative

to the Joint Commit-

tee on the Skrunda

Radar Station.

15 JunePermanent Council

establishes the

Mission to Ukraine.

19 FebruaryDeployment of

OSCE Mission

to Tajikistan.

14 JanuaryU.S. President Bill

Clinton and Rus-

sian President Boris

Yeltsin sign the

Kremlin accords

which stop the pre-

programmed aiming

of nuclear missiles

to targets and also

provide for the

dismantling of the

nuclear arsenal in

Ukraine.

6 MarchReferendum

in Moldova

results in the

electorate

voting against

possible reuni-

fication with

Romania.

12 MayArmenia and

Azerbaijan, the

parties to the

conflict over

Nagorno-Ka-

rabakh, agree

to observe an

informal

ceasefire.

6 to 8 JuneCeasefire

negotiations for

the Yugoslav War

begin in Geneva.

The participants

agree to stop

hostilities for one

month, but fight-

ing breaks out

again after only

a few days.

19941 January // Italy takes over

the CSCE Chairmanship

33

4 to 8 JulyThird Annual

Session of the CSCE

Parliamentary

Assembly is held

in Vienna.

15 DecemberThe Permanent

Council, which

meets weekly and is

responsible for the

day-to-day affairs of

the CSCE, holds its

first meeting.

28 NovemberA meeting of the

Special Committee

of the CSCE Forum

for Security Co-

operation is held in

Budapest. The

participants adopt

documents regarding

the global exchange

of military informa-

tion, principles

governing non-

proliferation and a

Code of Conduct on

Politico-Military

Aspects of Security.

11 DecemberRussian

President Boris

Yeltsin orders

troops into

the Chechen

Republic

and the first

Chechen

war begins.

5 and 6 DecemberFourth CSCE Summit

of Heads of State or

Government adopts

the Budapest Docu-

ment 1994: Towards

a Genuine Partner-

ship in a New Era.

The Summit decides

to change the name

of the CSCE to the

OSCE, giving it a new

political impetus and

reflecting the institu-

tional changes imple-

mented since 1990.

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“Deploring the continuation of the conflict and the human

tragedy involved, the participating States welcomed the

confirmation by the parties to the conflict of the cease-fire agreed on

12 May 1994 through the mediation of the Russian Federation in

co-operation with the CSCE Minsk Group. ... [T]hey pledged to

redouble the efforts and assistance by the CSCE. They strong-

ly endorsed the mediation efforts of the CSCE Minsk Group

and expressed appreciation for the crucial contribution of

the Russian Federation and the efforts by other indi-

vidual members of the Minsk Group. They agreed to

harmonize these into a single co-ordinated effort

within the framework of the CSCE.”

CSCE Budapest Document 1994, Towards a

Genuine Partnership in a new Era

Mourning the dead of Nagorno-Karabakh: it is estimated that

between 20,000 and 30,000 people from both Armenia and

Azerbaijan lost their lives during the conflict, and that more

than one million were forced to flee their homes.

The OSCE Minsk Group was formed to engage in negotations

to find a peaceful settlement of this conflict.

© Magnum Photos/Thomas Dworzak

36

19 April168 people die

in the bombing

of the Alfred P.

Murrah Federal

Building in

Oklahoma City.

1 JanuaryAustria, Finland

and Sweden enter

the European

Union. The World

Trade Organiza-

tion is established,

replacing the Gen-

eral Agreement on

Tariffs and Trade.

16 MarchPermanent Council

establishes the OSCE

Liaison Office in Cen-

tral Asia in Tashkent,

Uzbekistan.

7 MayJacques Chirac

is elected Presi-

dent of France.

11 AprilPermanent Council

establishes the OSCE

Assistance Group

to Chechnya.

19951 January // Hungary takes over

the OSCE Chairmanship

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5 to 9 JulyFourth Annual

Session of the

OSCE Parliamen-

tary Assembly is

held in Ottawa.

7 and 8 DecemberFifth Ministerial

Council (formerly the

Council of Ministers)

takes place in Budapest.

The Council establishes

the OSCE Mission to

Bosnia and Herzegovina.

10 AugustChairman-in-Office

appoints a Personal

Representative on the

Conflict Dealt with

by the OSCE Minsk

Conference.

11 JulyBosnian Serbs

overrun the en-

clave of Srebreni-

ca, declared by the

United Nations to

be a ‘safe haven’. It

is estimated that

up to 7,000 Mus-

lim civilians are

killed and buried

in mass graves.

4 AugustCroatians launch

Operation Storm

against Serbian

forces in Krajina

and force them

to withdraw

to Bosnia and

Herzegovina.

1 NovemberThe combatants in the

war in Yugoslavia begin

negotiations at Wright-

Patterson US Air Force

Base in Dayton, Ohio.

28 AugustMortar bomb kills

37 civilians on a

Sarajevo market

square. NATO

launches Operation

Deliberate Force,

attacking Bosnian

Serb positions in

response to the

shelling of Sarajevo.

14 DecemberGeneral Framework Agree-

ment for Peace in Bosnia and

Herzegovina (also known as

the Dayton Peace Accords) is

formally signed in Paris, giving

the OSCE the mandate to help

elaborate and implement three

specific instruments: an agree-

ment on confidence- and secu-

rity-building measures in Bosnia

and Herzegovina; a sub-regional

arms control agreement; and a

regional arms control agreement

applicable ‘in and around the

former Yugoslavia’.

16 NovemberInternational Crimi-

nal Tribunal for the

Former Yugoslavia

(ICTY) charges

Radovan Karadzic

and Ratko Mladic

with genocide.

November 1995

“We have reached a day many believed would

never come. After three weeks of intensive

negotiations in Dayton, the leaders of Bosnia and Herze-

govina, Croatia, and Serbia have agreed to end the war in

the former Yugoslavia. They have agreed that four years of

destruction is enough. The time has come to build peace

with justice. ... Today’s agreement assures the continuity

of a single state of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with effective

federal institutions, a single currency, and full respect by its

neighbours for its sovereignty. The city of Sarajevo, which

has gripped the world’s attention for the last four years, will

no longer be divided. ... I trust that one day, people will look

back on Dayton and say: This is the place where the funda-

mental choices were made; this is where the parties chose

peace over war, dialogue over destruction, and reason over

revenge; this is where each of us accepted the challenge to

make those choices meaningful and to make them endure.”

U.S. Secretary of State Warren Christopher, 15 December

1995, speaking at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in

Dayton, Ohio

Dayton, Ohio, 1995: Serbian President

Slobodan Milosevic at the Balkan Peace Conference.

© Magnum Photos/Burt Glinn

40

18 AprilPermanent Council

establishes the OSCE

Mission to Croatia.

15 to 31 MayFirst Conference to review

the Operation of the CFE Treaty and the Concluding

Act of the Negotiation on

Personnel Strength is held

in Vienna.

27 May Following intense

diplomatic efforts by the

OSCE Assistance Group

to Chechnya, the Chechen

and Russian leadership

sign a ceasefire agreement

in Moscow.“

29 FebruarySiege of Sarajevo

is lifted.

19 MarchSarajevo becomes

a united city when

Muslim-Croat

authorities take

control of the last

district held by

Bosnian Serbs.

27 MayRussian President

Boris Yeltsin meets

with Chechen rebels

for the first time

since the beginning

of the first Chechen

war and negotiates

a ceasefire.

10 JunePeace talks begin

in Northern Ireland

without Sinn Fein.

19961 January // Switzerland takes

over the OSCE Chairmanship

41

5 to 9 JulyFifth Annual Session

of the OSCE Parlia-

mentary Assembly

takes place in

Stockholm.

14 SeptemberOSCE Mission to Bos-

nia and Herzegovina

organizes presidential

and parliamentary

elections in the coun-

try. It will organize all

subsequent polls until

the general elections of

11 November 2000.

2 and 3 DecemberFifth OSCE Summit of

Heads of State or Gov-

ernment takes place in

Lisbon. It concludes

with the endorsement

by the participants of

the Lisbon Declara-

tion on a Common and

Comprehensive Secu-

rity Model for Europe

for the 21st Century.

27 SeptemberIn Afghanistan, the

Taliban capture the

capital city Kabul

after driving out

President Burhanud-

din Rabbani and

executing former

leader Mohammad

Najibullah.

5 NovemberDemocrat incumbent

Bill Clinton defeats

Republican chal-

lenger Bob Dole to

win his second term

as U.S. President.

19 SeptemberChairman-in-Office

appoints former Span-

ish Prime Minister

Felipe Gonzalez as his

Personal Representative

for the Federal Republic

of Yugoslavia.

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“The elections held on

14 September were in

the first instance a success because

they were held ... We all know that

there were serious deficiencies in the

political environment in which they

took place. But even taking this into

account, no one disputes that their

results gave a more or less accurate

reflection of the will of the peoples of

Bosnia one year after the end of the

war. Nevertheless, based on these

election results, the process of set-

ting up the common institutions of

the country has begun. It has been

difficult and it has been slow – but

it has been moving forward week by

week during the two months that

have passed since the results of the

elections were certified.”

Carl Bildt, High Representative for

Bosnia and Herzegovina, at the Peace

Implementation Council in London,

4 December 1996

At a polling station in Bihac, Bosnia

and Herzegovina, 14 September 1996

© Magnum Photos/Gilles Peress

44

4 FebruaryAfter initially

contesting the

results, Serbian

President Slo-

bodan Milose-

vic recognizes

opposition

victories in

the November

1996 elections.

4 MarchFollowing serious distur-

bances in Albania due to

the collapse of fraudulent

investment schemes, the

Chairman-in-Office sends

former Austrian Chancel-

lor Franz Vranitzky as his

Personal Representative

to Tirana.

27 JuneSigning of the General Agree-

ment on the Establishment of

Peace and National Accord in

Tajikistan, ending five years of

civil war. The OSCE Mission to

Tajikistan is a guarantor of the

Peace Agreement, facilitating its

implementation with regard to

political and military issues as

well as the return of refugees.

20 JanuaryBill Clinton

starts his

second term as

United States

President.

23 JanuaryMadeleine Al-

bright becomes

the first female

U.S. Secretary

of State.

2 MayTony Blair

is appointed

Prime Minister

of the United

Kingdom.

12 MayRussian-Chechen Peace

Treaty signed.

27 MarchPermanent Coun-

cil establishes the

OSCE Presence

in Albania.

19971 January // Denmark takes

over the OSCE Chairmanship

OS

CE

45

5 and 8 JulySixth Annual Session

of the OSCE Parlia-

mentary Assembly is

held in Warsaw.

18 SeptemberPermanent Coun-

cil establishes the

OSCE Advisory and

Monitoring Group in

Belarus.

5 NovemberPermanent Council

establishes the post

of the OSCE Repre-

sentative on Freedom

of the Media, and

appoints German

Parliamentarian

Freimut Duve as first

Representative.

18 and 19 DecemberSixth Ministerial

Council takes place

in Copenhagen.

8 JulyNATO invites the

Czech Republic,

Hungary, and

Poland to join the

alliance in 1999.

27 OctoberStock markets

around the world

crash because of

fears about a global

economic crisis.

3 DecemberIn Ottawa, Canada,

representatives from

121 countries sign

a treaty prohibiting

the manufacture and

deployment of anti-

personnel landmines.

HH

“1997 was a tumultuous

and tragic year for

Albania, in which approximately 2,000

people lost their lives during a popular

revolt, the government’s violent response,

and the chaos that ensued. ... The spark

for the mass protests was the collapse of

criminally linked high-risk investment

schemes in November and December 1996,

in which large sections of the population

lost their life savings. ... An OSCE mis-

sion, headed by former Austrian Chancel-

lor Franz Vranitzky, was instrumental in

brokering the creation of the reconciliation

government and organizing ... elections.”

Human Rights Watch World Report 1998

Mass demonstrations are held in Albania’s

capital, Tirana, in February 1997.

© Magnum Photos/Nikos Economopoulos

48

2 JanuaryRussia begins

to circulate

new roubles to

stem inflation

and promote

confidence.

28 FebruarySerbian police

begin to attack

so-called “ter-

rorist gangs”

in Kosovo.

19981 January // Poland takes over

the OSCE Chairmanship

4 JuneIn response to the

worsening situation

in Kosovo, the OSCE

Permanent Council

decides to increase the

number of border moni-

tors between Albania and

the Kosovo section of its

frontier with the Federal

Republic of Yugoslavia.

11 MarchOSCE Permanent Council

decides to enhance tem-

porarily the monitoring

capabilities of the OSCE

Spillover Monitor Mis-

sion to Skopje, to permit

adequate observation of

the borders with Kosovo

and the rest of the Federal

Republic of Yugoslavia.A

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7 to 10 JulySeventh Annual Session

of the OSCE Parliamen-

tary Assembly takes place

in Copenhagen.

23 JulyPermanent Council estab-

lishes the OSCE Centres

in Almaty, Ashgabad

and Bishkek.

30 SeptemberTogether with the

European Union, the

OSCE creates and leads

a ‘Friends of Albania’

Group, bringing together

countries and interna-

tional organizations ac-

tive in providing Albania

with financial support,

technical assistance and

other forms of aid.

25 OctoberPermanent Council

establishes the OSCE

Kosovo Verification

Mission (KVM).

15 OctoberOSCE Mission to

Croatia takes over the

work of monitoring

the local police in the

Croatian Danube region

from the UN. This marks

the beginning of the

OSCE’s activities in the

field of police monitor-

ing and training.

2 and 3 DecemberSeventh Ministerial

Council is held

in Oslo.

7 AugustNear-simultaneous

bomb explosions at

the U.S. embassies in

Tanzania and Kenya

kill 224 people and

injure over 4,500.

23 SeptemberUN Security Council

adopts Resolution 1199,

calling for the with-

drawal of the Serbian

security forces from

Kosovo and a ceasefire

between the warring

parties.

1 NovemberEuropean Court of Human

Rights is instituted.

19 NovemberU.S. House of Representa-

tives’ Judiciary Committee

begins impeachment hear-

ings against President Bill

Clinton arising from the

Monica Lewinsky scandal.

October 1998

“During its nearly five months in

Kosovo, the OSCE KVM ... along

with other international organizations, con-

tributed enormously to stability, the allevia-

tion of human suffering, and the protection

of innocent civilians of all Kosovo’s ethnic

communities. The local employees of these

organizations laboured alongside the inter-

national staff to achieve a peaceful resolu-

tion of the Kosovo conflict.”

James P. Rubin, Spokesman,

U.S. Department of State, 1 April 1999

The Kosovo Verification Mission – the

OSCE’s largest-ever field operation, with

more than 1,800 staff – was mandated to

verify the compliance of all parties with

UN Security Council Resolution 1199.

The Mission was deployed in October 1998.

© Magnum Photos/Thomas Dworzak

52

1 JanuaryEleven European

Union countries

adopt the euro as

their new cur-

rency, with the

first banknotes

and coins to come

into circulation in

January 2002.

19 MarchOSCE Chairman-in-

Office, Norwegian Foreign

Minister Knut Vollebaek,

decides to withdraw the

Kosovo Verification Mis-

sion due to the deteriorat-

ing security situation.

8 JuneKosovo Verification

Mission is dissolved.

12 MarchHungary, Poland

and the Czech Re-

public join NATO.

24 MarchNATO launches

air strikes against

the Federal Repub-

lic of Yugoslavia,

in response to the

collapse of nego-

tiations over the

Kosovo crisis.

7 AprilKosovo’s main

border cross-

ings are closed

by Serbian forces

to prevent ethnic

Albanians from

leaving.

27 MayICTY indicts

Slobodan Milosevic

and four others for

war crimes and

crimes against

humanity commit-

ted in Kosovo.

9 JuneFederal Republic

of Yugoslavia

and NATO sign

a peace treaty,

ending the

Kosovo crisis.

19991 January // Norway takes over

the OSCE Chairmanship

1 JunePermanent Council

establishes the OSCE

Project Co-ordinator

in Ukraine, following

the closure of the

OSCE Office in Ukraine

on 30 April 1999.

53

1 JulyPermanent Council estab-

lishes the OSCE Mission

in Kosovo. On the same

day, it places the Stabil-

ity Pact for South Eastern

Europe under the auspices

of the OSCE.

7 to 10 JulyEighth Annual Session of

the OSCE Parliamentary

Assembly is held in

St Petersburg.

22 JulyPermanent Council

establishes the OSCE

Office in Yerevan.

31 OctoberJoint Committee on

the Skrunda Radar

Station is disbanded.

16 November OSCE adopts the Vienna

Document on Confidence-

and Security-Building

Measures, building on the

Vienna Documents agreed

in 1990, 1992 and 1994.

16 November Permanent Council

establishes the OSCE

Office in Baku.

18 and 19 NovemberOSCE Heads of State or

Government gather in Istan-

bul for their sixth Summit.

They adopt a Charter for

European Security, sign the

adapted Treaty on Conven-

tional Armed Forces in Eu-

rope, and call for a political

settlement in Chechnya.

22 DecemberMandate of the

OSCE Mission to

Georgia is expanded

to include monitor-

ing of the border

with the Chechen

Republic of the

Russian Federation.

29 and 30 JulyAt an international

summit meeting

in Sarajevo, the

Stability Pact for

South Eastern

Europe is founded.

19 AugustIn Belgrade, tens

of thousands of

Serbians rally to

demand the resig-

nation of President

Milosevic.

12 OctoberAccording to the UN, a

woman in Sarajevo gives

birth to the six billionth

person on the planet.

27 OctoberGunmen open fire in the

Armenian parliament,

killing Prime Minister

Vazgan Sarkisian, Parlia-

ment Chairman Karen

Demirchian and six other

members of parliament.

31 DecemberBoris Yeltsin resigns

as President of Rus-

sia; Prime Minister

Vladimir Putin is

appointed Acting

President.

OS

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November 1999

“Here today are leaders of more than

20 countries that were not even in

existence when the Final Act was signed in

Helsinki in 1975 because they were not free. ...

Clearly, we must adapt the OSCE to meet new

realities. The charter we’ve negotiated recognizes

that the greatest threats to our security today are

as likely to come from conflicts that begin within

states as between them.”

U.S. President Bill Clinton at the OSCE

Istanbul Summit, 18 November 1999

“Russia is firmly committed to construc-

tive co-operation within the framework

of the Summit. I am convinced that both Russia

and the other members of the OSCE are today

especially in need of respectful dialogue, not

mutual reproaches and moralizing. We all have

an equal interest in ensuring stability and

security throughout the European area. The years

since the OSCE came into being, and particularly

this year, have given rise to great expectations

and, at the same time, great disappointments.

Europe has found itself facing new challenges.”

President of the Russian Federation,

Boris Yeltsin, at the Istanbul Summit

© AFP/Itar-Tass

56

6 FebruaryTarja Halonen

is elected first

female president

of Finland.

26 MarchVladimir Putin

is elected Presi-

dent of Russia.

16 MarchOSCE Permanent

Council decides to

adopt a Regional Strat-

egy for South-eastern

Europe, reinforcing

the Organization’s

existing support for

the Stability Pact.

18 FebruaryTo assist the OSCE

Centre in Bishkek in

carrying out its work,

the OSCE Permanent

Council decides to es-

tablish a new field of-ff

fice in the city of Osh,

southern Kyrgyzstan.

20001 January // Austria takes over

the OSCE Chairmanship

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6 to 10 JulyNinth Annual

Session of the OSCE

Parliamentary

Assembly takes

place in Bucharest.

28 OctoberUnder the supervi-

sion of the OSCE,

Kosovo holds its

first democratic

municipal govern-

ment elections.

11 NovemberBosnia and Herzegovina holds

elections, the last ones organ-

ized and administered by the

OSCE Mission.

27 and 28 NovemberOSCE foreign ministers gather

in Vienna for the annual Min-

isterial Council meeting. They

take decisions on the Organi-

zation’s role in south-eastern

Europe and on a document

curtailing the flow of small

arms and light weapons.

12 AugustRussian submarine

Kursk sinks in the

Barents Sea, result-

ing in the deaths

of all 118 men on

board.

6 SeptemberIn New York, the

United Nations

Millennium Summit

begins with more

than 180 world

leaders present.

4 OctoberPresident Slobodan

Milosevic leaves

office after wide-

spread demonstra-

tions throughout

Serbia and the

withdrawal of

Russian support.

7 NovemberRepublican challenger

George W. Bush de-

feats Democrat Vice-

President Al Gore in

the U.S. presidential

election, but the final

outcome is not known

for over a month

because of disputed

votes in Florida.

27 NovemberNewly-elected

Yugoslav President

Vojislav Kostunica signs

the Helsinki Final Act,

the Charter of Paris for

a New Europe, and the

Istanbul Charter for

European Security,

bringing the Federal

Republic of Yugoslavia

back into the OSCE fold.

On 28 October, the OSCE Mission in Kosovo organizes the

province’s first free and fair election ever.

OSCE/Lubomir Kotek

October 2000

Last month’s municipal elections were

a great success, because technically

speaking the task taken on by the Organiza-

tion for Security and Co-operation in Eu-

rope – which should be congratulated on

the success – and UNMIK was not a simple

one, and above all because these elections

were the result of a real political transforma-

tion. ... The leaders of all the political parties

have committed themselves to accepting the

results, and now they will begin to deal with

the institutional transfer of responsibilities.”

Bernard Kouchner, Head of the UN Interim

Administration in Kosovo, Address to the

UN Security Council, 16 November 2000

60

11 JanuaryPermanent Council establishes

the OSCE Mission to the Federal

Republic of Yugoslavia (renamed

in February 2003 as OSCE Mis-

sion to Serbia and Montenegro).

1 AprilSlobodan Milosevic

surrenders to police

special forces and is

transported to The

Hague to be tried on

charges of war crimes

before the ICTY.

20 JanuaryGeorge W. Bush succeeds

Bill Clinton as U.S. Presi-

dent after prevailing over

Al Gore in the disputed

2000 election.

7 JuneTony Blair’s Labour

Party is elected for

a second term in the

UK general election.

20011 January // Romania takes over

the OSCE Chairmanship

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6 to 10 July Tenth Annual

Session of the

OSCE Parliamentary

Assembly is held

in Paris.

3 and 4 DecemberNinth Ministerial

Council is held in

Bucharest and ends

with the Bucharest

Ministerial Declaration

and the Bucharest

Plan of Action for

Combating Terrorism.

9 SeptemberAhmed Shah Massoud,

influential leader of the

Northern Alliance, is

assassinated in

Afghanistan.

7 OctoberA coalition of

states, led by the

United States,

attack Afghani-

stan to drive out

the extremist al-

Qaida network.

12 NovemberTaliban forces

abandon the

Afghan capital,

Kabul, ahead

of advancing

Northern Alli-

ance troops, who

take the city two

days later.

2 DecemberU.S. firm Enron

collapses, at the

time the largest

bankruptcy in

history.

22 DecemberHamid Karzai is

sworn in as head

of the interim

government in

Afghanistan.

11 SeptemberAround 3,000 people

are killed in terrorist

attacks in the United

States. Extremists

hijack several civilian

planes and fly them

into the World Trade

Centre in New York

and the Pentagon

building in Washing-

ton. Another plane

crashes in rural

Pennsylvania.

13 and 14 DecemberSome 300 representatives

of OSCE participating

States and the UN meet in

Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan to dis-

cuss measures to counter

terrorism in Central Asia.

31 DecemberMandates of the OSCE

Missions to Estonia and

to Latvia expire.

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a reference point for a determined global struggle against terrorism.”

Ambassador Jan Kubis, OSCE Secretary General, at an international

anti-terrorism conference on 6 September 2002

© REUTERS/Ray Stubblebine

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1 JanuaryTreaty on Open

Skies, signed in

1992, officially

enters into force.

1 JanuaryIntroduction of euro banknotes and

coins in Germany, France, Italy,

Spain, Greece, Austria, Belgium,

Finland, Ireland, Luxembourg,

Netherlands and Portugal.

16 JanuaryUN Security Council unanimously

establishes an arms embargo and

the freezing of assets of Osama bin

Laden, al-Qaida, and the Taliban.

12 FebruaryTrial of former Yugoslav President

Slobodan Milosevic begins at the

ICTY in The Hague.

20021 January // Portugal takes over

the OSCE Chairmanship

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6 to 11 JulySome 300 parliamen-

tarians meet for the

11th Annual Session

of the OSCE Parlia-

mentary Assembly

in Berlin.

6 and 7 DecemberTenth Ministerial Council

takes place in Porto. The

participants agree on a Porto

Ministerial Declaration, the

OSCE Charter on Preventing

and Combating Terrorism,

and a Declaration on Traf-

ficking in Human Beings.

21 NovemberAt the NATO Summit in

Prague, Bulgaria, Estonia,

Latvia, Lithuania, Romania,

Slovakia and Slovenia are

invited to become members.

27 DecemberSuicide truck-bomb at-

tack destroys the head-

quarters of Chechnya‘s

Moscow-backed Govern-

ment, killing 72 people.

25 NovemberU.S. President George W. Bush

signs the Homeland Security

Act, establishing the Depart-

ment of Homeland Security in

the largest U.S. government

reorganization since the

creation of the Department

of Defense in 1947.

30 DecemberPermanent Council estab-

lishes the OSCE Office in

Minsk. The OSCE Advisory

and Monitoring Group in

Belarus ceased to exist on

31 December 2002.

31 DecemberMandate of the OSCE

Assistance Group to

Chechnya expires.

January 2002

“The Treaty on Open Skies entered into force on January 1, 2002, and currently has

30 States Parties. The Treaty establishes a regime of unarmed aerial observation flights

over the entire territory of its participants. The Treaty is designed to enhance mutual understand-

ing and confidence by giving all participants, regardless of size, a direct role in gathering informa-

tion about military forces and activities of concern to them. Open Skies is one of the most wide-

ranging international efforts to date to promote openness and transparency of military forces and

activities. ... The Treaty was negotiated by the then-members of NATO and the Warsaw Pact, and

was signed in Helsinki, Finland, on March 24, 1992.

Bureau of Arms Control, U.S. Department of State, 4 June 2004

“The implementation of the Open Skies Treaty shows that this efficient tool makes mili-

tary activities transparent and supplements other multilateral disarmament regimes,

the Russian Foreign Ministry has said in connection with a Vienna session of the Open Skies

Consultative Commission scheduled for January 20. The session will focus on ‘further upgrading

of the mechanism of observer flights and specify some provisions of the Treaty to balance rights

and obligations of the signatories,’ the ministry said. Russia has made observer flights in the skies

of Great Britain, Germany, Turkey, Italy and a number of other countries ... since August 1, 2002,

the Ministry said. Meanwhile, Turkey, Greece, the United States and some other countries ... have

made inspection flights in the skies of Russia.”

ITAR-TASS news agency, 14 January 2003

Aircraft used for Open Skies observation flights include US-built C-130 Hercules planes.

US Air Force

68

12 MarchSerbian Prime Min-

ister Zoran Djindjic

is assassinated in

Belgrade.

19 MarchInternational

coalition led by

the United States

attacks Iraq.

12 MaySuicide truck-bomb

attack kills at least

60 at a government

compound in north-

ern Chechnya.

16 MayIn Casablanca,

Morocco, 33 civil-

ians are killed and

more than 100

people are injured in

a terrorist attack.

17 JuneOSCE hosts an

international

conference in

Vienna on

anti-Semitism.

20031 January // Netherlands takes over

the OSCE Chairmanship

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5 to 9 July12th Annual Session

of the OSCE Parlia-

mentary Assembly is

held in Rotterdam.

4 and 5 SeptemberAlmost 400 partici-

pants discuss ways

to fight racism,

xenophobia and

discrimination at

an international

OSCE conference

in Vienna.

1 and 2 December11th Ministerial Council takes place in

Maastricht. It ends with the adoption of

the OSCE Strategy to Address Threats to

Security and Stability in the Twenty-First

Century, the OSCE Strategy Document for

the Economic and Environmental Dimen-

sion, and a Statement on South-Eastern

Europe as a Region of Co-operation.

At the same meeting, several OSCE States

pledge to provide immediate assistance to

Georgia to help organize presidential and

parliamentary elections, following the

country’s ‘Rose Revolution’.

11 AugustNATO takes over

command of the

peacekeeping force

in Afghanistan,

marking its first

major operation

outside Europe in its

54-year history.

10 SeptemberSwedish Foreign

Minister Anna

Lindh is stabbed in

a Stockholm depart-

ment store and dies

the next day.

15 NovemberTwo car bombs explode

simultaneously in Is-

tanbul, Turkey, target-

ing two synagogues.

The attacks, for which

al-Qaida claims respon-

sibility, kill at least

25 people and wound

more than 300.

20 NovemberSeveral bombs explode

in Istanbul, killing

28 people, including

the British Consul

General, and injuring

more than 400.

23 NovemberGeorgian President

Eduard Shevardnadze

resigns following the

‘Rose Revolution’,

marked by weeks of

mass protests by the

population over

fraudulent elections.

November 2003

Georgia: Shevardnadze declares emergency as Opposition

names interim President.

Georgian President Eduard Shevardnadze has declared a state of emergency

following what he called an attempted ‘coup d’etat.’ In live televised com-

ments Shevardnadze said, “We have to bring order to the country.” The an-

nouncement came after opposition supporters seized control of the parlia-

ment today after weeks of protests against disputed election results. Shortly

after Shevardnadze’s statement, the Opposition declared one of its leaders,

Nino Burdjanadze, as interim President.

Shevardnadze was earlier whisked out of parliament by bodyguards after

demonstrators forced open the door of the chamber and stormed in as he

was giving a speech before the opening session of the newly elected parlia-

ment. Opposition leader Mikhail Saakashvili told the chamber, “The Velvet

Revolution has taken place in Georgia.” The Opposition has been protest-

ing the 2 November parliamentary elections, which they say were rigged in

favour of political parties loyal to Shevardnadze.

Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, Tbilisi, 22 November 2003

“Icommend the people of Georgia for having achieved political change

in a peaceful and dignified manner, without resorting to violence.

Both the demonstrators and the security forces behaved with admirable

restraint. I deeply respect the brave decision of President Shevardnadze to

step down in order to avoid a further escalation of tension. It is up to the

people of Georgia to determine their own political future and I want them to

know that they can count on the OSCE’s support in their efforts to establish

full democracy and the rule of law. If support is needed in the preparation of

early elections, and if the people of Georgia so desire, the OSCE stands ready

to provide active assistance in this process, for the benefit of its people and

for the interest of peace and stability in the OSCE area.”

2003 OSCE Chairman-in-Office, Netherlands Foreign Minister

Jaap de Hoop Scheffer, The Hague, 24 November 2003

Opposition supporters demonstrating on

Tbilisi’s Parliament Square, November 2003

© Magnum Photos/Thomas Dworzak

72

2004

4 JanuaryMikhail

Saakashvili

wins the

presidential

election in

Georgia.

26 FebruaryPresident of the

former Yugoslav

Republic of

Macedonia, Boris

Trajkovski, is killed

in a plane crash near

Mostar, Bosnia and

Herzegovina.

11 MarchSimultaneous

explosions of bombs

planted by extremists

kill 190 people on

rush hour trains

in Madrid.

14 MarchVladimir Putin wins

a second term as

Russian president.

17 MarchViolence breaks out

over two days in

Kosovo. Nineteen

people are killed,

139 Serbian homes

are burned, schools

and businesses are

vandalized, and over

30 orthodox monas-

teries and churches

are burned and

destroyed.

1 MayEuropean Union

expands from 15

to 25 member states,

taking in Poland,

Lithuania, Latvia,

Estonia, the Czech

Republic, Slovakia,

Slovenia, Hungary,

Malta and Cyprus

as new members.

15 MarchChairmanship urges

the Georgian au-

thorities to exercise

restraint in a standoff

with the leadership of

the breakaway Geor-

gian republic of Ajara.

The crisis ends in May

with the resignation of

Ajara’s leader, Aslan

Abashidze.

1 January // Bulgaria takes over

the OSCE Chairmanship

28 and 29 April OSCE holds a high-

profile conference

in Berlin on the

fight against anti-

Semitism. More than

400 people attend

the event.

13 MayOSCE Chairman-

in-Office appoints a

Special Representa-

tive on Trafficking in

Human Beings.

UN

MIK

/AF

RIM

HA

JRU

LL

AH

U

73

1 SeptemberChechen rebels take

more than 1,000 peo-

ple hostage, mostly

children, in a school

in Beslan, North-

ern Ossetia. They

demand the release

of Chechen rebels

imprisoned in neigh-

bouring Ingushetia

and the independ-

ence of Chechnya

from Russia.

3 SeptemberRussian forces end

the siege in Beslan.

At least 335 people

(including at least 32

of some 40 hostage-

takers) are killed and

at least 700 people

are injured.

29 OctoberEuropean Heads of

State sign in Rome

the Treaty and Final

Act establishing the

first European Con-

stitution.

21 NovemberFollowing interna-

tional criticism of

the conduct of the

second round of the

presidential election

in Ukraine, protest

rallies begin in Kyiv.

Twelve days later, the

Supreme Court an-

nuls the result and a

new poll is scheduled.

26 DecemberViktor Yushchenko

wins the re-run

of the second

round of the

Ukrainian presi-

dential election.

25 NovemberAt the request of the

Chairman-in-Office,

the OSCE Secre-

tary General travels

to Ukraine to hold

consultations to find a

solution to the political

crisis that followed the

presidential election

in the country. The

situation is eventually

resolved in December

and a repeat second

round of the presi-

dential election takes

place on 26 December

with the participation

of 1,300 international

observers sent by the

OSCE.

6 and 7 December12th Ministerial Coun-

cil takes place in Sofia,

ending with the Sofia

Ministerial Statement

on Preventing and

Combating Terrorism

and a Statement of the

Ministerial Council on

the Nagorno-Karabakh

Conflict. The ministers

also decide to establish a

Panel of Eminent Persons

to review the effectiveness

of the OSCE and advise

on its future.

23 December

Chairman-in-Office

appoints three Personal

Representative to

promote tolerance and

non-discrimination.

7 SeptemberOSCE and Afghanistan

sign a Memorandum

of Understanding on

the deployment of an

OSCE Election Sup-

port Team to assist the

electoral authorities

with the holding of the

presidential election

on 9 October. A Team

of 50 OSCE election

experts is deployed in

mid-September.

13 and 14 September Brussels hosts an

international OSCE

conference on the

fight against racism,

xenophobia and

discrimination.

5 to 9 July 13th Annual Ses-

sion of the OSCE

Parliamentary As-

sembly takes place

in Edinburgh.

“I have been following very closely the

rerun of the presidential election in

Ukraine. The preliminary findings of the

International Election Observation Mis-

sion, led by the OSCE, establish that the

conduct of the 26 December election proc-

ess brought Ukraine substantially closer

to meeting OSCE election commitments

and Council of Europe and other Europe-

an standards. We are now waiting for the

official announcement of the final results

by the Central Electoral Commission.”

Javier Solana, EU High Representative for

the Common Foreign and Security Policy,

27 December 2004

“There was heated debate in Ukraine’s Parliament Sat-

urday, before lawmakers overwhelmingly approved a

resolution declaring the disputed presidential election run-off

invalid. And a newly formed working group met to try to find

a way out of the political impasse, which has brought tens of

thousands of opposition supporters into the streets. ... The Sec-

retary General of the OSCE, Jan Kubis, tells VOA he is hopeful

the working group will be successful. ‘What is expected is not

only that they are starting today, but that they will deliver some

results very quickly, in a matter of one, two days, because the

fact that these political negotiations, consultations, that they

have started does not mean this is an exercise which could or

should last for weeks. It is not. Simply, the dynamics of the

development will not allow this.’ ... Meanwhile, supporters of

pro-Western challenger Yushchenko demonstrated for a sixth

day in the streets of Kyiv.”

Lisa McAdams, Voice of America, 27 November 2004

December 2004 The roundtable in Kyiv’s Marinsky Palace around which met Ukraine’s

two rival presidential candidates on 6 December 2004. Clockwise,

starting from Ukraine’s then President Leonid Kuchma (top centre):

Lithuanian President Valdas Adamkus; Ukrainian Prime Minister

Viktor Yanukovich; European Union common foreign policy chief,

Javier Solana; Polish Foreign Minister Wlodzimierz Cimoszewicz;

Ukrainian Parliament speaker Volodimir Litvin; OSCE Secretary

General Jan Kubis; Speaker of the Russian State Duma, Boris Gryzlov;

presidential candidate Viktor Yushchenko; and Polish President

Aleksandr Kwasniewski.

© AFP/ Sergei Supinsky

76

24 March‘Tulip Revolution’ in

Kyrgyzstan reaches

its climax with the

overthrow of Presi-

dent Askar Akayev.

The crowd calling

for his removal

storms Government

House and riots oc-

cur throughout the

capital.

17 FebruaryPanel of Eminent

Persons for examin-

ing ways to strength-

en the OSCE’s

effectiveness holds its

first meeting at Brdo

Castle near Ljubljana.

27 JunePanel of Eminent

Persons presents

its final report

to the OSCE

Chairmanship.

20 JanuaryGeorge W. Bush

is inaugurated in

Washington, D.C.

for his second term

as President of the

United States.

23 JanuaryViktor Yushchenko

is sworn in as the

third President of

Ukraine.

2 AprilPope John Paul II

dies. Millions flock

to Rome to pay

their last respects

to the Pontiff.

29 MayFrench voters

resoundingly

reject the

European

Constitution in

a referendum.

1 JuneDutch voters

also reject the

European

Constitution.

20051 January // Slovenia takes over

the OSCE Chairmanship

8 and 9 JuneOSCE holds a

conference on

combating anti-

Semitism and

other forms of

intolerance in

Cordoba, Spain.

77

1 to 5 JulyOSCE Parliamentary

Assembly holds its

14th Annual Session

in Washington, D.C.

5 and 6 DecemberOSCE holds its 13th

Ministerial Council

in Ljubljana.

7 JulyFour explosions in

the London under-

ground and on a bus

kill more than 50

people and injure

over 200. The at-

tacks are claimed by

Islamic extremists.

14 to 16 SeptemberNew York hosts the

largest UN World

Summit in history.

18 SeptemberSome 68 million

Afghans cast their

votes in the first

legislative elections for

over three decades.

18 SeptemberAngela Merkel of the

conservative CDU

and Gerhard Schröder

of the Social-Demo-

cratic Party both claim

victory in Germany’s

federal election.

27 OctoberTwo teenagers acci-

dentally electrocute

themselves in Seine-

Saint-Denis, France,

an incident which

leads to country-

wide violent unrest

that lasts for more

than 12 days and

only subsides after

President Jacques

Chirac declares a

state of emergency.

22 November Christian-Demo-

crat Angela Merkel

becomes Germany‘s

first woman

chancellor.

OS

CE

March 2005

“In our view the OSCE has, until

now, successfully fulfilled the

role it is expected to play in a crisis

situation in one of the participating

countries. The events in Kyrgyzstan

highlight the important role of the

OSCE in supporting stability in the

wider European region. The EU hopes

that all participating States will fully

support the OSCE as the multilateral

organization best equipped to take the

lead role in dealing with the situation

in Kyrgyzstan. ... We highly appreci-

ate the initiative taken by the OSCE

Chairman, Minister Dimitrij Rupel,

pledging the Organization’s full sup-

port to help Kyrgyzstan move towards

stability, unity and democracy. ... The

OSCE – with its increased involve-

ment in Kyrgyzstan as well as its on-

going work in neighbouring countries

in Central Asia – is uniquely placed

to offer such a framework, as has been

demonstrated effectively during the

last few weeks.”

European Union statement at

the OSCE Permanent Council,

7 April 2005

Demonstrators in Bishkek,

Kyrgyzstan, in March 2005.

© Magnum Photos/Thomas Dworzak

OSCE participating States

Albania | Andorra | Armenia | Austria | Azerbaijan

Belarus | Belgium | Bosnia and Herzegovina | Bulgaria

Canada | Croatia | Cyprus | Czech Republic | Denmark

Estonia | Finland | France | Georgia | Germany | Greece

Holy See | Hungary | Iceland | Ireland | Italy | Kazakhstan

Kyrgyzstan | Latvia | Liechtenstein | Lithuania | Luxembourg

the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia | Malta | Moldova

Monaco | Netherlands | Norway | Poland | Portugal | Romania

Russian Federation | San Marino | Serbia and Montenegro

Slovakia | Slovenia | Spain | Sweden | Switzerland | Tajikistan

Turkey | Turkmenistan | Ukraine | United Kingdom

United States of America | Uzbekistan

Partners for Co-operation

Afghanistan | Japan | Republic of Korea | Mongolia | Thailand

Mediterranean Partners for Co-operation

Algeria | Egypt | Israel | Jordan | Morocco | Tunisia

PICTURE EDITOR | Alexander Nitzsche

Press and Public Information Section

ART DIRECTOR | Damir Krizmanic

DESIGN AND TYPESETTING | red hot 'n' cool

PRINT | Manz CROSSMEDIA

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