From Castle to Country House: Elite Residential Architecture in Medieval England

From Castle to Country House: Elite Residential Architecture of Medieval England.

Thomas M. Shelby

Stokesay Castle, partial elevation of hall.

Arch 4114/8821 Medieval Architecture

Fall 2008

From Castle to Country House

This is a continuation of a term paper, The Military Architecture of Pre-Conquest

Britain, written in the Fall of 1991 for an undergraduate, sophomore level class on the

history of the Celtic world. In that paper, I surveyed the various types of military

architecture utilized by pre-Conquest groups, namely the hill forts of the Picts and the

Britons (Celts), the stockade and ditch fortresses of the Romans, the timber strongholds

of the Anglo-Saxons, and finally, the motte-and-bailey “castle” fortifications of the

Normans. In this paper I will continue the survey, picking up with the Norman castles

and continuing up to the time of the Elizabethan prodigy houses. Research methods

employed consisted of a literature search of the Georgia Tech Library for books on

English, Tudor, castle, and country house architecture, as well as books within my

personal collection. In addition, academic databases were searched for journal articles on

the subject, and bibliographies and footnotes were perused for additional sources.

Internet sources were minimal, and limited only to general information and image

searches, though some legitimate websites are cited.

The year 1066 is the well-known seminal date in English history, the details and

implications of which need not be discussed here. The earliest Norman castles were

generally comprised of a motte-and-bailey (Figure 1), a structural form introduced by the

conquerors from the European continent. A motte is best described as a mound, usually

artificial or partly natural, surrounded by a ditch, and at its base was the bailey, also

surrounded by a ditch and further protected by a palisade. At the top of the mound, the

strongpoint, was the donjon, or keep, which was essentially a wooden superstructure.

These motte-and-baileys were often built upon earlier, and quicker to build, ringworks, or

were often built over an Anglo-Saxon burgh, or communal stronghold. In the latter case,

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expediency from modifications of strategic sites as well as symbolism of a continuing

system of lordship appear to be primary reasons for these structural reoccupations. Some

of these castles could have more than one motte or multiple baileys, such as at Windsor

Castle. They were an expedient, and effective, structure of military defense and

occupation during and immediately after the Conquest.1

As the residences of various feudal lords, a political system introduced by the

Normans under William the Conqueror, a number of buildings often composed the motte-

and-bailey castle. Usually within the bailey would be stables, barns, storerooms, a

kitchen, a chapel, and a hall or communal building for general assembly—all for the

lord’s retinue of basically support personnel. Entrance was gained by a gate, often in

conjunction with a tower. The keeps of motte-and-bailey castles could vary in size and

degree of craftsmanship. Generally two to four stories in height, they could rise directly

from the ground or be carried on posts. The building material—wood—however, made

the keep susceptible and vulnerable to fire. It is with the plan of the keep, though, that

has implications for later English architectural history. Central to the keep was the hall, a

great central space where the lord and his family resided, though private spaces were

known from the larger and more elaborate keeps. A second important element to the plan

of the keep was the gallery, a long and relatively narrow space that ran along the exterior

walls of the keep. Interestingly, battlements and crenellations, a detail that could not be

discerned archaeologically (and often casually associated with Tudor), is known to us

from graphic depictions, namely, the Bayeux Tapestry.2

Soon after the Conquest, and certainly by the end of the 11th century, Norman

builders began to transition these wooden keeps into “shell” keeps, that is to say, an

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encircling wall of masonry, was built atop the motte. A more permanent, and fireproof,

construction, shell keeps generally consisted of an enclosing ring or curtain wall with

few, if any, piercings. They were usually not very tall, and within the enclosure and

oftentimes abutting the walls, were timber structures containing the private residence of

the castle lord—essentially a ring of rooms. The later examples, dating to the late 12th

century and into the 13th century, often have mural towers added to protect the curtain

walls, a reflection of the changing nature and understanding of military engineering and

technology of the period. One of the earliest extant examples of a shell keep is Restormel

Castle (c. 1200) (Figure 2), located in Cornwall, though there are many other examples,

such as the Round Tower at Windsor Castle (c. 1170s), but they are usually found within

larger, and later, constructions.3

During the same period that shell keeps were being erected atop mottes all across

England, Norman building transitioned into the tower keeps. These multiple story, often

square or polygonal, stone towers presented a formidable, as well as psychological,

statement of military power and lordship. As with a shell keep, the tower keep was a

stone re-presentation of the previous timber structures, and were comprised, simply put,

of minimally pierced curtain walls with mural towers. However, the construction of

these towering stone (mostly rubble) structures required increased engineering skills, as

multiple levels and a variety of interior spaces were needed. To satisfy these large spans,

as well as further reinforce interior defenses, interior partition walls of stone were

needed. Tower keeps were built from immediately after the Conquest and up to

approximately the end of the 12th century. Many of these keeps are still extant,

embedded within later and larger constructions. The two most well known examples

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include William the Conqueror’s White Tower in London (Figure 3), one of the earliest,

and the great tower keep of Henry II at Dover, one of the last and largest.4

The White Tower, now part of the Tower of London, is perhaps the most

architecturally significant keep, as it was the royal residence of William. Set atop a

battered plinth and begun in 1078, the White Tower stands three stories (90’) above an

undercroft (basement, understory), with walls some fifteen feet thick of Kentish rag, a

type of rough limestone. Caen limestone from Normandy was used as ashlar around

doors and windows and at building corners. The walls were regularly whitewashed.

Although most of the windows have been replaced, some Norman Romanesque arcading

survives (Figure 4), and the cupolas above the turrets, dating to the reign of Henry VIII,

probably had a towering superstructure. It would have been an impressive structure

rising over medieval London.5

Although a royal residence, the White Tower can nonetheless be used to

characterize the plan and layout of other keeps across England, albeit the rest are on a

somewhat less elaborate and smaller scale (Figures 5 and 6). The undercroft was

generally the storerooms and oftentimes the kitchen. Above there were two residential

levels, which in plan was divided into two halves by the great partition wall. Here three

important elements comprise the interior arrangement: the hall (public), the chamber

(private), and the chapel. One entire side of the tower was the hall, where the lord of the

castle (in this case the king) would meet and transact business of everyday affairs and

entertain guests. This hall was open to an upper gallery level, which ringed the entire

structure, but this gallery level, constituting the highest level in the tower, does not

appear to be initially original to the design.6 Heating was from fireplaces and braziers,

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sanitation through garderobes (latrine chutes), and, of course, keeps had to have a

freshwater supply from a well. On the other side of the partition wall was the private

chamber, or solar, probably subdivided by timber walls, and fitted into a corner of the

structural plan, the Chapel of St. John the Evangelist. This barrel vaulted, three aisled

chapel has a gallery, or tribune, level, like the hall. Finished with Caen limestone and

originally painted, the chapel is characterized by cylindrical drum piers with simply

sculpted cushion capitals with tall, stilted arches within the arcade. The apse of the

chapel projects beyond the square plan of the tower, creating a semi-circular projection

along the southeast corner of the building.7

Castle architects in England continued to develop and experiment with new

structural forms, much of it stemming from returning crusader experiences with eastern

castles, and included the addition of polygonal and circular mural towers, polygonal

keeps, circular keeps, and finally, enclosed and concentric keeps. The basic plan that

would inform the later design of English manor or country houses, though, was already

established. Additional structures were developed, including gatehouses, which were

further elaborated into barbicans, a heavily fortified and towered gatehouse. By the end

of the 12th century, moats became integral to castle design. The enclosure castles of the

13th and 14th centuries employed massive curtain walls and mural towers that enclosed

the bailey(s), providing protection and defense to a greater number of buildings and

inhabitants. These enclosure castles were often divided into an inner and outer bailey,

that is, there would be an inner curtain wall, enclosing the inner bailey and keep, and an

outer curtain wall, containing the outer bailey. Again, though there are many examples

across England, but the Tower of London can serve as a representative example. The

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inner walls were built by Henry III, and the outer walls completed by Edward I. Like the

walls of the White Tower, these curtain walls, punctuated by circular and square towers,

are crenellated, and are minimally pierced with narrow windows and arrow slits. Thus

the Tower of London served as the prototype for the great Edwardian concentric castles,

and castle building, in terms of effectiveness, reached their zenith under Edward III in the

mid-14th century.8

As these castles grew in structural accretions, so did the keep in terms of the

luxury or, rather, elaboration of its apartments. It is at this juncture that castle building

and the manor house, in terms of planning, largely intersect. It is generally accepted that

the Anglo-Saxons did not have castles, and that the motte-and-bailey is a Norman import.

However, the grand hall was central to the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy and may have even

been imported into Normandy. Anglo-Saxon halls are known primarily from

archaeological excavations at Deddington (Oxfordshire), dated to circa. 1050, and from

documentary evidence at Winchester and Bosham, the latter being Harold’s hall from the

Bayeaux Tapestry. Throughout English history, the hall was the focal point of the

interior of a castle or manor house. The earliest Norman halls, located at Chepstow

Castle and Richmond Castle, date to the 1070s. At Chepstow (Figures 7 and 8), the hall

is two stories, with a plain first or ground level and the second level, open to the roof,

reserved for entertaining. Entrance to the room would be gained from one end of the

building, and a dais would be at the other end. Blind arcading comprised the

architectural details. This hall has no Norman precedent, but rather shares affinities with

Anglo-Saxon halls.9

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One of the best known halls, however, is at Westminster. It was begun in 1097,

and was one of the largest in Europe at 240 by 67 feet. It survives in outline form within

the 15th century rebuilding, and had a wall passage with smaller, paired arches between

the larger arched windows, recalling the pattern of Winchester Cathedral. It is unclear

how the space was roofed or vaulted, but may have been subdivided into three aisles. It

is divided into twelve bays by shallow buttresses, but they are misaligned, for some

reason, which could easily be corrected within the divided space and by a wooden truss

roof. One of the earliest extant Norman halls is at Oakham Castle, located in Rutland

(Figures 9 and 10). It dates to the late 12th century. Like Westminster, Oakham has three

aisles, the central one being the largest, and is divided into four bays. The arcade is

decorated with Norman chevron motifs, carried on piers with capitals that recall those

found in the post-1174 extension of Canterbury Cathedral, and there may have been a

clerestory. Its exterior, though modified in its details, clearly expresses the three aisled

plan.10

The Norman manor house is another architectural type that would inform the

design of later English country houses. Sometimes called miniature versions of castles,

or perhaps more correctly less fortified, the manor house was a direct result of the

Norman imposition of feudalism and its economic aspect—manorialism. This was a

building type I was not altogether familiar with, as I had always assumed castles, and

castles only, represented the residence of the lord of the manor up until the Tudor period.

Apparently, though, manor houses began to be built on a larger scale in the latter part of

the 12th century, primarily because defense was less of a concern following the

restoration of political stability under Henry II. A typical Norman manor house would be

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located outside of the village, and like within a castle, would contain a great hall for

social use and dining, a solar, or private quarters, a kitchen, with its storerooms, pantry,

and buttery, a garderobe, and a chapel. Oftentimes the solar and kitchen would be of

stone, called a chamber block, and the hall would be made of timber. One aspect of the

plan of these houses, related to the galleries found in castles, is the screen passage, which

consisted of a passage to one side of the hall where the entrance(s) would be located. It is

thought that this developed to prevent drafts and the drawing of smoke into the hall. .

Associated with the manor house would be a variety of outbuildings such as barns,

stables, and servants quarters, either inside or outside an enclosure wall. One of the best

preserved, and best known, of these Norman manor houses is Boothby Pagnell, located in

Lincolnshire (Figure 11). Built around 1200, it is two stories and finished in rough

masonry or rubble work with ashlar masonry around the doors and windows. A great

Norman arch proclaims the main entrance, accessed by a stone staircase. Although the

first level windows are rectilinear, they are treated with “arches” of rubblework.11

So by the 13th century, political stability (albeit relatively brief) had given rise to

the duality of the castle and the fortified manor house across the English landscape,

which would continue into the 15th century. It was a change of emphasis, as “the castle

was primarily a military structure which could be lived in, whilst a fortified manor was a

domestic structure which could be defended if necessary.”12 Greater comfort for the

occupants was a part of this new emphasis, but unlike regular manor houses, they are

usually fortified with a tower. Interestingly, these towers and crenellations had to be

granted, or licensed, by the king. They are considered an intermediate building type with

castles on one end of the spectrum and the great Elizabethan houses on the other. One of

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the best examples of a fortified manor house is Stokesay Castle (Figures 12, 13, and 14),

located in the Welsh marches. Tracing its origins back to the Conquest, when the lower

floors of the tower were built as a Norman stronghold, the manor house was extensively

added onto, including the great stone hall, in the 1280s. In 1291 the owner, a prosperous

wool merchant, received a license to crenellate, which is essentially a permit to add

battlements. The distinction between castles and fortified manor houses is, not only

architectural but a class distinction, that the former was related to the crown and the

wealthy baronage, and the latter belonging to the smaller landowners.13

The 13th through 15th centuries were comprised of periods of relative stability

alternated with episodes of class tensions such as the Peasant Revolt of 1381 (resulting in

the increasing number of fortified manor houses), civil wars, frontier conflicts, and royal

and political conflicts (i.e. the Hundred Years War and the Wars of the Roses), thus there

was still a military need for castles, and their design continued to develop in tandem with

more sophisticated military tactics. New castles, as opposed to older ones that were

simply added onto and modified, were consistently of the quadrangular type. This type

of castle, standing three to four stories high, consists of ranges of buildings that are

integral to the curtain walls and have corner towers. In plan they are generally square

(hence the name), with a central courtyard, and exhibit more sophisticated interior

planning. They often lack distinctive gatehouses and do not have keeps, a reflection less

on defensive needs and more emphasis on domestic comfort, with lavish suites,

chambers, and a great hall. Interestingly, though, large and wide moats are increasingly

employed with these types of castles, perhaps as a way to keep the emerging technology

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of artillery out of range. Begun in 1385, Bodiam Castle, located in East Sussex, is the

classic example of a quadrangular castle (Figures 15 and 16).14

The final phase of castle development occurs under the Tudors, although these are

generally not castles in the strictest sense but are rather fortifications and artillery

emplacements. Most were built under Henry VIII, with some extending into Elizabethan

times. They were either circular or of a cloverleaf pattern (overlapping circles) and were

used for coastal defense (Figure 17). This was the nascent era of cannon and artillery

guns and the rise in importance of the Royal Navy, and these fortifications protected

anchorages and provided defense against enemy ships. By this point, the Tudor castle

was primarily a defensive fortifications, no longer a place of residence for the lord or for

the crown.15

The first great building phase of the Tudor period (or rebuilding), was of course

during the reign of Henry VIII. What is considered today to be the Tudor style represents

the final phase of medieval English architecture, building upon both previous English

vernacular building (i.e. wattle and daub) and developing out of and contemporaneous

with the Perpendicular style of Gothic architecture. The Tudor style, with its half

timbering, four-centered arches, bay and oriel windows, complex chimney stacks, and

tall, narrow, and small paned windows, would become synonymous with English

architecture.16

The manor houses built or enlarged during the Tudor period continued the interior

planning and arrangements that had already been well established, and, as with earlier

periods, some manor houses were fortified, while others were not. The decision to

crenellate and fortify a house was due, in part, to light defensive needs in breakdowns of

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social order and along frontiers, but also it was becoming a status and social symbol.

Nonetheless, two examples of Tudor manor houses show the luxury and size of the

expanding elite class. Ockwells Manor in Berkshire (Figures 18 and 19), rebuilt in the

mid-to-late 15th century, largely during the reign of Henry VII, is finished with brick, an

expensive building material, yet retains the widely spaced timber framing, which is now

redundant in a brick house, and an adherence to historical modes. The massive

chimneys, elaborate chimney pots, bargeboards, diamond paned windows, and steep

gables complete the composition, and, inside, the great hall is open to the ceiling and

framed with large timbers. In contrast, the manor house at Compton Wynyates is

fortified (Figures 20 and 21). Located in Warwickshire, it too was built of brick but also

has some expanses of wattle and daub walls and timber framing, mostly within the

gables.17 Rebuilding began circa. 1481, with many of the features visible today dating to

the very early 16th century, largely during the reign of Henry VIII; however, the manor

house has a variety of seemingly contrived towers and projections, most of which are

crenellated and evoke a castle-like image. The hall, its screen passage, and the galleries

can be clearly discerned in the plan.18

The ‘long gallery’ becomes especially popular during the later Tudor period,

which essentially widens the long gallery or room that runs along either a manor house

façade or its courtyard. They were usually located on the second floor, and become

equally important to the hall as a public space for entertainment. One well-known

example is the early 16th century 110’ long gallery at Haddon Hall (Figure 22). This

fortified manor house, like Compton Wynyates, has a great hall (Figure 24), crenellated

towers and projections, though is more substantial, and was built over a protracted period

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from the 13th through the 17th centuries which is reflected in the plan (Figure 23). This

pattern of hall, galleries, towers, and decorative crenellations were also employed in the

royal castle-palaces such as Nonsuch, Whitehall, and Hampton Court—the favorite of

Henry VIII and subsequently the largest and most luxurious (Figure 25).19

During the reign of Henry VIII, elements of the Renaissance, or the ‘antique taste’

was making its way into England, and its earliest patrons were naturally at the top of

society. This arrival of the Renaissance was via artists from the continent, and for the

most part was only in the form of ornament affixed to largely Tudor and Gothic buildings

without a clear understanding of the underlying theory. For instance, eight terracotta

portrait busts of Roman emperors were commissioned for Cardinal Wolsey, and in 1551,

Somerset House had been completed for the Lord Protector (for Edward VI). This latter

building, although containing a Tudor courtyard, gatehouses, and a great hall, had a

Renaissance façade of alternating Doric and Ionic colonnades. But most importantly,

they were symmetrical or were at least approaching regularity, such as at Hengrave Hall,

where the symmetrical arrangement of the entrance towers, oriels, windows, and

ornament (Figure 26) belie the irregular and non-symmetrical interior disposition of the

rooms, which includes a square courtyard, a great hall, and long galleries around the

court (Figure 27).20

During the 1550s Renaissance elements began to be increasingly popular and

incorporated within the second great phase of building in the Tudor period, that of the

Elizabethan era that began in 1558 with the ascent of Elizabeth I to the throne. These

houses, though, were limited to members of the highest levels of society, as they were

built in expensive stone and brick, and were being built with symmetrical arrangements,

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plainer wall surfaces, and columns and pilasters. Stylistically, they have more in

common with French examples, and much of the detailing, such as Dutch gables and

Flemish strapwork, come from Flanders, than with Italian precedents. Many of these

mansions were the Elizabethan ‘prodigy’ houses, such as Wollaton Hall, Hardwick Hall,

and Burghley House. With Wollaton Hall (Figures 28 and 29), the interior arrangement

is also beginning to approach regularity, as opposed to the more ‘organic’ accretions of

Haddon Hall. The courtyeard has been replaced by the great hall (though this is not

common at other prodigy houses), which remains central to the English house, as does

the long gallery. Although elements of Tudor architecture continued to be used,

especially in the homes of the middle classes, into the succeeding Jacobean period (James

I), the Elizabethan period (the last of the Tudors) is here considered the end of medieval

architecture in England and the beginning of the English Renaissance.21

Concluding Remarks

This paper has traced the progression of English castles and manor houses from

the time of the Norman Conquest to the Elizabethan era, a period of some 500 years.

Prior to undertaking this research paper I apparently had some preconceived notions

about the evolution of the country house, in that I was unaware of Norman manor

houses—I had just simply assumed they were all castles and under the Tudors they

“morphed” into country houses. This of course was an oversimplification, with a

multitude of various building types ranging from castles, of which there were different

types, manor houses, fortified manor houses, halls, castle-palaces, country houses, and

prodigy houses, all representative of different socio-economic conditions at different

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periods of time, namely, a decreasing need for defense and an increasing focus on

personal comfort.

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Notes

1 John R. Kenyon, Medieval Fortifications, St. Martin’s Press, 1990, pp. 3-7; R. Allen Brown, The Architecture of Castles: A Visual Guide, New York: Facts on File Publications, 1984, pp. 20-26. 2 Brown, The Architecture of Castles, pp. 21-23; Colin Platt, The Architecture of Medieval Britain: A Social History, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990, Chapter 1, passim. 3 For a listing and discussion of the early Norman castles see Ella S. Armitage, “The Early Norman Castles of England,” The English Historical Review, Part I, 19(74), April 1904, pp. 209-45 and Part II, 19(75), July 1904, pp. 417-55; Brown, The Architecture of Castles, pp. 34-36; Richard Humble, English Castles, New York: Harmony Books, 1984, pp. 14-16. 4 Brown, The Architecture of Castles, Chapter Four, passim; Humble, English Castles, p. 16; A. Hamilton Thompson, Military Architecture in Medieval England, Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield, 1975, Chapter 6, passim. 5 Peter Hammond, Her Majesty’s Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London, London: Historic Royal Palaces, Crown Copyright 1987, reprinted 1994, pp. 14-19. 6 See Eric Fernie, The Architecture of Norman England, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000, pp. 60-61. 7 Hammond, The Tower of London, p. 18; Fernie, The Architecture of Norman England, pp. 55-61. 8 Humble, English Castles, p. 20; Brown, The Architecture of Castles, pp. 27-28 and Chapter Four, passim; John B. Nellist, British Architecture and Its Background, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1967, pp. 149-151; Thompson, Military Architecture in Medieval England, Chapter 10, passim. 9 Fernie, The Architecture of Norman England, p. 82; see Michael Wilson, The English Country House and its furnishings, New York: Architectural Book Publishing Co., 1977, p. 15 for personal accounts of life within a medieval hall, as well as information on its furniture. 10 Fernie, The Architecture of Norman England, pp. 84-87; Geoffrey Webb, Architecture in Britain: The Middle Ages, Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1956, pp.66-68. 11 Fernie, The Architecture of Norman England, pp. 87-88; Lucy Archer, Architecture in Britain and Ireland: 600-1500, London: The Harvill Press, 1999, p. 82; Olive Cook, The English Country House: an art and a way of life, London: Thames and Hudson, 1974, p. 12.

16


12 Nellist, British Architecture and Its Background, p. 159. 13 Electronic document, Stokesay Castle, English Heritage website, http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/upload/pdf/stokesay_castle.pdf, accessed 31 October 2008; Lynda Rollason, “Castles” in The Oxford Companion to British History, edited by John Cannon, New York: Oxford University Press, 1997, pp. 174-75; for more information regarding licenses to crenellate, see “English Licences to Crenellate: Some Analysis”, by Philip Davis, electronic document, http://homepage.mac.com/philipdavis/LtoCren.html, accessed 25 October 2008; Archer, Architecture in Britain and Ireland, pp. 225-30; also Thompson, Military Architecture in Medieval England, Chapters 8 and 12, passim. 14 Hugh Kearney, The British Isles: A History of Four Nations, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989, Chapters 6 and 7, passim; Brown, The Architecture of Castles, pp. 71-75; Thompson, Military Architecture in Medieval England, Chapter 11, passim. 15 Humble, English Castles, pp. 24-25; Platt, The Architecture of Medieval Britain, p. 285. 16 Brick also became an important building material at this time, exploited for both texture and color to achieve new visual effects such as contrived nogging and diaperwork. Though the technological origins of brick-making in England are unclear, it appears that it was known by the early 12th century, but was usually simply viewed as a substitute for stone. See Webb, Architecture in Britain, p. 204 and Cook, The English Country House, p. 40 for additional discussion of Tudor brickwork. 17 This could very well be a later Victorian remodel. 18 Cook, The English Country House, pp. 40-43; Platt, The Architecture of Medieval Britain, pp. 286-87; Sydney E. Castle, Domestic Gothic of the Tudor Period, New York: International Casement Company, Inc., 1927, pp. 16-17. 19 Nellist, British Architecture and its background, pp. 172-74; see also “Haddon Hall”, electronic document, http://www.haddonhall.co.uk/index.htm, accessed 5 November 2008—an interesting website with interactive chronological floor plan and virtual tour. 20 Platt, The Architecture of Medieval Britain, p. 278; Somerset House, electronic document, http://www.somersethouse.org.uk/about_somerset_house/history/62.asp, accessed 7 November 2008; John Summerson, Architecture in Britain, 1530-1830, Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1963, pp. 12-13. 21 Summerson, Architecture in Britain, Chapters 3 and 4, passim; David Watkin, A History of Western Architecture, New York: Thames and Hudson, 1986, pp. 234-38; Wilson, The English Country House, pp. 24-30.

17

http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/upload/pdf/stokesay_castle.pdf

http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/upload/pdf/stokesay_castle.pdf

http://homepage.mac.com/philipdavis/LtoCren.html

http://www.haddonhall.co.uk/index.htm

http://www.somersethouse.org.uk/about_somerset_house/history/62.asp


References Cited and Sources Consulted

Archer, Lucy. Architecture in Britain and Ireland, 600-1500. London: The Harvill Press. 1999. Armitage, Ella S. “The Early Norman Castles of England” in The English Historical Review, Vol. 19, No. 74 (April 1904), pp. 209-245. Armitage, Ella S. “The Early Norman Castles of England (Continued)” in The English Historical Review, Vol. 19, No. 75 (July 1904), pp. 417-455. Beeler, John H. “Castles and Strategy in Norman and Early Angevin England” in Speculum, Vol. 31, No. 4 (Oct. 1956), pp. 581-601. Brown, R. Allen. The Architecture of Castles: A Visual Guide. New York: Facts on File Publications. 1984. Cannon, John (ed.). The Oxford Companion to British History. New York: Oxford University Press. 1997. Castle, Sydney E. Domestic Gothic of the Tudor Period. New York: International Casement Company. 1927. Cole, Emily (ed.). The Grammar of Architecture. New York: Barnes and Noble Books. 2002. Colvin, H.M. “Castles and Government in Tudor England” in The English Historical Review, Vol. 83, No. 327 (April 1968), pp. 225-234. Cook, Olive. The English Country House: An Art and a Way of Life. London: Thames and Hudson. 1974. Fernie, Eric. The Architecture of Norman England. New York: Oxford University Press. 2000. Hammond, Peter. Her Majesty’s Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London. London: Historic Royal Palaces. Crown Copyright 1987, reprinted 1994. Humble, Richard. English Castles. New York: Harmony Books. 1984. Johnson, Matthew. Behind the Castle Gate: From Medieval to Renaissance. New York: Routledge. 2002. Kearney, Hugh. The British Isles: A History of Four Nations. New York: Cambridge University Press. 1989.

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King, D.J. Cathcart. The Castle in England and Wales: An Interpretive History. Portland, OR: Areopagitica Press. 1988. Nellist, John B. British Architecture and its Background. New York: St. Martin’s Press. 1967. Platt, Colin. The Architecture of Medieval Britain: A Social History. New Haven: Yale University Press. 1990. Platt, Colin. The Great Rebuildings of Tudor and Stuart England: Revolutions in Architectural Taste. London: UCL Press. 1994. Summerson, John. Architecture in Britain, 1530-1830. Baltimore: Penguin Books. 1963. Thompson, A. Hamilton. Military Architecture in Medieval England. Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield. 1975. Watkin, David. A History of Western Architecture. New York: Thames and Hudson. 1986. Webb, Geofrrey. Architecture in Britain: The Middle Ages. Baltimore: Penguin Books Ltd. 1956. Wilson, Michael I. The English Country House and its Furnishings. New York: Architectural Book Publishing Co. 1977.

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Figures

Figure 1. A typical motte-and-bailey castle (from Google Images).

Figure 2. The shell keep at Restormel (from Google Images).

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Figure 3. The Conqueror’s White Tower, London (from Hammond 1994).

Figure 4. Detail of remaining Norman windows, White Tower, London (from Hammond

1994).

21


Figure 5. Plan of the White Tower, London. Basement, First and Second floors, and gallery. The hall is on the left hand side of the second floor, and the chapel is in the

lower right (from Fernie 2000).

Figure 6. Cut-away view of the White Tower, London, circa. 1100 (from Brown 1984).

22


Figure 7. Ruins of the hall at Chepstow Castle. The slots for the timber floor supports

can be seen in the wall, beneath would have been the basement or understory (from Fernie 2000).

Figure 8. Chepstow Castle, plan (from Google Images).

23


Figure 9. Exterior of Oakham Hall (from Brown 1984).

Figure 10. Interior of Oakham Hall (from Cook 1974).

24


Figure 11. Boothby Pagnell (from Platt 1990).

Figure 12. Stokesay Castle (from Google Images).

25


Figure 13. The hall at Stokesay Castle (from Cook 1974)

Figure 14. Plan of Stokesay Castle (from Google Images).

26


Figure 15. Aerial view of Bodiam Castle (from Google Images).

Figure 16. Plan of Bodiam Castle (from Google Images).

27


Figure 17. Henry VIII’s ‘cloverleaf’ castle, essentially a gun platform, at Deal in Kent

(from Humble 1984).

28


Figure 18. Ockwells Manor, west front (from Cook 1974).

Figure 19. Ockwells Manor (from Castle 1927).

29


Figure 20. Compton Wynyates (from Google Images).

Figure 21. Compton Wynyates, plan (from Google Images).

30


Figure 22. The Long Gallery at Haddon Hall (from Google Images).

Figure 23. Haddon Hall, plan (from Google Images).

31


Figure 24. The great hall at Haddon Hall, with screen passage (from Wilson 1977).

32


Figure 25. Hampton Court (from Castle 1927).

33


Figure 26. Hengrave Hall (from Summerson 1963).

Figure 27. Hengrave Hall, plan (from Summerson 1963).

34


Figure 28. Wollaton Hall (from Wilson 1977).

Figure 29. Wollaton Hall, plan (from Summerson 1963).

35

From Castle to Country House: Elite Residential Architecture in Medieval England

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