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PREACHING AND PRACTISING: FREEDOM OF RELIGION OR BELIEF IN THE
COMMONWEALTH Dr. Nazila Ghanea Commissioned by the Commonwealth
Advisory Bureau About the Commonwealth Advisory Bureau
TheCommonwealthAdvisoryBureauistheindependentthink-tankandadvisory
serviceforthemodernCommonwealthoffifty-fournationsandnearlytwobillion
citizens.WespecialiseinissuesofCommonwealthpolicyincludingglobalisation,
democracy, civil society and human rights. Part of the Institute of
Commonwealth Studies, University of London, we run projects in
countriesacrosstheCommonwealth.Weproducequalitypolicy-relevantreportsand
briefingstoinformandinfluencepolicymakersinoveraquarteroftheworlds
countries.WeseektoputthepolicychoicesbeforetheCommonwealthintosharper
focus, exploring options and suggesting new directions. CA/B
projects are changing the
waypeoplethinkonissuessuchasmakingelectionsfairer,recognisingtheneedsof
indigenous peoples and assisting development in small island
states. We are committed
tocontinuingourworktoinformandimprovepolicyanddecisionmakingacrossthe
Commonwealth.
Wealsoofferconfidentialandimpartialadvicetocountriesinterestedinapplyingto
jointheCommonwealth,andcanhelpexistingmembercountriesmakethemostof
Commonwealth membership for maximum impact at home and abroad. This
report by the Commonwealth Advisory Bureau was commissioned and
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Email: [email protected] Web: www.commonwealthadvisorybureau.org Mail:
Commonwealth Advisory Bureau Institute of Commonwealth Studies
Senate House University of London London WC1E 7HU United Kingdom 1
FREEDOM OF RELIGION OR BELIEF IN THE COMMONWEALTH Dr Nazila Ghanea1
Freedom of religion or belief in the Commonwealth shows a very
chequered picture. The Commonwealths vast diversity stretches from
states with official state religions2 to secular states,3 states
with huge religious pluralism and with concentrated religious
settlements in particular regions,4 and states with the most
secular to the most practising populations.5 The 54 states
illustrate instances of great concern, for example where blasphemy
leads to severe sanction, where inter-communal tensions
occasionally erupt along religious lines,6 where conversion is
restricted and family status laws are largely dictated by presumed
religious affiliation.7 On the other hand, they also provide rich
illustrations of peaceful co-existence, high degrees of
governmental and societal respect for accommodation on the basis of
religion or belief and harmonious communities. The fact that the
population of the Commonwealth constitutes some one-third of the
worlds population and constitutes over 1.8 billion people means
that this vast diversity is hardly surprising.
1 Dr Nazila Ghanea, Lecturer in International Human Rights Law,
University of Oxford [email protected] The
Constitution of Brunei Darussalam, Article 3(1) states: The
religion of Brunei Darussalam shall be the Muslin Religion
according to the Shafeite sect of that religion. See Annex3 The
preamble to the Indian Constitution declares We, the people of
India, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a
sovereign socialist secular democratic republic and to secure to
all its citizens liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and
worship. 4 For example, the concentration of Muslims in northern
Nigeria and Christians in the south.5 See the British Social
Attitudes Survey with regards to religious belief, religious
membership and related attitudes in the UK. 6 One example comes
from Orissa where a number of Christians died, 140 churches and
prayer halls were attacked and 50,000 Christians were forced to
flea from Hindu-Christian clashes in 2008. See: Missio, Violence
against Christians in India: A response, Religious Violence in
Orissa Issues, Reconciliation, Peace and Justice, 2009, pp. 42-70,
available at:
http://www.missio-hilft.de/media/thema/menschenrechte/studie/33-indien-de-en-fr.pdf
See also: David Griffiths, Conversion, Re-Conversion and Violence
in Central Orissa, MA dissertation, School of Oriental and African
Studies, September 2010 7 Examples include India and Malaysia. 2 To
this prima facie religious diversity8 should be added some
consideration of the significant impact of the historical,
sociological, political and legal background of the state
concerned. Regardless of these, however, certain human rights law
obligations pertaining to religious freedom remain binding on all
states. Commonwealth member states have repeatedly reiterated their
commitment to these standards, for example through including the
following as a Commonwealth core value in 2009:Human rights:
reaffirming our commitment to the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights and human rights covenants and instruments; and recalling
our belief that equality and respect for protection and promotion
of civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights for all
without discrimination on any grounds, including the right to
development, are foundations of peaceful, just and stable
societies, and that these rights are universal, indivisible,
interdependent and interrelated and cannot be implemented
selectively.9 The need to uphold the rights of all without
discrimination is well-established in all human rights instruments,
with non-discrimination on the basis of religion consistently being
articulated in such standards.10 Although non-discrimination on the
basis of race is consistently emphasised in Commonwealth
Principles, specific mention of non-discrimination on the basis of
religion is often absent. For example, the Singapore Declaration of
Commonwealth Principles states We believe in the liberty of the
individual, in equal rights for all citizens regardless of race,
colour, creed or political belief.11 The Harare Commonwealth
Declaration repeats the same language 20 years on,12 as well as
calling for fundamental human rights, including equal rights and
opportunities for all citizens regardless of race, colour, creed or
political belief.13 The Coolum Declaration, too, omits religion or
belief from the commitment for respect for diversity and human
dignity;
8 See Singapore Declaration of Commonwealth Principles, 1971,
Members of the Commonwealth come from territories in the six
continents and five oceans, include peoples of different races,
languages and religions, and display every stage of economic
development from poor developing nations to wealthy industrialised
nations. They encompass a rich variety of cultures, traditions and
institutions. para. 2. See Annex 9 Affirmation of Commonwealth
Values and Principles, Port of Spain, Republic of Trinidad and
Tobago, 29 November 2009. See Annex 10 Non-discrimination, inter
alia on the basis of religion or belief, is captured in Article 2
of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 2(2) of the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Article 2(2)
of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights and Article 2 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child.
11 The Singapore Declaration of Commonwealth Principles, para. 6.
See Annex 12 The Harare Commonwealth Declaration, 1991, para. 4.
See Annex 13 The Harare Commonwealth Declaration, para. 9. See
Annex 3 our celebration of the pluralistic nature of our societies
and the tolerance it promotes; and our implacable opposition to all
forms of discrimination, whether rooted in gender, race, colour,
creed or political belief.14 The Commonwealth commitments to
freedom of expression, freedom of cultural expression,15 democracy
and democratic development, social inequality, womens rights,16good
governance, connecting cultures17 and the role of civil society18
all have a bearing on non-discrimination on the grounds of religion
or belief and the freedom of religion or belief. Its absence from
these documents is therefore all the more surprising. All in all,
religion whether in acknowledging the grounds of diversity in the
Commonwealth, outlining commitment for non-discrimination on a
variety of grounds, acknowledging the role of faith groups or
upholding freedom of religion or belief seems to have been
conspicuously absent.All in all, religion whether in acknowledging
the grounds of diversity in the Commonwealth, outlining commitment
for non-discrimination on a variety of grounds, acknowledging the
role of faith groups or upholding freedom of religion or belief
seems to have been conspicuously absent. The Civil Paths to Peace:
Report of the Commonwealth Commission on Respect and
Understanding19 goes some way toward addressing this gap. It
emphasises the need for non-discrimination on a number of grounds
and includes non-discrimination on the basis of
14 The Coolum Declaration, The Commonwealth in the 21st Century:
Continuity and Renewal, Australia, March 2002. See Annex 15 Port of
Spain Civil Society Statement to the 2009 Commonwealth Heads of
Government Meeting, para. 19. See Annex 16 Commonwealth
Secretary-Generals message for Commonwealth Day, 14 March 2011, the
theme for that year was Women as Agents of Change, See Annex,
available at
http://www.thecommonwealth.org/document/181889/34293/35144/234907/cw_2011_sg_message.htm17
This was the theme for the 2012 Commonwealth Day. As the
Secretary-General said in his speech on 12 March 2012 Connecting
Cultures is about appreciating and celebrating these ways in which
others live their lives and express themselves. And it is about
much more than that too. It is about exploring how we can bring
cultures together, how we can connect them in order to learn, to
deepen the appreciation we have of one another. Connecting Cultures
encourages us to explore how we can use culture to build bridges of
exchange and understanding. We want these links to be strengthened
in new and special ways in 2012. Commonwealth Secretary-Generals
message for Commonwealth Day, 12 March 2012, See Annex, available
at
http://www.thecommonwealth.org/document/181889/34293/35144/245235/070212sgcwday.htm18
E.g. See: The Perth Declaration on Food Security Principles, Perth,
Australia, 29 October 2011, para. 4. See Annex 19 Civil Paths to
Peace: Report of the Commonwealth Commission on Respect and
Understanding, Commonwealth Secretariat, 2007. See Annex 4
religion.20 It also takes a nuanced view on the acknowledgement of
religious identity, but not at the expense of other identities and
loyalties. It states: The Commission argues, in particular, that
there is a strong need for much more dialogue and discussion on the
richness of human identities and the counterproductive nature of
placing people in rigidly separated identity-boxes, linked with
religion or community (no matter how positively each religion or
community is described). The importance of peoples cosmopolitan
identity also demands greater recognition than it tends to get,
without denying the relevance of other identities that can
comfortably co-exist with a global outlook.21 There are strong
reasons why freedom of religion or belief should be acknowledged
more fully as part of the spectrum of Commonwealth concerns. Both
in terms of policy and human rights, emphasising dialogue with
(particular) religious communities or community leaders without
equal emphasis on freedom of religion or belief may well prove
counter-productive. As the Commission argued in the context of
security, Whilst religious identities can be used in a very
positive way, by for example instilling a moral code and way of
living, stressing religious identities over and above other
political and social identities can undermine efforts to strengthen
civil society and community cohesion.22 Constructed dualisms23 and
the setting up of preeminent dogmas24 that serve as exclusionary
platforms for hatred, violence and terrorism need to be resisted.
Inter-religious co-operation and civil society actions need to be
balanced by freedom of religion or belief in order to emphasise
that the adoption, maintaining, discarding or changing of religion
or belief is in the final analysis an individual choice, albeit one
that co-exists with levels of religious autonomy and minority
rights. Freedom of religion or belief as a human right can be
recognised as upholding five key aspects. Firstly, it should be
noted that international human rights standards uphold freedom of
thought, conscience and religion. They therefore relate to religion
and belief
20 [N]ational identity can be used to give each person
acknowledged equality in political participation, irrespective of
religion, race, caste, dialect, or community, or for that matter
their date of immigration. Civil Paths to Peace, p. 11. See Annex
21 [N]ational identity can be used to give each person acknowledged
equality in political participation, irrespective of religion,
race, caste, dialect, or community, or for that matter their date
of immigration. Civil Paths to Peace, pp. 13-14. See Annex 22 Civil
Paths to Peace, p. 22, para. 34. See Annex 23 Civil Paths to Peace,
p. 31, para. 69. See Annex 24 Civil Paths to Peace, p. 64, para.
205. See Annex 5 and not to religious freedom alone.25Secondly,
these standards uphold the freedom to have, adopt or change
religion or belief26 as absolute rights,27and only allow for
possible limitations on the manifestation (or public expression) of
religion or belief. Thirdly, any limitations on manifestation of
religion or belief need to be strictly interpreted and fulfil the
following criteria: of being prescribed by law, and necessary to
protect public safety, order, health, or morals or the fundamental
rights and freedoms of others.28 Fourthly, although the declaration
of an official state-religion relationship is not prohibited, this
must not result in any discrimination against others.29 Some
observers have taken this understanding further, and emphasise that
the holding of an official state-religion or state-ideology
relationship imposes on the concerned state a positive obligation
to demonstrate that this does not result in any discrimination
against others.30 Fifthly, manifestation is outlined under the
headers of: worship, observance, practice and teaching.31 This is
suggestive of a range of manifestations, including those outlined
in Article 6 of the 1981 UN
25 Article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
upholds the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion;
Article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil Political Rights
concerns the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion.
Commonwealth member states are also have commitments under the
European Convention on Human Rights, the OSCE Helsinki Final Act,
the African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights and the American
Convention on Human Rights. All of these also stretch their
commitment to religion or belief.26 For a discussion rising with
respect to Article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
see: Bah International Community, Freedom to Believe: Upholding the
Standard of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, New York,
October 2005, available at
http://www.bic.org/statements-and-reports/statements/freedom-believe-upholding-standard-udhr27
This is confirmed by the UN Human Rights Committee in its
interpretation of Article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil
and Political Rights in General Comment 22, para. 3. This states
that Article 18 distinguishes the freedom of thought, conscience,
religion or belief from the freedom to manifest religion or belief.
It does not permit any limitations whatsoever on the freedom of
thought and conscience or on the freedom to have or adopt a
religion or belief of one's choice. These freedoms are protected
unconditionally, as is the right of everyone to hold opinions
without interference in article 19.1.28 International Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights, Art 18(3)29 The UN Human Rights
Committee states in its General Comment 22 on Article 18 of the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights that The fact
that a religion is recognized as a state religion or that it is
established as official or traditional or that its followers
comprise the majority of the population, shall not result in any
impairment of the enjoyment of any of the rights under the
Covenant, including articles 18 and 27, nor in any discrimination
against adherents to other religions or non-believers. In
particular, certain measures discriminating against the latter,
such as measures restricting eligibility for government service to
members of the predominant religion or giving economic privileges
to them or imposing special restrictions on the practice of other
faiths, are not in accordance with the prohibition of
discrimination based on religion or belief and the guarantee of
equal protection under article 26.. (General Comment 22, para. 9)
30 For a discussion see: Dennis de Jong, The Legal Obligations of
State and Non-State Actors in Respect of the Protection of Freedom
of Thought, Conscience and Religion or Belief, 3.1 Religion and
Human Rights, 2008, pp. 1-13 31 See for example Article 18(1) of
the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and
Article 9(1) of the European Convention on Human Rights and
Fundamental Freedoms 6 Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms
of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief:
In accordance with article 1 of the present Declaration, and
subject to the provisions of article 1, paragraph 3, the right to
freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief shall include,
inter alia, the following freedoms: (a)To worship or assemble in
connexion with a religion or belief, and to establish and maintain
places for these purposes; (b)To establish and maintain appropriate
charitable or humanitarian institutions; (c)To make, acquire and
use to an adequate extent the necessary articles and materials
related to the rites or customs of a religion or belief; (d)To
write, issue and disseminate relevant publications in these areas;
(e)To teach a religion or belief in places suitable for these
purposes; (f)To solicit and receive voluntary financial and other
contributions from individuals and institutions; (g)To train,
appoint, elect or designate by succession appropriate leaders
called for by the requirements and standards of any religion or
belief; (h)To observe days of rest and to celebrate holidays and
ceremonies in accordance with the precepts of one's religion or
belief; (i)To establish and maintain communications with
individuals and communities in matters of religion and belief at
the national and international levels.32 How do these five key
aspects of freedom of religion or belief play out within the
Commonwealth? Firstly, the international scope of thought,
conscience and religion is upheld in the constitutions of some
Commonwealth member states but not others. The Constitution of the
Bahamas refers to the freedom of conscience,33 the Constitution of
the Kingdom of Swaziland uses the scope of freedom of thought,
conscience or religion,34 and the Constitution of the Republic of
the Fiji Islands refers to religious freedom in the broader context
of all persons having the right of practise of religion and the
right to retain their
32 UN Doc A/RES/36/55, Declaration on the Elimination of All
Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or
Belief, 25 November 1981, Article 6 33 The Constitution of the
Bahamas, Chapter 3, Article 22(1). See Annex34 The Constitution of
the Kingdom of Swaziland Article 23(1). See Annex 7 language,
culture and traditions.35 The Constitution of Mozambique upholds
the right of citizens to practice or not to practice a religion and
for religious denominations to pursue their religious aims
freely.36 Article 5(1)(f) of the Constitution of the Republic of
Venuatu safeguards freedom of conscience and worship,37 the
Constitution of Bangladesh makes reference to the freedom to
profess, practice or propagate any religion,38 the Canadian Charter
of Rights and Freedoms refers to freedom of conscience and
religion39 as a fundamental freedom and the Rwandan Constitution
prohibits and punishes discrimination base on, inter alia, religion
or faith, or opinion.40
Secondly, the absolute nature of freedom to have, adopt or
change religion or belief is established in the constitutions of
some, but certainly not all, Commonwealth member states. In many
cases, constitutions upholding freedom to change religion or belief
have taken inspiration and language from Article 18 of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights.41 The constitutions of
Samoa,42 Kiribati,43 Tanzania,44 Nigeria45 and Zambia46 are
examples of Commonwealth member states that uphold change of
religion or belief in their constitutions. The Constitution of the
United Republic of Tanzania states Every person has the right to
the freedom to have conscience, or faith, and choice in matters of
religion, including the freedom to change his religion or faith.47
Change of religion or belief requires specific and explicit
protection. The UN Human Rights Committee and all the UN Special
Rapporteurs on freedom of religion or belief have been most
insistent on its importance. As the UN Human Rights Committee
argues in its General Comment 22 that, The Committee observes that
the freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief necessarily
entails the freedom to choose a religion or belief, including the
right to replace one's current religion or belief with another or
to adopt atheistic views, as well as the right to retain one's
religion or belief. Article 18.2 bars coercion that
35 The Constitution of the Republic of the Fiji Islands, Chapter
2, 6 (c). See Annex 36 The Constitution of Mozambique, Chapter 2,
Article 78 (1). See Annex 37 Constitution of the Republic of
Venuatu, Article 5. (1) (f). See Annex 38 The Constitution of
Bangladesh, Article 41. See Annex 39 The Constitution of the
Kingdom of Swaziland Article 23(1). See Annex 40 The Rwandan
Constitution, Article 11. See Annex 41 The Canadian Charter of
Rights and Freedoms, Article 2(a). See Annex 42 The Constitution of
the Independent State of Samoa, Article 11(1). See Annex 43
Constitution of the Federal Republic of Kiribati, Chapter 2.11. See
Annex 44 The Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania,
Article 19(1). See Annex 45 Constitution of the Federal Republic of
Nigeria, Article 38(1). See Annex 46 Constitution of Zambia,
Article 19(1). See Annex 47 The Constitution of the United Republic
of Tanzania, Article 19(1). See Annex 8 would impair the right to
have or adopt a religion or belief, including the use of threat of
physical force or penal sanctions to compel believers or
non-believers to adhere to their religious beliefs and
congregations, to recant their religion or belief or to convert.
Policies or practices having the same intention or effect, such as,
for example, those restricting access to education, medical care,
employment or the rights guaranteed by article 25 and other
provisions of the Covenant, are similarly inconsistent with article
18.2. The same protection is enjoyed by holders of all beliefs of a
non-religious nature.48 Change of religion or belief requires
specific and explicit protection. In states such as Malaysia there
is a close nexus between race and religion49 such that freedom to
change religion or belief is curtailed. This is clear from the
well-known case of Lina Joy.50 In states with federal constitutions
there may be state laws that implicate this freedom. One example of
this is in India where a range of state initiatives have attempted
to counter the so-called apostasy trend.51
Thirdly, limitations on manifestation of religion or belief may
take shape in a variety of laws and policies in Commonwealth member
states. This includes laws and policies addressing blasphemy, press
and media laws, religious association or NGO laws, laws and
policies addressing expression52 and association and so on. Insofar
as the constitutional provisions themselves are concerned, the
Barbados and Botswanan Constitutions utilise the language of
Article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights in upholding the freedom to manifest and propagate religion
or belief in worship, teaching, practice and
48 General Comment 22, para. 5 49 In its definition of a Malay,
Article 160 of the Malaysian Constitution includes the following: a
person who professes the religion of Islam, habitually speaks the
Malay language, [and] conforms to Malay custom.50 See, for example:
Michael Kirby, Fundamental Human Rights and Religious Apostasy: The
Malaysian Case of Lina Joy, 17 Griffith Law Review, 2008, pp.
151-182 51 See: Saadiya Suleman, Freedom of Religion and
anti-conversion laws in India: An Overview, 1.1 ILI (Indian Law
Institute) Law Review, 2010, pp. 106 128 and American Center for
Law and Justice, Religious Freedom Acts: Anti-Conversion Laws in
India, 26 June 2009. See also: Christian Solidarity Worldwide,
Briefing, India: Communalism, anti-conversion and religious
freedom, June 2011 52 An example of this is the situation of
Ahmadiyya/Ahmadis in Pakistan where, amongst other discrimination,
the Ahmadiyya are prohibited from calling their places of worship
mosques, their call to prayer as adhan and themselves as being
Muslim. See: Human Rights Watch, Pakistan: Massacre of Minority
Ahmadis, Attack on Hospital Treating Victims Shows How State
Inaction Emboldens Extremists, 1 June 2010, available at
http://www.hrw.org/news/2010/06/01/pakistan-massacre-minority-ahmadis9
observance.53 As well as sharing this language, the Constitution of
the Republic of Mauritius prides that No religious community or
denomination shall be prevented from making provision for the
giving, by persons lawfully in Mauritius, of religious instruction
to persons of that community or denomination in the course of any
education provided by that community or denomination.54 In Sri
Lanka, case law has suggested that religious association laws have
restricted non-Buddhist groups more severely regarding their
teaching and charitable activities than Buddhist ones. This is out
of the concern that the propagation and spreading of Christianity
would impair the very existence of Buddhism.55 Fourthly, the
state-religion or state-ideology relationship is vastly different
amongst Commonwealth member states and has a variety of impacts on
others. The Constitution of Brunei Darussalam states in Article 3
(1) that The religion of Brunei Darussalam shall be the Muslim
Religion according to the Shafeite sect of that religion: Provided
that all other religions may be practiced in peace and harmony by
the person professing them in any part of Brunei Darussalam.56 The
Act of Constitution of Tonga states that Since it appears to be the
will of God that man should be free as He has made all men of one
blood therefore shall the people of Tonga and all who sojourn or
may sojourn in this Kingdom be free for ever. And all men may use
their lives and persons and time to acquire and possess property
and to dispose of their labour and the fruit of their hands and to
use their own property as they will.57 The Australian Constitution
states that The Commonwealth shall not make any law for
establishing any religion, or for imposing any religious
observance, or for prohibiting the free exercise of any religion,
and no religious test shall be required as a qualification for any
office or public trust under the Commonwealth.58 It should be noted
that 9 Commonwealth member states are also signatory to the
Dclaration de Bamako, section 24 (2000) which is promulgated by the
Organisation Internationale de la francophonie. This states that
member states will take all appropriate measure to protect members
of minority groups, whether they be ethnic, philosophical,
religious or linguistic minorities, and the freedom to practise
53 The Barbados Constitution, Article 19(1). The Constitution of
Botswana, Article 11. See Annex 54 The Constitution of the Republic
of Mauritius, Article 11. See Annex 55 See: UN Doc
CCPR/C/85/D/1249/2004, Sister Immaculate Joseph and 80 Teaching
Sisters of the Holy Cross of the Third Order of Saint Francis in
Menzingen of Sri Lanka v Sri Lanka, UN Human Rights Committee, 18
November 2005, para. 2(3) 56 The Constitution of Brunei Darussalam,
Article 3(1). See Annex57 The Act of Constitution of Tonga, Article
1, Declaration of Freedom. See Annex58 The Constitution of
Australia, Chapter 5, paragraph 116. See Annex10 any religion or
none, and the right to speak their own language and enjoy their
cultural life.59 Fifthly, the manifestation of religion or belief
in the public sphere shows significant divergence across
Commonwealth member states is not entirely evident from
constitutional provisions. Many states use the same language as
international human rights law norms and uphold the right to
manifest and propagate religion or belief in worship, teaching,
practice and observance.60 There are divergences though, for
example the Constitution of the Independent State of Papua New
Guinea which states Every person has the right to freedom of
conscience, thought and religion and the practice of his religion
and beliefs, including freedom to manifest and propagate his
religion and beliefs in such a way as not to interfere with the
freedom of others. 61 Many constitutions share the language of
limitations of manifestation with international human rights
provisions, but there are departures. The Constitution of the
Republic of Uganda upholds freedom to practise any religion and
manifest such practice which shall include the right to belong to
and participate in the practices of any religious body or
organisation in a manner consistent with this Constitution.62 The
Constitution of Pakistan makes the fundamental rights of Article 20
to freedom to profess religion and to manage religious institutions
subject to law, public order and morality.63 A number of
constitutions prohibit not only manifestation to religion or belief
of ones choice but also freedom from manifestations associated with
other religions or beliefs, for example in the context of oaths.
The Constitution of Malta also specifies this freedom from a
religious manifestation one does not hold in the context of
education No person shall be required to receive instruction in
religion or to show knowledge or proficiency in religion if, in the
case of a person who has not attained the age of sixteen years,
objection to such requirement is made by the person who according
to law has authority over him and, in any other case, if the person
so required objects thereto.64 A number of constitutions specify
the question of government funding in the context of
59 Dclaration de Bamako, section 24 (2000) which is promulgated
by the Organisation Internationale de la francophonie 60 This is
identical to the language of Article 18 of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights and of the International Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights and is replicated, for example, in
Article 11(1) of the Constitution of Belize, Article 11(1) of the
Constitution of Solomon Islands, and Article 21(1) of the
Constitution of the Republic of Seychelles. See Annex 61
Constitution of the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, Article
45(1). See Annex 62 The Constitution of the Republic of Uganda,
Article 29(1)(c). See Annex 63 The Constitution of Pakistan,
Article 20. See Annex 64 The Constitution of Jamaica, Chapter 3,
Article 21. See Annex 11 specific manifestations. For example, the
Constitution of Jamaica states that No religious body or
denomination shall be prevented from providing religious
instruction for persons of that body or denomination in the course
of any education provided by that body or denomination whether or
not that body or denomination is in receipt of any government
subsidy, grant or other form of financial assistance designed to
meet, in whole or in part, the cost of such course of education.65
The Constitution of Tuvala refers to freedom, either alone or with
others, to show and to spread, both in public and in private, a
religion or belief, in worship, teaching, practice and
observance.66 A review of constitutional provisions, however, falls
far short of the ambition to reveal the full variety of laws,
policies and codes that impact manifestation of religion or belief
in public and its limitation particularly by groups. Upheld most
effectively through accommodation of religion in the public square,
and in recognition of a role for religion as a public good, this
covers a range of concerns. The use of oaths is one area which is
covered by a number of constitutional provisions and in which there
has been litigation. Another contentious area is educational
provision in schools and the exemptions offered to parents and
pupils. This may include the request for holy days off, withdrawal
from particular lessons or time off for pilgrimage. A further area
where much divergence can be observed concerns the wearing of
religious symbols or headcoverings, especially as civil servants in
the workplace. Provision for religious observances in employment
and religious exemptions for employees is a further area of where
there is much contested jurisprudence. Where persecution and mass
violations in the field of religion or belief are not taking
place,67 it is protection for the accommodation68 of manifestation
of religion or belief in the public sphere that has proven the most
challenging dimension of freedom of religion or belief. In
considering critiques of the European Convention on Human Rights
and its protection for thought, conscience and religion under
Article 9, for example, it is not the scope of religion or belief
nor the having, adopting and changing religion or belief that has
been of concern. It is primarily the jurisprudence that has emerged
regarding manifestation, the limitations
65 The Constitution of Malta, Article 40(2). See Annex 66 The
Constitution of Tuvalu, Article 23(2)(c). See Annex 67 For example
see: Parliamentary Human Rights Group, Report of the Parliamentary
Human Rights Group Fact Finding Mission to Pakistan to Examine the
Human Rights Situation of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, 13th-22nd
February 2010 68 Paul Bou-Habib, A Theory of Religious
Accommodation, 23.1 Journal of Applied Philosophy, 2006, pp.
109-126 12 imposed on manifestation, and the extent to which there
is a margin of appreciation granted in relation to that state (with
its respective state-religion or state-ideology relationship), that
is heavily critiqued. It is for this reason that the jurisprudence
of Article 9 has been criticised as being weak, unpredictable,
counterproductive and patchy. Many observers agree that, to remedy
this, the Court needs to accept cogent, serious and sincerely
held69 expressions of religion or belief as manifestation,70 before
arguing in a robust way for limitations, where strictly necessary.
The reason for giving attention to these critques of the
jurisprudence of the European Convention on Human Rights
jurisprudence is to argue for careful attention to protection and
accommodation of manifestation of religion or belief in the public
sphere in a Charter of the Commonwealth.71
The shared history and tradition of Commonwealth members has
yielded administrative, educational and legal lessons that provide
fertile ground for the exchange of ideas and good practice.72 It is
high time that the Commonwealths shared history, tradition and
common values be brought to also focus on freedom of religion or
belief through the proposed Charter of the Commonwealth.It is high
time that the Commonwealths shared history, tradition and common
values be brought to also focus on freedom of religion or belief
through the proposed Charter of the Commonwealth.In cases of
violations of any of the key aspects of freedom of religion or
belief as outlined above and particularly in cases of serious or
persistent patterns of violations, the Commonwealth should not
hesitate to take action through its existing mechanisms. These
include: a reiteration of commitment to relevant Commonwealth
values and principles, instructing studies, issuing policy
recommendations (including proposals at the educational, community,
media, political and governmental levels), sending out fact finding
missions or
69 These are thresholds that have been required for a case to
qualify for consideration under Article 9 of the European
Convention on Human Rights. 70 The reason for this argument is that
many actions have been rejected by the European Court of Human
Rights as not constituting manifestation and declared as having
merely been inspired or motivated by religion or belief.71 See: A
Commonwealth of the People: Time for Urgent Reform, The Report of
the Eminent Persons Group to the Commonwealth Heads of Government,
Perth, October 2011, p. 35, available at:
http://www.thecommonwealth.org/files/241620/FileName/EminentPersonsGroupReport.pdf72
Civil Paths to Peace: Report of the Commonwealth Commission on
Respect and Understanding, Commonwealth Secretariat, 2007, p. 9 13
instigating other investigative procedures; through to the
engagement of CMAG73 and membership sanctions.74The Commonwealths
participation in the human rights debate 75 means it has a powerful
role yet to be played with regards to freedom of religion or
belief. It is therefore suggested that the freedom of religion or
belief elements of the proposed Charter of the Commonwealth should
include the following: 1.A wide range of Commonwealth values and
principles have a bearing on freedom of religion or belief. This
freedom is therefore already implicit in existing norms.2.This
implicit protection, however, is not sufficient. There are reasons
to believe that the current emphasis within the Commonwealth on
dialogue with civil society, inter-religious co-operation,
religious communities and religious leaders needs to be balanced
with an emphasis on freedom of religion or belief. 3.The scope
given to this freedom must be broad, as already upheld in
international and regional human rights standards and indeed in the
constitutions of most Commonwealth member states. 4.The adoption,
maintaining, discarding or changing of religion or belief should be
recognised as being an absolute human right and as being an
individual choice, albeit one that co-exists with levels of
religious autonomy and minority rights.5.Any limitations on
manifestation of religion or belief need to be strictly interpreted
and fulfil the criteria of being prescribed by law, applied in a
non-discriminatory manner, and necessary to protect the fundamental
rights and freedoms of others. 6.Irrespective of a stated
state-religion or state-ideological relationship, there should be
vigilance to ensure that this does not result in any discrimination
against others. 7.The criminalisation of manifestation of religion
or belief through limitations that go beyond the language of
international human rights provisions must be rejected.
73 See: Commonwealth Secretariat, News Release, Commonwealth
leaders agree to strengthen Ministerial Action Group (CMAG),
Approval in Perth follows recommendation of the Group set up to
deal with serious or persistent violations of Commonwealth values
and principles, available at
http://www.thecommonwealth.org/press/34580/34582/242191/281011cmag.htm
See also: A Commonwealth of the People: Time for Urgent Reform, The
Report of the Eminent Persons Group to the Commonwealth Heads of
Government, Perth, October 2011, pp. 46-47 74 For a discussion of a
range of Commonwealth actions see: Alison Duxbury, Reviewing the
Commonwealths Rights Record: From Recognition to Realisation, 19
South African Journal of Human Rights SAJHR, 2003, pp. 636-662 75
See: Alison Duxbury, Rejuvenating the Commonwealth - The Human
Rights Remedy, 46 International and Comparative Law Quarterly,
1997, p. 376 14 8.Considering existing Commonwealth values and
commitments, and challenges to the manifestation of freedom of
religion or belief, reference to religious minorities should be
included. 9.The Commonwealths celebration of diversity, pluralism
and tolerance and its opposition to discrimination as well as its
respect of human dignity, individual liberty and equal rights
cannot be won without freedom of religion or belief. Freedom of
religion or belief demands respect76 by the Commonwealth as an area
where discrimination will not be tolerated and human rights must be
respected. We can show respect to others without agreeing with
their particular doctrines or their actions.77 Freedom of religion
or belief demands respect by the Commonwealth
76 Respect is being used in the sense outlined in the Civil
Paths to Peace report, that is as follows: In the context of the
Commonwealth, in makes sense to define respect with references to
rights and equal treatment but to broaden it beyond the issue of
race so that it refers to a way of treating others, whatever their
age, race, gender or other aspects of their identity, with fairness
and dignity. Civil Paths to Peace: Report of the Commonwealth
Commission on Respect and Understanding, Commonwealth Secretariat,
2007, p. 16, para. 8 77 Civil Paths to Peace: Report of the
Commonwealth Commission on Respect and Understanding, Commonwealth
Secretariat, 2007, p. 17, para. 9 15 ANNEX COMMONWEALTH MEMBER
STATES CONSTITUTIONS, A SELECTION78 Australia Australian
Constitution, Chapter 5 para 116 The Commonwealth shall not make
any law for establishing any religion, or for imposing any
religious observance, or for prohibiting the free exercise of any
religion, and no religious test shall be required as a
qualification for any office or public trust under the Commonwealth
Antigua and Barbuda THE ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA CONSTITUTIONAL ORDER
1981 Chapter 11, Article 11(1)Except with his own consent, no
person shall be hindered in the enjoyment of his freedom of
conscience, and for the purposes of this section the said freedom
includes freedom of thought and of religion, freedom to change his
religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with
others, and both in public and in private, to manifest and
propagate his religion or belief in worship, teaching, practice and
observance The BahamasChapter 3, Article 22 (1) Except with his
consent, no person shall be hindered in the enjoyment of his
freedom of conscience, and for the purposes of this Article the
said freedom includes freedom of thought and of religion, freedom
to change his religion or belief and freedom, either alone or in
community with others, and both in public and in private, to
manifest and propagate his religion of belief in worship, teaching,
practice and observance. Bangladesh CONSTITUTION OF THE PEOPLE'S
REPUBLIC OF BANGLADESH Chapter 3, Article 41, Freedom of religion.
(1) Subject to law, public order and morality- (a) Every citizen
has the right to profess, practice or propagate any religion. (b)
Every religious community or denomination has the right to
establish, maintain and manage its religious institutions.
BarbadosBarbados Constitution Chapter 3, Article 19(1) Except with
his own consent, no person shall be hindered in the enjoyment of
his freedom of conscience and for the purpose of this section the
said freedom includes freedom of thought and of religion, freedom
to change his religion or belief and freedom, either alone or in
community with others, and both in public and in private, to
manifest and propagate his religion or belief in worship, teaching,
practice and observance. BelizeBelize/Belice 1981 Constitution
Constitucin de 1981 Part 2, Article 11 (1) Except with his own
consent, a person shall not be hindered in the enjoyment of his
freedom of conscience, including freedom of thought and of
religion, freedom to change his religion or belief and freedom,
either alone or in community with others, and both in public and in
private, to manifest and propagate his religion or belief in
worship, teaching, practice and observance. BotswanaCONSTITUTION OF
BOTSWANA 1966 Chapter 2, Article 11, Protection of freedom of
conscience (1) Except with his own consent, no person shall be
hindered in the
78 This annex was compiled by Robert Kenyon, Communications and
Administration Assistant in the School of Advanced Study,
University of London 16 enjoyment of his freedom of conscience, and
for the purposes of this section the said freedom includes freedom
of thought and of religion, freedom to change his religion or
belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others, and
both in public and in private, to manifest and propagate his
religion or belief in worship, teaching, practice and observance.
Brunei DarussalamTHE CONSTITUTION OF BRUNEI DARUSSALAM Part 2
Religion, Article 3 (1) The religion of Brunei Darussalam shall be
the Muslim Religion according to the Shafeite sect of that
religion: Provided that all other religions may be practiced in
peace and harmony by the person professing them in any part of
Brunei Darussalam. CameroonConstitution of Cameroon Preamble no
person shall be harassed on grounds of his origin, religious,
philosophical or political opinions or beliefs, subject to respect
for public policy; Cameroon is also a signatory to the Dclaration
de Bamako, section 24 (2000) (promulgated by the Organisation
Internationale de la francophonie) which states that member states
will take all appropriate measure to protect members of minority
groups, whether they be ethnic, philosophical, religious or
linguistic minorities, and the freedom to practise any religion or
none, and the right to speak their own language and enjoy their
cultural life [Prendre les mesures appropries afin d'accorder le
bnfice aux membres des groupes minoritaires, qu'ils soient
ethniques, philosophiques, religieux ou linguistiques, de la libert
de pratiquer ou non une religion, du droit de parler leur langue et
d'avoir une vie culturelle propre]CanadaCONSTITUTION ACT, 1982 PART
I CANADIAN CHARTER OF RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS 2 (A) Everyone has the
following fundamental freedoms: (a) freedom of conscience and
religion; 15. (1) Every individual is equal before and under the
law and has the right to the equal protection and equal benefit of
the law without discrimination and, in particular, without
discrimination based on race, national or ethnic origin, colour,
religion, sex, age or mental or physical disability. Canada is also
a signatory to the Dclaration de Bamako, section 24 (2000)
(promulgated by the Organisation Internationale de la francophonie)
which states that member states will take all appropriate measure
to protect members of minority groups, whether they be ethnic,
philosophical, religious or linguistic minorities, and the freedom
to practise any religion or none, and the right to speak their own
language and enjoy their cultural life [Prendre les mesures
appropries afin d'accorder le bnfice aux membres des groupes
minoritaires, qu'ils soient ethniques, philosophiques, religieux ou
linguistiques, de la libert de pratiquer ou non une religion, du
droit de parler leur langue et d'avoir une vie culturelle propre]
CyprusCyprus Constitution Article 18 [Thought, Conscience,
Religion] 1. Every person has the right to freedom of thought,
conscience and religion. 2. All religions whose doctrines or rites
are not secret are free. 3. All religions are equal before the law.
Without prejudice to the competence of the Communal Chambers under
this Constitution, no legislative, executive or administrative act
of the Republic shall discriminate against any religious
institution or religion. 4. Every person is free and has the right
to profess his faith and to manifest his religion or belief, in
worship, teaching, practice or observance, either 17 individually
or collectively, in private or in public, and to change his
religion or belief. Cyprus is also a signatory to the Dclaration de
Bamako, section 24 (2000) (promulgated by the Organisation
Internationale de la francophonie) which states that member states
will take all appropriate measure to protect members of minority
groups, whether they be ethnic, philosophical, religious or
linguistic minorities, and the freedom to practise any religion or
none, and the right to speak their own language and enjoy their
cultural life [Prendre les mesures appropries afin d'accorder le
bnfice aux membres des groupes minoritaires, qu'ils soient
ethniques, philosophiques, religieux ou linguistiques, de la libert
de pratiquer ou non une religion, du droit de parler leur langue et
d'avoir une vie culturelle propre] DominicaConstitution of the
Commonwealth of Dominica of 1978 Chapter 1 Protection of freedom of
conscience.9.-(1) Except with his own consent, a person shall not
be hindered in the enjoyment of his freedom of conscience,
including freedom of thought and of religion, freedom to change his
religion or belief and freedom, either alone or in community with
others, and both in public and in private, to manifest and
propagate his religion or belief in worship, teaching, practice and
observance.(2) Except with his own consent (or, if he is a person
under the age or eighteen years, the consent of his guardian) a
person attending any place of education, detained in any prison or
corrective institution or serving in a naval, military or air force
shall not be required to receive religious instruction or to take
part in or attend any religious ceremony or observance if that
instruction ceremony or observance relates to a religion which is
not his own.(3) Every religious community shall be entitled, at its
own expense, to establish and maintain places of education and to
manage any place of education which it maintains; and no such
community shall be prevented from providing religious instruction
for persons of that community in the course of any education
provided by that community whether or not it is in receipt of a
government subsidy or other form of financial assistance designed
to meet in whole or in part the cost of such course of
education.(4) A person shall not be compelled to take any oath
which is contrary to his religion or belief or to take any oath in
a manner which is contrary to his religion or belief Dominica is
also a signatory to the Dclaration de Bamako, section 24 (2000)
(promulgated by the Organisation Internationale de la francophonie)
which states that member states will take all appropriate measure
to protect members of minority groups, whether they be ethnic,
philosophical, religious or linguistic minorities, and the freedom
to practise any religion or none, and the right to speak their own
language and enjoy their cultural life [Prendre les mesures
appropries afin d'accorder le bnfice aux membres des groupes
minoritaires, qu'ils soient ethniques, philosophiques, religieux ou
linguistiques, de la libert de pratiquer ou non une religion, du
droit de parler leur langue et d'avoir une vie culturelle propre]
FijiIslandsConstitution of the Republic of the Fiji Islands Chapter
2, 6(c) all persons have the right to practise their religion
freely and to retain their language, culture and traditions; The
GambiaCONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE GAMBIA, 1997REPRINED 2002
Chapter 3 Freedom 25 (1) Every person shall have the right to- Of
speech,Conscience,(c)freedomtopractiseanyreligionandtomanifestsuch
18 practiceGhanaTHE CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF GHANA IN THE
NAME OF THE ALMIGHTY GOD Chapter 5, 21. (1) All persons shall have
the right to - (c) freedom to practice any religion and to manifest
such practice; Ghana is also a signatory to the Dclaration de
Bamako, section 24 (2000) (promulgated by the Organisation
Internationale de la francophonie) which states that member states
will take all appropriate measure to protect members of minority
groups, whether they be ethnic, philosophical, religious or
linguistic minorities, and the freedom to practise any religion or
none, and the right to speak their own language and enjoy their
cultural life [Prendre les mesures appropries afin d'accorder le
bnfice aux membres des groupes minoritaires, qu'ils soient
ethniques, philosophiques, religieux ou linguistiques, de la libert
de pratiquer ou non une religion, du droit de parler leur langue et
d'avoir une vie culturelle propre] GrenadaChapter 1
9.-(1)Exceptwithhisownconsent,nopersonshallbehinderedinthe
enjoyment of hisfreedom of conscience, including freedom of thought
and ofreligion,freedomtochangehisreligionorbeliefandfreedom,either
aloneorincommunitywithothers,andbothinpublicandinprivate,to
manifest and propagate his religion orbelief inworship, teaching,
practise and
observance.(2)Exceptwithhisownconsent(or,ifheisapersonundertheageof
eighteen years, the consent of his guardian) no person attending
any place
ofeducationshallberequiredtoreceivereligiousinstructionortotake
partinorattendanyreligiousceremonyorobservanceif thatinstruction,
ceremony or observance relates to a religion other than his
own.(3)Everyreligiouscommunityshallbeentitled,atitsownexpense,to
establishandmaintainplacesofeducationandtomanageanyplaceof
educationwhichitwhollymaintains;andnosuchcommunityshallbe
preventedfromprovidingreligiousinstructionforpersonsofthat
communityinthecourseofanyeducationprovidedatanyplacesof
educationwhichitwhollymaintainsorinthecourseofanyeducation which it
otherwise provides.(4) No person shall be compelled to take any
oath which is contrary to this religion or belief or to take any
oath in a manner which is contrary to his religion or belief.
GuyanaCONSTITUTION OF THE CO-OPERATIVE REPUBLIC OF GUYANA OF 1970
PART 2 SPECIFIC RULES TITLE 1(1) Except with his own consent, no
person shall be hindered in the enjoyment of his of conscience, and
for the purposes of this article the said freedom to change his
religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with
others, and both in public and in private, to manifest and
propagate his religion or belief in worship, teaching, practice and
observance.(2) No religious community shall be prevented from
providing religious instruction for persons of that community.(3)
Except with his own consent (or, if he is a person who has not
attained the age of eighteen years, the consent of his guardian),
no person attending any place of education shall be required to
receive religious instruction or to take part in or attend any
religious ceremony or observance if that instruction, ceremony or
observance relates to a religion which is not his own.(4) No person
shall be compelled to take any oath which is contrary to his
religion or belief or to take any oath in a manner which is
contrary to his religion or belief. IndiaTHE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
19 Chapter IIIRight toFreedom of Religion 25. Freedom of conscience
and free profession, practice and propagation of religion. 26.
Freedom to manage religious affairs. 27. Freedom as to payment of
taxes for promotion of any particular religion. 28. Freedom as to
attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in certain
educational institutions. JamaicaChapter 3, Article 21 (1) Except
with his own consent, no person shall be hindered in the enjoyment
of his freedom of conscience, and for the purposes of this section
the said freedom includes freedom of thought and of religion,
freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone
or in community with others, and both in public and in private, to
manifest and propagate his religion or belief in worship, teaching,
practice and observance.(2) Except with his own consent (or, if he
is a minor, the consent of his parent or guardian), no person
attending any place of education shall be required to receive
religious instruction or to take part in or attend any religious
ceremony or observance if that instruction, ceremony or observance
relates to a religion or a religious body or denomination other
than his own.(3) The constitution of a religious body or
denomination shall not be altered except with the consent of the
governing authority of that body or denomination.(4) No religious
body or denomination shall be prevented from providing religious
instruction for persons of that body or denomination in the course
of any education provided by that body or denomination whether or
not that body or denomination is in receipt of any government
subsidy, grant or other form of financial assistance designed to
meet, in whole or in part, the cost of such course of education.(5)
No person shall be compelled to take any oath which is contrary to
his religion or belief or to take any oath in a manner which is
contrary to his religion or belief KenyaTHE CONSTITUTION OF KENYA
Chapter 5, Article
78.(1)Exceptwithhisownconsent,nopersonshallbehinderedinthe
enjoymentofhisfreedomofconscience,andforthepurposesofthis section
that freedomincludes freedom of thought and of religion, freedom to
change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in
community
withothers,andbothinpublicandinprivate,tomanifestandpropagate his
religion or belief in worship, teaching, practice and
observance.(2)Everyreligiouscommunityshallbeentitled,atitsownexpense,to
establishandmaintainplacesofeducationandtomanageaplaceof
educationwhichitwhollymaintains;andnosuchcommunityshallbe
preventedfromprovidingreligiousinstructionforpersonsofthat
community in the course of any education provided at a place of
education whichitwhollymaintainsorinthecourseofanyeducationwhichit
otherwise
provides.(3)Exceptwithhisownconsent(or,ifheisaminor,theconsentofhis
guardian),nopersonattendingaplaceofeducationshallberequiredto
receivereligiousinstructionortotakepartinorattendareligious
ceremonyorobservanceifthatinstruction,ceremonyorobservance relates
to a religion other than his
own.(4)Nopersonshallbecompelledtotakeanoathwhichiscontrarytohis
religionorbeliefortotakeanoathinamannerwhichiscontrarytohis
religion or belief. KiribatiTHE CONSTITUTION OF KIRIBATI20 as
amended to Constitution (Amendment) Act 1995 Chapter 2 11.
Protection of freedom of conscience.(1) Except with his own
consent, no person shall be hindered in the enjoyment of his
freedom of conscience, and for the purposes of this section the
said freedom includes freedom of thought and of religion, freedom
to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in
community with others, and both in public and in private, to
manifest and propagate his religion or belief in worship, teaching,
practice and observance.(2) Every religious community shall be
entitled, at its own expense, to establish and maintain places of
education and to manage any place of education which it wholly
maintains.(3) No religious community shall be prevented from
providing religious instruction for persons of that community in
the course of any education provided at any place of education
which it wholly maintains or in the course of any education which
it otherwise provides.(4) Except with his own consent (or, if he is
a person who has not attained the age of eighteen years, the
consent of his guardian) no person attending any place of education
shall be required to receive religious instruction or to take part
in or attend any religious ceremony or observance if that
instruction, ceremony or observance relates to a religion other
than his own.Lesotho THE CONSTITUTION OF LESOTHO Chapter 2, Article
13. Freedom of conscience (1) Every person shall be entitled to,
and (except with his own consent) shall not be hindered in his
enjoyment of, freedom of conscience, including freedom of thought
and of religion, freedom to change his religion or belief and
freedom, either alone or in community with others, and both in
public and in private, to manifest and propagate his religion or
belief in worship, teaching, practice and observance. (2) Every
religious community shall be entitled, at its own expense, to
establish and maintain places of education and to manage any place
of education which it wholly maintains; and no such community shall
be prevented from providing religious instruction for persons of
that community in the course of any education provided at any
places of education which it wholly maintains or in the course of
any education which it otherwise provides. (3) Except with his own
consent (or, if he is a minor, the consent of his guardian), no
person attending any place of education shall be required to
receive religious instruction or to take part in or attend any
religious ceremony or observance if that instruction, ceremony or
observance relates to a religion other than his own. (4) No person
shall be compelled to take any oath which is contrary to his
religion or belief or to take any oath in a manner which is
contrary to his religion or belief. MalawiCONSTITUTION OF THE
REPUBLIC OF MALAWI Chapter 4 Every person has the right to freedom
of conscience, religion, belief and thought, and to academic
freedom Malaysia Malaysian Constitution. Part 1, Article 11 Article
11 (1)Every person has the right to profess and practice his
religion and, subject to Clause (4), to propagate it. (2) No person
shall be compelled to pay any tax the proceeds of which are
specially allocated in whole or in part for the purposes of a
religion other than his own. (3) Every religious group has the
right - (a) to manage its own religious affairs; (b) to establish
and maintain institutions for religious or charitable purposes; and
21 (c) to acquire and own property and hold and administer it in
accordance with law. MaldivesConstitution of The Republic of
Maldives 2008 Chapter 2, Article 27 Everyone has the right to
freedom of thought and the freedom to communicate opinions and
expression in a manner that is not contrary to any tenet of Islam.
MaltaCONSTITUTION OF MALTA Chapter 4, Article 40(1) All persons in
Malta shall have full freedom of conscience and enjoy the free
exercise of their respective mode of religious worship. (2) No
person shall be required to receive instruction in religion or to
show knowledge or proficiency in religion if, in the case of a
person who has not attained the age of sixteen years, objection to
such requirement is made by the person who according to law has
authority over him and, in any other case, if the person so
required objects thereto: Provided that no such requirement shall
be held to be inconsistent with or in contravention of this article
to the extent that the knowledge of, or the proficiency or
instruction in, religion is required for the teaching of such
religion, or for admission to the priesthood or to a religious
order, or for other religious purposes, and except so far as that
requirement is shown not to be reasonably justifiable in a
democratic society MauritiusThe Constitution of the Republic of
MauritiusArticle 11 (1) Except with his own consent, no person
shall be hindered in the enjoyment of his freedom of conscience,
and for the purposes of this section, that freedom includes freedom
of thought and of religion, freedom to change his religion or
belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and
both in public and in private, to manifest and propagate his
religion or belief in worship, teaching, practice and observance.
(2) Except with his own consent (or, if he is a minor, the consent
of his guardian), no person attending any place of education shall
be required to receive religious instruction or to take part in or
attend any religious ceremony or observance if that instruction,
ceremony or observance relates to a religion that he does not
profess. (3) No religious community or denomination shall be
prevented from making provision for the giving, by persons lawfully
in Mauritius, of religious instruction to persons of that community
or denomination in the course of any education provided by that
community or denomination. (4) No person shall be compelled to take
any oath that is contrary to his religion or belief or to take any
oath in a manner that is contrary to his religion or belief. (5)
Nothing contained in or done under the authority of any law shall
be held to be inconsistent with or in contravention of this section
to the extent that the law in question makes provision (a) in the
interests of defence, public safety, public order, public morality
or public health; or (b) for the purpose of protecting the rights
and freedoms of other persons, including the right to observe and
practise any religion or belief without the unsolicited
intervention of persons professing any other religion or belief,
except so far as that provision or, as the case may be, the thing
done under its authority is shown not to be reasonably justifiable
in a democratic society. Mauritius is also a signatory to the
Dclaration de Bamako, section 24 (2000) (promulgated by the
Organisation Internationale de la francophonie) which states that
member states will take all appropriate measure to protect members
of minority groups, whether they be ethnic, philosophical,
religious or linguistic minorities, and the freedom to practise any
religion or none, and 22 the right to speak their own language and
enjoy their cultural life [Prendre les mesures appropries afin
d'accorder le bnfice aux membres des groupes minoritaires, qu'ils
soient ethniques, philosophiques, religieux ou linguistiques, de la
libert de pratiquer ou non une religion, du droit de parler leur
langue et d'avoir une vie culturelle propre] MozambiqueCONSTITUTION
OF MOZAMBIQUEApproved and enacted in November 1990 Chapter 2,
Article 781. All citizens shall have the freedom to practice or not
to practice a religion. Religious denominations shall have the
right to pursue their religious aims freely and to own and acquire
assets for the purpose of achieving these aims. Mozambique is also
a signatory to the Dclaration de Bamako, section 24 (2000)
(promulgated by the Organisation Internationale de la francophonie)
which states that member states will take all appropriate measure
to protect members of minority groups, whether they be ethnic,
philosophical, religious or linguistic minorities, and the freedom
to practise any religion or none, and the right to speak their own
language and enjoy their cultural life [Prendre les mesures
appropries afin d'accorder le bnfice aux membres des groupes
minoritaires, qu'ils soient ethniques, philosophiques, religieux ou
linguistiques, de la libert de pratiquer ou non une religion, du
droit de parler leur langue et d'avoir une vie culturelle propre]
NamibiaConstitution of the Republic of Namibia Article 21
Fundamental Freedoms (c) freedom to practise any religion and to
manifest such practice; New Zealand New Zealand Bill of Rights Act
1990 Part 2 Civil and Political Rights Article 13 Freedom of
thought, conscience, and religion Everyone has the right to freedom
of thought, conscience, religion, and belief, including the right
to adopt and to hold opinions without interference.
NigeriaConstitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999Chapter
IV Fundamental Rights, Article 38 (1) Every person shall be
entitled to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, including
freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom (either alone
or in community with others, and in public or in private) to
manifest and propagate his religion or belief in worship, teaching,
practice and observance.Pakistan The Constitution of Pakistan Part
II, Fundamental Rights and Principles of Policy Chapter 1,
Fundamental Rights Article 20, Freedom to profess religion and to
manage religious institutions. Subject to law, public order and
morality:-(a) every citizen shall have the right to profess,
practise and propagate his religion; and(b) every religious
denomination and every sect thereof shall have the right to
establish, maintain and manage its religious institutions. Papua
New Guinea Constitution of the Independent State of Papua New
Guinea Part III, Basic Principles of GovernmentArticle 45, Freedom
of Conscience, thought and religion(1) Every person has the right
to freedom of conscience, thought and religion and the practice of
his religion and beliefs, including freedom to manifest and
propagate his religion and beliefs in such a way as not to
interfere with the freedom of others, except to the extent that the
exercise 23 of that right is regulated or restricted by a law that
complies with Section 38 RwandaArticle 11 of the Rwandan
Constitution states that:Discrimination of whatever kind based on,
inter alia, ethnic origin, tribe, clan, colour, sex, region, social
origin, religion or faith, opinion, economic status, culture,
language, social status, physical or mental disability or any other
form of discrimination is prohibited and punishable by law. Rwanda
is also a signatory to the Dclaration de Bamako, section 24 (2000)
(promulgated by the Organisation Internationale de la francophonie)
which states that member states will take all appropriate measure
to protect members of minority groups, whether they be ethnic,
philosophical, religious or linguistic minorities, and the freedom
to practise any religion or none, and the right to speak their own
language and enjoy their cultural life [Prendre les mesures
appropries afin d'accorder le bnfice aux membres des groupes
minoritaires, qu'ils soient ethniques, philosophiques, religieux ou
linguistiques, de la libert de pratiquer ou non une religion, du
droit de parler leur langue et d'avoir une vie culturelle propre]
St Kitts and Nevis The Saint Christopher an Nevis Constitution
Order 1983Chapter II, Protection of Fundamental Rights and
Freedoms, Article 11 (1) Except with his own consent, a person
shall not be hindered in the enjoyment of his freedom of
conscience, including freedom of thought and of religion, freedom
to change his religion or belief and freedom, either alone or in
community with others, and both in public and in private, to
manifest and propagate his religion or belief in worship, teaching,
practice and observance.St Lucia The Saint Lucia Constitution Order
1978 Chapter I, Protection of Fundamental Rights and
FreedomsArticle 9, Protection of freedom of conscience (1) Except
with his own consent, a person shall not be hindered in the
enjoyment of his freedom of conscience, including freedom of
thought and of religion, freedom to change his religion or belief
and freedom, either alone or in community with others, and both in
public and in private, to manifest and propagate his religion or
belief in worship, teaching, practice and observance. St Vincent
and the GrenadinesConstitution of St Vincent and the Grenadines
Chapter 1, Protection of Fundamental Rights and FreedomsArticle 9
(1) Except with his own consent, a person shall not be hindered in
the enjoyment of his freedom of conscience, including freedom of
thought and of religion, freedom to change his religion or belief
and freedom, either alone or in community with others, and both in
public and in private, to manifest and propagate his religion or
belief in worship, teaching, practice and
observance.SamoaConstitution of the Independent State of Samoa 1960
Part II, Fundamental Rights Article 11, Freedom of religion(1)
Every person has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and
religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or
belief, and freedom, either alone or in a community with others,
and, in public or private, to manifest and propagate his religion
or belief in worship, teaching, practice and observance Seychelles
Constitution of the Republic of SeychellesChapter III, Part I,
Seychellois Charter of Fundamental Human Rights and Freedoms,
Article 21 (1) Every person has a right to freedom of conscience
and for the purpose of this article this right includes freedom of
thought and religion, freedom to change religion or belief and
freedom either alone or in community with others and both in public
and in private, to manifest and propagate the 24 religion or belief
in worship, teaching, practice and observance Sierra Leone The
Constitution of Sierra Leone, 1991 Chapter III, The Recognition and
Protection of Fundamental Human Rights and Freedoms of the
Individual, Article 24 (1) Except with his own consent, no person
shall be hindered in the enjoyment of his freedom of conscience and
for the purpose of this section the said freedom includes freedom
of thought and of religion, freedom to change his religion or
belief, and freedom either alone or in community with others and
both in public and in private to manifest and propagate his
religion or belief in worship, teaching, practice and
observance.Singapore Constitution of the Republic of Singapore Part
IV, Fundamental Liberties Freedom of religion, Article 15 (1) Every
person has the right to profess and practise his religion and to
propagate it. Solomon Islands The Constitution of Solomon
IslandsChapter II, Protection of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms of
the Individual, Article 11 (1) Except with his own consent, no
person shall be hindered in the enjoyment of his freedom of
conscience, and for the purposes of this section the said freedom
includes freedom of thought and of religion, freedom to change his
religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with
others, and both in public and in private, to manifest and
propagate his religion or belief in worship, teaching, practice and
observance. South Africa Constitution of the Republic of South
Africa Chapter 2, Bill of Rights Article 15, Freedom of religion,
belief and opinion. (1) Everyone has the right to freedom of
conscience, religion, thought, belief and opinion Sri LankaThe
Constitution of the Republic of Sri LankaArticle 15, Freedom of
thought, conscience and religion. (1) Every person is entitled to
freedom of thought, conscience and religion including the freedom
to hold opinions and to have or to adopt a religion or belief of
the persons choice. Swaziland The Constitution of the Kingdom of
Swaziland Act Chapter III, Protection and Promotion of Fundamental
Rights and Freedoms, Article 23 (1) A person has a right to freedom
of thought, conscience or religion TongaAct of Constitution of
Tonga Part 1, Declaration of RightsArticle 1, Declaration of
freedom Since it appears to be the will of God that man should be
free as He has made all men of one blood therefore shall the people
of Tonga and all who sojourn or may sojourn in this Kingdom be free
for ever. And all men may use their lives and persons and time to
acquire and possess property and to dispose of their labour and the
fruit of their hands and to use their own property as they will.
Trinidad and TobagoThe Constitution of the Republic of Trinidad and
Tobago Chapter 1, The Recognition and Protection of Fundamental
Human Rights and Freedoms Part I, Rights Enshrined Article 4 (h)
freedom of conscience and religious belief and observance TuvaluThe
Constitution of Tuvalu Part II, Bill of Rights Division 3 -
Protection of the Fundamental Rights and Freedoms Article 23,
Freedom of belief (2) For the purposes of this section, freedom of
belief includes- 25 (a) freedom of thought, religion and belief;
and (b) freedom to change religion or belief; and
(c)freedom,eitheraloneorwithothers,toshowandtospread,bothin
publicandinprivate,areligionorbelief,inworship,teaching,practice
and observance. Uganda Constitution of the Republic of
UgandaChapter Four, Protection and promotion of fundamental and
other human rights and freedoms. Article 29, Protection of freedom
of conscience, expression, movement, religion, assembly and
association. 1.(c) freedom to practise any religion and manifest
such practice which shall include the right to belong to and
participate in the practices of any religious body or organisation
in a manner consistent with this Constitution; United KingdomHuman
Rights Act 1998 Article 9, Freedom of Though, Conscience and
Religion1. Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience
and religion;
thisrightincludesfreedomtochangehisreligionorbeliefandfreedom,
eitheraloneorincommunitywithothersandinpublicorprivate,to
manifesthisreligionorbelief,inworship,teaching,practiceand
observance. United Republic of TanzaniaThe Constitution of the
United Republic of TanzaniaPart III, Basic Rights and Duties
Article 19 (1) Every person has the right to the freedom to have
conscience, or faith, and choice in matters of religion, including
the freedom to change his religion or faith. VanuatuConstitution of
the Republic of Venuatu Chapter 2, Fundamental Rights and Duties
Part 1, Fundamental RightsArticle 5 (1) (f) freedom of conscience
and worship;
VanuatuisalsoasignatorytotheDclarationdeBamako,section24
(2000)(promulgatedbytheOrganisationInternationaledela
francophonie)whichstatesthatmemberstateswilltakeallappropriate
measuretoprotectmembersofminoritygroups,whethertheybeethnic,
philosophical, religious or linguistic minorities, and the freedom
to practise any
religionornone,andtherighttospeaktheirownlanguageandenjoy
theirculturallife[Prendrelesmesuresappropriesafind'accorderle
bnficeauxmembresdesgroupesminoritaires,qu'ilssoientethniques,
philosophiques, religieux ou linguistiques, de la libert de
pratiquer ou non
unereligion,dudroitdeparlerleurlangueetd'avoirunevieculturelle
propre] ZambiaConstitution of ZambiaPart III, Protection of
fundamental rights and freedom of the individualArticle 19,
Protection of freedom of conscience (1) Except with his own
consent, no person shall be hindered in the enjoyment of his
freedom of conscience, and for the purposes of this Article the
said freedom includes freedom of thought and religion, freedom to
change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in
community with others, and both in public and in private, to
manifest and propagate his religion or belief in worship, teaching,
practice and observance. 26 RELEVANT INTERNATIONAL AND REGIONAL
STANDARDS RELATING TO RELIGIOUS FREEDOM International Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights Article 18 1. Everyone shall have the
right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. This right
shall include freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of
his choice, and freedom, either individually or in community with
others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief
in worship, observance, practice and teaching.2. No one shall be
subject to coercion which would impair his freedom to have or to
adopt a religion or belief of his choice.3. Freedom to manifest
one's religion or beliefs may be subject only to such limitations
as are prescribed by law and are necessary to protect public
safety, order, health, or morals or the fundamental rights and
freedoms of others. Neither signed or ratified: Antigua and Barbuda
Brunei Fiji Kiribati Malaysia Saint Kitts and Nevis Singapore
Solomon Islands Tonga Tuvalu African [Banjul] Charter on Human and
Peoples' Rights Part I: Rights and Duties Chapter I -- Human and
Peoples' Rights Article 8 Freedom of conscience, the profession and
free practice of religion shall be guaranteed. No one may, subject
to law and order, be submitted to measures restricting the exercise
of these freedoms. Botswana Cameroon The GambiaGhana Kenya Lesotho
Malawi Mauritius Mozambique Namibia Nigeria Seychelles Sierra Leone
South Africa Swaziland Uganda United Republic of TanzaniaZambia
American Convention on Article 12, Freedom of Conscience and
Religion 1.Everyone has the right to freedom of conscience and of
religion. This 27 Human Rightsright includes freedom to maintain or
to change one's religion or beliefs, and freedom to profess or
disseminate one's religion or beliefs, either individually or
together with others, in public or in private. 2.No one shall be
subject to restrictions that might impair his freedom to maintain
or to change his religion or beliefs. 3.
Freedomtomanifestone'sreligionandbeliefsmaybesubjectonlyto
thelimitationsprescribedbylawthatarenecessarytoprotectpublic
safety, order, health, or morals, or the rights or freedoms of
others. BarbadosDominica Grenada Jamaica 28 RELEVANT COMMONWEALTH
DECLARATIONS RELATING TO RELIGIOUS FREEDOM Singapore Declaration of
Commonwealth Principles, 1971
2.MembersoftheCommonwealthcomefromterritoriesinthesix
continentsandfiveoceans,includepeoplesofdifferentraces,languages
and religions, and display every stage of economic development from
poor developingnationstowealthyindustrialisednations.Theyencompassa
rich variety of cultures, traditions and institutions. 6. We
believe in the liberty of the individual, in equal rights for all
citizens regardless of race, colour, creed or political belief, and
in their inalienable right to participate by means of free and
democratic political processes in
framingthesocietyinwhichtheylive.Wethereforestrivetopromotein each
of our countries those representative institutions and guarantees
for personal freedom under the law that are our common heritage.
Affirmation of Commonwealth Values and Principles, Port of Spain,
Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, 29 November 2009
Humanrights:reaffirmingourcommitmenttotheUniversalDeclaration
ofHumanRightsandhumanrightscovenantsandinstruments;and recalling
our belief that equality and respect for protection and promotion
ofcivil,political,economic,socialandculturalrightsforallwithout
discriminationonanygrounds,includingtherighttodevelopment,are
foundations of peaceful, just and stable societies, and that these
rights are
universal,indivisible,interdependentandinterrelatedandcannotbe
implemented selectively; The Harare Commonwealth Declaration, 1991
4.Itsmembersalsoshareacommitmenttocertainfundamental
principles.TheseweresetoutinaDeclarationofCommonwealth
PrinciplesagreedbyourpredecessorsattheirMeetinginSingaporein
1971.Thoseprincipleshavestoodthetestoftime,andwereaffirmour full
and continuing commitment to them today. In particular, no less
today than 20 years ago:
webelievethatinternationalpeaceandorder,globaleconomic development
and the rule of international law are essential to the security and
prosperity of mankind; webelieveinthelibertyof
theindividualunderthelaw,inequal
rightsforallcitizensregardlessofgender,race,colour,creedor
politicalbelief,andintheindividual'sinalienablerightto participate
by means of free and democratic political processes in framing the
society in which he or she lives;
werecogniseracialprejudiceandintoleranceasadangerous
sicknessandathreattohealthydevelopment,andracial discrimination as
an unmitigated evil;
weopposeallformsofracialoppression,andwearecommitted to the
principles of human dignity and equality; we recognise the
importance and urgency of economicand social development to satisfy
the basic needs and aspirations of the vast
majorityofthepeoplesoftheworld,andseektheprogressive
removalofthewidedisparitiesinlivingstandardsamongstour members.
9.HavingreaffirmedtheprinciplestowhichtheCommonwealthis
committed,andreviewedtheproblemsandchallengeswhichtheworld,
andtheCommonwealthaspartofit,face,wepledgetheCommonwealth
andourcountriestoworkwithrenewedvigour,concentratingespecially in
the following areas:
theprotectionandpromotionofthefundamentalpoliticalvalues of the
Commonwealth: 29
democracy,democraticprocessesandinstitutionswhichreflect
nationalcircumstances,theruleoflawandtheindependenceof the
judiciary, just and honest government;
fundamentalhumanrights,includingequalrightsand opportunities for
all citizens regardless of race, colour, creed or political belief;
equality for women, so that they may exercise their full and equal
rights; provisionofuniversalaccesstoeducationforthepopulationof our
countries; continuingactiontobringabouttheendofapartheidandthe
establishmentofafree,democratic,non-racialandprosperous South
Africa; thepromotionofsustainabledevelopmentandthealleviationof
poverty in the countries of the Commonwealth through:
astableinternationaleconomicframeworkwithinwhichgrowth can be
achieved; soundeconomicmanagementrecognisingthecentralroleofthe
market economy; effective population policies and programmes; sound
management of technological change;
thefreestpossibleflowofmultilateraltradeontermsfairand
equitabletoall,takingaccountofthespecialrequirementsof developing
countries; anadequateflowofresourcesfromthedevelopedtodeveloping
countries,andactiontoalleviatethedebtburdensofdeveloping countries
most in need; thedevelopmentofhumanresources,inparticularthrough
education,training,health,culture,sportandprogrammesfor
strengtheningfamilyandcommunitysupport,payingspecial attention to
the needs of women, youth and children;
effectiveandincreasingprogrammesof bilateralandmultilateral
co-operation aimed at raising living standards;
extendingthebenefitsofdevelopmentwithinaFrameworkof respect for
human rights; theprotectionoftheenvironmentthroughrespectforthe
principlesofsustainabledevelopmentwhichweenunciatedat Langkawi;
actiontocombatdrugtraffickingandabuseandcommunicable diseases;
helpforsmallCommonwealthstatesintacklingtheirparticular economic
and security problems; support of the United Nations and other
international institutions
intheworld'ssearchforpeace,disarmamentandeffectivearms control; and
in the promotion of international consensus on major global
political, economic and social issues. The Coolum Declaration, The
Commonwealth in the 21st Century: Continuity and Renewal,
Australia, March 2002 Para 3: Our respect for diversity and human
dignity; our celebration of the
pluralisticnatureofoursocietiesandthetoleranceitpromotes;andour
implacableoppositiontoallformsofdiscrimination,whetherrootedin
gender, race, colour, creed or political belief 30 Port of Spain
Civil Society Statement to the 2009 Commonwealth Heads of
Government Meeting CULTURE, CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION 19. Affirming
that access to, and enjoyment of, culture and freedom of cultural
expression are fundamental human rights; Commonwealth Day 14 March
2011 - A message from Commonwealth Secretary-General Kamalesh
Sharma The Commonwealth theme for 2011 is Women as Agents of
Change.Commonwealth Day is celebrated on the second Monday in
March, a day when every school in the Commonwealth is open, and a
day on which we hope soon that every child in the Commonwealth,
across continents and oceans, will have the opportunity to be in
school.Most schoolchildren know their fractions, and a simple one
is this: one-half of the worlds population may be made up of women
and girls; yet women and girls bear two-thirds of the worlds
problems.Two-thirds of those out of school worldwide are girls; and
two-thirds of those who are illiterate, or out of work, or living
with HIV/AIDS, are women. Girls should have the chance to grow up
and become healthy, educated women who can make a positive
difference to their own lives and to the lives of others. Women are
the barometers of society: they are an indication of its internal
pressure levels, and their fortunes can be the clearest forecasts
of good or bad things to come. Where women prosper, societies
prosper; and where women suffer, so too do the societies in which
they live.By investing in women and girls, we have seen that we can
accelerate social, economic and political progress.The evidence is
clear.The Commonwealth has given practical help to women in
entrepreneurship; it has supported the role of women in
peace-keeping, and in local and national politics; and it has
argued the case for empowering women from putting young girls
through school, to ensuring that women have access to trained
midwives.We have pioneered amongst our member governments a gender
consideration to every aspect of national life, and hence a need
for policies and funds to match.Women are the people who can bring
about real and lasting transformation at every level in society.
Unlocking this limitless but locked potential is the first
challenge before the human community. It can open the doors of
opportunity for all in the Commonwealth and the wider world. 31
Commonwealth Secretary-Generals message for Commonwealth Day, 14
March 2011 Connecting Cultures is about appreciating and
celebrating these ways in which others live their lives and express
themselves. And it is about much more than that too. It is about
exploring how we can bring cultures together, how we can connect
them in order to learn, to deepen the appreciation we have of one
another. Connecting Cultures encourages us to explore how we can
use culture to build bridges of exchange and understanding. We want
these links to be strengthened in new and special ways in 2012.
Connecting Cultures also gives us an insight into the richness that
makes up each individual Commonwealth citizen. By overcoming the
limited way of seeing people only in terms of ethnicity, gender,
faith, or some other single strand of their identity, we find
common bonds that expand the sense of our identity in all its
complexity and wonderful variety Commonwealth Heads of Government
Meeting (CHOGM), Perth 2011, Final Communiqu.Heads agreed to the
following: 1. Reform of the Commonwealth to ensure that it is a
more effective institution, responsive to members needs, and
capable of tackling the significant global challenges of the 21st
century.This includes: [...]k) promoting tolerance, respect,
understanding and religious freedom which, inter alia, are
essential to the development of free and democratic societies.
Civil Paths to Peace: Report of the Commonwealth Commission on
Respect and Understanding, Commonwealth Secretariat, 2007 The Reach
of Civil Paths The Commission argues, in particular, that the