to-BAND GRAPHIC EQUALIZER FRANCIS ABLIGADO BUJET Tesis Dikemukakan Kepada Fakulti Kejuruteraan, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak Sebagai Memenuhi Sebahagian daripada Syarat Penganugerahan Sarjana Muda Kejuruteraan Dengan Kepujian (Kejuruteraan Elektronik dan Telekomunikasi) 2000 to-BAND GRAPHIC EQUALIZER FRANCIS ABLIGADO BUJET Tesis Dikemukakan Kepada Fakulti Kejuruteraan, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak Sebagai Memenuhi Sebahagian daripada Syarat Penganugerahan Sarjana Muda Kejuruteraan Dengan Kepujian (Kejuruteraan Elektronik dan Telekomunikasi) 2000
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to-BAND GRAPHIC EQUALIZER
FRANCIS ABLIGADO BUJET
Tesis Dikemukakan Kepada Fakulti Kejuruteraan, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
Sebagai Memenuhi Sebahagian daripada Syarat Penganugerahan Sarjana Muda Kejuruteraan
Dengan Kepujian (Kejuruteraan Elektronik dan Telekomunikasi) 2000
, ..
to-BAND GRAPHIC EQUALIZER
FRANCIS ABLIGADO BUJET
Tesis Dikemukakan Kepada Fakulti Kejuruteraan, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
Sebagai Memenuhi Sebahagian daripada Syarat Penganugerahan Sarjana Muda Kejuruteraan
Dengan Kepujian (Kejuruteraan Elektronik dan Telekomunikasi) 2000
In memory of my beloved father, Bujet ak Joub,
and, for my mom, my brothers and my sisters.
ii
In memory of my beloved father, Bujet ak Joub,
and, for my mom, my brothers and my sisters.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Thank you to Almighty God above for giving me the strength to finish my
final year thesis based on my final year project. Hereby I would like to give my
greatest gratitude and my warm love to those who have given me their support
together with their strength for the past three years time in UN1MAS.
First of all, I would like to give my deepest loves and my warm and tender
thanks to my mom, Milat ak Minjot, both my brothers; Awie and Nickey, and my
sisters; Kak Mala and Kak Janet, for their financial support, encouragement and
useful advice.
Special thanks go to Associate Professor Dr. Mohamad Kadim Suaidi, Dean,
Faculty of Engineering, UNIMAS for his support and concern. To my supervisor;
Miss Licha Mued and Mr. Ng Liang Yew, for their ideas and quidance throughout
this project. To En Thelaha Masri and En. Hushairi Zen, for their suggestions and
experiences in implementing and testing the project. To both Lab Administrator; En.
Zakaria and En. Wan Abu Bakar, for their assistant, cooperation and contribution in
preparing and providing experimental equipment to the project. To all my
coursemates and friends in Kolej Sri Muara (No. 72 & 73), for their assistant and
" support.
To those that I might forgot to mention, but not in my heart, thank you very
much.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Thank you to Almighty God above for giving me the strength to finish my
final year thesis based on my final year project. Hereby I would like to give my
greatest gratitude and my warm love to those who have given me their support
together with their strength for the past three years time in UN1MAS.
First of all, I would like to give my deepest loves and my warm and tender
thanks to my mom, Milat ak Minjot, both my brothers; Awie and Nickey, and my
sisters; Kak Mala and Kak Janet, for their financial support, encouragement and
useful advice.
Special thanks go to Associate Professor Dr. Mohamad Kadim Suaidi, Dean,
Faculty of Engineering, UNIMAS for his support and concern. To my supervisor;
Miss Licha Mued and Mr. Ng Liang Yew, for their ideas and quidance throughout
this project. To En Thelaha Masri and En. Hushairi Zen, for their suggestions and
experiences in implementing and testing the project. To both Lab Administrator; En.
Zakaria and En. Wan Abu Bakar, for their assistant, cooperation and contribution in
preparing and providing experimental equipment to the project. To all my
coursemates and friends in Kolej Sri Muara (No. 72 & 73), for their assistant and
" support.
To those that I might forgot to mention, but not in my heart, thank you very
much.
iii
ABSTRACT
Graphic Equalizer (EQ) is an electronic project that has help to overcome the
problem encountered by those who are interested to produce a better sound quality
from their sound system. EQ can help to tune more specifically so that we can get
the sound that we want. This report consists of the overview of a lO-band graphic
equalizer and also the literature review of it. This includes the basic condition of the
system used in graphic equalizer such as in cut or boost condition. The report is
quite general, as the reason is to give the overall idea and understanding regarding
the project. There are also evaluation of function of the component used for the
project such as the dual operational amplifier (op-amp) as the lCs and also the
filters function. Besides that there are also explanations on how the project are
being tested before being implemented on the printed circuit board (PCB). The
simulation and analysis done is to make sure that the project has been implemented
successfully as required in the objectives. Finally it is hope that readers would have
a better understanding regarding a lO-band Graphic Equalizer operation and the
effect it could gives in a sound system.
IV
ABSTRACT
Graphic Equalizer (EQ) is an electronic project that has help to overcome the
problem encountered by those who are interested to produce a better sound quality
from their sound system. EQ can help to tune more specifically so that we can get
the sound that we want. This report consists of the overview of a lO-band graphic
equalizer and also the literature review of it. This includes the basic condition of the
system used in graphic equalizer such as in cut or boost condition. The report is
quite general, as the reason is to give the overall idea and understanding regarding
the project. There are also evaluation of function of the component used for the
project such as the dual operational amplifier (op-amp) as the lCs and also the
filters function. Besides that there are also explanations on how the project are
being tested before being implemented on the printed circuit board (PCB). The
simulation and analysis done is to make sure that the project has been implemented
successfully as required in the objectives. Finally it is hope that readers would have
a better understanding regarding a lO-band Graphic Equalizer operation and the
effect it could gives in a sound system.
IV
ABSTRAK
Grafik Equaliser (EQ) merupakan satu projek elektronik yang telah berjaya
mengatasi masalah terutama kepada sesiapa yang berminat untuk menghasilkan
kualiti bunyi yang lebih baik terhadap sistem audio. EQ dapat membantu untuk
melaraskan nada bunyi dengan lebih spesifik supaya kita boleh memperolehi mutu
audio seperti yang kita ingini. Laporan ini mengandungi gambaran keseluruhan
tentang projek lO-band Graphic Equalizer saya dan juga kajian literaturnya. Ini
merangkumi keadaan asal grafik equalizer seperti semasa 'cut' atau 'boost'.
Kandungan laporan ini juga agak umum. Ini adalah bertujuan untuk memberi
gambaran dan kefahaman secara menyeluruh mengenai projek yang akan saya
laksanakan nanti. Laporan ini juga mengandungi penerangan tentang fungsi bagi
komponen yang digunakan untuk projek ini nanti seperti operational amplifier (op
amp) dan filters. Selain daripada itu laporan ini juga menyelitkan penerangan
tentang bagaimana projek ini diuji di atas breadboard terlebih dahulu untuk
memastikan bahawa ia dapt berfungsi sebelum di pasang di atas papan litar
bercetak (PCB). Projek simulasi dan data analisis yang dibuat bertujuan untuk
" memastikan bahawa projek ini adalah berjaya dan mencapai objektifnya. Akhir
sekali adalah diharap supaya para pembaca akan memperoleh pemahaman yang
lebih jelas mengenai operasi lO-band Graphic Equalizer dan kesan yang dapat
dihasilkan terhadap sebuah system audio.
v
"
ABSTRAK
Grafik Equaliser (EQ) merupakan satu projek elektronik yang telah berjaya
mengatasi masalah terutama kepada sesiapa yang berminat untuk menghasilkan
kualiti bunyi yang lebih baik terhadap sistem audio. EQ dapat membantu untuk
melaraskan nada bunyi dengan lebih spesifik supaya kita boleh memperolehi mutu
audio seperti yang kita ingini. Laporan ini mengandungi gambaran keseluruhan
tentang projek lO-band Graphic Equalizer saya dan juga kajian literaturnya. Ini
merangkumi keadaan asal grafik equalizer seperti semasa 'cut' atau 'boost'.
Kandungan laporan ini juga agak umum. Ini adalah bertujuan untuk memberi
gambaran dan kefahaman secara menyeluruh mengenai projek yang akan saya
laksanakan nanti. Laporan ini juga mengandungi penerangan tentang fungsi bagi
komponen yang digunakan untuk projek ini nanti seperti operational amplifier (op
amp) dan filters. Selain daripada itu laporan ini juga menyelitkan penerangan
tentang bagaimana projek ini diuji di atas breadboard terlebih dahulu untuk
memastikan bahawa ia dapt berfungsi sebelum di pasang di atas papan litar
bercetak (PCB). Projek simulasi dan data analisis yang dibuat bertujuan untuk
memastikan bahawa projek ini adalah berjaya dan mencapai objektifnya. Akhir
sekali adalah diharap supaya para pembaca akan memperoleh pemahaman yang
lebih jelas mengenai operasi lO-band Graphic Equalizer dan kesan yang dapat
dihasilkan terhadap sebuah system audio.
v
----~--... .. --...--....----- ... --
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Dedication 11
Acknowledgement 111
Abstract IV
Abstrak V
Table of Content VI
List of Figures Xl
List of Tables xv
List ofAppendix xvi
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Objective 2
1.3 Project Overview 3
1.4 Why Use an Equalizer? 4
" 1.5 The Decibel (dB) 5
l.6 Project's Technical Data and Features 6
1.7 Report Overview 6
Vl
"
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication
Acknow ledgement
Abstract
Abstrak
Table of Content
List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Appendix
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
Introduction
Objective
Project Overview
Why Use an Equalizer?
The Decibel (dB)
l.6
1.7
Project's Technical Data and Features
Report Overview
Vl
Page
11
111
IV
V
VI
Xl
xv
xvi
1
2
3
4
5
6
6
•
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 The Concept of Equalization 7
2.1.1 Another Point of View on Equalization 7
2.1.2 What Equalization Can and Cannot Do 8
2.1.3 System Design Criteria for Equalization 9
2.1.4 System Equipment 9
2.2 Equalizers 10
2.2.1 Type of Equalizer 12
2.2.1.1 Graphic Equalizer 16
2.2.1.2 Band-Reject Equalizer 17
2.2.1.3 Cut-and-Boost Equalizer 17
2.2.1.4 The Boost-and-Cut versus Cut-only Equalizer 18
2.2.1.5 Synergistic Equalizer 19
2.2.1.6 Parametric Equalizer 20
2.2.1. 7 Shelving Equalizer 21
2.2.1.8 Programmable Equalizer 24
2.2.1.9 Adaptive Equalizer 25
2.2.1 Equalizers in Sound Reinforcement 26
2.3 Filters 28
" 2.3.1 Passive Filters 28
2.3.2 Active Filters 28
vii
"
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 The Concept of Equalization
2.1.1 Another Point of View on Equalization
2.1.2 What Equalization Can and Cannot Do
2.1.3 System Design Criteria for Equalization
2.1.4 System Equipment
2.2 Equalizers
2.2.1 Type of Equalizer
2.2.1.1 Graphic Equalizer
2.2.1.2 Band-Reject Equalizer
2.2.1.3 Cut-and-Boost Equalizer
2.2.1.4 The Boost-and-Cut versus Cut-only Equalizer
2.2.1.5 Synergistic Equalizer
2.2.1.6 Parametric Equalizer
2.2.1. 7 Shelving Equalizer
2.2.1.8 Programmable Equalizer
2.2.1. 9 Adaptive Equalizer
2.2.1 Equalizers in Sound Reinforcement
2.3 Filters
2.3.1 Passive Filters
2.3.2 Active Filters
vii
7
7
8
9
9
10
12
16
17
17
18
19
20
21
24
25
26
28
28
28
2.4 Power Supply 29
2.4.1 Rectifiers 29
2.4.2 Simple DC Power Supply 30
2.4.3 One-Half Wave Supplies 32
2.4.4 Full-Wave Supplies 32
2.4.5 Filters in Power Supply 33
2.4.6 Capacitor Filters 33
CHAPTER 3 METODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction 35
3.2 Component of Project 35
3.2.1 Passive Components 36
3.2.2 Active Components 36
3.3 Testing the Components 36
3.3.1 Resistors 37
3.3.1.1 Fixed Resistors 37
3.3.1.2 Variable Resistors 40
3.3.2 Capacitors 42
3.3.3 IC AN6551 43
"3.3.4 Diodes 43
3.3.5 Zener Diodes 44
3.3.6 Bipolar Transistor 44
viii
2.4 Power Supply 29
2.4.1 Rectifiers 29
2.4.2 Simple DC Power Supply 30
2.4.3 One-Half Wave Supplies 32
2.4.4 Full-Wave Supplies 32
2.4.5 Filters in Power Supply 33
2.4.6 Capacitor Filters 33
CHAPTER 3 METODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction 35
3.2 Component of Project 35
3.2.1 Passive Components 36
3.2.2 Active Components 36
3.3 Testing the Components 36
3.3.1 Resistors 37
3.3.1.1 Fixed Resistors 37
3.3.1.2 Variable Resistors 40
3.3.2 Capacitors 42
3.3.3 IC AN6551 43
" 3.3.4 Diodes 43
3.3.5 Zener Diodes 44
3.3.6 Bipolar Transistor 44
viii
3.4 Project Implementation 44
3.4.1 Components Testing 45
3.4.2 Components Testing 45
3.4.3 Printed Circuit Board (PCB) 46
3.4.4 Etching 47
3.4.5 Drilling 47
3.4.6 Mounting and Soldering 48
CHAPTER 4 DESIGN SPECIFICATION
4.1 The Basic Equalizer Circuit 49
4.2 The System 51
4.3 The Control of Gain 53
4.4 Sounds Frequency Recognition 53
4.5 Frequency Controls Adjustment 53
4.6 Other Controller 55
4.7 The Power Supply Unit 55
CHAPTER 5 TESTING AND TROUBLESHOOTING
5.1 Power Supply and Voltage Regulator 57
5.2 Main Circuit 60" 5.2.1 Microphone 62
5.2.2 10-band Frequency Controller 64
I
IX
3.4 Project Implementation 44
3.4.1 Components Testing 45
3.4.2 Components Testing 45
3.4.3 Printed Circuit Board (PCB) 46
3.4.4 Etching 47
3.4.5 Drilling 47
3.4.6 Mounting and Soldering 48
CHAPTER 4 DESIGN SPECIFICATION
4.1 The Basic Equalizer Circuit 49
4.2 The System 51
4.3 The Control of Gain 53
4.4 Sounds Frequency Recognition 53
4.5 Frequency Controls Adjustment 53
4.6 Other Controller 55
4.7 The Power Supply Unit 55
CHAPTER 5 TESTING AND TROUBLESHOOTING
5.1 Power Supply and Voltage Regulator 57
" 5.2 Main Circuit 60
5.2.1 Microphone 62
5.2.2 10-band Frequency Controller 64
IX
CHAPTER 6 PROBLEM ENCOUNTERED AND FAULT 75
DIAGNOSIS
CHAPTER 7 DISCUSSION
7.1 Recommendation 78
7.2 Conclusion 80
REFERENCES 82
APPENDIX 84
x
CHAPTER 6 PROBLEM ENCOUNTERED AND FAULT
DIAGNOSIS
CHAPTER 7 DISCUSSION
7.1 Recommendation
7.2 Conclusion
REFERENCES
APPENDIX
x
75
78
80
82
84
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1.1: Graphic Equalizer in an Audio System 3