Formwork for Concrete Structures
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Formwork for Concrete StructuresFormwork for Concrete Structures
About the Authors Robert L. Peurifoy (deceased) taught civil engineering at the University of Texas and Texas A&I College, and construction engineering at Texas A&M University and Oklahoma State University. He served as a high- way engineer for the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads and was a contributing editor to Roads and Streets Magazine. In addition to authoring the McGraw-Hill publications Construction Planning, Equipment, and Methods and Estimating Construction Costs, 5th ed., coauthored with Garold D. Oberlender, Mr. Peurifoy wrote over 50 magazine articles dealing with construction. He was a long-time member of the American Society of Civil En- gineers, which presents an award that bears his name.
Garold D. Oberlender, Ph.D, P.E. (Stillwater, Oklahoma), is Professor Emeritus of Civil Engineering at Oklahoma State University, where he served as coordinator of the Graduate Program in Construction Engineering and Project Management. He has more than 40 years of ex- perience in teaching, research, and consulting engineer- ing related to the design and construction of projects. He is author of the McGraw-Hill publications Project Management for Engineering and Construction, 2nd ed., and Estimating Construction Costs, 5th ed., coauthored with Robert L. Peurifoy. Dr. Oberlender is a registered professional engineer in several states, a member of the National Academy of Construction, a fellow in the American Society of Civil Engineers, and a fellow in the National Society of Professional Engineers.
Formwork for Concrete Structures
Austin, Texas
Oklahoma State University
New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City
Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto
Fourth Edition
Copyright © 2011, 1996, 1976, 1964 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Ex- cept as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
ISBN: 978-0-07-163918-7
MHID: 0-07-163918-7
The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this title: ISBN: 978-0-07-163917-0, MHID: 0-07-163917-9.
All trademarks are trademarks of their respective owners. Rather than put a trademark symbol after every occurrence of a trademarked name, we use names in an editorial fashion only, and to the benefi t of the trademark owner, with no intention of infringement of the trademark. Where such designations appear in this book, they have been printed with initial caps.
McGraw-Hill eBooks are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales pro- motions, or for use in corporate training programs. To contact a representative please e-mail us at [email protected].
Information contained in this work has been obtained by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (“McGraw-Hill”) from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither McGraw-Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that McGraw-Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other profes- sional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought.
TERMS OF USE
This is a copyrighted work and The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (“McGrawHill”) and its licen- sors reserve all rights in and to the work. Use of this work is subject to these terms. Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976 and the right to store and retrieve one copy of the work, you may not decompile, disassemble, reverse engineer, reproduce, modify, create derivative works based upon, transmit, distribute, disseminate, sell, publish or sublicense the work or any part of it without McGraw-Hill’s prior consent. You may use the work for your own noncommercial and personal use; any other use of the work is strictly prohibited. Your right to use the work may be terminated if you fail to comply with these terms.
THE WORK IS PROVIDED “AS IS.” McGRAW-HILL AND ITS LICENSORS MAKE NO GUARANTEES OR WARRANTIES AS TO THE ACCURACY, ADEQUACY OR COMPLETE- NESS OF OR RESULTS TO BE OBTAINED FROM USING THE WORK, INCLUDING ANY INFORMATION THAT CAN BE ACCESSED THROUGH THE WORK VIA HYPERLINK OR OTHERWISE, AND EXPRESSLY DISCLAIM ANY WARRANTY, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, IN- CLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. McGraw-Hill and its licensors do not warrant or guarantee that the functions contained in the work will meet your requirements or that its operation will be uninterrupted or error free. Neither McGraw-Hill nor its licensors shall be liable to you or anyone else for any inaccuracy, error or omission, regardless of cause, in the work or for any dam- ages resulting therefrom. McGraw-Hill has no responsibility for the content of any information accessed through the work. Under no circumstances shall McGraw-Hill and/or its licensors be liable for any indirect, incidental, special, punitive, consequential or similar damages that result from the use of or inability to use the work, even if any of them has been advised of the possibility of such damages. This limitation of liability shall apply to any claim or cause whatsoever whether such claim or cause arises in contract, tort or otherwise.
Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix Abbreviations and Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Purpose of This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Safety of Formwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Economy of Formwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Allowable Unit Stresses in Formwork Material . . . 2 Care of Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Patented Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Arrangement of This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 Economy of Formwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Background Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Impact of Structural Design on Formwork Costs . . . 7 Suggestions for Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Design Repetition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Dimensional Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Dimensional Consistency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Economy of Formwork and Sizes of Concrete
Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Beam and Column Intersections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Economy in Formwork and Sizes of
Concrete Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Economy in Making, Erecting, and
Stripping Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Removal of Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Building Construction and Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Economy in Formwork and Overall Economy . . . . 19 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3 Pressure of Concrete on Formwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Behavior of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Lateral Pressure of Concrete on Formwork . . . . . . . 22 Lateral Pressure of Concrete on Wall Forms . . . . . . 23
Example 3-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Example 3-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Example 3-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
v
vi C o n t e n t s
Relationship between Rate of Fill, Temperature, and Pressure for Wall Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Lateral Pressure of Concrete on Column Forms . . . 31 Example 3-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Example 3-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Example 3-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Relationship between Rate of Fill, Temperature, and Pressure for Column Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Graphical Illustration of Pressure Equations for Walls and Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Effect of Weight of Concrete on Pressure . . . . . . . . . 36 Vertical Loads on Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Example 3-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Example 3-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Example 3-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Placement and Consolidation of Freshly Placed Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Wind Loads on Formwork Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4 Properties of Form Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Properties of Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Allowable Stresses of Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Adjustment Factor CD for Load-Duration . . . . . . . . . 46 Adjustment Factors CM for Moisture Content . . . . . 46 Adjustment Factor CL for Beam Stability . . . . . . . . . 51 Adjustment Factor CP for Column Stability . . . . . . . 51 Adjustment Factors Cfu for Flat Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Adjustment Factors Cb for Bearing Area . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Application of Adjustment Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Example 4-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Example 4-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Plywood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Allowable Stresses for Plywood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Plyform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 High-Density Overlaid Plyform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Equations for Determining the Allowable
Pressure on Plyform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Allowable Pressure Based on Fiber Stress in
Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Allowable Pressure Based on Bending Defl ection . . . . 63 Allowable Pressure Based on Shear Stress . . . . . . . . 63
Allowable Pressure Based on Shear Defl ection . . . . 63 Tables for Determining the Allowable Concrete
Pressure on Plyform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Maximum Spans for Lumber Framing Used to
Support Plywood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Use of Plywood for Curved Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Hardboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Fiber Form Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Steel Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Aluminum Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Plastic Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Form Liners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Nails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Withdrawal Resistance of Nails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Lateral Resistance of Nails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Toe-Nail Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Connections for Species of Wood for Heavy
Formwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Lag Screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .…
About the Authors Robert L. Peurifoy (deceased) taught civil engineering at the University of Texas and Texas A&I College, and construction engineering at Texas A&M University and Oklahoma State University. He served as a high- way engineer for the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads and was a contributing editor to Roads and Streets Magazine. In addition to authoring the McGraw-Hill publications Construction Planning, Equipment, and Methods and Estimating Construction Costs, 5th ed., coauthored with Garold D. Oberlender, Mr. Peurifoy wrote over 50 magazine articles dealing with construction. He was a long-time member of the American Society of Civil En- gineers, which presents an award that bears his name.
Garold D. Oberlender, Ph.D, P.E. (Stillwater, Oklahoma), is Professor Emeritus of Civil Engineering at Oklahoma State University, where he served as coordinator of the Graduate Program in Construction Engineering and Project Management. He has more than 40 years of ex- perience in teaching, research, and consulting engineer- ing related to the design and construction of projects. He is author of the McGraw-Hill publications Project Management for Engineering and Construction, 2nd ed., and Estimating Construction Costs, 5th ed., coauthored with Robert L. Peurifoy. Dr. Oberlender is a registered professional engineer in several states, a member of the National Academy of Construction, a fellow in the American Society of Civil Engineers, and a fellow in the National Society of Professional Engineers.
Formwork for Concrete Structures
Austin, Texas
Oklahoma State University
New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City
Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto
Fourth Edition
Copyright © 2011, 1996, 1976, 1964 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Ex- cept as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
ISBN: 978-0-07-163918-7
MHID: 0-07-163918-7
The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this title: ISBN: 978-0-07-163917-0, MHID: 0-07-163917-9.
All trademarks are trademarks of their respective owners. Rather than put a trademark symbol after every occurrence of a trademarked name, we use names in an editorial fashion only, and to the benefi t of the trademark owner, with no intention of infringement of the trademark. Where such designations appear in this book, they have been printed with initial caps.
McGraw-Hill eBooks are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales pro- motions, or for use in corporate training programs. To contact a representative please e-mail us at [email protected].
Information contained in this work has been obtained by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (“McGraw-Hill”) from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither McGraw-Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that McGraw-Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other profes- sional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought.
TERMS OF USE
This is a copyrighted work and The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (“McGrawHill”) and its licen- sors reserve all rights in and to the work. Use of this work is subject to these terms. Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976 and the right to store and retrieve one copy of the work, you may not decompile, disassemble, reverse engineer, reproduce, modify, create derivative works based upon, transmit, distribute, disseminate, sell, publish or sublicense the work or any part of it without McGraw-Hill’s prior consent. You may use the work for your own noncommercial and personal use; any other use of the work is strictly prohibited. Your right to use the work may be terminated if you fail to comply with these terms.
THE WORK IS PROVIDED “AS IS.” McGRAW-HILL AND ITS LICENSORS MAKE NO GUARANTEES OR WARRANTIES AS TO THE ACCURACY, ADEQUACY OR COMPLETE- NESS OF OR RESULTS TO BE OBTAINED FROM USING THE WORK, INCLUDING ANY INFORMATION THAT CAN BE ACCESSED THROUGH THE WORK VIA HYPERLINK OR OTHERWISE, AND EXPRESSLY DISCLAIM ANY WARRANTY, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, IN- CLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. McGraw-Hill and its licensors do not warrant or guarantee that the functions contained in the work will meet your requirements or that its operation will be uninterrupted or error free. Neither McGraw-Hill nor its licensors shall be liable to you or anyone else for any inaccuracy, error or omission, regardless of cause, in the work or for any dam- ages resulting therefrom. McGraw-Hill has no responsibility for the content of any information accessed through the work. Under no circumstances shall McGraw-Hill and/or its licensors be liable for any indirect, incidental, special, punitive, consequential or similar damages that result from the use of or inability to use the work, even if any of them has been advised of the possibility of such damages. This limitation of liability shall apply to any claim or cause whatsoever whether such claim or cause arises in contract, tort or otherwise.
Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix Abbreviations and Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Purpose of This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Safety of Formwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Economy of Formwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Allowable Unit Stresses in Formwork Material . . . 2 Care of Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Patented Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Arrangement of This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 Economy of Formwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Background Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Impact of Structural Design on Formwork Costs . . . 7 Suggestions for Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Design Repetition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Dimensional Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Dimensional Consistency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Economy of Formwork and Sizes of Concrete
Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Beam and Column Intersections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Economy in Formwork and Sizes of
Concrete Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Economy in Making, Erecting, and
Stripping Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Removal of Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Building Construction and Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Economy in Formwork and Overall Economy . . . . 19 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3 Pressure of Concrete on Formwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Behavior of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Lateral Pressure of Concrete on Formwork . . . . . . . 22 Lateral Pressure of Concrete on Wall Forms . . . . . . 23
Example 3-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Example 3-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Example 3-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
v
vi C o n t e n t s
Relationship between Rate of Fill, Temperature, and Pressure for Wall Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Lateral Pressure of Concrete on Column Forms . . . 31 Example 3-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Example 3-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Example 3-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Relationship between Rate of Fill, Temperature, and Pressure for Column Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Graphical Illustration of Pressure Equations for Walls and Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Effect of Weight of Concrete on Pressure . . . . . . . . . 36 Vertical Loads on Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Example 3-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Example 3-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Example 3-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Placement and Consolidation of Freshly Placed Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Wind Loads on Formwork Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4 Properties of Form Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Properties of Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Allowable Stresses of Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Adjustment Factor CD for Load-Duration . . . . . . . . . 46 Adjustment Factors CM for Moisture Content . . . . . 46 Adjustment Factor CL for Beam Stability . . . . . . . . . 51 Adjustment Factor CP for Column Stability . . . . . . . 51 Adjustment Factors Cfu for Flat Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Adjustment Factors Cb for Bearing Area . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Application of Adjustment Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Example 4-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Example 4-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Plywood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Allowable Stresses for Plywood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Plyform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 High-Density Overlaid Plyform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Equations for Determining the Allowable
Pressure on Plyform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Allowable Pressure Based on Fiber Stress in
Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Allowable Pressure Based on Bending Defl ection . . . . 63 Allowable Pressure Based on Shear Stress . . . . . . . . 63
Allowable Pressure Based on Shear Defl ection . . . . 63 Tables for Determining the Allowable Concrete
Pressure on Plyform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Maximum Spans for Lumber Framing Used to
Support Plywood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Use of Plywood for Curved Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Hardboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Fiber Form Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Steel Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Aluminum Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Plastic Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Form Liners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Nails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Withdrawal Resistance of Nails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Lateral Resistance of Nails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Toe-Nail Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Connections for Species of Wood for Heavy
Formwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Lag Screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .…
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