FORGETTING

FORGETTINGFORGETTING???

FORGETTINGFORGETTING

Forgetting Forgetting refers to the inability to retrieve refers to the inability to retrieve previously stored information. previously stored information.

When you forget something it means that it is When you forget something it means that it is unavailable to you at the time you are trying to unavailable to you at the time you are trying to remember it. remember it.

The information may be stored in your memory, but The information may be stored in your memory, but for some reason you are unable to retrieve it. for some reason you are unable to retrieve it.

Although forgetting results in the loss of information Although forgetting results in the loss of information and many skills, if you did not forget, your mind and many skills, if you did not forget, your mind would be cluttered with so much information that would be cluttered with so much information that you would have great difficulty retrieving and you would have great difficulty retrieving and selecting the information that you needed.selecting the information that you needed.

Like remembering forgetting has an adaptive Like remembering forgetting has an adaptive purpose and contributes to our survival and our purpose and contributes to our survival and our sanity. sanity.

THE FORGETTING CURVETHE FORGETTING CURVE

Hermann Ebbinghaus was a German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus was a German psychologist who was the first to scientifically study forgetting in who was the first to scientifically study forgetting in the late 1800’s. the late 1800’s.

To measure the To measure the amountamount of information retained and of information retained and the the raterate at which information is forgotten, at which information is forgotten, Ebbinghaus conducted an experiment using himself Ebbinghaus conducted an experiment using himself as the only participant. as the only participant.

The experiment involved him learning a series of The experiment involved him learning a series of lists of lists of nonsense syllablesnonsense syllables, until he could recite them , until he could recite them without error on two separate occasions. without error on two separate occasions.

Ebbinghaus tested his recall for each list after a Ebbinghaus tested his recall for each list after a specific period of time had elapsed from the initial specific period of time had elapsed from the initial learning. learning.

He first learned one list, then tested his recall after a He first learned one list, then tested his recall after a specific delay period. Then he learned another list, specific delay period. Then he learned another list, tested his recall after another delay period, and so tested his recall after another delay period, and so on. on.

The delay ranged from 20 minutes to 31 days. The delay ranged from 20 minutes to 31 days.

Ebbinghaus was then able to measure the amount Ebbinghaus was then able to measure the amount and rate of forgetting. and rate of forgetting.

FINDINGS:FINDINGS:- 20 minutes after initial learning he could remember 20 minutes after initial learning he could remember

58% of nonsense syllables. 58% of nonsense syllables. - One hour after learning his retention was 44%. One hour after learning his retention was 44%. - A day later he could recall 34%. A day later he could recall 34%. - A week later his recall had fallen to around 21%. A week later his recall had fallen to around 21%.

This data, once plotted on a graph became known This data, once plotted on a graph became known as the forgetting curve. as the forgetting curve.

The The forgetting curveforgetting curve shows the pattern of shows the pattern of forgetting that occurs over time. forgetting that occurs over time.

Generally the graph shows that forgetting is rapid Generally the graph shows that forgetting is rapid soon after the original learning, then the rate of soon after the original learning, then the rate of memory loss gradually declines, followed by stability memory loss gradually declines, followed by stability in the memories that remain. in the memories that remain.

More than half of the memory loss occurs in the first More than half of the memory loss occurs in the first hour of learning. hour of learning.

Virtually all the information that will be forgotten is Virtually all the information that will be forgotten is lost in the first eight hours. lost in the first eight hours.

This pattern of forgetting tends to occur for a range This pattern of forgetting tends to occur for a range of materials under many conditions. of materials under many conditions.

The more meaningful the material, the slower the The more meaningful the material, the slower the rate of forgetting. rate of forgetting.

The amount and rate are also influenced by how The amount and rate are also influenced by how well the information was initially encoded- the better well the information was initially encoded- the better the initial learning, the longer the material is likely to the initial learning, the longer the material is likely to be retained. be retained.

MEASURES OF RETENTIONMEASURES OF RETENTION

What methods do we use to test what has been What methods do we use to test what has been retained in memory?retained in memory?

Teachers generally use tests or exams. But is Teachers generally use tests or exams. But is your performance on a test or exam a reliable your performance on a test or exam a reliable measure of how much information you have measure of how much information you have retained in memory?retained in memory?

There are different types of questions teachers There are different types of questions teachers ask, including multiple-choice questions, ask, including multiple-choice questions, true/false questions, fill-in-the-blanks, short true/false questions, fill-in-the-blanks, short answer, and essay questions. answer, and essay questions.

Research shows that the amount of information Research shows that the amount of information that will be retrieved from memory is, at least that will be retrieved from memory is, at least partly, dependent on the type of question asked. partly, dependent on the type of question asked.

There are three main kinds of measures that are There are three main kinds of measures that are used to determine how much information has used to determine how much information has been retained: been retained: recall, recognition recall, recognition and and relearning. relearning.

RECALLRECALL

What are the names of the 7 dwarfs?What are the names of the 7 dwarfs?

In order to answer this question, you would have In order to answer this question, you would have searched through your long-term memory, tried to searched through your long-term memory, tried to locate the information required, and either have locate the information required, and either have

produced or not produced the correct information.produced or not produced the correct information.

RECALLRECALL

This approach to measuring the amount of This approach to measuring the amount of information retained in memory is a test of information retained in memory is a test of recall. recall.

Recall Recall involves being asked to reproduce involves being asked to reproduce information with the fewest possible cues information with the fewest possible cues to assist retrieval.to assist retrieval.

In an experiment used to measure recall as a In an experiment used to measure recall as a measure of retention, participants might be measure of retention, participants might be required to learn a list of randomly selected required to learn a list of randomly selected words. Then, after a period of time, they may be words. Then, after a period of time, they may be required to write, in any order, as many of the required to write, in any order, as many of the words off the list as they can. words off the list as they can.

This method is called This method is called free recall.free recall.

Free recall Free recall is involved when participants are only is involved when participants are only asked to remember as much information as asked to remember as much information as possible, in no particular order. possible, in no particular order.

If participants were asked to recall a list of words If participants were asked to recall a list of words in the order in which they were presented, in the order in which they were presented, researchers would be asking for researchers would be asking for serial recallserial recall. .

Sometimes the general cue we are provided with Sometimes the general cue we are provided with to search information in our long-term memory is to search information in our long-term memory is too general and the list of possible matches is too general and the list of possible matches is too long. too long.

Cued recall Cued recall makes use of specific cues to aid makes use of specific cues to aid retrieval. For example; being given the first letter retrieval. For example; being given the first letter of each of the 7 dwarfs names. of each of the 7 dwarfs names.

RECOGNITIONRECOGNITION

Which of the following are the names of Which of the following are the names of the 7 dwarfs?the 7 dwarfs?

-Bashful-Bashful -Goofy-Goofy

-Happy-Happy -Dopey-Dopey

-Grumpy-Grumpy -Sneezy-Sneezy

-Pop-Pop -Doc-Doc

-Sleepy-Sleepy -Grouchy-Grouchy

RECOGNITIONRECOGNITION

Recognition Recognition involves identifying the correct involves identifying the correct information from among alternatives, such as in the information from among alternatives, such as in the previous question. previous question.

Generally we can retrieve more information when Generally we can retrieve more information when tested by the recognition method than we can with tested by the recognition method than we can with the recall method because the recognition method the recall method because the recognition method provides more cues that assist in the location and provides more cues that assist in the location and retrieval of information from long-term memory.retrieval of information from long-term memory.

In an exam situation, students typically In an exam situation, students typically prefer M/C questions or true/false prefer M/C questions or true/false questions to an essay or short answer questions to an essay or short answer questions. questions.

M/C and true/false questions involve M/C and true/false questions involve recognising the correct response from recognising the correct response from among a small number of alternatives, among a small number of alternatives, whereas essay question require recall, whereas essay question require recall, where there are very few cues. where there are very few cues.

The difference between recall and The difference between recall and recognition is this:recognition is this:

- In recall we ask In recall we ask What is the item?What is the item?- In recognition we ask In recognition we ask Is this the item?Is this the item?

RELEARNINGRELEARNING Most people have times when they are unable to Most people have times when they are unable to

recall or to recognise information that has been recall or to recognise information that has been stored in long-term memory. stored in long-term memory.

Even though they are unable to retrieve this Even though they are unable to retrieve this information, it does not necessarily mean that it information, it does not necessarily mean that it has been forgotten. has been forgotten.

Relearning Relearning or the or the method of savingsmethod of savings, , involves involves learning information again that has been learning information again that has been previously learned and stored in long-term previously learned and stored in long-term memory. memory.

Typically relearning something takes less Typically relearning something takes less time than it did to learn it originally. time than it did to learn it originally.

If information is learned more quickly the If information is learned more quickly the second time it is assumed that there must second time it is assumed that there must be some information retained from the first be some information retained from the first learning experience, whether we realise it learning experience, whether we realise it or not. or not.

HERMANN EBBINGHAUSHERMANN EBBINGHAUS

Ebbinghaus did an experiment using nonsense syllables Ebbinghaus did an experiment using nonsense syllables (eg. Jux, kuv). Nonsense syllables are often used in (eg. Jux, kuv). Nonsense syllables are often used in memory research instead of words so that retention is memory research instead of words so that retention is not affected by the words having some sort of meaning not affected by the words having some sort of meaning or association with words already stored in memory. or association with words already stored in memory. When Ebbinghaus measured his memory for what he When Ebbinghaus measured his memory for what he had learned, he found that even if he could not had learned, he found that even if he could not remember a single item from the original list, he could remember a single item from the original list, he could relearn the list much quicker a second time than he had relearn the list much quicker a second time than he had been able to with the original list. This indicated that been able to with the original list. This indicated that some information had been retained from the initial some information had been retained from the initial learning.learning.

This is also called the method of savings This is also called the method of savings because it can be calculated using the because it can be calculated using the following formula. following formula.

Savings = Savings = (no. of trials for original learning) – (no. of trials for relearning) (no. of trials for original learning) – (no. of trials for relearning) x x 100100(no. of trials for original learning)(no. of trials for original learning) 1 1

Eg. Eg. 10 – 510 – 5 x x 100 100 = 50% = 50% 10 110 1

A savings score can also be calculated on the A savings score can also be calculated on the basis of the time taken to relearn information.basis of the time taken to relearn information.

Savings = Savings = (time taken for original learning) – (time for relearning)(time taken for original learning) – (time for relearning) x x 100100(time for original learning)(time for original learning) 1 1

RELATIVE SENSITIVITY OF RELATIVE SENSITIVITY OF MEASURES OF RETENTIONMEASURES OF RETENTION

Recall, recognition and relearning differ in Recall, recognition and relearning differ in their relative sensitivity as measures of their relative sensitivity as measures of retention. The retention. The sensitivitysensitivity of a measure of of a measure of retention refers to its ability to assess the retention refers to its ability to assess the amount of information that has been amount of information that has been stored in memory. stored in memory.

Recall tends to be the least sensitive Recall tends to be the least sensitive measure of retention, relearning tends to measure of retention, relearning tends to be the most sensitive measure of be the most sensitive measure of retention, and recognition tends to be less retention, and recognition tends to be less sensitive than relearning but more sensitive than relearning but more sensitive than recall. sensitive than recall.

In a study by Nelson (1978) on the three measures of In a study by Nelson (1978) on the three measures of retention, 24 university students were used as retention, 24 university students were used as participants. participants.

The experiment consisted of three stages- the initial The experiment consisted of three stages- the initial learning stage, a stage in which recall and recognition learning stage, a stage in which recall and recognition of the initial learning were tested and finally a of the initial learning were tested and finally a relearning stage. relearning stage.

In the first stage, participants were given a series of In the first stage, participants were given a series of number-word pairs to learn, such as 49-party and 95-number-word pairs to learn, such as 49-party and 95-horse. horse.

The second stage of the experiment required the The second stage of the experiment required the participants to participate in the testing and relearning participants to participate in the testing and relearning stages of the experiment. stages of the experiment.

In the testing stage, participants were required to In the testing stage, participants were required to complete two different types of tests. The first was a test complete two different types of tests. The first was a test of recall where the participants were given the original of recall where the participants were given the original number as a cue and were asked to provide the number as a cue and were asked to provide the association word that went with it. The second test was association word that went with it. The second test was similar but required the participants to name the similar but required the participants to name the associated words from a list of 20-10 of which were the associated words from a list of 20-10 of which were the original words and 10 of which were new, unrelated original words and 10 of which were new, unrelated words. The third stage of the experiment involved words. The third stage of the experiment involved relearning the words from the previous list which had relearning the words from the previous list which had been incorrectly recalled and 10 new word pairs. They been incorrectly recalled and 10 new word pairs. They were then given a recall test on both the new information were then given a recall test on both the new information and the old information. and the old information.

The results showed that a mean score of The results showed that a mean score of 48% of the target words were correctly 48% of the target words were correctly recalled, recalled, and 69% were correctly and 69% were correctly recognised recognised in the testing. Furthermore the in the testing. Furthermore the percentage of target words correctly percentage of target words correctly recalled during the relearning stage was recalled during the relearning stage was significantly higher for the old items (88%) significantly higher for the old items (88%) than for new items. than for new items.

These results were found to be significant These results were found to be significant at the pat the p<<0.001.0.001.

What does this mean?What does this mean?

vv

THEORIES OF THEORIES OF FORGETTINGFORGETTING

Psychologists have developed a number of Psychologists have developed a number of theories to explain why we forget. theories to explain why we forget. Forgetting may occur because:Forgetting may occur because:

1.1. The right retrieval cue is not usedThe right retrieval cue is not used

2.2. There is interference from competing There is interference from competing materialmaterial

3.3. Memory fades through disuse over timeMemory fades through disuse over time

RETRIEVAL FAILURE THEORYRETRIEVAL FAILURE THEORY

If you have ever experienced a ‘mental blank’ in an If you have ever experienced a ‘mental blank’ in an exam or in a job interview, only to recall the exact exam or in a job interview, only to recall the exact information at a later point in time, you have information at a later point in time, you have experienced retrieval failure. experienced retrieval failure.

Most of the time we can retrieve information from Most of the time we can retrieve information from LTM with relative ease. LTM with relative ease.

This is because most of the time you are able to This is because most of the time you are able to retrieve information from the various storage retrieve information from the various storage systems in your LTM using a retrieval cue to locate systems in your LTM using a retrieval cue to locate the relevant information. the relevant information.

A A retrieval cueretrieval cue is any stimulus that assists the is any stimulus that assists the process of locating and recovering information process of locating and recovering information stored in memory. stored in memory.

It is a prompt or cue to guide the search and It is a prompt or cue to guide the search and recovery process within memory. recovery process within memory.

According to According to retrieval failure theoryretrieval failure theory we sometimes we sometimes forget because we lack or fail to use the right cues forget because we lack or fail to use the right cues to retrieve information stored in memory. to retrieve information stored in memory.

This explanation of forgetting suggests that This explanation of forgetting suggests that memories stored in LTM are not actually forgotten, memories stored in LTM are not actually forgotten, but are temporarily inaccessible. but are temporarily inaccessible.

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenonTip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

One of the most frequent experiences of One of the most frequent experiences of retrieval failure is the tip-of-the-tongue retrieval failure is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (TOT). phenomenon (TOT).

Tip-of-the-tongueTip-of-the-tongue is the feeling of being is the feeling of being aware of knowing something, being aware of knowing something, being confident that you will remember it at any confident that you will remember it at any moment, but not being able to retrieve the moment, but not being able to retrieve the information at that point in time.information at that point in time.

When we experience this it seems that When we experience this it seems that even though we can’t say the word, we do even though we can’t say the word, we do have specific information about it eg. What have specific information about it eg. What it starts with, how many syllables it has or it starts with, how many syllables it has or what it rhymes with. what it rhymes with.

This suggests that the TOT phenomenon This suggests that the TOT phenomenon involves involves partial retrievalpartial retrieval in which bits of in which bits of information can act as retrieval cues. information can act as retrieval cues.

Brown and McNeill (1966) demonstrated Brown and McNeill (1966) demonstrated the TOT phenomenon by asking the TOT phenomenon by asking participants to memorise a list of words participants to memorise a list of words that are generally not in everyone’s that are generally not in everyone’s vocabulary; for example vocabulary; for example sampansampan which is which is a wooden Chinese fishing boat. The words a wooden Chinese fishing boat. The words that participants came up with when trying that participants came up with when trying to recall the correct word sometimes to recall the correct word sometimes resembled the word in meaning resembled the word in meaning (‘junkboat’) but most often resembled it in (‘junkboat’) but most often resembled it in sound (‘sarong’). sound (‘sarong’).

As a result they believed that a word is As a result they believed that a word is stored in a specific location that contains stored in a specific location that contains information about its sound and its information about its sound and its meaning. Therefore we can retrieve words meaning. Therefore we can retrieve words according to either characteristic. These according to either characteristic. These words are also linked to other similar words words are also linked to other similar words through memory pathways which is often through memory pathways which is often why we are able to retrieve similar words in why we are able to retrieve similar words in place of the one we really want. place of the one we really want.

They concluded that phonetic and semantic They concluded that phonetic and semantic features are needed in the retrieval of a features are needed in the retrieval of a word. word.

INTERFERENCE THEORYINTERFERENCE THEORY Recall can become difficult when we are trying to Recall can become difficult when we are trying to

remember a lot of similar information. This is partly remember a lot of similar information. This is partly because similar memories interfere with the retrieval of because similar memories interfere with the retrieval of one another. one another.

This highlights a second reason for forgetting- that This highlights a second reason for forgetting- that memories can interfere with one another. memories can interfere with one another.

Interference theory Interference theory proposes that forgetting in LTM proposes that forgetting in LTM occurs because other memories interfere with the occurs because other memories interfere with the retrieval of what we are trying to recall, particularly if the retrieval of what we are trying to recall, particularly if the other memories are similar.other memories are similar.

If learning of similar material occurs close in time, If learning of similar material occurs close in time, interference is more likely.interference is more likely.

There are two types of interference:There are two types of interference:

1.1. Retroactive interferenceRetroactive interference

2.2. Proactive interferenceProactive interference

RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCERETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE When new information interferes with the ability to When new information interferes with the ability to

remember old information, psychologists refer to the remember old information, psychologists refer to the interference as interference as retroactive interference. retroactive interference.

Eg. Eg. You are at a party and you are introduced to a You are at a party and you are introduced to a guy named John. Not long after you are introduced guy named John. Not long after you are introduced to Jim. After a while you bump into John again but to Jim. After a while you bump into John again but accidentally call him Jim. accidentally call him Jim.

With retroactive interference, new learning interferes With retroactive interference, new learning interferes with the retrieval of previously learned material. with the retrieval of previously learned material.

PROACTIVE INTERFERENCEPROACTIVE INTERFERENCE

Interference also works in the opposite direction. Interference also works in the opposite direction.

Information learned previously can interfere with our Information learned previously can interfere with our ability to remember new information. This effect is ability to remember new information. This effect is called called proactive interference. proactive interference.

According to interference theory, interference According to interference theory, interference primarily comes from memories of primarily comes from memories of similarsimilar information. information.

MOTIVATED FORGETTINGMOTIVATED FORGETTING Motivated forgetting Motivated forgetting refers to the inability to retrieve refers to the inability to retrieve

information because the individual derives some information because the individual derives some benefit from not remembering. benefit from not remembering.

Sigmund Freud was one of the first to consider the idea Sigmund Freud was one of the first to consider the idea of motivated forgetting, which he called repressionof motivated forgetting, which he called repression . .

RepressionRepression involves unconsciously blocking a involves unconsciously blocking a memory of an event or experience from entering memory of an event or experience from entering conscious awareness.conscious awareness.

He claimed that it was an unconscious, unintentional He claimed that it was an unconscious, unintentional process through which the individual may avoid process through which the individual may avoid feelings of anxiety about traumatic events. feelings of anxiety about traumatic events.

An important feature of repressed memories is that An important feature of repressed memories is that although they may not be readily accessible to although they may not be readily accessible to conscious recollection, they may still be retained.conscious recollection, they may still be retained.

Eg. HypnosisEg. Hypnosis

Memories that are retrieved from the unconscious Memories that are retrieved from the unconscious are called recovered memories. are called recovered memories.

Not all motivated forgetting is Not all motivated forgetting is unconscious- an individual may quite unconscious- an individual may quite intentionally and consciously want to intentionally and consciously want to forget something. forget something.

This is called suppressionThis is called suppression. . Suppression Suppression involves being motivated to involves being motivated to

forget an event or experience by making a forget an event or experience by making a deliberate conscious effort to keep it out of deliberate conscious effort to keep it out of conscious awareness. conscious awareness.

The person knows that the memory is The person knows that the memory is there, however they choose not to think there, however they choose not to think about it. about it.

Brain imaging techniques show that when Brain imaging techniques show that when a person is trying to suppress a memory a person is trying to suppress a memory the left and right frontal lobes are more the left and right frontal lobes are more active and there is less activity is the active and there is less activity is the hippocampus where information is usually hippocampus where information is usually recalled. recalled.

Many psychologists accept that memory Many psychologists accept that memory can be affected by an individual’s can be affected by an individual’s conscious or unconscious needs, fears, conscious or unconscious needs, fears, anxieties, and desires. anxieties, and desires.

DECAY THEORYDECAY THEORY

Some psychologists suggest that forgetting is a Some psychologists suggest that forgetting is a process of decay. process of decay.

Memories that are formed and not used begin to Memories that are formed and not used begin to fade, become weaker with time, and eventually fade, become weaker with time, and eventually decay to the point where they can no longer be decay to the point where they can no longer be recollected- that is, they are forgotten. recollected- that is, they are forgotten.

This theory, known as decay theory, was first This theory, known as decay theory, was first proposed by Edward Thorndike in 1914. proposed by Edward Thorndike in 1914.

Decay theory Decay theory explains forgetting based on the explains forgetting based on the assumption that when something new is learned, a assumption that when something new is learned, a memory trace or neural imprint of the experience memory trace or neural imprint of the experience that contains the stored information is formed in the that contains the stored information is formed in the brain; the trace gradually fades over time through brain; the trace gradually fades over time through disuse unless it is reactivated by being used. disuse unless it is reactivated by being used.

Decay theory suggests that memories that are not Decay theory suggests that memories that are not retrieved or rehearsed dissipate over time as the retrieved or rehearsed dissipate over time as the synaptic connections between neurons that synaptic connections between neurons that constitute the memory trace begin to degrade. constitute the memory trace begin to degrade.

Forgetting seems to be a combination of Forgetting seems to be a combination of the fading of memory traces, interference, the fading of memory traces, interference, or the use of an inappropriate retrieval or the use of an inappropriate retrieval cue. cue.

Manipulation and Manipulation and improvement of memoryimprovement of memory

Research findings indicate that much of what Research findings indicate that much of what we recall from long term memory is not an we recall from long term memory is not an accurate representation of what actually accurate representation of what actually happened previously. happened previously.

Instead, it is a logical account of what might Instead, it is a logical account of what might have happened, shaped by our thoughts, have happened, shaped by our thoughts, attitudes and beliefs and by who we are as attitudes and beliefs and by who we are as individuals. individuals.

The details of human memory can change The details of human memory can change over time. over time.

Confidence in memory is no guarantee that it Confidence in memory is no guarantee that it happened. happened.

How do distortions creep into our How do distortions creep into our memories?memories?

A new memory is not a recording, it is A new memory is not a recording, it is actively reconstructed. actively reconstructed.

To form a new memory you actively To form a new memory you actively organise and encode different types of organise and encode different types of information: visual, auditory, tactile etc. information: visual, auditory, tactile etc.

When you later try to retrieve this memory When you later try to retrieve this memory you have to reconstruct the details of the you have to reconstruct the details of the memory. memory.

In this process various factors can create In this process various factors can create errors. errors.

Manipulation of memoryManipulation of memory

Frederick Bartlett’s (1932) study on the Frederick Bartlett’s (1932) study on the reconstructive nature of memory pg 393.reconstructive nature of memory pg 393.

Elizabeth Loftus also studied this in Elizabeth Loftus also studied this in regards to eye witness testimony. regards to eye witness testimony.

She found that eyewitnesses She found that eyewitnesses reconstructed their testimony and reconstructed their testimony and therefore it was not always accurate. therefore it was not always accurate.

Most of her studies typically involved Most of her studies typically involved showing participants a short film, video or showing participants a short film, video or slides of a car accident. slides of a car accident.

Participants were then asked specific Participants were then asked specific questions about the scene they questions about the scene they ‘witnessed’. ‘witnessed’.

Sometimes, information that was not Sometimes, information that was not present in the actual scene or which present in the actual scene or which contradicts the scene is introduced. contradicts the scene is introduced.

At other times leading questions are At other times leading questions are asked. asked.

Loftus’ research makes it clear that Loftus’ research makes it clear that leading questions can be used to leading questions can be used to manipulate memory.manipulate memory.

A A leading questionleading question is a question that has is a question that has content or is phrased in such a way as to content or is phrased in such a way as to suggest what answer is desired or to lead suggest what answer is desired or to lead to the desired answer. to the desired answer.

These kinds of questions can implant These kinds of questions can implant memories into a witnesses memory and memories into a witnesses memory and falsely produce the things that they think falsely produce the things that they think they recall. they recall.

Studies by Elizabeth LoftusStudies by Elizabeth Loftus

Flow chart on the two experiments pg 394.Flow chart on the two experiments pg 394.

Studies by Elizabeth LoftusStudies by Elizabeth Loftus Although eyewitnesses may think, feel and Although eyewitnesses may think, feel and

behave differently when observing a crime in behave differently when observing a crime in the laboratory as compared with real-world the laboratory as compared with real-world settings, eyewitness testimony cannot be settings, eyewitness testimony cannot be regarded as faultless, even when the witness regarded as faultless, even when the witness is trying to be truthful. is trying to be truthful.

Loftus suggests that whenever we retrieve a Loftus suggests that whenever we retrieve a memory it does not actually represent the memory it does not actually represent the original memory but a reconstruction of what original memory but a reconstruction of what we actually stored. we actually stored.

IMPROVEMENT OF MEMORYIMPROVEMENT OF MEMORY We can rely on specific mental strategies if we want We can rely on specific mental strategies if we want

to improve our memory. to improve our memory.

Sometimes we are able to remember information Sometimes we are able to remember information simply because it stands out or is unusual. simply because it stands out or is unusual.

Other information requires conscious effort in order Other information requires conscious effort in order for it to be remembered. for it to be remembered.

To ensure that information goes beyond sensory To ensure that information goes beyond sensory memory we must pay attention to it. It must also be memory we must pay attention to it. It must also be organised and integrated into LTM with information organised and integrated into LTM with information already in LTM. already in LTM.

CONTEXT- AND STATE-CONTEXT- AND STATE-DEPENDENT CUESDEPENDENT CUES

Another effective way of enhancing retrieval from Another effective way of enhancing retrieval from LTM is to re-create the conditions under which the LTM is to re-create the conditions under which the required information was originally learned. required information was originally learned.

This approach is based on the This approach is based on the encoding specificity encoding specificity principle.principle.

This principle involves a general ‘rule’ that the more This principle involves a general ‘rule’ that the more closely the retrieval cues match the original learning closely the retrieval cues match the original learning conditions, the more likely it is that the information conditions, the more likely it is that the information will be recalled. will be recalled.

CONTEXT-DEPENDENT CUESCONTEXT-DEPENDENT CUES

Why is it that police investigating a crime may take Why is it that police investigating a crime may take an eyewitness back to the crime scene, particularly an eyewitness back to the crime scene, particularly if the witness is having some trouble recalling some if the witness is having some trouble recalling some of the details of what they saw which are critical to of the details of what they saw which are critical to the investigation?the investigation?

The answer is based on research findings that cues The answer is based on research findings that cues in the environment may be important in helping to in the environment may be important in helping to locate and retrieve related memories. locate and retrieve related memories.

Context-dependent cues Context-dependent cues are environmental cues are environmental cues in the specific context (setting) where a memory was in the specific context (setting) where a memory was formed, which act as retrieval cues to help access formed, which act as retrieval cues to help access the memories formed in that context.the memories formed in that context.

These cues may include the sights, sounds and These cues may include the sights, sounds and smells within the specific situation. smells within the specific situation.

The context dependency of certain memories helps The context dependency of certain memories helps explain why an eyewitness may recall apparently explain why an eyewitness may recall apparently forgotten information about a crime when they return forgotten information about a crime when they return to the scene of the crime. to the scene of the crime.

STATE-DEPENDENT CUESSTATE-DEPENDENT CUES

State-dependent cues State-dependent cues are associated with an are associated with an individual’s internal physiological and/or psychological individual’s internal physiological and/or psychological state at the time the memory was formed, which act as state at the time the memory was formed, which act as retrieval cues to help access those memories. retrieval cues to help access those memories.

It seems that taking a drug can produce an internal It seems that taking a drug can produce an internal state with unique psychological and physiological state with unique psychological and physiological characteristics, aspects of which may become encoded characteristics, aspects of which may become encoded with new memories. with new memories.

At a later point, the same internal state can provide At a later point, the same internal state can provide additional retrieval cues that assist recovery of additional retrieval cues that assist recovery of information from memory.information from memory.

Your mood also provides state-dependent cues. Your mood also provides state-dependent cues.

We seem to associate good or bad events with their We seem to associate good or bad events with their accompanying emotional state.accompanying emotional state.

This means that our emotional state becomes a This means that our emotional state becomes a retrieval cue when we feel good or bad again, and retrieval cue when we feel good or bad again, and they trigger memories that are consistent with the they trigger memories that are consistent with the mood.mood.

However, when we are happy, happy events are However, when we are happy, happy events are recalled; but when we feel down, our minds can recalled; but when we feel down, our minds can become flooded with sad or negative events of the become flooded with sad or negative events of the past which in turn darken our interpretations of past which in turn darken our interpretations of current events. current events.

MNEMONIC DEVICESMNEMONIC DEVICES

Techniques for enhancing or improving memory are Techniques for enhancing or improving memory are known as known as mnemonic devicesmnemonic devices. .

A mnemonic device is any internal strategy or A mnemonic device is any internal strategy or method that makes it easier to encode, store or method that makes it easier to encode, store or retrieve information.retrieve information.

Mnemonic devices may be visual or verbal, and they Mnemonic devices may be visual or verbal, and they generally impose some sort of organisation on the generally impose some sort of organisation on the material to be remembered. material to be remembered.

Mnemonic strategies are always entirely internal. Mnemonic strategies are always entirely internal. Memory aids such as writing a shopping list are not Memory aids such as writing a shopping list are not mnemonic strategies because they rely on external mnemonic strategies because they rely on external items (in this case a pen and paper). items (in this case a pen and paper).

AcronymsAcronyms AcrosticsAcrostics Peg word methodPeg word method Narrative chainingNarrative chaining Method of lociMethod of loci

AcronymsAcronyms AcronymsAcronyms involve using the first letter of involve using the first letter of

each word to be remembered to create a each word to be remembered to create a pronounceable word or name. E.g. pronounceable word or name. E.g. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome has Sudden Infant Death Syndrome has become the acronym SIDS. become the acronym SIDS.

The letters of the abbreviation act as a The letters of the abbreviation act as a retrieval cue. They are essentially a type retrieval cue. They are essentially a type of chunking. of chunking.

The abbreviation must be pronounceable. The abbreviation must be pronounceable.

AcrosticsAcrostics Acrostics Acrostics involve constructing a phrase or involve constructing a phrase or

sentence from words that begin with the sentence from words that begin with the first letter of each word of the information to first letter of each word of the information to be recalled. be recalled.

E.g. E, G, B, D, F are the names of the E.g. E, G, B, D, F are the names of the notes on the lines of the staff otherwise notes on the lines of the staff otherwise known as ‘Every Good Boy Deserves Fruit’. known as ‘Every Good Boy Deserves Fruit’.

Acrostics can be useful when trying to Acrostics can be useful when trying to remember information in a sequence.remember information in a sequence.

Peg-word methodPeg-word method The The peg-word methodpeg-word method uses an easily uses an easily

remembered rhyme to visually associate items remembered rhyme to visually associate items to be remembered. to be remembered.

E.g. pg 405. E.g. pg 405. When recalling the information you recite the When recalling the information you recite the

rhyme and the words that are associated with rhyme and the words that are associated with each line can be recalled. each line can be recalled.

This method is more effective when the rhyming This method is more effective when the rhyming word and the item to be remembered can be word and the item to be remembered can be linked. linked.

This is generally a two step process:This is generally a two step process:

1.1. Memorise key words that can be Memorise key words that can be associated with numbers (one-bun)associated with numbers (one-bun)

2.2. Create an image of the items you need to Create an image of the items you need to remember with key words. remember with key words.

E.g.E.g.

One – bunOne – bun

Two – shoeTwo – shoe

Three – treeThree – tree

Four – sawFour – saw

Five – hiveFive – hive

Your shopping list must include:-Toothpaste-Oranges-Ham-Yoghurt-Eggs

NARRATIVE CHAININGNARRATIVE CHAINING

Narrative chainingNarrative chaining links unrelated items to create a links unrelated items to create a story-like sequence of events. story-like sequence of events.

Construct a story that involves the following Construct a story that involves the following items in the order in which they appear here:items in the order in which they appear here:

Sunscreen, cereal, soup, chocolate, butter, English Sunscreen, cereal, soup, chocolate, butter, English muffins. muffins.

For example in a study using this method For example in a study using this method participants showed that on average those who participants showed that on average those who used narrative chaining remembered 93% of words used narrative chaining remembered 93% of words learnt and those who used no method remembered learnt and those who used no method remembered only 13%. only 13%.

METHOD OF LOCIMETHOD OF LOCI

The The method of locimethod of loci is a mnemonic that relies on the is a mnemonic that relies on the use of a well-learned pathway with distinct locations use of a well-learned pathway with distinct locations that can be associated with the items to be that can be associated with the items to be remembered. remembered.

To use the method of loci, you need to recall a To use the method of loci, you need to recall a sequence of distinct locations and associate them sequence of distinct locations and associate them with each word to be remembered. with each word to be remembered.

Imagine yourself walking through a house and Imagine yourself walking through a house and associate each word on a list with an item in each associate each word on a list with an item in each room. room.

When you need to recall a list of words, imagine When you need to recall a list of words, imagine yourself revisiting the house and walking through yourself revisiting the house and walking through the same rooms-this will probably cause you to the same rooms-this will probably cause you to remember the word you associated with each remember the word you associated with each location. location.

Experimental investigation of the method of loci has Experimental investigation of the method of loci has found that participants more than doubled the found that participants more than doubled the number of words they were able to recall when number of words they were able to recall when using the method of loci, compared to when relying using the method of loci, compared to when relying on free recall. on free recall.