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ASSESSING THE IMPACTSOF CLIMATE CHANGE ONFOOD SECURITY IN THECANADIAN ARCTIC

PREPARED BY GRID-ARENDAL MARCH 2009STEPHANIE MEAKIN AND TIINA KURVITS


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The authors would like to acknowledgethe assistance o Cassie Bott or herhelp in developing this report.

Assessing the Impacts o Climate

Change on Food Security in the

Canadian Arctic

Prepared by GRID-Arendal (StephanieMeakin and Tiina Kurvits) or Indian and

Northern Aairs Canada, March 2009

Frozen turkey in grocery store, Arctic Bay, Nunavut


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The right to ood, as one specifcaspect o a worthy standard o living,

is a undamental human right. Tolive a healthy and productive lie,however, the right to ood mustinclude a reliable supply o ood.

This concept is known as oodsecurity.

5 INTRODUCTION 6 DEFINING THE SCOPE OF THE STUDY THE CANADIAN NORTH 10 FOODSECURITY AND THE IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE10 FOOD SECURITY / INSECURITY12 CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN THE CANADIAN ARCTIC 15 CLIMATE CHANGE ANDFOOD SECURITY IN THE CANADIAN ARCTIC 19 HEALTH EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH FOODSECURITY ISSUES 21 GLOBAL FOOD SCARCITY 23 RESPONSES TO FOOD SECURITYISSUES PROTECTING CANADIAN ARCTIC FOOD SECURITY THROUGH ADAPTATION TO

CLIMATE CHANGE23 RESILIENCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE AND FOOD SECURITY ISSUES 26STRENGTHENING RESILIENCE AND MANAGING CHANGE 27 THE WAY FORWARD28A GLOBALPERSPECTIVE 32 STRENGTHENING RESILIENCE AND MANAGING CHANGE 33 WORKSHOPOUTLINE 34 REFERENCES 37 APPENDICES39 APPENDIX 1. THE ANCHORAGE DECLARATION41 APPENDIX 2. DECLARATION OF ATITLN

ASSESSING THE IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGEON FOOD SECURITY IN THE CANADIAN ARCTIC


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All the other impacts o climate change

rising sea levels, bigger hurricanes

and storm surges, the migration towards

the pole o diseases now confned to the

tropics will arrive on schedule or beore,

but nothing matters as much to human

beings as the ood supply.

Gwynne Dyer,2008


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IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON FOOD SECURITY IN THE CANADIAN ARCTIC

Canada is internationally recognized as an

economically wealthy and progressive country.Hunger is not an image that many associate with aG8 country that so oten ranks at the very highestlevels o the United Nations Human DevelopmentIndex. However, hunger continues to be a regularoccurrence or many Canadians, especially thosewho ace poverty, and or those who live in veryisolated communities where access and the highcost o living is a daily reality.

I there are two global issues that have comeinto avour in the last decade it would have to be

climate change and ood security. Food security,like climate change, is a multi-aceted issue. It isaected not only by obvious inuences such asclimate and weather but also by oil and commodityprices, trade and social policies, global politics,and population growth, to name just a ew. Bringingthe two together to determine how climate changemay impact ood security is complex. Sir NicholasStern recognized this when he wrote in his 2007landmark analysis, The Economics o ClimateChange, Climate change will have a wide rangeo eects on the environment, which could haveknock-on consequences or ood production. Thecombined eect o several actors could be verydamaging. The impacts o climate change on oodsecurity is a vital challenge and a particularly criticalone or vulnerable regions such as the Arctic.

The recent ood security crisis can be attributedto many actors. The last two years, however, haveseen the convergence o critical global occurrencesthat have in essence produced a perect storm thatwill ultimately see the Arctic and world ood crisis

worsen. In light o this it is becoming increasinglydifcult to maintain ood security in a world beset bya conuence o peak phenomena: peak oil prices,peak water scarcity, peak grain prices, and peakfsh exploitation. Combined with the global fnancialcrisis, global warming, and an explosion in world

population, humanity may well be on the verge o a

great ood security crisis.

It is generally accepted that the term ood securitymeans, in simplest terms, access to nutritiousood. The health and well-being o Northerners,and, especially o Arctic indigenous peoples, aredirectly linked to ood security and in particular,their relationship to customary country oodwhich encompasses community sharing, culturalcontinuity, and intergenerational communication.

The Arctic, being on the rontlines o climate

change, will be orced to address ood securitysooner than other regions o Canada and manyother areas o the world. How the Arctic respondsto this crisis may well provide valuable directionsto others and by participating in programs such asMany Strong Voices, the Arctic can work togetherwith other vulnerable or remote communities to fndsolutions to the ood security challenge.

As politicians begin to recognize the holisticnature o global environmental phenomena andthe impacts o policy decisions, the connectionbetween climate change, mitigation and oodsecurity has become a priority issue. We seenow the debate over the eorts to mitigate CO2emissions by converting ood crops to biouelsand the eects that might be having on the globalood supply. Similarly, more concerns are beingexpressed over the impacts o the changing climateon the ability to grow ood in certain regions o thecountry or to harvest ood rom the land.

Food security is a vast and complex topic, standing

at the intersection o many disciplines. This paperwill briey touch upon the myriad o inuencingactors, examining the impacts o climate changeon ood security in the Canadian Arctic and howit compares to other global regions, and consideroptions or maintaining ood security.

Box 1. Many Strong Voices Linking the Arctic and Small Island Developing States

The Arctic and Small Island Developing States (SIDS) share both vulnerability and resilience characteristics thatmake these disparate regions natural allies in the struggle against climate change. The Many Strong Voices (MSV)Programme, coordinated by UNEP/GRID-Arendal, helps build creative partnerships between communities in the

Arctic and SIDS ocusing on three inter-connected objectives: research, capacity building, and communication(http://www.manystrongvoices.org). It ocuses on incorporating climate change adaptation into community planningand decision-making, and attempts to link local knowledge and scientifc research to support community adaptationplanning. Food security was as an important issue at an MSV workshop held in Washington, D.C. in March 2009.

INTRODUCTION


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Food security is an all too common reality in Canadiannorthern communities. The challenges o sustainingproper nutrition and o accessing sufcient, healthyood robs northern communities o their potential,impacts their development, and places hardships onthe most vulnerable community members.

Understanding and addressing ood security is

difcult due to its complex and multidimensionalnature. Some actors are local, while others areregional, national, and global. Hence, a part odialoguing issues and solutions requires theinvolvement o a range o stakeholders who playvarious roles at dierent levels in the process oproviding ood and ood inormation to a community.

Northern communities, however, ace morechallenges to attaining ood security thanthose aced by more southern and developedcommunities in Canada. High transportation

costs, high ood costs, ood quality, communityremoteness, increasing dependency on southernoods, lack o dietary awareness, lack o economicopportunities and employment, the increasingchallenges and costs o wildlie harvesting theseactors and others contribute to increasing concernsover the level o ood security in the North.

While ood security in the North has been a concernto governments, health agencies, and non-government organizations or the past two decades,there are indications that recent developing trends

in both the North and globally are exacerbating thesituation and threaten to hasten the erosion o oodsecurity in the near uture.

In order to understand and address this challenge,there is a strong need or stakeholders to moveorward to build a strategy and establish actionplans to eectively monitor ood security and to take

steps to increase the access o northern amiliesto sufcient amounts o healthy, appropriate, andsecure ood sources in the North. In context, oodsources or northern communities include both storebought oods and harvested country oods.

STUDY OBJECTIVEThe objective o this study is to provide apreliminary assessment o the impacts o climatechange on ood security in the Canadian Arctic,examining the scope o the issue in this region,comparing it with experiences in other vulnerable

regions, and providing a baseline or action. Theinormation gathered in the study will provide thebackground or a workshop on Arctic ood security,tentatively proposed or FY 20092010, which willbring together dierent interests in the feld o oodsecurity to examine the issue in greater detail withthe aim o identiying actions to help communitiesand governments respond to the eects o climatechange on ood security.

The paper aims to address the ollowing threequestions regarding the current state o ood security

in the Canadian Arctic. These questions mayalso provide the basis or an Arctic Food SecurityConerence.

Where are the gaps in knowledge and actionwith respect to the challenge that climate changeposes or Arctic ood security?

What needs to be done to ensure acomprehensive, interdisciplinary, and multi-stakeholder approach to achieving ood securityin the Arctic?

What modalities are required or a long-term andsustained approach to addressing ood securityin the Arctic?

DEFINING THE SCOPE OF THESTUDY THE CANADIAN NORTH

Inuvialuit

Nunavut

Nunavik

Nunatsiavut


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IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON FOOD SECURITY IN THE CANADIAN ARCTIC 7

GEOGRAPHIC SCOPE OF STUDYA common defnition o Canadas North used in thispaper includes the three territorial administrativeregions north o 60 latitude (Yukon, NorthwestTerritories, and Nunavut) as well as the region oNunavik, north o 55 in the province o Qubecand the Inuit settlement region o Nunatsiavutwithin Labrador. The latter two regions comprise

communities with large Aboriginal populations andshare many biogeographic characteristics withthe territorial Arctic. Together, this region coversapproximately 60% o Canadas landmass.

The vast coastline, islands, and permanentmultiyear ice ound in Canadas North are rich ingeography and biodiversity. The diversity o theregions ecosystems, climate, and cultures ormsa socio-ecologic collage across the top o thecountry. Communities are spread along Canadasnorthern coastline and interior, and the land and sea

provide northern residents with a primary source onutrition and orm a central part o their livelihoodsand cultures (Van Oostdam et al. 2005).

Caribou is an essential part o the northern indigenous

peoples diet. Apart rom the meat, many other partsare edible, including the stomach contents and even

the hooves. Caribou-skin clothing is unsurpassed or

lightweight warmth in extreme cold.


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Northerners have witnessed prooundenvironmental, social, political, and economicchanges in recent decades (Wonders 2003).Research on both contaminants and climate changehas uncovered what many northerners have knownor some time: the Arctic environment is stressedand irreversible changes are occurring to it. At the

same time, many communities are transitioningeconomically, having become more permanent thanthey were 40 years ago. Many communities nowhave a mixed economy o traditional or land-basedactivities and wage employment, with many o thesenow associated with large-scale development onon-renewable natural resources (e.g., mining).

Just over hal o the approximately 100,000 northernresidents are Aboriginal and belong to distinctcultural groups including the Yukon First Nations(Yukon), Dene, Mtis and Gwichin (Northwest

Territories), and Inuit (Nunavut, Nunavik, the newInuit land claim area o Nunatsiavut within the regiono Labrador, and the Inuvialuit Settlement Region othe Northwest Territories). Many o the communitiesare characterized by an increasingly young andrapidly growing population: 54% o the populationo Nunavut is less than 15 years o age comparedwith the national average o 25% (Statistics Canada2006). The non-aboriginal population is made up onorthern born multi-ethnic populations and migrationo southern Canadians and others to the north.

Many northern communities still experience lowerhealth status than their southern counterparts. Lieexpectancy, or example, among Aboriginal peoplein some regions, such as Nunavik, is as much as 12years lower than the national average or both sexes(Statistics Canada 2001). In addition, many remotecommunities are challenged by limited access tohealth services, lower than average socioeconomicstatus, crowding and poor-quality housing, andconcerns regarding basic services such as drinkingwater quality (Statistics Canada 2001).

Despite these challenges, all northern culturesretain a close relationship with the environmentand a strong knowledge base o their regionalsurroundings. Even today, the environment and thecountry oods that come rom the land, lakes, rivers,and sea remain central to the way o lie, culturalidentity, and health o northern Aboriginal people(Van Oostdam et al. 2005). More than 70% onorthern Aboriginal adults harvest natural resourcesthrough hunting and fshing and o those, more than96% do so or subsistence purposes (StatisticsCanada 2006). This strong relationship with their

environment plays a critical role in the ability onorthern Aboriginal peoples to observe, detect, andanticipate changes in their natural environment andto contribute to their community ood security.

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IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON FOOD SECURITY IN THE CANADIAN ARCTIC10

Food security is defned by the Food and AgricultureOrganization o the United Nations as, when allpeople, at all times, have physical, social, and

economic access to sufcient, sae, and nutritiousood that meets their dietary and ood preerences oran active and healthy lie, (FAO 1996). A householdis considered ood secure when its occupants do notlive in hunger or ear o starvation. The United NationsFood and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defnes theour aspects o ood security as ollows:

Food availabilityis determined by the physicalquantities o ood that are produced, stored,processed, distributed, and exchanged.Food accessibilityis the ability to secure the

resources (including legal, political, economic,and social) to access ood.Food use reers to how ood is used and howpeople secure essential nutrients rom ood andincludes the nutritional value o the diet, socialvalues o oods, and the quality and saety o theood supply.Food system stability or sustainability isdetermined by the temporal availability o, andaccess to, ood (FAO 2008).

Food security in Canada is defned as the

requirement o adequate amounts o sae, nutritious,culturally acceptable ood, accessible to all in adignifed and aordable manner (Koc & MacRae2001). For residents o the Canadian Arctic, theready availability o nutritious oods, and an assuredability to acquire personally acceptable oods, playsan essential role in meeting psycho-social andphysiological needs (Campbell 1997).

FOOD INSECURITYFood insecurity has been described as acondition in which people lack basic ood intake

to provide them with the energy and nutrients orully productive lives, (Hunger Task Force, 2008).Impacts rom ood insecurity include a broad rangeo direct health issues including diabetes, cardio-

vascular problems and generally compromisedhealth or individuals. Social impacts includeincreased tension in households, increased

lethargy, poor school perormance, and a rangeo other social ills. Together, these actors inhibitthe development o healthy, active and productivecommunities and citizens. (ITK, Food SecurityWorkshop, 2007).

The State o Food Insecurity in the World 2008states that the poorest, landless, and emale-headed households are the hardest hit byincreasing ood prices (FAO 2008). It gives tworeasons or this:

women tend to spend proportionally more on

ood than male-headed households so are hitharder by price increaseswomen ace a variety o gender-specifcobstacles that limit their ability to produce moreood and so beneft rom higher ood prices.

The report was looking at data rom Albania,Bangladesh, Ghana, Guatemala Malawi, Nicaragua,Pakistan, Tajikistan, and Viet Nam. In the Arctic 50%o households are headed by women.

Box 2. Food Security Defnitions

Two commonly used defnitions o ood security comerom the UNs Food and Agriculture Organization(FAO) and the United States Department oAgriculture (USDA):

Food security exists when all people, at all times, havephysical and economic access to sufcient, sae andnutritious ood to meet their dietary needs and oodpreerences or an active and healthy lie. (FAO)Food security or a household means access by allmembers at all times to enough ood or an active,healthy lie. Food security includes at a minimum (1)the ready availability o nutritionally adequate and sae

oods, and (2) an assured ability to acquire acceptableoods in socially acceptable ways (that is, withoutresorting to emergency ood supplies, scavenging,stealing, or other coping strategies). (USDA)

FOOD SECURITYAND THE IMPACTS OFCLIMATE CHANGEFOOD SECURITY / INSECURITY


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and Newoundland and Labrador 15%; Alberta,Saskatchewan, Nova Scotia and British Columbia17%; Yukon 21%; Northwest Territory 28%;Nunavut 56%. The situation is not improving:the 2007 census reported 71% o households inNunavut as being ood insecure.

The cost o a healthy ood basket in some Inuitcommunities is at least two times higher than acomparable basket in southern Canada (Indian andNorthern Aairs Canada 2008b) while incomes orInuit are much lower. In 2005, the median incomeor the total population o Canada aged 15 andover was $25,615 compared to $16,970 or Inuit(Statistics Canada 2006). In addition, the cost oclothing and other products is higher in the Arcticwhich urther contributes to poverty (Bernard 2006).

The average cost o a total ood basket1

in the northis as ollows:

Labrador and NunatsiavutNunavikNunavutNWTYukonOttawa

The 2006 Aboriginal Peoples Survey showed that30% o Inuit children in Canada had experienced

hunger at some point because the amily had runout o ood or money to buy ood. In Nunavut,nearly our in 10 (39%) Inuit children aged 6 to 14had experienced hunger. One-third (33%) o Inuitchildren in Nunavik and 30% in Nunatsiavut hadbeen hungry because the amily had run out oood or money to buy ood. Figures were lowerin the Inuvialuit Region (12%) and outside InuitNunaat (8%). Nationally, among Inuit children whohad experienced hunger, this was not a regular

Box 3. World Food Prices

The years 20072008 saw dramatic increases in worldood prices, creating a global crisis and causing politicaland economical instability and social unrest in bothpoor and developed nations. Systemic causes or the

worldwide increases in ood prices continue to be thesubject o debate. Initial causes o the late 2006 pricespikes included unseasonable droughts in grain-producing nations and rising oil prices. Oil prices urtherheightened the costs o ertilizers, ood transport, andindustrial agriculture. Other causes may be the increasinguse o biouels in developed countries and an increasingdemand or a more varied diet across the expandingmiddle-class populations o Asia. These actors, coupledwith alling world-ood stockpiles have all contributed tothe dramatic worldwide rise in ood prices. Long-termcauses remain a topic o debate. These may includestructural changes in trade and agricultural production,agricultural price supports and subsidies in developed

nations, diversions o ood commodities to high inputoods and uel, commodity market speculation, andclimate change. As o 2009, ood prices have allensignifcantly rom their earlier highs, although someobservers believe this decrease may be temporary.

$146.00196.00$222.00244.00$275.00322.00$159.00343.00$163.00388.00$166.00

1. Cost is or 2006 unless otherwise indicated. The Northern Food

Basket is comprised o 46 items, based on Agriculture CanadasThrity Nutritious Food Basket used to monitor cost o a nutritiousdiet or a lower-income reerence amily o our (a girl 79 years,a boy 1315 years, and a man and woman 2549 years o age).Source: Indian and Northern Aairs Canada (INAC), 2007.

Food insecurity in Canada is strongly associated,although not exclusively so, with low householdincome, according to Statistics Canada (2001). One-third o people residing in low-income householdsreported some orm o ood insecurity in 1998/99and almost as many people reported that they elt

their diet had been compromised (The Daily 2001).Approximately 58 % o households relying on socialassistance reported ood insecurity.

The FAO has examined the impact o high oodprices on household welare. The empiricalanalysis described in this section shows that, inthe short term, the vast majority o poor urban andrural households are hit hardest by higher prices.Among the poor, it is the landless and emale-headed households that are most vulnerable tosharp rises in basic ood prices. The 2000/2001

Canadian Community Health Survey reported theollowing statistics indicating the percentage o thepopulation ood insecure: PEI and Ontario 13%;Quebec 14%; Manitoba 14.7%; New Brunswick

Nutrition is an input to and oundation

or health and developmentbetter

nutrition means stronger immune

systems, less illness and better health.

Healthy children learn better

World Health Organization,2007


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occurrence or one-third (33%). In addition, or13%, this happened every ew months. However, or24%, it happened regularly at the end o the monthwhile an additional 21% had experienced hungermore than once a month (APS 2006).

Worldwide around 852 million people are

chronically hungry due to extreme poverty,while up to 2 billion people lack ood security

intermittently due to varying degrees o poverty(FAO, 2003). As o late 2007, increased arming oruse in biouels, world oil prices at more than $100a barrel, global population growth, climate change,loss o agricultural land to residential and industrialdevelopment, and growing consumer demandin China and India have pushed up the price o

grain. 2008 saw unprecedented ood riots in manycountries across the world.

Box 4. Food or Fuel

Lester Brown, President o the Earth Policy Institute and ounder o the Worldwatch Institute think tank, said in 2008:The competition or grain between the worlds 800 million motorists, who want to maintain their mobility, and its 2billion poorest people, who are simply trying to survive, is emerging as an epic issue. In 2007, US armers distortedthe world market or cereals by growing 14 m tonnes, or 20% o the whole maize crop, or ethanol or vehicles. Thistook millions o hectares o land out o ood production and nearly doubled the price o maize. In 2008, ormer USPresident George W. Bush called or steep increases in ethanol production as part o plans to reduce petrol demandby 20% by 2017. Yet Brown (2009) writes that ``even i the entire U.S. grain harvest were diverted into making

ethanol, it would meet at most 18 percent o U.S. automotive uel needs. The grain required to fll a 25-gallon SUVtank with ethanol could eed one person or a year.

Maize is a staple ood in many countries which import rom the US, including Japan, Egypt, and Mexico. USexports are 70% o the world total, and are used widely or animal eed. Shortages in maize have disruptedlivestock and poultry industries worldwide. The use o ood as a source o uel may have serious implications orthe demand or ood i the expansion o biouels continues, reports the International Monetary Fund. The outlookis widely expected to worsen as agro-industries prepare to switch to highly proftable biouels. Research by Grain,a Barcelona-based ood resources group, suggests that the Indian government is committed to planting 14 millionhectares (35 million acres) o land with jatropha, an exotic bush rom which biodiesel can be manuactured. Brazilintends to grow 120m hectares or biouels, and Arica as much as 400m hectares in the next ew years. Mucho the growth, the countries say, would be on unproductive land, but many millions o people are expected to beorced o the land. In a similar vein, Oxam has warned the EU that its policy o substituting 10% o all car uelwith biouels threatens to displace poor armers.

The Canadian North warrants particular attentionwith respect to climate change or a number

o reasons. Despite a small and dispersedpopulation, the circumpolar Arctic is recognized asbeing an increasingly signifcant region in globalenvironmental, political, and economic systems,much o this driven by the warming climate. TheArctic regions are important or global climateregulation and because they provide extensive areasthat remain wild and relatively unaected by humanactivities; these regions serve as critical areas ormany culturally and otherwise important migratoryspecies that are important components o globalbiodiversity (Chapin et al. 2005). The increasing

level o mineral exploration and extraction activities,the signifcant but as yet unharnessed oil and gasreserves, and the rising importance o northerndevelopment sites to global markets has increased

the importance o this region in the global economy.With warming and projected decreases in sea

ice cover and extent, and the potential increasedaccess and travel through the Northwest Passage inthe uture, the Canadian North is projected to garnersignifcant attention, and to undergo potentiallysignifcant urther and irreversible change.

The breadth o scientifc research on the Canadiannorthern environment has grown signifcantly inrecent decades. Scientifc research, monitoring, andobservations and the knowledge we have acquiredrom northerners (indigenous and non-indigenous)and scientists have resulted in an awareness that

changes are taking place.

Observed trends vary depending on the region andperiod analyzed. The western and central Arctic,

CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGEIN THE CANADIAN ARCTIC


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or example, has experienced a general warmingo approximately 23C over the past 3050 years(Weller et al. 2005). This warming is more pronouncedin winter months. It was not until the last 15 or soyears that this same warming trend, although notto the same extent, has been observed in easternregions o the Canadian Arctic. Observed impactsassociated with these changes include a signifcantthinning o sea- and reshwater ice, a shortening

o the winter ice season, reduction in snow cover,changes in wildlie and plant species distribution,melting permarost, and increased coastal erosion osome shorelines (Cohen 1997; Huntington and Fox2005; Ouranos 2004; Weller et al. 2005).

According to the Arctic Climate ImpactAssessment (ACIA) designated climate models,the predictions are or increased warming andprecipitation throughout the Canadian Arctic(ACIA 2005). Annual mean warming in the westis projected to range between 3 and 4C and

upwards o 7C in winter months. Winter warmingis expected to be greatest in the more centrallylocated areas o southern Bafn Island and HudsonBay (39C). A 30% increase in precipitation is

predicted by the end o the 21st century, with thegreatest increases occurring in areas o greatestwarming (Weller et al. 2005). The predicted impactson the environment, regional economies, andpeople are ar reaching. Recent research projectshave begun to identiy specifc local vulnerabilitiesand the risk management measures/adaptationstrategies that are already in place or that canbe planned (e.g., Berkes and Jolly 2002; Ford et

al. 2006; Nickels et al. 2002); however, very littleattention has been given to health impacts andadaptations in this region to date.

There is strong evidence that the CanadianArctic, like other circumpolar regions, is alreadyexperiencing changes in its climate (Huntingtonet al. 2005; McBean et al. 2005; Ouranos 2005;Bonsal and Prowse 2006). According to theACIA, over the past 30 to 50 years the westernand central Canadian Arctic have experienceda general warming, most dramatically during

winter months, o approximately 23C (Welleret al. 2005). Although signifcant cooling (1.0 to1.5C) was reported or the period o 19501998or the extreme northeast regions, warming is

Box . Assessing climate change in the Arctic

The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (ACIA) reportreleased in 2005 was the frst comprehensive review oclimate change science or the Arctic. The key fndingso ACIA included:

Arctic climate is now warming rapidly and muchlarger changes are projected.Arctic warming and its consequences haveworldwide implications.Arctic vegetation zones are projected to shit,bringing wide-ranging impacts.Animal species diversity, ranges, and distributionwill change.Many coastal communities and acilities aceincreasing exposure to storms.Reduced sea ice is very likely to increase marinetransport and access to resources.Thawing ground will disrupt transportation,

buildings, and other inrastructure.Indigenous communities are acing majoreconomic and cultural impacts.Elevated ultraviolet radiation levels will aectpeople, plants, and animals.Multiple inuences interact to cause impacts topeople and ecosystems (ACIA 2005).

The more recent 4th Assessment Report o theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCCAR4) concluded that warming o the climate isunequivocal and that most o the recent globalwarming is very likely due to anthropogenicgreenhouse gas emissions (IPCC 2007).

Box . Climate change in the Arctic the view since ACIA

Reports o the size and scope o ACIA and IPCC AR4can hardly keep up with the science and new fndingsare continually being released, changing projectionsor the Arctic. An update o climate impact sciencesince ACIA made three signifcant observations:

Arctic climate change impact trends described inACIA continue through the Arctic.While the science is improving or many o thesystems studied, none o the trends noted in ACIAwere ound to have reversed.Change is occurring on all Arctic system levels,impacting both physical and biological systems, aswell as human societies.

For several key Arctic systems, especially Arctic seaice and the Greenland Ice Sheet, recently observedchanges are happening at rates signifcantly asterthan predicted in previous assessments, includingACIA and IPCC AR4 (WWF 2008).

1.

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4.

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7.

8.

9.

10.

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now reported or recent years (Zhang et al.,2000). As well, community residents, Aboriginalhunters and Elders have reported signifcantwarming throughout the North in recent decades,corroborating the scientifc observations anddescribing the impacts these changes have alreadyhad (Huntington et al. 2005; Nickels et al. 2006).According to both scientifc measurements andlocal knowledge, these climatic changes have

led to signifcant decreases in the extent andthickness o winter sea ice throughout CanadianArctic waters, melting and destabilization opermarost, increased coastal erosion o low-lyingareas, and shits in the distribution and migratorybehaviour o some Arctic wildlie species. Thecurrent and uture implications o these changesor human communities in the North are ar-reaching. The complex changes in northern climateand environmental systems observed to daterequire greater understanding and involvement byindividuals and institutions to accurately assess the

impacts o these changes on the health o some oCanadas most vulnerable populations and to aid inthe development o eective adaptation strategiesto minimize risks to health in this region (Ford et al.2006; Furgal and Sguin 2006).

The increased pressures that polar regions areexperiencing imply that they are approaching criticalthresholds (such as thawing o permarost and

vegetation change), yet the exact timing and nature othese thresholds are not well known. Crossing thesethresholds will likely trigger a cascade o eects, withsignifcant impacts (some positive and some negative)on human health and well-being (Chapin et al. 2005).Northern communities and the northern public healthsystem may very well be a bellwether or vulnerablepopulations in other parts o Canada and the world.How communities are adapting to what is already

occurring may provide valuable knowledge to supportproactive adaptation in other regions.

Finally, there is a sense o environmental injustice inrelation to the issue o climate change and northernhealth. The Arctic regions are reported to be thefrst to experience climate change and its relatedimpacts, and these regions are where change maybe the greatest (Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange (IPCC) 2001). These regions are also wherelarge groups o Aboriginal people reside; they are stillinextricably tied to their local environments through

culture and tradition, and are reliant upon the naturalenvironment or many aspects o livelihoods, health,and well-being. Northern residents (and the regionsin which they live) are in general among the lowestproportional contributors to greenhouse gas (GHG)emissions in the country yet it is these populations,and particularly Aboriginal residents, who are themost exposed and potentially most vulnerable toclimate change health impacts in Canada.

Box 7. Global Climate Change Eects

According to the 2007 IPCC UN climate report, the Himalayan glaciers that are the principal dry-season watersources o Asias biggest rivers Ganges, Indus, Brahmaputra, Yangtze, Mekong, Salween, and Yellow coulddisappear by 2035 as temperatures rise. Approximately 2.4 billion people l ive in the drainage basin o the Himalayanrivers. India, China, Pakistan, Aghanistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Myanmar could experience oods ollowed bysevere droughts in coming decades. In India alone, the Ganges provides water or drinking and arming or morethan 500 million people. The west coast o North America, which gets much o its water rom glaciers in mountainranges such as the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada, also would be aected. In addition to loss o reshwaterrom melting glaciers, sea level is also reported to rise as climate changes progresses, reducing the amount o landavailable or agriculture and increasing saltwater intrusion, particular concerns or developing nations.

In other parts o the world a big eect will be low yields o grain according to the World Food Trade Model,specifcally in the low latitude regions where much o the developing world is located (FAO, 2006). As a result,

the price o grain will rise, along with the developing nations trying to grow the grain. For every 22.5% priceincrease, the number o hungry people will increase by 1%. In addition to low crop yields, the timing and lengtho the growing seasons is also expected to change dramatically due to unknown changes in soil temperature andmoisture conditions (USDA, 2006)


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Climate change poses a threat to country oodsecurity in northern regions because it inuencesanimal availability, human ability to accesswildlie, and the saety and quality o wildlie orconsumption. Decreased access to winter orage(lichen and other vegetation) as a result o harshwinter weather including heavy snow eventsand increased icing associated with temperaturevariability, and winter occurrence o reezing rain is

reported to be associated with signifcant animal die-os and a steep decline in the populations o somecentral and western Arctic caribou herds (Miller andGunn 2003; Harding 2004; Gunn et al. 2006; Tesar2007). Declines have been so severe in recent yearsthat managers are contemplating limiting the non-resident and non-Aboriginal harvest to protect herdsand support recoveries (Tesar 2007).

Residents rom both the Yukon (Beaver Creek)and the NWT (Deh Gah Gotie First Nation, FortProvidence) communities are witnessing changes in

climate that are aecting the availability o speciesand residents ability to access and harvest them,and hence likely their nutrient intake rom thesetraditional oods (Guyot et al. 2006). In some cases,residents are already having to shit or adaptharvesting activities and reduce their consumptiono some species, and in other cases, they areable to increase their take o other animals thatare moving into their region and becoming morecommon. Work conducted by Riedlinger (1999),Furgal et al. (2002), Ford et al. (2006), Nickels et al.(2006), and others, with Inuit residents throughout

the North, report similar results.

Lower water levels in rivers and ponds in Labradorwere reported to negatively impact access to andhealth o fsh species (Furgal et al. 2002; Communitieso Labrador et al. 2005). Higher winds aroundNunavut and Nunavik communities were reported tomake travel and hunting more difcult and dangerousby boat in the summer; thereore, opportunitiesor hunting seals and whales in open water werelimited (Ford et al. 2006; Nickels et al., 2006). In theInuvialuit Settlement Region, Nunavut, and Nunavik,

the increased length o the ice-ree season anddecreased ice thickness resulting rom warmingwinter temperatures was reported to reduce, andmake more dangerous, access to ice-dependent

wildlie species (e.g., ringed seal and polar bear) andother species commonly hunted rom the ice (e.g.,narwhal) (Ford et al. 2006; Nickels et al. 2006).

What these and other climate-related impacts to oodavailability and accessibility mean in terms o shitsin per capita consumption o wildlie species nutrientintake throughout Arctic communities is currentlya topic o signifcant study. In addition to providing

signifcant health benefts, country ood speciesare the most signifcant source o exposure toenvironmental contaminants, such as polychlorinatedbiphenyls, mercury, and lead, or northern residents(Van Oostdam et al. 2005). The uptake, transportand deposition o many o these contaminantsare inuenced by temperature. Thereore, climatewarming is likely to indirectly inuence humanexposure to these contaminants which, among othereects, are known to adversely aect immune andneuromotor unctioning in children (AMAP 2003;Desprs et al. 2005; Kraemer et al. 2005).

Further, Booth and Zeller (2005) reported thatprojected climate warming in the North Atlantic (0.41.0C) over the current century will increase rateso mercury methylation and hence concentrationsin marine species between 1.7% and 4.4%. Theseincreases could have implications or humanexposure via consumption o some fsh and marinemammals in these regions. Developing etusesand young mothers are those most vulnerableto contaminant exposure (Van Oostdam et al.2005). Currently, levels o exposure to mercury

and other contaminants among some segmentso the population in Nunavik and Nunavut exceedCanadian and international saety guidelines;advisories or consumption advice attempt to limitexposure (Van Oostdam et al. 2005).

COUNTRY/TRADITIONAL FOODSAboriginal residents maintain a strong and vitalconnection to the Arctic environment throughtraditional and subsistence activities o hunting,fshing and gathering a variety o animal and plantspecies. Many Northerners regularly harvest country

oods, i.e., 68% Inuit report harvesting countryoods. But or those amilies who cannot participatein harvesting activities, overpriced, store-boughtood is the alternative. The use o non-traditional

CLIMATE CHANGE AND FOODSECURITY IN THE CANADIAN

ARCTIC


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oods is causing fnancial and nutritional problemsor amilies. Some amilies cannot aord to eat; theGovernment o Canada has reported that 30% o

Inuit children go hungry (ITK 2008).

The traditional and cultural importance o hunting,fshing, and gathering activities distinguishesthem rom other northern residents. Country ood-related activities have crucial economic and dietaryimportance; they are also important in maintainingsocial relationships and cultural identity (Nuttall etal. 2005). Food items collected rom the land, sea,lakes, and rivers, continue to contribute signifcantamounts o protein to the total diet, and helpindividuals to meet or exceed daily requirements or

several vitamins and essential nutrients. In someinstances, they protect individuals rom some typeso cardiovascular disease and contaminant toxicity(Blanchet et al. 2000; Kuhnlein et al. 2000; VanOostdam et al. 2005).

Country ood still makes up a large percentage othe fsh and meat eaten by many northern amilies.In 2006, 65% o Inuit in Inuit Nunaat lived in homeswhere at least hal o the meat and fsh consumed wascountry ood. This was more common in Nunatsiavut(79%) than in the other regions: 66% in Nunavut

and the Inuvialuit Region and 59% in Nunavik. Thelower fgure or Nunavik could be aected by a largepercentage o people who responded dont know orwho did not provide a response (16%).

Dietary survey work conducted throughout theNorth with Yukon First Nations, Dene, Mtis, andInuit communities shows the extent o use o these

oods on a regular basis. In the Yukon, country oodconsumption contributed 50% or more o importantnutrients such as protein, iron, zinc, and vitaminB12 to First Nations residents diets (Receveur etal. 1997). Recently, the Regional Health Survey(CYFN 2006) reported similar results with mostrespondents (81% o adults, 72% o youth and65% o children). Similar results were obtained inDene and Mtis communities in the NWT wherecountry ood consumption was ound to contribute144g/day to the total diet among women and235g/day among men (Kuhnlein and Receveur

2001). As well, on days that country oods wereconsumed, individuals diets were healthier in termso saturated at, sugar, and carbohydrate intake.Among Inuit residents in the NWT, Nunavut, andNunatsiavut, similar levels o intake and contributionto nutrient and energy intake were reported. Thecontribution o these oods to total energy intakeranges rom 6% in communities close to regionalcentres, up to 40% in more remote communities(Kuhnlein and Receveur, 2001).

Despite their signifcance, northern populations are

shiting away rom country oods and increasing theamount o store-bought oods in their diet, as is beingexperienced in many other Aboriginal populations(Kuhnlein 1992; Wein and Freeman 1992). This is

EricL

orin

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especially the case or younger people and in thosecommunities with greater access to store-boughtoods (Receveur et al. 1997). This shit is resulting inan increased intake o carbohydrates and saturatedats, and is projected to change the incidence owestern-type diseases among this population in theuture (e.g., increased incidence o obesity, diabetes

and heart disease). Similar trends are being observedin many o the Small Island Developing States.

Market oodsThe consumption o market oods varies amongand within regions, communities, and households.For example, in Nunavik, the NWT, and the Yukon,market oods contribute a lower proportion o thetotal diet among Aboriginal residents, older agegroups, and those residents living urther roma regional centre (e.g., Yellowknie, Whitehorse,or Kuujjuaq) (Blanchet et al. 2000; Kuhnlein et al.

2000; Van Oostdam et al. 2005).

Currently, the consumption o recommended levelso market items such as ruit and vegetables isconsiderably lower among northern residents thanthe national average, and is lowest among residentso Nunavut (Statistics Canada 2005). In the NWT,males and older individuals were less likely toeat well, as defned by Canadas Food Guide toHealthy Eating, than others (GNWT 2005). However,a signifcant portion o total daily energy intake stillcomes rom market ood items in both Aboriginal

and non-Aboriginal diets across the North, andaccess to sae, healthy and nutritious market oodsare important or growth and development.

Changes in critical transportation inrastructurethroughout the North may inuence thetransportation o market ood, and thus aectits access and aordability in small, remotecommunities where many items are alreadyprohibitively expensive. Climate warming andwarming o permarost have negative implications orice roads, all-season roads, and airstrip security and

accessibility. Regional representatives to a TransportCanada (2003) workshop on climate change andtransportation reported that some signifcant impactsto transportation inrastructure were already present.

Work by Allard et al. (2002) in Nunavik, which has noroad network, reports the instability o airstrips as aresult o current permarost warming. Conversely, alonger open-water season with decreasing sea icecoverage and extent will provide greater boat accessto coastal communities throughout the year, andmake ship and barge transportation more viable.

Additionally, warming temperatures may increaseopportunities or local ood production in someregions, alleviating the potential stress o relying on

transportation networks with the south. Increasedsummer temperatures and growing periods in regionssuch as the western Arctic may enhance opportunitiesor small-scale northern agriculture; these may providean additional and potentially more cost-efcient localsource o oods than other sources that are otenexpensive and difcult to access in these northern

regions. Mills (cited in IPCC, 2001), or example,identifed signifcant areas (3957 million hectares) opotentially viable land or northern agriculture in thewestern Arctic under uture climate scenarios.

As a result o the complexities in understandingtrends and potential climate inuences on changesin total diet (both traditional and market oods), thecombined eects o climate change on ood securityand health are difcult to predict. They are inuencedby local availability and access actors, includingeconomic, technological, and political orces. They

also presuppose a strong understanding o what thelocal environment can provide and sustain in the wayo wildlie and other ood resources.

Migratory patterns o animalsClimate change has been inuencing the migratorypatterns o Arctic marine and land mammals inrecent decades. Inuit hunters have been adapting,but this adaptation has costs: more time and moneyis required to cover the distances needed to fndthe resources, and there are increases in personalrisk as the sea ice hunters travel on becomes more

ragile and unpredictable.

Box . Protecting ood sources throughecosystem-based management Alaskas

Arctic Fishery Management Plan

In February 2009, the North Pacifc Fishery ManagementCouncil adopted the new Arctic Fishery ManagementPlan (FMP), closing all ederal waters over 500,000square kilometres o the U.S. Arctic ExclusiveEconomic Zone to commercial fshing or any specieso fnfsh, molluscs, crustaceans, and all other ormso marine animal and plant lie (Hurst 2009, USDelegation to FAO Committee on Fisheries 2009). Thisaction was taken in direct response to the changesoccurring as a result o a warming climate, includingdeclining sea ice, warming ocean temperature, andthe long term eects o these changes may have onArctic marine ecosystems. There are indications thatsome commercial fsh stocks could extend their rangenorthwards as a result o a warming climate but there isa lack o scientifc knowledge about Arctic fsh stocksand how they could be aected by commercial fsheries.The Arctic FMP does contain provisions or the creationo a commercial fshery in the uture, once sufcientinormation is available on fsh stocks and ecological

relationships to properly manage a fshery in the uture.Taking a broader ecosystem view and prohibitingcommercial fsheries in the near term is intended to helpprotect this valuable ood source or the uture.


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Links to cultural securityFood security or Inuit is not simply reliable accessto nutritious ood. It is also strongly linked to culturalsecurity.

Food security goes beyond the mere satisaction o

physical needs it integrates the social and cultural

symbolism o ood, which determines what ood is and

which oods are appropriate or human consumption.

Inuit still partly derive their sel-worth, individually and

collectively, rom traditions associated with hunting,fshing, and gathering. More than a mere means

o obtaining the oodstus required or physical

survival, these practices represent an important

aspect o community integration. Activities related

to subsistence represent an important oundation

or the social and economic organization o Inuit

communities. (Thriault et al, 2007)

In Chukotka the deteriorating health o the reindeerherds is already aecting the value o reindeer productsrom the region. Historically, reindeer and products

rom Chukotka were prized or quality and strength,and people were willing to trade their most valuableitems or a good, pregnant, emale reindeer (vazhenka)or a sire. Now, there are insufcient numbers oherdsmen and veterinary surgeons to attend to thegrowing number o sickly and injured reindeer, andthere are no trained or qualifed frefghters in theregion, despite the rising number o tundra fres romincreased thunderstorms which is destroying thelimited and marginal pastures. Further, there are notenough modern actories or processing the productso reindeer breeding, which only adds to the challenge

o competing in a contemporary market. With thechallenges these pose, Chukotkans are fnding it hardto provide enough ood rom the land and without thecash economy, they cannot buy what they need.

Links to external actorsLocal ood security across the Arctic is aected bya range o external actors.

Economic actors

High cost o ood because o remoteness ocommunities.

High costs o uel and equipment to practice

subsistence economies, due to remote locationand high uel prices in general

Low incomes and limited job opportunitiesresult in insufcient resources to purchasestore-bought ood or uel to travel or hunting.

Climate change exacerbates economicproblems because in many cases it has becomenecessary to travel urther in order to obtainsufcient ood.

Political actors

USFWS listing o the polar bear as threatenedthroughout its range. This was brought on byinternational concerns over climate change, butruns roughshod over local Inuit needs.

EU seal ban. Though not aimed directly at Inuit,the ban in the 1980s had disastrous eectson Inuit communities and resulted in a surgingsuicide rate among young Inuit men whosehope or the uture plummeted.

Many indigenous peoples depend on hunting

polar bear, walrus, seals, and caribou, herding,

fshing and gathering, not only or ood and to

support the local economy but also as the basis

or cultural and social identity.

ACIA,p.93

Changes in the species ranges and availability,

access to these, a perceived reduction in weather

predictability, and travel saety in changing ice and

weather conditions present serious challenges to

human health and ood security, and possibly even

the survival o some cultures.ACIA,p.61


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eating traditional ood. Over the last 15 years agreat deal o research has been supported throughthe Northern Contaminants Program (NCP) oncontaminants in country ood. O interest here is theeect contaminants have had on the communityconfdence and perception o country ood saety.This perception o risk has led to the perceiveddecrease in consumption o country ood and this inturn can be linked to an increase in the consumptiono market oods and the subsequent health issues.The current consensus appears to recognize the

importance o maintaining or even promoting moreuse o traditional oods while actively improving thecharacterization o the health risk associated withcontaminant exposure, through research.

Climate change exacerbates the eect ocontaminants on human health in the ollowing ways:

By imposing added stresses on human health thatmay interact with contaminant stress to worsenhealth problems (stresses include new diseasesarising rom warmer climate (bacteria outbreaks,

new viruses or other pathogens, etc.)

By increasing contaminant transport and cyclingleading to higher contaminant levels in theatmosphere, in reshwater and oceanic oodwebs, and in top predators.

By enhancing toxicity o contaminants. Warmertemperatures, sunlight interactions, microbialactivities, and other actors may transormcontaminants and enhance their toxicity. Exampleso this include the transormation o the less toxic

inorganic mercury to its most toxic orm, methylmercury, and an increase in the photo-enhanced(up to 1000 times greater) toxicity o spilled oil as aresult o higher UV radiation.

Climate change also increases the input ocontaminants into the environment through theollowing climate-change-related occurrences:

Increased occurrence o orest fres, causingcontaminant emissions produced by combustion(such as polyaromatic hydrocarbons, PAHs);

Higher precipitation, which will wash outcontaminants rom air and deposit it into oceans,lakes, and soils;

Melting permarost and glaciers, which releasestored (locked-up) contaminants into theenvironment;

Increasing trafc and anthropogenic activitiesin the Arctic due to higher accessibility. Thismay include mining and drilling activities,transport/trafc, tourism and general populationincreases, all o which would lead to locallyincreased contaminant releases;

Spread o insect pests which may lead to anincrease in pesticide use

The potential expansion o agriculture to morenorthern areas which would also increaseertilizer and pesticide use.

Predicting how climate change will altercontaminant transport to the Canadian Northin the global environment remains a challenge.It requires detailed knowledge o the physicaland chemical properties o contaminants as well

as understanding o environmental pathwaysand how they might respond to changescaused, or example, by altered atmosphericgreenhouse gas composition. We presentlylack this depth o understanding. It is well-established, however, that dietary composition(e.g., marine vs. terrestrial, at vs. protein, oldfsh vs. young fsh) can determine the amountsand kinds o contaminants ingested. Dietarychanges can occur because o uctuations inthe populations o target species (e.g., beluga,bowhead whales, walrus, seals, bears, birds,

fsh, caribou, muskox) or by changes in access tothe species. Shiting rom lake trout to whitefsh,or example, will decrease the intake o mercurywhereas eating more marine mammals than landmammals will increase the intake o mercury andorganochlorines.

The research activities in this area require strongcommunity support as well as collaborationwith researchers rom diverse disciplines. Newparadigms are oten required to integrate thenewly generated inormation as well as translate

them into policy. It is hoped that the inormationcollected and the research results will help thecommunities increase their capability to developadaptation plans and health promotion programs.


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The global nature o climate change means thatArctic ood security cannot be considered inisolation o the issue elsewhere in the world.Much o the literature on ood security ocuses onlocal ood production, whether locally grown orharvested, yet or many vulnerable communitiesimported oods already are an signifcant part otheir diet and likely to become even more so inthe uture. As climate change impacts agriculture

around the world, these communities become evenmore vulnerable. As example, we can considerworld grain reserves, where ten years ago, therewas a 150 day reserve o grain in the world (Dyer2008). By 2007, this has been reduced to less than57 days (Dyer 2008; Lane 2008) and orecasts orthe uture show that we are heading or urtherdeclines (FAO 2008c). Grain production stalled inthe 1990s but the world population continued togrow and as a result, we have literally been eatinginto the reserves. As world temperatures continueto increase, world grain production will decrease.

With an increase o 2C in temperature, therewill be little or no international grain market let;most o the major grain exporters will not haveenough grain to export (Dyer 2008). The world hada oretaste o this scenario in 2008 when manyrice producing countries severely restricted riceexports to deal with shortages domestically withthe end result o spiralling costs and ood riots inmany countries.

This leads to the act that ood security cannot beconsidered in isolation o other global issues. The

year 2008 saw the convergence o three globalcrises: ood, uel, and fnancial. While these are nota direct impact o climate change, they will aectthe ability o individuals, communities, and nations

to respond to ood security issues that are broughtabout by climate change.

Food: Starting in 2006 and peaking in 2008, oodprices around the world soared orcing people inmany countries into hunger and causing riots in30 countries around the globe. While many actorscontributed to the crisis, the most signifcant wereextreme weather events in major cereal producingcountries and the resulting decline in yields andstocks; speculation in ood markets; growth in non-

ood crops, especially biouels; and high oil prices(Nellemann et al. 2009). Ater a century o relativelysteady decline, there was a 50200% increase inselected commodity prices in 2008. Even thoughworld oil prices have since declined sharply, oodprices remain higher than where they were at thestart o the crisis. It remains to be seen whether 2008was a momentary crisis or the start o a new trend inood prices although it is widely believed that the erao stable ood prices has come to an end.

Fuel: Coinciding with and contributing to the ood

crisis o 2008, was a surge in the cost o uel. Theprice o crude oil peaked at US$147 per barrelin July 2008 ater which it declined to US$43in December 2008 (Nellemann et al. 2009). Theprice o uel aects ertilizer use, ood production,distribution, and transportation, and ultimately,the price o ood. It is unreasonable to believe thatprices or this non-renewable resource will remainlow and indeed many believe that we are enteringor have entered into the period o peak oil, i.e., aglobal peak in oil production ater which the rate oproduction enters into a terminal decline. Already

subject to higher ood and transportation costs thanthe rest o Canada, the impact o higher uel costson isolated northern communities can be expectedto be severe.

Financial: Since mid-2008, the world has beenexperiencing an ever-expanding fnancial crisis o ascale and magnitude not witnessed in generations.The implications o this crisis are not yet ully realizedbut one o most proound eects on the Canadianeconomy to date has been on the value o theCanadian dollar. The dollar, driven by high oil prices,

reached a modern-day high o US$1.09 November2007 and remained over or near par with the USdollar until starting a rapid decline in all 2008. Itreached a low o US$0.77 in December 2008 and

GLOBAL FOOD SCARCITY

D.S. Batistti and R.L. Naylor,2009

Coping with the short-run challenge o ood

price volatility is daunting. But the longer-term

challenge o avoiding a perpetual ood crisis under

conditions o global warming is ar more serious.

History shows that extreme seasonal heat can be

detrimental to regional agricultural productivity

and human welare and to international

agricultural markets when policy-makers

intervene to secure domestic ood needs.


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as o late March 2009, the Canadian dollar is tradingaround US$0.80. The eects on ood security havebeen immediate, with the cost o ood rising acrossthe country. The Consumer Price Index in Canadarose 1.4% in the 12 months to February 2009,driven largely by increasing ood and shelter costs(Statistics Canada 2009). In the 12-month period to

February 2009, ood prices, the largest actor drivingup the CPI, rose 7.4% (Statistics Canada 2009).

The FAO has stated that to evaluate the impacts oclimate change on ood security, it is not enough toassess the impacts on domestic production in ood-insecure countries. One also needs to:

assess climate change impacts on oreignexchange earnings;determine the ability o ood-surplus countriesto increase their commercial exports o ood aid;and,analyse how the incomes o the poor will beaected by climate change, (FAO 2003).

The impacts o climate change on the global oodsystem will be varied and complex. The FAO hasidentifed a number o potential impacts, all owhich need to be taken into consideration whendeveloping adaptation strategies or the CanadianArctic (Table 1).

1.

2.

3.

Table 1. Potential impacts o climate change on ood systems and ood security (rom FAO 200b)

CO2 ertilization

eects

Increase in

global meantemperatures

Gradual changes

in precipitation

(increase in

the requency,

duration, and

intensity o dry

spells)

Gradual changes

in precipitation

(changes in timing,

location, and

amounts o rain

and snowall)

Impacts o

increase in the

requency and

intensity oextreme weather

events

Food availability

Increased oodproduction in majorexporting countrieswould contribute toglobal ood supply butthis could be negatedby diverting land romood to more valuablecash crops.

Reduced production

o ood crops andlivestock products inaected areas.Reduction in globalsupplies likely tocause market pricesto rise.

Declines in production.Pressure on grainreserves.Decrease in oodexports/increase inood imports.Increased need orood aid.

Likely impact onglobal supplies, trade,and world marketprices is not known.

Possible decrease insurplus production inooded agricultural

areas.Increased need oremergency distributiono ood rations.

Food accessibility

Increase in oodproduction wouldlimit price increaseon world marketsbut diversion oproductive assetsto other cash cropscould cause oodprices to rise.

Impacts on

incomes, prices,and aordabilityuncertain.Changes inpreerence uncertain.

Preerred ood notavailable or toocostly.

Full-cost pricing orwater may causeood prices to rise.

Possible increase inood prices.

Food use

Risk o ill health

rom eating oodthat is spoiled.

Dietary adjustmentswith dierentnutritional content.

Food saety iscompromised bywater pollution anddamage to storedood.

Ability o bodyto process oodreduced due to

diseases.

Food system stability

Higher cost or

storing grain andperishable products.

Greater instabilityo ood supply,ood prices, andagriculturally-basedincomes.

Greater instability oood supply and oodprices.


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Understanding, adapting, and responding to Arcticclimate change and the threat to ood security is a

challenge that requires the combined eorts o thescientifc community, civil society, governments,national, and even international organizations. Overthe past decades, much scientifc work has beendedicated to data collection and analysis in orderto understand the origins and processes o climatechange and to establish ood security baselines.

The Arctic represents a crucial region oenvironmental and social transormation due toclimate change. These transormations will impactthe entire planet, as ramifcations o change in the

ar north spread through the global networks oenvironmental, biological, cultural, economic, andpolitical interconnections. The changes currently

seen in the Arctic also serve as a orewarning owhat may occur in other global regions as climate

change advances. Lessons learnt now in the Arctic,about how to collaborate in monitoring, mobilising,and responding to climate change, may thereore beo crucial importance or other world regions.

Health data series and regional scale assessmentsin the Canadian North are limited. However,recent qualitative studies examining the potentialhealth impacts o environmental change providenew insights with which to ocus research andproactively develop response strategies. Theyshow the need or community participation in flling

inormation gaps and increasing our understandingo actors that enhance or inhibit adaptivecapabilities (Furgal et al. 2002; Nickels et al. 2002).

RESPONSES TO FOODSECURITY ISSUESPROTECTING CANADIAN ARCTICFOOD SECURITY THROUGH

ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE

RESILIENCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE

AND FOOD SECURITY ISSUESAdaptation strategies require a broad interdisciplinaryresponse. They must be rooted frmly in theknowledge-base o scientifc monitoring andassessment, which provides data on changes inclimate and their direct impacts on the physicalenvironment and the social and cultural environment.Also it is essential to understand how these changeswill impact on the network o Arctic biologicalsystems that sustain the vibrant country ood

harvest. Adaptation to climate change adds a social,economic, and cultural aspects as it encompassesthe ability o dierent societies to respond to thechallenges put beore them by climate change.

Examples o adaptive strategies rom northerncommunities has shown the inherently adaptive natureo northern society and northern Aboriginal culturesin general (Adger et al. 2003; Nickels et al. 2002;Reidlinger and Berkes 2001). However, the ability torespond varies among communities and regions andis inuenced by some common critical actors.

To maintain an adequate supply o traditional ood,

community members have had to alter their harvestmechanisms. It is clear that a commitment toprograms that will protect traditional ood systemsis necessary.


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UNDERSTANDING THE CAPACITY OF CANADASNORTHA number o examples o adaptive strategiesregarding ood security in place today indicate theinherently adaptive nature o northern communitiesand northern Aboriginal cultures in general (Adger etal. 2003; Nickels et al. 2002; Reidlinger and Berkes2001). However, the ability to respond varies amongcommunities and regions and is inuenced by somecommon critical actors.

The ability to overcome changes in access to oravailability o country ood resources, which areimportant or nutritional and sociocultural well-being, is signifcantly inuenced by an individualsaccess to economic resources and technology.The ability to invest more in the required toolsand equipment or hunting and traveling, or theaccess to other orms o transportation (e.g.,snow machine, our-wheel all terrain vehicle, atbottom or larger boat) allows individuals to adaptmore easily to changing environmental conditions

(Duhaime et al. 2002; Ford et al. 2006).

Similarly, the generation and sharing o local ortraditional knowledge o regional environmentsand the relationship between the environmentand humans urther support this ability to adaptwhile on the land and saely navigate increasinglydangerous and uncharacteristic conditions. Theability to shit species, alter hunting behaviors, andread environmental cues (e.g., weather prediction,ice saety) all increase hunting and travel saetyand success. The importance o this knowledge

is gaining recognition among scientifc and policycommunities (e.g., Huntington and Fox 2005);however, its generation is being challenged locallywith shits toward a more western liestyleinvolving more time spent in communities engagedin indoor wage-based economic activities and lesstime on the land (Chapin et al. 2005).

The support provided through institutional or ormalarrangements or aspects o traditional liestylesand health may become increasingly importantwith climate change in Arctic regions. As many

communities begin to represent more pluralisticsocieties in terms o livelihoods and liestyles,establishing country ood collection, storage, anddistribution programs, and economic support or the

pursuit o traditional activities become important inreducing the vulnerability to and enhancing adaptivecapabilities or climate-related changes. Alsoimportant is the ormalization o traditional knowledgedocumentation and sharing mechanisms through theestablishment o such things as community-basedice monitoring programs (Laortune et al. 2004).

Box 9. Nasivvik as a Partner

Nasivvik is an Inuktitut word that means vantage point.

It can be a height o land, a hummock o ice, or any

place o elevation that aords an observer a clear view

o their surroundings to make good observations.

Zebedee Nungak

Through a 1.475 million dollar grant rom the CanadianInstitutes o Health Research Institute o AboriginalPeoples Health (CIHRIAPH), a Centre is beingestablished or education, training and research onInuit Health and Changing Environments based atthe Public Health Research Unit, CHUL-CHUQ, LavalUniversity (Quebec). This Centre is one o many

being established in a network across the countryby IAPH (ACADRE Program: Aboriginal Capacity andDevelopmental Research Environments) to addressAboriginal health training and research needs.

Environmental changes infuence Inuit health in

the Canadian Arctic

Signifcant changes in the global environment have beenexperienced in the past decades as a result, in large part,o human activities. The contribution o environmentalactors to disease among the most vulnerablepopulations in the world has been roughly estimatedby the World Health Organization (WHO) to be between25% and 33% o the global burden o disease. Inuit in

the Canadian and circumpolar Arctic ace health issuesrelated to a variety o actors including the presence ocontaminants in the environment and wildlie and thedirect and indirect eects o climate and environmentalchange. Additionally, social, political, and economicactors related to Inuit health are rapidly evolving and anumber o complex issues ace an increasingly youngpopulation. Meanwhile, Inuit communities and regionsstrive or sel-determination and sel-reliance to directand address the issues that aect them. In lookingtowards the uture in Inuit communities, there is a needor capacity development and enhancement. To moverom health research or Inuit, to research with Inuit, and

ultimately to research by Inuit, signifcant eorts in theareas o training, education and research are needed toaddress the very important environmental health issuesacing Arctic populations today and in the uture.


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Warming temperatures and the potential orthe introduction o new water and ood-borneagents and permarost melting, threatens builtstructures in coastal communities, and basic publichealth inrastructures (e.g., water treatment anddistribution, emergency transportation).

The security o basic public health inrastructure insmall remote Arctic communities that are alreadychallenged regarding provision o some basic

services is a signifcant determinant o adaptiveability in the Arctic. Further, existing health statusissues in northern populations (e.g., nutritionaldefciencies, increasing rates o diabetes and somecancers associated with shits toward a morewestern diet and sedentary liestyle, and rates orespiratory illness) appear to be urther exacerbatedby changes in local climate.

The combination o environmental change, basichealth needs, limited economic choices, and shits

in northern society and liestyle appears to increasevulnerability and limit the ability o some Arcticcommunities to respond. When many o theseactors overlap and the population is already acingsome critical health and ood security issues, theimpact o climate change is greater because othe populations vulnerability (e.g., small remotecommunities, with a limited natural and economicresource base).

Aboriginal groups are uniquely adapted to itsgeography and local ecology, it is reasonableto speculate that each groups socio-ecologicresilience and adaptive capacity or health issuesis similarly unique. Observed climate changes,impacts, and response abilities o Yukon FirstNations living in the interior o the western Arcticlikely are very dierent rom those o the Inuitcommunities.

As in other regions o the world, enhancing adaptivecapacity can be regarded as a no regrets option

in the North, as it not only reduces vulnerability butalso improves immediate resilience to current daystresses (Yohe and Tol 2002). Strengthening accessand availability to country oods throughout theyear or communities or increasing public healtheducation associated with environmental causes onutrition and disease are such examples.

Establishing community reezer and distributionplans will help in addressing current nutritional andother ood issues as well as increase the capabilityo an individual to access sae and healthy oods

in the ace o environmental changes. Increasedknowledge and awareness o environmental causeso disease will address perceived risks and providevaluable inormation to empower individuals tocontinue to make healthy decisions.

This level o engagement and contribution isa signifcant advance in environmental healthimpact and vulnerability research. Despite theseadvances, research on climate, ood security, andhealth in the north is sparse (Berner and Furgal2005), and the identifcation o the impacts on local

populations and community adaptations is stillin its inancy thresholds and limits to adaptation(Berkes and Jolly 2002).

Box 10. Adapting subsistence-basedlivelihoods to climate change

One o the services now available to communities tohelp adapt their traditional liestyles to the changingclimate comes rom the Polar View program (http://www.grida.no/_res/site/fle/publications/PolarView-booklet_scr.pd). Polar View is an internationalconsortium o government agencies, researchinstitutes and service providers across Europeand Canada that oers integrated monitoring andorecasting services in polar and mid-latitude regionsaected by ice and snow. Three pilot services in

particular are benefting indigenous people and maybe part incorporated in a ood security strategy:

Floe Edge Monitoring Service satellite imageswhich show ice edge and zones o moving ice andland-ast ice enable Inuit residents to plan theirtravel saely across rozen sea.Reindeer Pastures Monitoring Service maps osnow extent and snow water equivalent in northernEurasia are used to help reindeer herders adapttheir seasonal activities and migration patterns.Lake Ice Monitoring Service satellite-basedmonitoring o lake ice distribution in Nunavik is being

integrated with traditional ecological knowledgeto improve the understanding o the impacts oclimate change on critical fsh habitat and assist withsustainable management o the fsheries.

1.

2.

3.


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STRENGTHENING RESILIENCEAND MANAGING CHANGE

In the Canadian Arctic, the debate is no longersolely about identiying and predicting eects oclimatic change but rather about what can andshould be done to adapt, as some communities arealready reporting impacts. This research ocuseson improving the understanding o the magnitudeand timing o the impacts o climate change, howindividuals and communities cope with current and

predicted changes, and what public institutionsshould do to actively support adaptation.

There is currently sparse inormation on theeectiveness o any current strategies or dealingwith climate-related or environmental risks tohealth and ood security in the Arctic and in otherareas o the country. Many Small Island DevelopingStates, on the other hand, have started undertakingcomprehensive assessments o the impacts oclimate change on ood security in their countries.The recently released Climate Change and Food

Security in Pacifc Island Countries presentscase studies or three countries and makesrecommendations or national strategies to mitigate,adapt, and respond to climate change on agricultureand ood security (FAO 2008d). Similar assessments

are underway in several other SIDS countries.Perhaps these countries are ahead o Canada withrespect to assessments because their need hasgreater with respect to ood security. Regardless,the lack o inormation or Canada is an importantgap in our understanding and ability to assess who,where, and when Canadians may be vulnerable tothe eects o climate change and ood security.

A signifcant component is the lack o an assessmento the Canadian health sectors ability at variouslevels and in various locations to cope with and planor the impacts o climate change. The cooperativeplanning, development, and conduct o projectsin Inuit communities bringing together scientists,northern environment, and health proessionals, andcommunity residents and experts, as presented here,has been essential to the success o the projectsdescribed in this article. The community-based,dialogue ocused approach has proven valuable

in engaging communities and establishing a localbaseline or understanding the changes, impacts,vulnerabilities, and the ability to respond at the localscale. Such an approach may very well prove useulin establishing this baseline in other regions.

Box 11. Food Mail

The Food Mail program o the Northern Air Stage Program has been administered by Indian and Northern AairsCanada (INAC) or many years now, in order to make healthy oods more available and aordable, improve nutritionand health, and supplement traditional oods (INAC 2001; INAC 2004). In 2000/01 ,INAC spent $22.5 million or FoodMail service approximately 61% was used to service Nunavut communities (INAC 2001; INAC 2004). As a result,the perishable part o the northern ood basket cost less in 2002 than in 1991. All northern communities which lackyear-round surace transportation access (except during brie reeze-up or break-up periods) are included in theprogram, and it can be used either by stores or by individuals, though most subsidized shipments go to stores.Through the Program, reduced postage rates are available or nutritious perishable oods such as resh and rozenmeat, vegetables, ruit, dairy products, eggs and some prepared oods containing such ingredients.

Currently, this rate is $0.80 per kilogram or perishable oods, and $2.15/kg or non-perishable and nonood items(INAC, n.d., Food Mail Brochure), with an additional charge o $0.75 per parcel. This also covers non-perishable oodssuch as canned ood, cereal and pasta, and essential non-ood items like clothing and cleaning supplies. Foods olittle nutritional value (pop, potato chips, candy), some convenience oods like ried chicken and prepared sandwiches,and tobacco and alcohol are not eligible. This rate is not available to northern country ood producers, sending oodto other northern communities, except now, as part o a new pilot project being tested in a ew communities. Onecountry ood entrepreneur in Iqaluit noted that he pays more or reight than he does or the actual fsh he buys rom

other communities fsheries. In reality, this means that communities urther rom Iqaluit than Pangnirtung are out o therunning or marketing their fsh catches. Current practices have the airlines giving lower reight rates rom the Bafncommunities to Ottawa than to Iqaluit, and even backhaul rates rom the communities to Iqaluit are higher than or thenorthward transport. Northern enterprises have an extra burden keeping them rom taking o.


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Studies on populations in Canadas North anda review o other recent research in the Arctic(e.g., ACIA 2005; Ford et al. 2006; Health Canada2003) identiy data gaps that need to be flled andmethods that need to be used to increase ourunderstanding o climate and health assessment,vulnerability, and the capacity to adapt in northernAboriginal communities. They include the ollowing:

Multiple-scale research and data.

Community-based assessments and systematicresearch must be conducted on the issues o climatechange impacts on ood security in the North andelsewhere in Canada. Local, regional, and nationallevels are interconnected in supporting and acilitatingaction on climate change, ood security and health;thus data at multiple levels and research that linkscales to understand these relationships are needed.Fine-scale meteorologic data is required in many

northern regions and must be collected in a way thatallows the data to be linked to existing and uturehealth data sets. Models o change and impact mustbe linked with currently used global change scenarios.

Quality, comparable, standardized data.

Innovative approaches to health, ood securityand climate assessments are needed and shouldconsider the role o sociocultural diversity presentamong Arctic communities. This requires bothqualitative and quantitative data and the collection

o long-term data sets on standard health outcomesat comparable temporal and spatial levels. Thesedata must include local observations and knowledgecollected using reliable and standardized methods.

Integrated, interdisciplinary approaches to

assessment.

Assessments that take a multidisciplinary approachbringing together health scientists, nutritionists,climatologists, biologists, ecologists, social andbehavioral scientists, and policy researchers and

include demographic, socioeconomic, and healthand environmental data are required to develop anadequate understanding o impacts, vulnerabilities,and capabilities in Arctic communities.

Increased analysis o historical data.

Historical data (climate, health, social, economic)rom appropriate locations with climate systemssimilar to those projected or Canadian northernregions must be used or integrated and geographicanalyses o the spread o disease relative toclimate variables. These analyses would make

efcient use o existing inormation and increaseour understanding o these issues and theirinterconnected nature.

Improvement o scenarios and models or

health assessment.

Developing and improving regional scenariosis needed or areas projected to experiencesignifcant impacts, such as the western Arctic.Socioeconomic scenarios to model and projectimpacts and changes within northern indigenous

populations are needed. Such scenariosare currently sparse, poorly developed, andinadequate.

Conceptual and analytical understanding o

vulnerability and capacity.

Work is needed at both the conceptual andanalytical levels to defne and increase ourunderstanding o vulnerability and communityhealth, how best to measure these concepts, andthe use o these concepts in making decisions

about the health o the community and in riskmanagement. This work should include localknowledge and inormal institutions (e.g., culturalsharing networks) to best understand theseconcepts in Aboriginal communities.

Enhancement o local capacities to identiy,conduct, and analyze data related to climate changeand the impacts on health.

To ensure success and sustainability oadaptation strategies, development o local and

regional monitoring, analytical and decisionmaking capabilities are needed to supportcooperative and empowering approaches toresearch and action.

THE WAY FORWARD


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A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE

In April 2009, over 300 indigenous representativesrom 7 regions o the world came together inAnchorage Alaska to discuss among other climatechange issues ood security (see Appendix 1 orthe Anchorage Declaration). Two recommendationsin particular were agree upon by delegates to theSummit regarding Food Security:

13. In order to provide the resources necessary or our

collective survival in response to the climate crisis, we

declare our communities, waters, air, orests, oceans,sea ice, traditional lands and territories to be Food

Sovereignty Areas, defned and directed by Indigenous

Peoples according to customary laws, ree rom

extractive industries, deorestation and chemical-based

industrial ood production systems (i.e. contaminants,

agro-uels, genetically modifed organisms).

14. We encourage our communities to exchange

inormation while ensuring the protection and

recognition o and respect or the intellectual

property rights o Indigenous Peoples at the local,

national and international levels pertaining to ourTraditional Knowledge, innovations, and practices.

These include knowledge and use o land, water and

sea ice, traditional agriculture, orest management,

ancestral seeds, pastoralism, ood plants, animals

and medicines and are essential in developing climate

change adaptation and mitigation strategies, restoring

our ood sovereignty and ood independence, and

strengthening our Indigenous amilies and nations.

The ollowing is a summary o those discussionswhich provide some insight to the global nature o

the ood security issue.

GENERAL STATEMENTS:

Delegates supported the Declaration o Atitlan(Appendix 2), particularly the defnition o andneed or Food Sovereignty as being the right oPeoples to defne their own policies and strategiesor the sustainable production, distribution andconsumption o ood, with respect to their owncultures and their own systems o managingnatural resources and rural areas, and is

considered to be a precondition or Food Security.

Food aects our cultural and spiritual health,ceremonies, clan relationships, etc. I we are

denied our traditional oods, we suer diabetesand other illnesses.

Food security simply provides access to themarket. Sovereignty i

Foodsec Updt LA Lo-1

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