1 FOOD PRODUCTION THEORY 50 marks UNIT 1: KITCHEN ORGANISATION (10 marks) • Layout of a kitchen (diagram of an actual kitchen layout) • Hierarchy of department & kitchen • Duties & Responsibilities of kitchen staff • Co-corporation with other departments. UNIT 2: AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF COOKING FOOD (10 marks) • Aims and objectives of cooking • Techniques used in pre-preparation • Techniques used in preparation • Culinary Terms • Action of heat on Proteins, fats, Carbohydrates, Minerals & Vitamins UNIT 3: METHODS OF COOKING (10 marks) • Classification of Methods of Cooking • Conduction, Convection, Radiation • Textures of Food UNIT 4: STOCKS & SOUPS (10marks) • Different Types of Stocks • Definitions • Points to be considered while preparing stocks • Classification of Soups • Definitions, thickening agents (roux, beurre manie etc) • International Soups and their countries (composition, garnishes) • Special points for sauces and preparation of soups • Commonly used garnishes • Names of few Indian soups (composition, garnishes) UNIT 5: SAUCES (10 marks) • Definition • Classification • Derivatives • Thickening Agent • Functions of Sauces • Names of some dishes where the different sauces can be used.
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1
FOOD PRODUCTION THEORY
50 marks
UNIT 1: KITCHEN ORGANISATION (10 marks)
• Layout of a kitchen (diagram of an actual kitchen layout)
• Hierarchy of department & kitchen
• Duties & Responsibilities of kitchen staff
• Co-corporation with other departments.
UNIT 2: AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF COOKING FOOD (10 marks)
• Aims and objectives of cooking
• Techniques used in pre-preparation
• Techniques used in preparation
• Culinary Terms
• Action of heat on Proteins, fats, Carbohydrates, Minerals & Vitamins
• International Soups and their countries (composition, garnishes)
• Special points for sauces and preparation of soups
• Commonly used garnishes
• Names of few Indian soups (composition, garnishes)
UNIT 5: SAUCES (10 marks)
• Definition
• Classification
• Derivatives
• Thickening Agent
• Functions of Sauces
• Names of some dishes where the different sauces can be used.
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UNIT 1: KITCHEN ORGANISATION (10 marks)
• Layout of a kitchen (diagram of an actual kitchen layout)
• Hierarchy of department & kitchen
• Duties & Responsibilities of kitchen staff
• Co-corporation with other departments.
INTRODUCTION TO FOOD PRODUCTION DEPARTMENT
COOKERY: Cookery is defined as a chemical process involving the application and
withdraws of heat; proper mixing of ingredients decision-making and technical
knowledge and skill but with the changing definition cooking is defined as both an art
as well as technology. In French the word ‘cuisine’ means the art of cooking and
preparing dishes and the place kitchen where they are prepared. The art of cooking is
ancient and generally originated when by chance a chunk of meat fell into fire and
came out to be more tasty and tender and it was from this point only that cooking has
evolved to reach the present level of sophistication.
KITCHEN LAYOUT
The plan or layout of a kitchen will be determined by the catering policy of the
establishment. The plan is often limited by space availability. The production area is
divided into 3 very distinctive areas.
1. Receiving, Preparation & Storage.
2. Cooking.
3. Service (Dispatching) and wash-up.
As in any other industrial production unit, the kitchen has three functions:
1. Receiving raw materials
2. Transforming them into finished goods
3. Forwarding the products.
The main factors that determine the layout of a kitchen are:
1. Whether the hotel is primarily for guests or if there is a busy chance trade. 2.
The locality. 3. The type of customer. 4. The type of menu/service.
5. Seasonal pressure of trade & 6. Possibility of expansion.
3
Layout of a 5 star Hotel Kitchen.
4
LEVEL OF SKILLS AND EXPERIENCES
SKILLS may be grouped into 3 general categories.
1) SUPERVISOR: The head of the food service, whether called Executive chef or head
chef or kitchen director, must have management and supervisory skills as well as
through knowledge of food production.
2) TECHNICAL: The cooks are the backbone of the kitchen. These workers carry out the
actual food production. They must have knowledge of and experience in cooking
techniques. They must be able to function well with their fellow workers and co-
ordinate with other departments. Food production is a team activity.
3) ENTRY LEVEL: This level of workers usually requires no particular skills & experience.
The jobs assigned to them are stewarding or basic pre-preparation of vegetables. As
their knowledge, skill & experience increases, they may be given more complex task
which will eventually make them skilled chefs.
Role and function of personnel of a traditional kitchen
In many establishments it is necessary for staff to be working to provide meals
throughout the day and, in some cases, split shifts. The splits- shift system is operated
so that most staff is available for both lunch and dinner. With this system the working
hours will be, for example, from 9.30 am to 2.30 pm and 6 pm to 10 pm. Some
establishments operate two shifts to cover the lunch and dinner service, with one shift
working from 8 am to 4 pm and the other from 4 pm to 11 pm.
Under the two- shift system the parte' will have a chef de parte' in charge of one shift
and a demi chef de parte’ responsible for the other shift.
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Executive Chef
In large establishment the duties of the executive chef, chef de cuisine, head chef or
person in charge, are mainly administrative; only in small establishments would it be
necessary for the chef to be engaged in handling the food. The function of chef is to:
• Organized the kitchen,
• Compile the menus,
• Order the foodstuffs,
• Show the required profit,
• engage the staff,
• supervise the kitchen (particularly at service time) ,
• advise on purchase of equipment,
• Be responsible, in many cases, either wholly or partially, for the stores, till room
a washing up of silver, crockery, etc.
Sous Chef
The second chef relieves the head chef when the latter is off duty and is the chef’s
‘right hand’, whose main function is to supervise the work in the kitchen so that it runs
smoothly and according to chef wishes. In large kitchens there may be several sous-
chefs with specific responsibility for separate services such as banquets and grill room. A Sous Chef must be familiar with all of the daily operations of the kitchen, and must be able to perform
any task in the kitchen if needed. A Sous Chef often acts as the intermediary between the kitchen and
wait staff, so strong leadership and communication abilities are a must. The following is a list of the
duties typically performed by a Sous Chef:
• Planning and directing food preparation. As the second in command, the Sous
Chef is most often responsible for managing kitchen staff to ensure food is
prepared properly. The Sous Chef must be a problem solver, ready to come up
with on the spot solutions for problems that may occur in the kitchen.
• Managing kitchen staff. The Sous Chef will often have the task of ensuring that
all kitchen workers are performing at the level required by a professional
kitchen. He or she may be asked to discipline workers who are not performing
their job correctly or professionally, and may come up with incentives to ensure
that workers are putting their best effort forth.
• Training and scheduling. The Sous Chef is often in charge of training new
employees and creating the schedule to ensure adequate manning for the
kitchen.
• Expediting. The Sous Chef will serve as the expeditor for the kitchen. He or she
will be responsible for arranging tickets and ordering food preparation so that
customers receive food in the order it should be sent out. For example. The
Sous Chef will tell the other chefs when to cook different menu items for a table
of customers so that they will all be hot and ready to be served at the same
time.
• Quality Control. The Sous Chef is responsible for ensuring that food that leaves
the kitchen is of the highest quality and will make diners happy. The Sous Chef
will often be asked to ensure that portions are correct and the food is plated in
an attractive manner.
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Chef de partie’
The chefs de partie are each in charge of a section of the work in the kitchen. This is the
job of a specialist. The chefs de partie organize their own section, delegate the work to
assistants and are, in fact, the ‘backbone’ of the kitchen.
Key responsibilities:
• Preparing, cooking and presenting dishes within your speciality
• Managing and training any demi-chef de parties or commis working with you
• Helping the sous chef and head chef to develop new dishes and menus
• Ensuring you and your team have high standards of food hygiene and follow the
rules of health and safety
• Monitoring portion and waste control to maintain profit margins
Pastry Chef
All the sweets and pastries are made by the pastry cooks, as well as items required by
other parties, such as vol-au-vents, bouchees, noodles, etc and also the covering for
meat and poultry dishes.
Ice cream and petits fours are made here. The bakery goods, such as croissants,
brioche, etc, may be made by the pastry cook when there is no separate bakery.
Key responsibilities:
• Create and prepare desserts in accordance with the existent menus;
• Create and bake breads to accompany different meals in restaurants;
• Decorate cakes and baked goods according to requirements;
• Plate desserts for serving;
• Pair recommended desserts with appropriate wines, cocktails, non-alcoholic drinks,
etc.
• Create cheese plateaus to complement a meal;
• Creates baked goods for specific diets (gluten free, sugar free, diabetes-friendly, etc.);
• Inspect the quality of the ingredients and measure them for specific recipes;
Assistant cooks (Commis chefs)
The chef de partie are assisted by commis or assistants, the number varying with the
amount of work done by the party, eg the vegetable party is larger than fish party, due
to the quantity of work to be prepared, so there are more assistants on that party. The
first commis is usually capable of taking over a great deal of the responsibility, and
some cases will take charge of the party when the chef is off duty.
Key responsibilities:
• Maintaining high standards of hygiene
• Preparing the ingredients for a more senior chef
• Measuring dish ingredients and portion sizes accurately
• Dealing with deliveries and stock rotation
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Apprentice
The apprentice is learning the trade and is moved to each of the parties to gain
knowledge of all the sections in the kitchen.
Butcher
Usually the butcher worked under the direct control of the chef or sous-chef and
dissected the carcasses and prepared all the joints and cuts ready for cooking. Many
establishments now order meat pre-jointed or pre-cut.
Scullery (Kitchen Stewards)
The sculleryman is responsible for collecting and washing all the pots and pans and
then returning them to the appropriate place in the kitchen.
In many establishments the work of the kitchen porter and the sculleryman is
combined.
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COOPERATION OF KITCHEN WITH OTHER DEPARTMENTS
Cooperation with front office
• Front office will communicate arrival and departure list which will help to forecast
about the quantities to cook.
• With the association assistance of front office kitchen people promote sales by
explaining the guest as to what is available and where it is available.
• Front office gives the list of V.I.P. arrivals in order to increase the reputation of the
establishment.
Cooperation with house-keeping
It is mainly for the supply of linen i.e. Aprons, kitchen towels, dusters etc and to keep
the kitchen clean.
Cooperation with f & b service
There should be a close liaison b/w f &b service and the kitchen staff because f & b
personal are involved in the selling of the products made by the kitchen department. It
is the duty of the f & b personal to give the intimation about the various parties to be
hosted in future and in turn it is the duty of the kitchen people to provide food at right
time in hygiene condition. Also f & b personal must be aware as to how much time
does a dish require to get ready because they are the ones who are directly associated
with the guests.
Cooperation with maintenance
Maintenance will keep the equipment in working condition. Further this department
maintains all the electrical fittings. Also they introduce as well instruct about the use of
new equipment.
Cooperation with store / purchase
This department will provide all the raw materials as required by the chef. The chef
must indent in time to insure that the purchase personal get sufficient time to procure
the raw materials. The chef also gives purchase specification from time to time
depending upon the recipe requirement.
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UNIT 2: AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF COOKING FOOD (10 marks)
• Aims and objectives of cooking
• Techniques used in pre-preparation
• Techniques used in preparation
• Culinary Terms
• Action of heat on Proteins, fats, Carbohydrates, Minerals & Vitamins
Aims and objectives of cooking
In the pre-historic times, caveman used to fill his stomach by killing animals and eating
them raw. With the discovery of fire, he realized that if food is put in this fire, it
becomes more palatable and acceptable. So, he gradually learnt the art of cooking by
using fire and made his food palatable. With the advancement of science of food, man
realized many more advantages of cooking food and slowly he mastered this art of
cooking. Definition: Cooking of food means the use of heat to bring about desirable changes in
foods.
OBJECTIVES OF COOKING FOOD.
1. Increases palatability
a) Flavour – There is a definite development of flavour when the food is cooking.
Raw food generally does not have a strong flavour but on cooking the flavour
improves. E.g. raw dal does not have any flavour but on cooking it develops a
typical flavour. We all are familiar with the lovely aroma of rawa when it is
heated or roasted to prepare sheera.
b) Taste – A raw potato or raw rice will not at all be tasty but on cooking the some
food develops a good taste.
c) Texture – Food develops variety of textures on cooking. Legumes, rice and potato
become soft on cooking with water whereas potato wafers become crisp when
fried in oil.
d) Colour – Some foods develop an attractive colour which increases the palatability
considerably. Browning of cake, brightening of colour of some vegetables like
spinach or peas are a few examples.
2. Improves digestibility – Cooked food is easy to chew and swallow. It is also easily
acted upon by digestive juices, hence digestibility improves. This also increases
the availability of nutrients to the body.
3. Adds variety to the diet – By cooking the foods in different ways, inlimited
number of products can be prepared, having a variety in colour, flavour, texture,
taste and shape. This variety decreases monotony and makes eating a pleasure
e.g. raw potato can be cooked in number of different ways to make variety of
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preparations like boiled and mashed potatoes, potato bhaji with or without
adding any other vegetable, potato cutlet, potato wada, potato wafers, finger
chips, potato chivda and potato kachori.
4. Safety – Spoilage of food can be avoided by application of heat. Cooking of food
to a specific temperature for a specific length of time may destroy the harmful
microorganisms in foods, thus making if safe for consumption e.g. boiling of milk,
preparation of khoa milk by heating for a long time and preparation of milk
powder. Cooking also improves the keeping quality of milk.
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PREPARATION OF INGREDIENTS
(MISE- EN- PLACE)
Many techniques are used for food preparation before cooking; they are done
according to the requirements of the various dishes. This helps to improve appearance,
texture, palatability and flavors and foods combine readily.
The techniques are divided into two:-
1) Sub- divisions and fractionation.
2) Combining and mixing in the preparation of foods.
Mise - en- place
“Everything in its place,” preparation prior to a task or serve...
Sub- division and fractionators
Washing: - this is necessary to remove superficial dirt, meat, fish, vegetables and fruits
are washed in cold water before any preparation, e.g. peeling or cutting. If cut and
soaked for a long period or washed after cutting, there is a great loss of water soluble
vitamins and minerals. The more cut surface exposed, the more nutrition lost.
Peeling: - spoilt, soiled and inedible portions are removed skin of vegetables or fruits
are either peeled or scraped. The outer layer can be shipped by steam, or caustic such
as lye solution.
Cutting: - Reducing to small pieces by means of a knife. When a similar result is
obtained with a chopping knife, or with a mechanical foe chopper, other process is
called chopping (small pieces).
Dicing: - Cutting as cubes, as in dicing potatoes, carrots etc.
Mincing:-cutting into very fine pieces e.g. mutton, onions, etc.
Shredding :- cutting in to long narrow pieces by means of a shredder or a knife e.g
cabbage.
Slicing :- cutting into thin pieces but not so fine as shredding.
Slitting :- making a slit in the middle lengthwise i.e. green chilies, lady’s finger etc.
Grating :- reducing to small particles by rubbing on a rough surface, as in grating lemon
peels , cheese etc.
Grinding: - reducing to small fragments by crushing, as in grinding spices, or coffee in a
mill or a grinding stone.
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Mashing: - method of breaking up of soft foods with pressure, with a potato masher or
with a fork.
Sieving: - paring through a fine wire mesh to remove apprentice. It also helps in
enclosing air and mixing ingredients evenly, like sieving of flour for cakes.
Refining: - freeing any maternal from impurities as in refining cane sugar.
Skimming :- removing a floating layer by using a utensil under it ( ladle ) as in skimming
cream from milk.
Evaporation or reduction: - removal of water, commonly accelerated by heating
without the lid.
Emulsification: - disposing one liquid in another in which it is insoluble. If the
dispersion is to the temporary, a stabilizer which coats the droplets of the disposed
phase, must incorporated, e.g. in mayonnaise.
METHODS OF MIXING FOOD
Beating: - this method can be used with this mixtures or liquids. This should be done
carefully with an aim of enclosing air. This term is used synonymously with whipping
e.g. beating of eggs.
Blending: - mixing two or more ingredients thoroughly.
Cutting in: - usually the incorporation of fat in flour and other sifted ingredients with a
knife. This method produces a relatively coarse division of the fat and does not result in
blending e.g. cutting fat into pastry mixture.
Creaming: - softening of fat by friction with a wooden spoon, generally followed by the
gradual incorporation of sugar as in cake making.
Folding: - mixing mixture by a careful lifting and dropping motion. The edge of the
spoon is used and the mixture is lifted, turned completely and gently replaced. All the
movements in this method, though deft, should be so gentle that the different
ingredients are almost coated together.
Kneading: - manipulating by alternating pressure by folding and stretching. The food is
pressed with knuckles. The dough is brought from the outside of the bowl or put to the
center and at the same time the bowl is moved so that a different section is kneaded
each time. This ensures a through distribution of ingredients e.g. bread dough or
chapatti etc.
Rubbing in: - rubbing fat into flour using the tips of the fingers and thumb and lifting
the hand out of the basin as in the case of short crust pastry. Rub until the mixture
looks like breadcrumbs.
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Rolling in: - rolling butter or fat in soft dough e.g. puff pastry.
Stirring: - mixing foods with suitable tools such as a spoon by a circular motion in
contact with the pan. Generally this is the gentle movement but changed to suit
different dishes, as when used to prevent sticking or burning in halwa and toffees. If
used too vigorously, it is apart to drive out air or other gas previously enclose as a
raising agent.
TECHNIQUES USED IN PREPARATION (COOKING TECHNIQUES)
1. Blanch – To cook an item partially and very briefly in boiling water or in hot fat.
Usually a pre-preparation technique, as to loosen peels of vegetables, fruits, and
nuts, to partially cook French fries or other foods before service, to prepare for
freezing or to remove undesirable flavours.
2. Deglaze – To swirl a liquid in a sauté pan, roast pan, or other pan to dissolve
particles of food remaining on the bottom.
3. Glaze – To give shine to the surface of a food, by applying a sauce aspic, sugar, or
icing, and /or by browning or melting under a broiler or salamander or in an oven.
4. Parboil – To cook partially in a boiling or simmering liquid.
5. Par cook – To cook partially by any method.
6. Reduce – To cook by simmering or boiling until the quantity of liquid is decreased,
often done to concentrate flavours.
7. Sear – To brown the surface of a food quickly at a high temperature.
8. Sweat – To cook slowly in fat without browning, sometimes under a cover.
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EFFECT OF HEAT ON FOODS
Foods are composed of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and water plus small amounts of
other compounds such as minerals (including salt), vitamins, pigments (colouring
agents), and flavour elements. It is important to understand how these components
react when heated or mixed with other foods. You will then be better equipped to
correct cooking faults when they occur and to anticipate the effects of changing
cooking methods, cooking temperatures, or ingredient proportions. In other words,
when you know why foods behave as they do, you can then understand how to get
them to behave, as you want them to.
Proteins
1. Protein is a major component of meats, poultry, fish, eggs, milk, and milk products.
It is present in smaller amounts in nuts, beans, and grains.
2. Coagulation. As proteins are heated, they become firm, or coagulate. As the
temperature increases, they shrink, become firmer, and lose more moisture.
Exposure of proteins to excessive heat toughens them and makes them dry. Most
proteins complete coagulation or “worked” at 160oFto 185
oF (71
oC to 85
oC).
3. Connective tissues are special proteins that are present in meats. Meats with a
great deal of connective tissues are tough, but some connective tissues are
dissolved when cooked slowly with moisture. By cooking tough meats properly,
they can be made more tender.
4. Acids, such as lemon juice, vinegar, and tomato products, do two things to proteins:
• They speed coagulation.
• They help dissolve some connective tissues.
Carbohydrates
1. Starches and sugars are both carbohydrates. Both compounds are present in foods
in many different forms. They are found in fruits, vegetable, grains, beans, and
nuts. Meats and fish also contain small amounts of carbohydrate.
2. For the cook the two most important changes in carbohydrates caused by heat are
caramelization and gelatinization.
• Caramelization is the browning of sugars. The browning of sautéed vegetables and
the golden colour of bread crust are forms of caramelization.
• Gelatinization occurs when starches absorb water and swell. This is a major
principle in the thickening of sauces and in the production of breads and pastries.
Acids inhibit gelatinization. A sauce thickened with flour or starch will be thinner if
it contains acid.
Fruits and Vegetable fiber
1. Fiber is the name for a group of complex substances that give structure and
firmness to plants. This fiber cannot be digested.
15
2. The softening of fruits and vegetables in cooking is in part, the breaking down of
fiber.
3. Sugar makes fiber more firm. Fruit cooked with sugar keeps its shape better than
fruit cooked without sugar.
4. Baking soda (and other alkalis) makes fiber softer. Vegetables should not be cooked
with baking soda because they become mushy and lose vitamins.
Fats
1. Fats are present in meats. Poultry, fish, eggs, milk products, nuts and whole grains,
and, to a lesser extent, in vegetables and fruits. Fats are also important as cooking
mediums, as for frying.
2. Fats can be either solid or liquid at room temperature. Liquid fats are called oils.
Melting points of solid fats vary.
3. When fats are heated, they begin to break down. When hot enough, they
deteriorate rapidly and begin to smoke. The temperature at which this happens is
called the smoke point and it varies for different fats. A stable fat – one with a high
smoke point – is an important consideration in deep fat frying.
Minerals, Vitamins, Pigments, and Flavour Components
1. Minerals and vitamins are important to the nutritional quality of the food. Pigments
and flavour components are important to a food’s appearance and taste and may
determine whether the food is appetizing enough to eat. So it is important to
preserve all these elements.
2. All of these components may be leached out, or dissolved away from foods during
cooking.
3. Vitamins and pigments may also be destroyed by heat, by long cooking, and by
other elements present during cooking.
4. It is important, then, to select cooking methods that preserve, as much as possible,
a food’s nutrients, and appearance. These will always be a consideration when
cooking techniques are explained.
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UNIT 3: METHODS OF COOKING (10 marks)
• Classification of Methods of Cooking
• Conduction, Convection, Radiation
• Textures of Food
No written recipe can be 100 percent accurate. No matter how carefully a recipe is
written, the judgment of the cook is still the most important factor in making a
preparation turns out well. A cook’s judgment is based on experience, on an
understanding of the raw materials available, and on knowledge of basic cooking
principles.
This chapter deals with basic principles. You will learn about what happens to food
when it is heated, about how food is cooked by different cooking methods. It is
important to understand the theories so that you can then put them into practice
successfully in the kitchen.
Classification of Methods of Cooking
Cooking methods are classified as “moist heat” and “dry heat”. Moist heat methods are
those in which the heat is conducted to the food product by water (including stock,
sauces, etc.) or by steam. Dry heat methods are those in which the heat is conducted
without moisture, that is, by hot air, hot metal, radiation, or hot fat. We usually divide
dry heat methods into two categories: without fat and with fat. Different cooking
methods are suited to different kinds of foods. For example, some meats are high in
connective tissue and will be tough unless this tissue is broken down slowly by moist
heat. Other meats are low in connective tissue and are naturally tender. They are at
their best and juiciest when cooked with dry heat to a rare or medium done stage.
There are many other factors to consider when choosing cooking methods for meats,
fish, and vegetables, such as the flavour and appearance imparted by browning, the
flavour imparted by fats, and the firmness or delicacy of the product.
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Moist – Heat Methods
Poach, Simmer, and Boil
To poach, simmer, and boil all mean to cook a food in water or a seasoned and
flavoured liquid. The temperature of the liquid determines the method.
1. To boil means to cook in a liquid that is bubbling rapidly and is greatly agitated.
Water boils at 212oF(100
oC) at sea level. No matter how high the burner is turned,
the temperature of the liquid will go no higher. Boiling is generally reserved for
certain vegetables and starches. The high temperature would toughen the proteins
of meats, fish, and eggs, and the rapid bubbling breaks up delicate foods.
2. To simmer means to cook in a liquid that is bubbling very gently. Temperature is
about 185oF to 205
oF (85
oC to 96
oC). Most foods cooked in a liquid are simmered.
The higher temperatures and intense agitation of boiling are detrimental to most
foods. The word “boiled” is sometimes used as a menu term, as when simmered
fresh beef is called “boiled beef”.
3. To poach means to cook delicate foods such as fish and eggs out of the shell. It is
used to partially cook foods such as variety meats, in order to eliminate flavours
and to firm up the product before final cooking.
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Steam
To steam means to cook foods by exposing them directly to steam. Steaming also
refers to cooking an item tightly wrapped or in a covered pan, so that it cooks in the
steam formed by its own moisture.
Braise
To braise means to cook covered in a small amount of liquid, usually after preliminary
browning. In almost all cases, the liquid is served with the product as sauce.
Dry Heat Methods
Roast and Bake
To roast and to bake means to cook foods by surrounding them with hot, dry air,
usually in an oven. Cooking on a spit in front of an open fire may also be considered
roasting. Roasting usually applies primarily to meats and poultry.
Baking applies to breads, pastries, vegetables, and fish. It is more general term than
roasting.
Broil
To broil means to cook with radiant heat from above. Broiling is done in a broiler,
grilling on a grill, and griddling on a griddle.
Pan-Fry
To pan-fry means to cook in a moderate amount of fat in a pan over moderate heat.
Pan-frying is similar to sautéing, except that more fat is generally used and the cooking
time is longer. The method is used for larger pieces of food, such as chops and chicken
pieces, and the items are not tossed by flipping the pan as they often are in sautéing.
Deep Fry
To deep fry means to cook a food submerged in hot fat. Many foods are dipped in a
breading or batter before frying. This forms a protective coating between food and fat
and helps give the product crispness, colour, and flavour.
HEAT TRANSFER
In order for food to be cooked, heat must be transferred from the heat source (such as
a gas flame or an electric element) to and through the food. Understanding the ways in
which heat is transferred helps the cook control the cooking process. Heat is
transferred in three ways: conduction, convection, and radiation.
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Conduction
Conduction occurs in two ways:
1. When heat moves directly from one item to something touching it. For example:
from the top of the range to a soup pot placed on it, from the pot to the broth
inside, and from the broth to the solid food items in it.
2. When heat moves from one part of something to an adjacent part of the same
item. For example: the exterior of a roast to the interior, or from a sauté pan to its
handle.
Different materials conduct heat at different speeds. Heat moves rapidly through
copper and aluminium, more slowly in stainless steel, slower yet in glass and porcelain.
Air is a very poor conductor of heat.
Convection
Convection occurs when heat is spread by the movement of air, steam, or liquid
(including hot fat). There are two kinds of convection.
1. Natural. Hot liquids and gases rise, while cooler ones sink. Thus, in any oven, kettle
of liquid, or deep – fat fryer there is a constant circulation that distributes heat.
2. Mechanical. In convection ovens and convection steamers, fans speed the
circulation of heat. Thus, heat is transferred more quickly to the food, and the food
cooks faster.
Stirring is a form of mechanical convection. Thick liquids cannot circulate as quickly
as thin ones, so the rate of natural convection is slower. This explains in part why it
is so easy to scorch thick soups and sauces. The heat is not carried away from the
bottom of the pan quickly enough, so it stays concentrated on the bottom and
scorches the food. Stirring redistributes the heat and helps prevent this. (Using
heavy pots made of a material that conducts heat well also helps prevent scorching,
because the pot conducts the heat more quickly and evenly all across the bottom
and up the sides.)
Radiation
Radiation occurs when energy is transferred by waves from the source to the food. The
waves themselves are not actually heat energy, but are changed into heat energy,
when they strike the food being cooked. (Light waves, radio waves, and X-rays are
examples of radiation not used for cooking.)
Two kinds of radiation are used in the kitchen:
1. Infrared. Broiling is the most familiar example of infrared cooking. In a broiler, an
electric element or a ceramic element heated by a gas flame becomes so hot that it
gives off infrared radiation, which cooks the food. There are also high-intensity
infrared ovens designed to heat food rapidly.
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2. Microwave. In microwave cooking, the radiation generated by the oven penetrated
part way in to the food, where it agitates the molecules of water. The friction
caused by this agitation creates heat, which cooks the food.
• Because microwave radiation affects only water molecules, a completely water less
material will not heat up in a microwave oven. Plates become hot only when heat is
conducted to them by hot foods.
• Because most microwaves penetrate no more than about 2 inches into foods, heat
is transferred to the center of large pieces of food by conduction, just as in roasting.
COOKING TIMES
It takes time to heat a food to a desired temperature, the temperature at which a food
is “done” (meaning that the desired changes have taken place). This time is affected by
three factors:
1. Cooking temperature. This means the temperature of the air in the oven, the fat in
the fryer, the surface of griddle, or the liquid in which a food is cooking.
2. The speed of heat transfer. Different cooking methods transfers heat a different
rate, as shown by these examples: Air is a poor conductor of heat, while steam is
much more efficient. A jet of steam (212oF/100
oC) will easily burn your hand, but
you can safely reach into an oven at 500oF(260
oC). This is why it takes longer to
bake potatoes than to steam them. A convection oven cooks faster than a
conventional oven, even if both are set at the same temperature. The forced air
movement transfer heat more rapidly.
3. Size, temperature, and individual characteristics of the food. For example: A small
beef roast cooks faster than a large one. A chilled steak takes longer to boil than
one at room temperature. Fish items generally cook more quickly than meats.