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NUMBER 30 June 2002

The International Journal of

Small-scale Food Processing

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Information networks crucial to thesuccess of the food processing sectorAsk any small-scale entrepreneur what are

the main factors that are critical to theirsuccess and almost all of them will

highlight information. Information on a

range of topics, from the technical know-

how, where to access ingredients and

equipment, knowledge of the recent

developments in processing and packaging

technology and general information on the

market and market price.

Networks are an effective means of

communication and information exchange

and provide small-scale entrepreneurs an

opportunity to meet others in their field

and to exchange ideas and experiences.

Networks of food processors are active in

many countries and regions. Gisele Lopes

DAlmeida* describes the Interface

network for sub-Saharan Africa and the

role it plays in the development of the

food processing sector. Interfaceis a

network of African food processors that

was launched five years ago in

Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. The network

was established to try and respond to the

problems that the food processing sector

was facing, especially with the effects ofglobalisation on the local economies. The

network has grown into a forum for

exchange of ideas and experiences for

professionals in the sector and currently

covers thirteen countries in west Africa,

ranging from Mauritania to Nigeria,

including the western Sahelian countries.

It is gradually growing in the countries of

central, eastern and southern Africa and,

hopefully, will become a pan-African

organisation that works for African

entrepreneurs who are involved inregional and international trade of all raw

and processed agricultural produce.

The impacts of globalisation and

liberalisation of world markets means that

African food products have to compete

with European food products that are

often heavily subsidised and promoted in

the African domestic markets. The

challenge for local small and medium-

scale enterprises is to produce quality

products that can compete with the

imported goods. This is where Interface

plays a valuable role. The stance taken byInterfaceis to positively welcome

globalisation and look for the potential

opportunities it can offer to local

entrepreneurs.

Here we have to be more inventive and

more creative in finding viable niches in

the international market place. Secondly,

we have to devote more attention todeveloping our local, sub-regional and

regional markets. We know from

experience that they can be developed

profitably and we can improve their

performance by having better access to

key information such as product supply

and prices.

Development of the local food

processing sector cannot take place in

isolation. It needs the whole-hearted

support of other closely-related sectors

scientific research, especially in post-

harvest technology and biotechnology;close control over the production to

ensure that both quality and quantity are

sufficient to meet the demand; marketing

support to deliver products and labels of

quality that consumers know and

appreciate.

It is essential to recognise the leading

role played by the private sector in Africa

in the economic development of the

continent, and in particular by small and

medium-scale enterprises. They have to

be found a special place in decisionmaking bodies if they are to play their part

as the motor of development to the

utmost.

The success ofInterfaceand the food

processing sector in strengthening the

local economy will depend on the

initiatives of entrepreneurs themselves

and on their own ability to locate and

obtain the resources they need. In this,

there is a supportive role to be played by

programmes which will enable

entrepreneurs to access information,

technology, markets and finance.

This issue of Food Chain brings a range of

articles and information from across the

globe. As always we welcome your

comments and feedback on the articles in

this journal and your suggestions and

contributions for future issues. Please

contact us via e-mail

([email protected]) or at the postal

address on the back cover.

Sue Azam-AliProduction Manager

* This interview by Ms DAlmeida appeared in

Spore 97.

2

ITDG Food Chain 30

Front Cover: Marketing

grains in North Darfur,

Sudan

M4X1.00.01 Economics

M Majzoub

Greetings

Gre

etings

Back Cover:

Packaging and labels for

honey processors in

BangladeshA4.BangladeshE1.21

Zul

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IntroductionFor the past five years women

entrepreneurs assisted by the SIDO

Women Entrepreneurship Development

Programme (WED) in food processing,

have learned and excelled in the

production of peanut butter.

Peanut butter, a smooth paste obtained

after grinding roasted peanuts (Arachis

hypogaea) is traditionally an importantproduct used for cooking purposes in

many homes in rural Tanzania. The paste

is used in preparation of side dishes and is

also cooked with vegetables, pearled

sorghum and maize to make a variety of

dishes.

This long-standing traditional use of

peanut butter prompted the WED

Programme to introduce it as a

commercial product on the training

programme for women entrepreneurs.

Commercially produced peanut butter

is used as a spread on bread, especially bythe urban middle classes who consume

bread as part of their meals, especially at

breakfast. In addition there is a growing

use of the product by housewives for

cooking. This has made the product one of

the best selling processed products of the

beneficiaries of the WED Programme.

Most peanut butter is packed in 400g

jars or in 250g and 500g sachets that are

targeted for household use in cooking.

The latter is mainly a plain paste without

any additives. On the other hand peanutbutter meant for use on bread, is either

salted or unsalted. Sugar, stabilizers and

sometimes hydrogenated oils are added

to improve its spreadability and flavour.

Processing

Making of peanut butter requires great carein the choice of raw materials as this has a

bearing on the final quality and safety of

the product. The peanuts should be mature

and dry, of uniform size and free from

fungal infestation. Fungal infestation can

be detected by a dark stain on the skin. The

dangerous toxin-producing mould

Aspergillus flavuswill grow on nuts that

have not been fully dried and any stained

nuts must be rejected.

The various steps in the making of

peanut butter are outlined below:

1. Cleaning

Nuts are cleaned to remove dust, twigs,

parts of packages and damaged nuts.

This is achieved by winnowing and

blowing away the light particles.

Broken and infested nuts are removed

by hand.

2. Roasting

This operation should be performed

carefully to achieve uniform roasting

without scorching any of the nuts.

Adequate heat is required to ensurecooking of the nuts. Roasting may take

10 to 30 minutes to obtain uniform

golden coloured (light brown to brown)

nuts. Proper roasting results in a

pleasant aroma.

3. Cooling

The roasted nuts are cooled before

proceeding with the next step.

Small-scale peanut butter processing inTanzania The experience of womenprocessors

3

ITDG Food Chain 30

Keywords

Peanut butter,

stabiliser, training,

enterprise,

business

development

Africa

Tanza

nia

Happiness Mchomvu of the Small Industries

Development Organisation (SIDO) describes thesuccessful work carried out assisting women

entrepreneurs in peanut butter production. SIDO has

52 trainers working in 14 regions of Tanzania. A key

element leading to their success is the technical and

business skills training they provide. In addition to

the training is the relationship developed between

SIDO and a British company that enables SIDO to

purchase ingredients and equipment that are not

available in Tanzania. This business linkage enabled

SIDO to import a stabiliser that is needed to prevent

oil separating out of the peanut butter, thus

improving the quality and marketability of theproduct.

Figure 1: Peanut butter is

passed through the grinder

two or three times to get a

fine pasteA4ZimbabweA5.01

Zul

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4. Skinning and sorting

Roasting dries the nut and makes the

skin brittle, which cracks and can be

removed easily. The nuts are rubbed andwinnowed to separate the skins from the

kernels. After roasting some nuts may

have been burnt, these are removed.

Any nuts with undesirable qualities that

may have escaped the initial cleaning

operation are also removed.

5. Grinding

There are different types of peanut

butter as far as smoothness is

concerned. In Tanzania a finely ground,

smooth paste is preferred. The cleaned

kernels are ground in a hand operatedplate mill, available in the local market.

Sometimes two to three repeated

grindings are required to give the

required smooth consistency.

6. Mixing

Ground paste is then mixed with other

ingredients such as vegetable oil, sugar,

salt and stabiliser.Edible oil such as corn, sunflower or

groundnut is heated to 8090C before

adding a small quantity (about 25%) to

the paste to improve its spreadability.

Some producers add 6% of sugar or

maltose and 1.7% salt to improve the

flavour.

Peanut stabiliser is added to the paste

at a rate of 23%. This is best added at

the grinding stage to ensure thorough

blending with the butter. The stabiliser

prevents oil separation.

The paste, with added ingredients isthen heated to about 80C to ensure

that the stabiliser melts and is well

blended into the paste.

4

ITDG Food Chain 30

Africa

Tanza

nia

Table 1. Some common problems experienced during peanut butter processing and possibleremedies

Problem Reason How to resolve

Texture too soft q Stabiliser not thoroughly mixed q Add the stabiliser at the grinding stage to ensure thatinto the peanut paste it is thoroughly mixed with the paste

q Stabiliser did not melt during the q Heat the paste to at least 5C above the melting pointmixing process of the stabiliser before adding the stabiliser. Mix well

q Too little stabiliser used q Manufacturers of the additive usually advise on thelevels to be used. The exact amount required is

influenced by the quality of the peanuts and theprocessing conditions. Knowledge of the correct

amount to add comes with experience

q Temperature too high when the q Fill into the jars at around 40Cjars filled

Texture is q Un-melted stabiliser q Heat the paste to at least 5C above the melting pointnot smooth of the stabiliser before adding the stabiliser. Mix well

q

Un-dissolved sugar or saltq

Dissolve sugar or salt into clean boiling water beforeadding to the paste

Rancidity q Excessive head space in the jar q Only leave 2.5cm head space at the top of the jar

q Trapped pockets of air within the q Tap the bottles during filling to ensure there is nopeanut butter trapped air

q Containers are stored in strong q Store containers in a cool dry place, away from directsunlight sunlight

Oil separation in q Use of insufficient stabiliser q Follow manufacturers guidelinesthe product q Improper mixing of stabiliser q Ensure that the paste is of a high enough temperature

when the stabiliser is added and mix well

q Excessive use of vegetable oil q Do not add more than 25% oil to the paste

Spoilage within q Poor quality ingredients q Use good quality ingredients and discard any bad6 months peanuts

q Failure to adhere to good q Ensure that each stage of the process is carefully

manufacturing practice controlled and monitored. It is important that theroasting stage is carried out properly

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7. Filling

The butter is filled hot into containersthat have been cleaned and sterilised. It

is important to ensure that there are noair pockets within the product as thesecan cause the oil in the peanut butter to

oxidise and produce rancid off-flavours.The jars should be filled to within 2.5cm

of the top of the container and closedtightly with sterilised lids.

Quality controlDuring the processing of peanut butter, it

is important to ensure that the quality ofthe product is high and that there is

consistency between different batches.

Through experience, SIDO and the womenentrepreneurs have identified several

critical points during the process wherecare needs to be taken.

Table 1 identifies some commonproblems, the reasons for them and the

care that should be taken duringprocessing to avoid these problems.

Constraints and prospectsSince the introduction of peanut butter by

the programme, some 40 women

entrepreneurs produce on average 2.5tonnes per month. Individual capacities

range from 25 to 250kg per month.

These outputs are low because oflimited capacities of the technology used

(the manual roasting, winnowing, andgrinding). Most entrepreneurs use a handcorn grinder that can process 1kg of

kernels at a time and normally grinding hasto be carried out two or three times. These

technologies are certainly limiting for anentrepreneur who would like to grow. We

(SIDO) are thus searching for better and

higher capacity roasters and mills andwould appreciate any information fromreaders on where to obtain technologieswith a capacity for 3050kg per hour.

A second constraint, which discouragedthe early peanut butter makers was the oil-separation of the butter a few weeks after

processing. This problem has now beensolved by obtaining a supply of peanut

butter stabiliser from Midway TechnologyLtd of the UK (see the box below). By

using the stabiliser and adhering to good

manufacturing process throughout, theprocessors have managed to make apeanut butter that is stable for more thansix months. This is a great achievement for

the women. Their peanut butter isincreasingly being accepted by consumers

and is available in groceries and

supermarkets in Tanzania. The SIDO WEDprogramme greatly values and appreciates

the assistance of Midway in obtaining thevital ingredients and equipment.

A third challenge that the women face

is the problem of packaging. Despite the

good quality of peanut butter, its

packaging is still inferior to that of

imported products. The programme is

now focussing on improving the

packaging and presentation so that the

product can compete effectively with the

imported products.

Notwithstanding all these problems the

prospects for the peanut butter produced

by the women entrepreneurs are goodbecause of its acceptability among

consumers. We believe that concerted

technological and quality improvements

will ensure a lucrative business for the

producers.

5

ITDG Food Chain 30

Africa

Tanza

nia

Midway Technology LtdMidway Technology Ltd (Midway) is a

small company dedicated to providing

assistance to small and medium-scale

food processing enterprises. In recent

years the company has been pilottesting a programme to provide

ingredients, packaging and small items

of equipment to agencies in Tanzania

and Uganda. As this case study shows,

making available a vital ingredient

(stabiliser) can overcome a local

constraint. Midway has also assisted

SIDO to obtain a wide range of inputs

for other products, including wine corks,

wine bottle capsules and bottle cappers

that are not available in Tanzania.

The small size of orders required by

agencies working with micro-enterprises

means that companies are often reluctant

to ship directly. Midway is thus acting as

a procurement company, purchasing

goods in the UK and then shipping a

mixed order to the client. Midway wishes

to expand this role, working with

development agencies, and is currently

preparing a catalogue of goods and

services that are available.

For further information on the

services offered by Midway, please

contact [email protected]

Happiness Mchomvu, Small Industries

Development Organisation (SIDO), PO Box 2476,

Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania ([email protected])

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IntroductionFish are an important component of the

diet of people in Asian countries,

providing much needed protein, minerals

and essential fatty acids. However, freshfish are highly perishable, especially in

tropical temperatures, and need to be

processed to preserve for longer periods.

Refrigeration or storage on ice will

prolong the shelf life, but even this

method is only useful for 1 to 2 days and

is not really appropriate for consumers in

rural areas. Salting, lactic acid

fermentation, drying and smoking are

various simple methods that have been

used to preserve fish. Over the course of

time, a wide range of fermented fish-based products has been developed to

preserve this highly perishable

commodity.

The fermentation conditions for fish

products varies widely from place to place

and between different batches of the same

product. Research at MARDI seeks to

improve and standardise some of the

traditional fermentation processes used

for fish.

Fermented fish productsFermented fish sauces and condiments

are widely used in Asian cuisine, where

they add nutritional value, flavour, andvariety to the bland rice-based diet. The

fermented fish products can be divided

into two broad groups:

q Those with a very high salt content,

typically 1525%, in which preservation

depends on the salt level and low

moisture content of the product.

q Those with a much lower salt content in

which fish is fermented with salt, sugar

and rice or another cereal such as millet

or flour. The amount of added

carbohydrate and the salt concentrationcontrol the extent of acid fermentation

and the keeping quality of the product.

This type of fermentation is carried out

by bacteria of the Lactobacillifamily,

which results in the formation of lactic

acid. The presence of lactic acid

increases the acidity of the product to a

level that restricts the growth of food

poisoning organisms.

An example of the first group of preserved

fish products is Belacan or shrimp paste,

which is made by fermenting shrimpswith salt. During the fermentation,

enzymes and proteins in the fish react

with the micro-organisms present,

producing compounds with savoury

flavours. The final product is a paste with

a strong, characteristic odour. A typical

production method is shown in Figure 1.

Analysis of the belacan by MARDI

showed a considerable fall in the number

of micro-organisms during the process.

This indicates that the breakdown of the

tissue is largely due to the action ofenzymes present in the shrimps. It is

believed that the micro-organisms are

more involved in the development of

flavour. Microbiological tests on the final

product could not detect any organisms

with a public health significance.

The products made in the laboratory at

MARDI were analysed and compared with

samples of commercially produced

belacan. The results of the analysis are

shown in table 1.

Regulations in Malaysia require belacan

to have at least 15% salt, 30% protein andless than 40% moisture. As can be seen in

table 1, some of the commercial samples

do not meet these criteria with regards to

moisture content.

Fish plays a central role in the diets of many Asian

and south Asian countries. Due to the perishable

nature of fish, traditional methods of preservation

have been developed over the years, resulting in awide variety of fermented and processed fish

products. The Malaysian Agricultural Research and

Development Institute (MARDI) is actively involved

in the development and improvement of fisheries

products. In this article the authors describe their

work to improve traditional fermented fish products.

Improving some traditional Malaysianfish products

6

ITDG Food Chain 30

Keywords

Fish, fermentation,

lactic acid, snack

foods

As

iaMalaysia

Figure 1. The preparation of

belacan

Sort shrimps, remove foreign matter

and drain off excess water

Add 10% salt and sun-dry until 50%

of the original weight is lost

Mince and pack into a jar closed with muslin and

allow to ferment for 1 week at room temperature

Sun dry again and re-mince

Repack and continue fermentation

Repeat the process several times,

the whole process taking 68 weeks

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ITDG Food Chain 30

As

iaMalay

sia

Researchers at MARDI are currently

involved in trials to investigate packagingalternatives to prolong the shelf life and

increase the marketability, with

possibilities of export. They have also

developed a fully dried powdered form of

belacan that is a convenient ready-to-use

product with a shelf life of more than 18

months. This product is considered to

have good export potential.

Pekasan is an example of the second type

of fermented fish products. It is made by

fermenting species of fresh water fish

commonly found in rice paddy fields withsalt and rice. This type of product is

limited to rice growing areas in north west

Malaysia.

Production of pekasanThe traditional preparation of pekasan

involves fermenting the fish for about 5 to

6 weeks. After gutting, the whole fish are

washed and mixed with 20% salt and

packed into an earthenware container

where they are left overnight. The

following day 20% of the weight ofroasted rice is added. Spices such as

turmeric or tamarind may also be added

according to taste. The container is tightly

closed and allowed to ferment for 5 to 6

weeks.

The final product consists of complete

fish but the flesh has broken down to a

powdery texture. It is normally fried for

consumption and has a sour, salty flavour.

Research at MARDI aimed to reduce the

fermentation time while at the same time

ensuring consistent quality of the product.

During laboratory trials, the fermentation

conditions were varied to try and reduce

the fermentation time and to standardise

the product. The cleaned fish were mixed

with toasted rice, tamarind and brown

sugar and then covered with saturatedbrine. It was found that small fish were

fermented in 2 weeks, while larger ones

required 3 to 4 weeks.

The preparation of pekasan depends on

the fermentation of carbohydrates (rice,

sugar) to lactic acid. The use of a brine,

rather than dry salt, ensures a more

uniform product and speeds up the

fermentation. The addition of tamarind is

important as it lowers the pH and retards

the growth of spoilage organisms. During

fermentation the initial pH of 6 falls to4.14.6 with the production of lactic acid.

The product, if packed in sealed bottles

and covered with the fermentation brine,

has a shelf life of 6 months. Since the salt

content is only 10%, pekasan can be eaten

as a main dish rather than used as a

condiment.

In conclusion we would like to mention

another example of the many traditional

fish products made in Malaysia. The first

is Keropok crackers that are made from

fish, shrimps or molluscs. These are

produced by over 100 small-scale

producers. The fish flesh is

mixed with flour (usually

sago or tapioca) and

spices and filled into a

casing, rather like a

sausage. This is then

steamed, cooled, sliced

and finally dried. It is

quickly cooked in hot oil

before consumption.

Rokiah Mohamad and YeohQuee Lan, Food Technology

Division, Malaysian Agricultural

Research and Development

Institute, Malaysia

Table 1. Analysis of laboratory samples andcommercial samples of belacan

Laboratory Commercial

samples samples

pH 7.5 7.27.8

Moisture % 27.2 36.347.2

Ash % 27.7 21.227.7

Salt % 27.9 20.927.4

Protein % 37.5 22.236.4

Fat % 0.6 1.21.7

Ref R Awang, 1983

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Entrepreneurs need practical guidance on

how to conduct simple yet effective

marketing research a key tool for

gathering information which will help

them make the best business decisions on

what to produce. Analysis of consumers

and markets can help entrepreneurs

identify potential selling opportunities for

their products. This article is the first in a

series for Food Chain on marketing and

has been partly based on advice offered in

a new book Drying Food for Profit (see

end note for more details).

Marketing, in simple terms is about

making products that will sell, rather than

trying to sell what has been made! A

simplified definition of marketing is:

Seeing things as your customers seethem and doing something about it tomake money.

A more formal definition of marketing

from the UKs Chartered Institute of

Marketing:

Marketing is the managementprocess responsible for identifying,anticipating and satisfying customerrequirements profitably.

The first definition is helpful because itemphasises the importance of getting to

know and understand the customer.

Small-scale entrepreneurs are often well-

placed to do this when their customers are

local, but for opportunities outside their

community the exercise becomes more

challenging.

The second definition draws attention

to the fact that marketing is a process.

Marketing research activities are key steps

in this process which can identify the

potential customers for a product. It cantell a business who will buy, when, where,

what quantities and at what price. Figure 1

shows a simplified representation of the

marketing process.

Step One Market segments or identifying a customer groupThe very first question any entrepreneur

should ask is who are the expectedcustomers? Existing businesses will

already have a group of customers who

they can get to understand better. They

can also identify other groups of

customers they could sell to. The

entrepreneur should ask a series of

questions about existing and potential

groups of customers (see Figure 2).

The first step, therefore, is to assess the

options and decide which groups or

market segments could be targeted.

Examples of possible market segmentsq Children and/or young people

q Men or women

q People interested in healthy foods or

with special dietary needs

q Restaurants and hotels

q Institutions such as prisons, hospitals,

schools, government departments

q Processors, such as bakeries, using the

product as an ingredient

q Regional or international buyers

It is important to understand the different

characteristics and requirements of each

of these groups if a business wants to

target them with products. Children using

pocket money to buy a sweet snack will,

for example, be influenced by aspects

such as small packs

at a low price, the use

of bright packaging

and a convenient

location to purchase,

perhaps close to aschool. The catering

trade, institutions and

processing

enterprises, on the

other hand, would

Starting with the Market The importance of marketing research

8

ITDG Food Chain 30

Figure 1: The Marketing

Process

1. Identify a customer group(s)

2. Learn what they want that you can do/make

3. Do/make something to meet the needs better

than competitors

4. Tell customers about it

Figure 2: Key questions for

the entrepreneur

5. Keep improving

q Who buys from you now?

q What groups of customers can you identify?

q Which groups buy most from you?q Which groups pay the best prices/are most

profitable?

q What characteristics do these groups share?

q Where can similar potential customers be

found?

q What other groups of customers have you

considered selling to?

Agar/Shekleton(1999)

G

loba

l

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9

ITDG Food Chain 30

G

loba

lnot be interested in attractive packagingbut would be concerned with price, qualityand reliability of supply.

These broad market segments can bebroken into more clearly defined

segments. Families as consumers, for

example, can be divided into groups by

their income (rich, middle-class or poor),

their occupation (e.g. office workers) and

their location (rural, urban or peri-urban)

which will result in different expectations

and demands.

The buying habits and reasons for

selecting a particular product will vary

from group to group. Finding out as much

as possible about their lifestyles and what

they are likely to want from products, suchas convenience, is important so that

products can be developed which are

targeted to specific groups.

Having identified some customer

groups the next step is to find out what

these customers want in more detail.

Step Two Market surveys or finding out what these customers wantMarket surveys are a way of gathering and

analysing information so products are

developed to meet the needs of potentialcustomer groups. Specialist market

research agencies can be commissioned

to conduct surveys but this can be costly

and there are benefits if the entrepreneur

carries out the market survey themselves.

It may be useful to have some help from

advisors to design the survey. The process

of carrying out the surveys allows the

owner of a small enterprise to gain a deep

understanding of the potential customers.

It is argued that the most effective method

of research for a small business is to talk

to potential customers directly, find out

what they buy now, what problems they

have, what would make their lives easieror better (see Figure 3).

In marketing research language this is

gathering primary data. Marketing surveys

can include two broad types of data:

primary and secondary. Primary data is

the most valuable and collected directly

through activities, which include:

q Personal interviews in the street or

shops

q Observation

q Discussions with groups of potential

customersq Questionnaires and postal surveys

q Telephone surveys

q Visiting potential buyers

Secondary data is taken from existing

reference material and includes:

q Trade associations and journals

q Internet sites

q Yellow pages of telephone directories

q Government and official records

q Competitors literature

The first step in conducting a marketsurvey is to decide what information is

required and where and how this will be

obtained. Where possible this is best done

as a team, made up of business partners,

family members or employees, who will

produce a list of what information should

be gathered and from where.

Designing consumer surveysThe most valuable information that can be

gathered will be from the likely purchasers

of the product end consumers andintermediary buyers (e.g. restaurant and

shop owners, supermarket buyers). Small

businesses should focus their limited

resources on consumer surveys, rather

than extensive studies of market

conditions. Interviews with existing and

potential customers can be structured or

unstructured, often a mixture of the two.

To guide the interview process it is usual

to prepare a questionnaire, similar to the

example shown in table 1, which is a

structured interview with a consumer.

Sensitivity is needed when deciding

which questions to ask. In general, it is

important to avoid direct personal

questions, for example about income.

Open ended questions such as what typeFigure 3: Key questions

about groups of consumers

q Why are they buying at all what need are

they trying to meet?

q What do they buy now (from you and others)?

q Why do they buy from you (and from your

competitors)?

q How often do they buy?

q In what quantities?

q When/where do they buy?

q How much do they pay?

q Who does the buying (in the family, in thebusiness), who influences the decision, who

uses the product what is the buying

process?

And so on

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of dried fruit do you prefer? rather than

closed questions such as which do you

prefer dried mango or dried pineapple?

give more useful data.

How many interviews to conduct SamplingInterviewing one customer will not

provide reliable information. The value of

the exercise will be increased if say ten

people are surveyed and even more so if

the sample is increased to twenty or more.

As the sample size is increased, it will be

found that results begin to repeat

themselves. This indicates that a

representative sample of customers is

being surveyed.

ClassificationIt can be useful to classify the

interviewees according to their social

class. Typical questions are:

q Where do you live? (Urban or rural)q Which school do your children go to?

(May provide information on class)

q Do you have a TV? (If yes, would

indicate middle or upper class)

q Which shops do you

use? (Richer people

tend to use higher

price shops)

When this information

is analysed it will help

to determine which

market segments theproduct should be

targeted at. For

example it would be

better to develop

products for urban

middle income

customers if the

research indicates theyare more likely to buy

dried fruit than rural

low income customers.

Analysis What is theinformation saying?Having gathered the

information it is vital

that it is analysed in a

useful way. The more

data that has been

collected the more

accurate the results will

be, but it will be time

consuming to analyse. It can be kept

simple, for example, 15 out of 20

interviewees said they preferred mango,

i.e. 75%.

The aim of the analysis exercise is to

get a summary about what the consumer

groups want, which will inform the

decisions about what to produce (and how

to target the product to specific groups).

Since the survey exercise cannot possibly

include all potential customers a furtherstep is to estimate the market size and

value.

Market size and valueTo estimate the potential total market

demand for a given product it is possible

to extrapolate the results from the small

sample of potential customers to the total

market under consideration.

For example, a survey of the demand

for dry onion rings, aimed at the hotel and

restaurant sector, has shown that 30% ofowners indicated a positive interest in

using the product. The next step is to

determine how many hotels and

0

ITDG Food Chain 30

Table 1. Example consumer questionnaire for dried fruit snackproducts

Market survey form Dried fruit snacks

1. Do you buy snacks in the street? Yes No

2. How often? Daily Weekly Monthly

3. Where else do you buy from?

4. What kind of snacks do you like?

5. Do you buy dried fruit snacks? Yes No

6. If yes, what do you like about them? Taste Healthy Price Other

7. If no, why not?

8. Which fruits do you prefer? Mango Papaya Pineapple

9. How much are you prepared to 25c 35c 45c

pay for a pack this size?

Table 2. Total market demand for dry onion slices

Number of hotels surveyed 100

% stating they would purchase dry onion 30%

Demand per month

Per hotel (range) (1 to 3 kg)

Average 1.5

Total demand from 30 interested establishments 45kg/month

Number of hotels registered in the city 500

Total demand based on marketing survey 225kg/month

G

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restaurants exist in the city. This can be

done in several ways.

Firstly the city can be divided into areas

and a physical count of all suchestablishments made. Alternatively, it is

often possible to use secondary data such

as tax information or registration of hotels

and restaurants by public health bodies to

obtain a full list. This type of analysis will

typically give data as shown in table 2.

The danger of this exercise is that it

makes assumptions about the potential

market which may turn out to be incorrect.

This would be a problem if the

entrepreneur has invested in the business

on the strength of the likely market

potential.

There is a saying that markets dont

buy anything, customers do, which

means that the promises of good market

potential may not be translated to

purchases. Getting to know customers,

serving them better, selling more to them

and expanding to new customer groups

gradually may offer a less risky route for

small entrepreneurs.

Step 3 Understanding Market share and reviewing the competitionThe above example assumes that the

enterprise in question has no competition,

which is very rarely the case. The total

market for a product will be divided

between the competition. The market

share which a particular enterprise can

expect to gain will depend on severalfactors:

q The number of competitors

q The size of the competitors

q Whether the products are similar or

different

q The pricing and presentation of

competitive productsAssessing the advantages and

weaknesses of the competition against

your own products advantages and

weaknesses is a helpful exercise. It can

help to identify a potential competitive

advantage. In a saturated local market it

could be through little improvements,

either in quality, price or service. In an

international market it is essential. For

example, certain fruits, like apples from

the Southern hemisphere have found

markets in the North not because they arecheaper but purely

because they are

available when

European apples are

not. However, as the

market has become

crowded with

suppliers, the

producers must find

out what special

features of their

particular variety they

can draw attention to

e.g. sweeter, crunchier,

cheaper.

It should be

remembered, even in a

situation where

competition seems

weak, if a good opportunity exists then

new competitors may quickly enter the

market.

In the next editions of Food Chain we

will look at the other steps in the

Marketing Process understandingproduct development and promoting the

product and the business, and finally

developing a marketing strategy.

Sources:Drying Food for profit, B Axtell 2002, ITDG

Publishing, London.

Marketing for the Local Market, J Agar 1999.

Marketing Services for Entrepreneurs,

Mikkelsen 1999.

Alison Griffith, Marketing Specialist, ITDG,Schumacher Centre for Technology

and Development, Bourton on Dunsmore,

Rugby, CV23 9QZ

11

ITDG Food Chain 30

Finding out what your

consumer wantsA4BangladeshC5.10

NeilCooper G

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IntroductionGroundnuts (Arachis hypogaea)are an

important food and industrial crop in

Ghana and provide food and income for

small-scale farmers and urban dwellers.

Shelling must be performed before any

other post-harvest processing takes place.

The traditional shelling methods of hand

separation or beating with planks are slow

and tedious.Groundnut shelling can be classified

into two main categories as shown in

figure 1.

q Manual hand separation, which

involves beating the nuts with stones or

wood

q

Mechanical shelling which can be byhand or pedal cranking or using a

power source. Mechanical shellers can

be divided into reciprocating (semi-

rotary) types and continuous or rotary

types.

Manual shellingIn Ghana hand-shelling peanuts by

beating with wood or stones is one of the

oldest and the most popular methods in

rural areas but is slow, inefficient and

laborious. The output depends on the

efficiency of the worker, the ease of

breakage of the pods under pressure,

moisture content and the variety. Figure 2

shows manual shelling methods practised

by women in Ghana.

Manually operated groundnut shellersThe semi-rotary sheller (see figure 3) of

Indian origin is widely used. It consists of

a hopper, wire mesh, a shelling bar and a

reciprocating arm. The hopper is a semi-

cylindrical trough with the wire mesh

attached to the bottom. The shelling bar isattached to the lower end of the

reciprocating arm.

The Tamale Implement Factory (TIF) in

Ghana produced a hand-operated rotary

Researchers at the Kwame Nkrumah University in

Ghana, in collaboration with groundnut farmers,

have developed a groundnut cracker-winnower that

can either be manually operated or run with a smallengine. The machine has been field tested and its

efficiency compared with other machines available

in Ghana and also with the traditional hand shelling

process. The trials measured the shelling efficiency,

capacity, cleanliness and damage to nuts. The best

result was achieved using a variable speed motor at

160180rpm and a feed rate of 240250kg/hr of

nuts, which gave 1214% of broken nuts. When the

machine was powered by a 2.5hp Yamaha petrol

engine and field tested the shelling capacity,

shelling efficiency, cleanliness and breakage were

6080kg/hr, 9597% and 1.54% respectively,which compares favourably with other methods.

No more fingertip shelling: The TEKgroundnut cracker to the rescue

2

ITDG Food Chain 30

Keywords

Groundnut, peanut,

shelling,

decortication,

manual, powered

Afr

ica

Ghana

Figure 1. Groundnut shelling

techniques

Manual Motorised

Shelling techniques

Finger-tip

breaking

and

separation

Beating

and

separation

as two

distinct

operations

Beating

with

sticks/stones

followed by

separation

Hand

cranking

Power

operated

Semi-rotary

(to and fro motion)Rotary

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13

ITDG Food Chain 30

Africa

Ghana

groundnut sheller on a commercial scale.

The Sheller has a feed hopper, a rubber

tyre roller with a fixed cover, a concave

sieve through which the shelled nuts drop

to the floor followed by a hand-winnowingoperation to separate the clean nuts from

the shells. A crank handle turns the tyre

roller. The shelling efficiency is 80%, while

broken kernels constitute 8%. The output

is 18kg/hr of clean nuts.

The Tek groundnut cracker/winnowerThe Tek groundnut cracker/winnower (see

figure 4) has been developed by the

Agricultural Engineering Department of

the Kwame Nkrumah University in

response to the drudgery associated with

fingertip shelling, which still predominatesin Ghana. The machine can be operated

either by hand cranking or a motor. It

consists of a hopper, a crank lever

mechanism, a rotating pneumatic shelling

drum, a blower assembly, a nut discharge

spout and husk outlet chute.

The groundnut pods are cracked

between the rotating cylinder, a

pneumatic tyre, and a stationary concave

sieve. The broken shells and nuts pass

through the sieve. After leaving the

shelling chamber, the nuts and husk fall

into a duct meeting an air stream from the

fans of the blower assembly and are

winnowed. The lighter shell passes out

through the husk outlet chute and heavier

nuts fall onto an inclined plate and are

collected through a spout. The clearance

between the drum and the sieve is

adjustable to accommodate various sizes

of groundnuts. The best clearance is1618mm. For optimum performance, the

blower is set at a speed of 560rpm. The

motorised version was tested with a

variable speed motor, a 2.5hp Yamaha

petrol engine and a 750-watt single-phase

electric motor.

The blower (winnowing unit) is run

through a chain and sprocket transmission

using the same power source. The

shelling drum and blower speeds are

variable between 180220rpm and

500560rpm respectively. The degree ofshelling is controlled by the intake slide

(flap gate), which regulates the amount of

pods falling into the shelling chamber. The

separation of shell from nuts is regulated

by the blower speed, which can be

adjusted to suit the variety and condition

Figure 3. Manually operated

semi-rotary groundnut

sheller

EBobobee

Figure 2. Manual shelling

methods practised by

women in Ghana

EBobobee

Figure 4. The Tek groundnut

cracker/winnower

EBobobee

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of pods being

treated. In this way,

impurities are kept

to the minimum.Operation,

servicing and

cleaning of the

machine are very

simple.

The TEK

groundnut

cracker/winnower

was developed with the objective of

producing a multi-pulse sheller cum

winnower for a range of commodities

such as groundnut, bambara beans (Vigna

subterranea), jatropha (Jatropha curcasL),neem seed (Azadirachta indica) and

sunflower (Helianthus spp). Farmer

participation in the development of the

machine and the evaluation of its

performance were critical for the

successful development and adoption of

this machine. The equipment was tested

in the University workshop for functional

performance and later taken to the end-

users in a predominantly groundnut

growing area for farmers acceptance

trials. During acceptance trials, severalquality parameters were assessed. These

included the following:

q percentage broken nuts,

q cleaning ability of the fan (blower unit),

q proportion of unshelled pods blown

with the chaff and those whole pods

retained in the shelling chamber,

q fuel consumption,

q output of the equipment.Several modifications were made to the

concave sieve, the pulleys and the blower

fan to improve performance and to

process other crops. A variable speed

motor was used to fine-tune the design

especially to determine the optimum

operating speeds of the cracking and

winnowing units. The existing finger-tip or

hand shelling techniques were examined

thoroughly to determine critical points for

intervention. A series of tests were

conducted on the manual shellingprocess. The time taken to crack a pre-

determined quantity of pods was noted

and translated into output (kg/hr). This

was followed by comparative tests on

some existing mechanical shellers in the

country to determine their capacities,

4

ITDG Food Chain 30

Table 1. Characteristics of groundnut samples used in the experiment

Average measurements

Variety Pod Pod Nut Kernel Moisturediameter length diameter weight content

(mm) (mm) (mm) (g) of pods

at shelling (%)

Mani pinta (red) 12.6 31.9 7.8 1.4 1222

Chinese (white) 11.6 26.3 7.5 1.0 12.28

Afr

ica

Ghana

Table 2. Performance test of various shelling methods

Shelling Time Wt. of Wt. of Wt. of Wt. of Wt. of Break- Shelling Cleanli- Output Nut

methods (min) sample unshelled clean husks cracked age efficiency ness (kg/hr) recovery

(g) pods (g) nuts (g) (g) nuts (g) (%) (%) (%) (%)

Finger-tip 90.5 1000 0 657 343 0 0 100 100 0.44 100

Beating and 83.7 1000 0 568 366 66 10.7 100 89.5 0.41 89100

separation

at once

Beating 67.4 1000 0 508 414 78 13.2 100 87.8 0.45 85100

followed by

separation

TIF Sheller 15.5 1000 204 550 199 47 7.9 79.6 92.1 2.13 79.6

Tek Sheller 2.4 1000 357 340 207 96.7 1022.1 66 77.9 8.53 64.3

(hand-cranking

operation)Tek sheller 1.2 1000 88.4 645 240 26.8 1.52.5 91.2 9498 6080 91.2

(motorized)

small engine/

motor

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shelling and cleaning efficiencies and

damaged nut percentage. The tests were

limited to two varieties of groundnut

(white and red). The moisture content of

the pods was determined prior to

cracking. The characteristics of

groundnuts used in the test are shown in

table 1. Modifications are now underway

to adapt the equipment to run on the

existing 8 hp corn mill engines used in

many rural areas of the country to process

more difficult-to-crack seeds such as

jatropha and castor.

Results and discussionThe results of tests performed are shown

in table 2. Data collected from thepreliminary testing indicate that when the

equipment is coupled to a variable speed

motor at 180200 revolutions per minute,

its output is in the range of 240250kg/hr

with a breakage of 1014%.

When equipped with a 2kW Yamaha

petrol engine and or a 0.75W single-phase

motor, output values were 6080kg/hr. The

lower value of 60kg/hr was obtained when

the equipment is set to operate

automatically (without an attendant),

while the higher value is obtained when it

is attendant operated.

When the equipment is operated by

hand cranking, the output is 810kg/hr.

These results are encouraging when

compared with outputs from fingertip

shelling and beating with wood which

yielded 0.721.15kg/hr. These results show

that the equipment performs the functions

of shelling and winnowing more

satisfactorily than the existing shellers.

The equipment was modified and used

to crack and clean jatropha and castor

seeds with encouraging results at rates of

1220kg/hr and 2030kg/hr respectively.Proposals are now being considered for

introducing the equipment on a pilot basis

in predominantly groundnut producing

areas to monitor its impact on the

beneficiary communities.

Emmanuel Bobobee, Kwame Nkrumah University

of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana.

15

ITDG Food Chain 30

Africa

Ghana

This handbook attempts to provide a

comprehensive guide to potential

entrepreneurs considering the setting-up

of a food drying enterprise. In this aim the

author is largely successful; it is refreshingto read a realistic and non-propagative

volume on small-scale drying. Chapters

are included on basic food drying

principles, marketing factors, drying and

associated processing technology,

production plant design, costing and

operation, and guidelines on dryer design

and construction. Whilst these subjects

are covered separately in numerous other

publications the strength of this book is

that appropriate, not token, emphasis is

given to all aspects required for the

development of a successful business.

Useful case studies are included

throughout outlining both successful and,

equally importantly, failed enterprises.

The book is well referenced on a practical

level, both for

further

information

and for

developmentand business

contacts.

Minor

criticisms

are that page layout could

have been more effectively utilised and

that the usefulness of some diagrams and

figures are restricted by their small size. I

would strongly recommend this book as

essential reading for both development

workers and would-be entrepreneurs

interested in the establishment of food

drying enterprises.

David S Trim

Agro-processing Consultant

B Axtell (2002), ITDG Publishing, London, UK.

ISBN 1 85339 520 X 120 pp

Drying Food for Profit A Guide for Small Businesses

Bo

oks

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6

ITDG Food Chain 30

A series of five fact-sheets describing

under-utilised tropical fruits has been

produced by the International Centre for

Underutilised Crops (ICUC) at

Southampton University UK. The fact

sheets give a brief description of the fruit,

including its morphology and form,

agronomic and climatic requirements andthe locations in which it is commonly

found. Basic details are provided on how

to grow and cultivate the fruit and the

economics of its production.

The uses of the fruit and reasons for

growing it are also outlined, along with

details of processing where appropriate.

These fact sheets give a good basic

overview to several potentially valuable

under-utilised species of tropical fruit.

They are useful starting material for

those who are interested in finding out

more about the fruits, and who have a

potential interest in cultivating and

processing the fruits.

References for further reading and

advice are included with each fact

sheet.

The following fact sheets:

Tamarind (Tamarindus indicaL.)

Ber (Ziziphus mauritiana

Lam.) (also known as Indian

jujube)

Baobob (Adanasonia digitataL.)Safou (Dacryodes edulisL.)

Annona (Annona spp)

are available from the International

Centre for Underutilised Crops (ICUC),

University of Southampton,

Southampton SO17 1BJ

([email protected]).

In addition to the fact sheets, a

series of monographs and field

manuals for extension workers on the

same species have been produced by the

Fruits for the Future project at ICUC. At the

time of writing, only Tamarind and Ber

monographs and extension manuals are

available from ICUC. The remaining three

monographs and extension manuals will

be available

towards the

end of 2002.

Fruits for the Future

Book inesL

B

ooks

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IntroductionIn sub-Saharan Africa, small-scale beer

brewing is primarily a household-based

business that is carried out by women.

Brewing may be one of the few income-

generating activities that rural women can

be widely and thoroughly involved in, but

it is equally important to stress that it is by

no means a minor enterprise, and not justthe peripheral scraps on the rural

economic plate. On

aggregate, beer-

brewing is a major

element of the rural

economy and in many

individual cases, a

relative business

success for the women

involved. This does not

imply that village

brewing is a money-spinner; micro-

economic studies

usually show that the

financial returns to

womens labour are

poor, but that is true for

most rural womens

enterprises in Africa.

The heavy labour

inputs and the

relatively high risk of

product failure are the

key factors thatdetermine profitability.

The importance ofbrewing to the localeconomyRural and small-scale

urban brewing is a

major income earner

for small-scale brewers

(the majority of whom

are women) and is vital

to their function in therural economy and

society. However, the

significance of artisanal

brewing is consistently

under-valued and ignored by

governments and donors alike (McCall

1996, Saul 1981, Pradervand 1990). The

ignorance is due, in the first instance, tothe paucity of studies on rural or urban

artisanal brewing, and beyond that by

ideological and interpretative factors.

The figures in table 1 give an indication

of the importance of brewing to peoples

livelihoods in a selection of African

countries. The proportion of villagers

actually brewing is difficult to generalise,

depending so much on cultural and

especially religious traditions, as well as

the resource base. Local beer accounts for

a very large portion of intra-village money

flows, and particularly of trans-gendercash flows between men and women

Brewing is womens business

17

ITDG Food Chain 30

Keywords

Beer, fermentation,

women, Africa,

brewing

A

frica

Table 1: Brewing is womens business and brewing is householdincome (various sources)

Womens household Location Year

business & women incomes

Findings from Botswana

2050% of households brew between Five villages 1985

one and seven times a week

In top 4 of household income sources Five villages 1985

By far highest income source for women In sample villages 1990

2nd highest household income In sample villages 1990

source (after cattle sales)

Findings from Burkina Faso

3rd highest household income source National sample 1990

(after farm produce sales & wage labour) survey

Findings from Tanzania

73% women brew at some time National sample survey 1983

25% households brew regularly FAO national 1984sample survey

2nd highest household income source Tanga Region 1994

(after agriculture as a whole)

75% state it is main income source of women National survey 1983

75% of women brewers state it Survey of female 1992

is their main income source brewers, Usangu Plains

Findings from Zambia

60% of households brew regularly Northern Province 1985

25% of female-headed households brew Chipata District 1985

Main cash source for women (ahead Mkushi District 1990of wage labour and charcoal)

77% of respondents state it is 1st or Luapula District 1985

2nd main income source for women

Most common income source for women Northern Province 1985

Michael McCall, with inputs from Sue Azam-Ali,

highlights the importance of small-scale brewing to

the livelihoods of African women. Because of

various reasons the importance of this income-generating activity is often overlooked by donors and

development agencies.

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(McCall 1996, Nkhoma 1992, Gattegno

1987, Tellegen 1997). Although a

considerable proportion of women drink,

the customers are primarily men,including the brewers own husbands. The

consumption of local brew in rural areas is

very high, a common figure given in

eastern and southern Africa being 1/2 to 1

litre of brew per adult per day. Brewing

also provides opportunities for women

(and men) to be employed by the female

brewers for activities such as cutting and

transporting firewood or the arduous job

of carrying water.

Beer brewing is not without its

problems. The process is fairly time

consuming and demands large amountsof water and fuel for the various stages. A

SADC rule of thumb estimates that on

average between 1 and 2kg wood fuel is

required to produce 1 litre of local beer

(Kaale 1990). Variations in fuel

consumption depend on the different

types of brew, and the fuel used, and thus

the technology in use. This raises cause

for concern over environmental

degradation and the time required by

women to collect fuel wood. In a typical

sub-Saharan village, where beer is brewedfor home use, for ceremonies and for sale

in village bars, it is estimated that this

accounts for between 5 to 30% of annual

wood consumption.

Benefits of brewingFermentation is a form of food

preservation that has been used for

centuries to improve the nutritional value

and the safety of foods and to add variety

to the diet. The traditional diet of many

cultures includes lightly fermentedbeverages with a low alcohol content.

These products are made by fermenting

cereals or vegetables to produce a low

alcohol drink. The transformation by

bacteria and yeasts breaks down complex

carbohydrates into sugars that are easier

to digest, breaks down poisonous and

toxic compounds (such as the cyanide in

cassava) and can increase the availability

of certain minerals and vitamins (for

example the B group of vitamins).

Families have traditionally made weak

alcoholic beverages by fermenting locallyavailable cereals. The fermentation

process entails a lengthy boiling process

to produce the fermentable substrate,

followed by a fermentation with yeast.

The whole family (including children)

consume this sweet drink. One of the

major health benefits of producing the

fermented drink, is that water is boiledduring the process and thereby made safe

to drink. In some countries, home-brewing

of any alcoholic beverage without a

licence is not encouraged. Although the

reasons for this are justified, the positive

benefits of fermentation, such as the

improved safety of drinking sources, is

overlooked.

Of course beer brewing and alcohol

consumption are not accepted by all

customs and cultures. The dangers of

excess alcohol consumption and the

impact this can have on personal healthand family status are well known. We are

not advocating alcoholism, but are

highlighting the real potential for rural and

urban small-scale business offered by

beer brewing.

The technique behind brewing skills andbrewing lossesArtisanal beer brewing is an inherently

risky operation. The technical processes

are not as simple as they look and each

stage involves continuous care and skilledmanagement. Some argue that it is one

reason that brewing is an art that has

been left as a womens enterprise, even

in male-dominated societies. The risks are

great and losses can easily be up to 90%

or 100%, usually due to over-fermentation

or failure to ferment.

There is no single brewing recipe,

indeed there are wide variations even

within a particular farming system

because an important determinant of the

brewing method, and thus the fuelrequired, is the source material. Mbege

banana beer for instance from Kilimanjaro

or Rwanda, requires bananas to be boiled

for 5 to 6 hours but uses much less wood

than sorghum beer.

The basic technique of brewing beer is

characterised by three stages: malting,

brewing, and fermentation. Normally, all

three stages are completed in 7 to 10

days, from the first preparation to

drinking. Thus in many cultures, local

sorghum beer is called seven days

brew. Water is needed for both the first

two stages, but the high levels of firewood

use are in the stage of brewing. This stage

of brewing or mashing places the

maximum demand on fuel wood supplies.

8

ITDG Food Chain 30

A

frica

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First stage: Malting

In the first stage, starch contained in the

grain is broken down into sugars (mainly

maltose) by germination. The grain issoaked and left to germinate in drums or

large vessels, taking up to 7 or 8 days.

Soaking the grain requires 3 to 3.5 litres of

water per kilo of grain. It is essential that

the water used is clean and potable. The

malting stage has to be carefully

controlled to balance quality against malt

volume. It is important to check the

degree of germination in the early stages

as this affects the final alcohol content and

acidity of the brew.

Second stage: BrewingThe germinated grain is dried, usually by

spreading out to dry in the sun, and the

dried sprouted grains are ground into a

flour. The quality of the wort (the technical

name given to the liquid made from warm

water and malted grain) will be affected

by the fineness of grinding of the grain.

The wort is prepared by adding water to

the ground grain (about 25 litres of water

per kg of grain). The mixture is heated and

boiled for about 1 to 2 hours. At this point,

extra sugar can be added to the wort ifdesired (up to 1kg per 25 litres of water).

After heating the wort is cooled down

and is strained.

Quality control at this point is essential

to the final quality of the beer. Too little

wort leads to thin beer with a poor taste

and low alcohol content whilst too much

produces a brew that is heavy to drink and

with a higher alcohol content. The cooking

period is also crucial to monitor under

cooking results in low alcohol contents

but over-cooking can produce a beer with

a burnt taste and aroma, which isunacceptable to the consumer.

Third stage: Fermentation

A starter culture, either yeast or a small

amount of beer left over from the previous

batch, is added to the wort. The bucket is

covered with a lid or cloth and allowed to

ferment for several days. When the foam

dies down on the top of the beer, the

fermentation is over and the beer is ready

to drink. Fermentation proceeds quite

rapidly in the tropical heat, but

occasionally the mash is heated to speed

up the process. The product may contain

enough of its own yeasts, but sometimes

yeast is added to speed up the process.

The alcoholic strength of the beer is

dependent on the conversion of sugars to

alcohol and carbon dioxide, which relies

on the length and rate of fermentation.

The length and rate of fermentation isaffected by several factors:

q the ambient temperature

q the amount and activity of yeast

q the amount of sugar present at the start

of fermentation.

The alcohol content is lower, the slower

the rate of fermentation or if a low sugar

content was present at the start of

fermentation. Brewers need to take care

during fermentation to ensure that the

alcohol is not converted into acetic acid

(as in vinegar production) which producesa sour-tasting beer.

The end product is a dense milky beer

that contains suspended particles of grain,

malt, yeast and starch. The beer is a live

product and therefore has a relatively

short shelf life of up to 2 weeks. It can be

consumed anytime after 1 or 2 days of

fermentation. As time passes, the beer

becomes stronger as fermentation is still

proceeding. However, there comes a point

when the sugar has all been converted

into alcohol and the yeast dies off. Afterthis time the alcohol may be broken down

into acetic acid (vinegar) by the

acetobacter species and the beer spoils.

Storing in a cool environment to slow

down the rate of fermentation will prolong

the period that the beer is good to drink. It

will also help the beer to clear.

It is possible to extend the shelf life to

several months by bottling and

pasteurising the beer after fermentation.

This process however, incurs additional

costs for the processor.

Improving the brewing processThe beer produced by this traditional

method is a sweet, cloudy alcoholic

suspension with a distinctive flavour of

the main ingredients. The colour varies

according to the ingredients used. For

example, rice beer is a whitish liquid

whereas sorghum and millet beers are a

darker reddish brown colour. Quality of

the beer varies from batch to batch and

the alcoholic strength depends on how

soon it is drunk after fermentation.

Spoilage of the beer is quite rapid,

especially in the humid tropics which

makes the whole art of beer brewing a

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fairly risky business for small-scale

brewers.

There are a few simple improvements

that can be made to the traditionalbrewing process that will significantly

improve the quality of the product.

q Attention to hygiene. Although the raw

materials are sterilised by boiling, the

wort is an excellent substrate for

microbial growth. It is therefore

essential that all equipment is

thoroughly sterilised to prevent

contaminating bacteria from competing

with the added yeast and producing

acid instead of alcohol. This can be

done by cleaning with boiling water orwith chlorine solution. Care is

necessary to wash the equipment (with

boiled water) to remove traces of

chlorine as this interferes with the

action of yeast. Only potable water

should be used for cleaning the

equipment and for adding as an

ingredient to the beer. If available,

sodium metabisulphite is an excellent

sterilising agent.

q Use of quality raw material. Grain

should be harvested when fully mature

to maximise the carbohydrate content.

The dried grains should be of the

correct moisture content and should be

stored properly to prevent moisture

uptake, which would allow mould

growth and reduce amylase activity.

q Proper grinding of the grain. The

germinated grain should be ground as

finely as possible (to pass through a

1mm sieve) as this increases the

surface area and maximises amylase

activity.

q Controlled time and temperature ofboiling. The grain should be boiled for a

sufficient amount of time to break down

the carbohydrates to sugars so that

they are more available for yeast action.

q Addition of sufficient yeast. The yeast

should be active and a sufficient

amount added to complete the

fermentation of sugars.

q Controlled temperature of

fermentation. The wort should be

cooled to an optimum temperature

(room temperature) for the yeast to act.If the temperature is too low the

fermentation time will be extended and

the beer may spoil before the alcohol

level is increased. If the temperature is

too high (above 45C), the yeast will be

inactivated.

q Filtration. If a clear product is required,

the beer can be strained afterfermentation and allowed to stand in a

cool place so that the sediment falls to

the bottom.

q Bottling and pasteurisation. To extend

the shelf life and improve the

appearance of the product, beer can be

bottled and pasteurised. It is essential

that clean, sterile bottles are used and

that after filling these are heated to

8090C for 30 minutes to pasteurise

the beer. This process will obviously

result in a product with a different taste

and appearance, which may or may notbe acceptable to local taste. It will

however have a shelf life of several

months when stored in a cool place

away from the direct sunlight.

Processors should test the acceptability

of such products before investing in the

necessary equipment.

ZERO, an organisation working in

Zimbabwe, is one of the few organisations

that recognises the value of and supports

small-scale brewing. The organisation has

produced a training manual for brewers

(Nyabeze, 1994) which reviews some of

the problems faced by small-scale

brewers and attempts to improve the

quality of the products.

Developments in the traditional brewingsectorThe penetration of the small-scale

womens enterprise sector by the

commercial brewing giants is by now

well-established and is having serious

effects on small enterprises in urbanareas. It is rapidly extending to rural areas

as well.

A significant technical advantage for

the small producer has always been that

local brew cannot store and must be

consumed quickly, which precludes an

extensive distribution system from a

central brewery, and partly explains why

there have been so few attempts to

commercialise it. Only in the dense urban

markets of southern and eastern Africa is

grain beer (chibuku) brewed with large-scale modern equipment by big

commercial breweries.

In South Africa in 1997, the market for

sorghum beer was estimated to be 2 to 3

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billion litres, of which 200 million litres

was made from a dry-base powder.

Powdered sorghum beers.Commercial companies are starting tomarket powdered beer concentrates for

the production of traditional beer

(chibuku). Traditional Beer Investments

(TBI) which belongs to the South African

Breweries giant markets Chibuku and

Elephant brands. Chibuku Breweries in

Zimbabwe makes Chibuku and Thabani

brands. Chibuku Breweries also produces

in Mozambique and Zambia.

Of great significance for artisanal

brewers throughout Africa, are the

technical developments by CSIR (Council

for Scientific and Industrial Research) in

South Africa. CSIR has developed stable

sorghum beer products, including a wort

concentrate that can be later diluted and

fermented to make beer. All are safe to

transport over long distances and keep in

storage.

For example, CPC Tongaat Foods (a

subsidiary of South African Breweries

(SAB)) in South Africa is already

marketing Funa Beer Powder, made of

maize grits, sorghum malt and yeast. 175litres of warm water are added to a 25 kg

sack and fermented for a day to make one

drum of sorghum brew. (CPC Tongaat

website),

CPC Tongaat Website:

http://www.cpctongaat.co.za/products/trad

itional.html

South African Breweries (SAB) Website:

http://www.sabplc.com

Conclusions

Beer brewing is a relatively simpletechnique that has been carried out by

families for centuries. It contributes to

improved food safety, involves thousands

of small-scale female entrepreneurs and

has the potential to be a source of

household income.

Support for the improvement of

brewing facilities does place a

government agency or NGO in a difficult

position. But the arguments to bring beer

onto their agendas should overwhelm any

moral qualms or social sensitivities.

Small-scale brewing is central to womens

livelihood and is a potential key to their

economic empowerment, yet in its current

condition it is environmentally damaging

as well as being technically andcommercially under-developed, because it

is being ignorantly undervalued, if not

deliberately scorned.

The forthcoming publication by

Deborah Bryceson makes useful reading

for those involved in alcohol production.

D.F. Bryceson (ed.) (2002). Alcohol in

Africa. Mixing Business, Pleasure and

Politics. Westport CN: Greenwood.

References1. Gattegno, Isabelle (1987), Woodfuel and

Small Scale Food Processing, Massy,

France: ALTERSIAL

2. Kaale, Bariki K (1990), Women dominate

rural industries in the SADCC region.

SADCC Energy, [Luanda], 8, (no 22), 5357

3. McCall, Michael (1996), Rural brewing,

exclusion and development policy-mak-

ing, Gender and Development, 4, (3),

2938

4. Nkhoma-Wamunza, Alice (1992), The

informal sector: a strategy for survival in

Tanzania., 197213, in: D R F Taylor and F

Mackenzie (eds) (1992), Development fromWithin, Survival in Rural Africa, London,

Routledge

5. Nyabeze, Washington (1994), Beer Brew-

ing. Improvements to Existing Technolo-

gies for Beer Brewing Industries in Zim-

babwe, Training Manual (ed: Carmel

Mbizvo), Harare: ZERO Regional Environ-

ment Organisation (11pp)

6. Pradervand P (1990), Listening to Africa.

Developing Africa from the Grassroots,

Praeger, New York

7. Saul, Mahir (1981), Beer, sorghum andwomen: Production for the market in rural

Upper Volta, Africa, 51, (3), 74664

8. Tellegen, Nina (1997), Brewing beer or

brewing trouble? Paper given at Confer-

ence on Alcohol in Africa: Multiple Utilities

and Meanings, African Studies Centre, Lei-

den, June 1997, (10pp)

Michael K McCall, Social Science Division, ITC,

PO Box 6, 7500 AA Enschede, The Netherlands

([email protected])\

With inputs from Sue Azam-ali, ITDG,Bourton on Dunsmore, Rugby, UK

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IntroductionTamarind (Tamarindus indicaL) is found

throughout much of the tropics, where it

grows unattended in backyards, on

roadsides and on wastelands. It is a tree

with a multitude of uses, some of which areunknown from one region to the next. It is a

valuable timber species, widely used for

making furniture, tool handles, charcoal

and fuel-wood. The leaves are an important

source of food and herbal medicine and the

edible pulp of ripe fruits is used as a

flavouring agent in cooking, soups, jams,

chutneys and sauces. The fruit pulp of

tamarind forms the tamarind of

commerce. It is the richest natural source

of tartaric acid (818%) and is the chief

acidulant used in the preparation of foods

in India and many other Asian countries.

The major industrial product is the seed

kernel powder (TKP) which is an important

material used in the sizing of textiles, paper

and jute. The tamarind kernel powder can

also be made into a pectin substitute that is

known commercially as jellose.

The use of pectinPecitin is used as a gelling agent in thepreparation of jams and jellies. Some

jams and jellies do not need pectin as the

fruits they are made from containsufficient natural gelling agent. However,

other fruits will not form a gel when

heated with sugar and it is advisable forprocessors to use pectin to ensure that

each batch they produce is of consistentquality. The problem for small-scaleprocessors in developing countries is that

pectin is fairly costly and quite difficult toobtain. Processors can make their own

pectin from fruit wastes, such as appleskins and passion fruit seeds (see box 1).

Preparation of tamarind kernel powder(TKP)Tamarind kernel powder is made from the

seeds of tamarind, which are otherwisediscarded. The tamarind kernel powder is

prepared by decorticating the seed andpulverising the creamy white kernels. Thekernels are ground to the required mesh

size by machines to obtain a yield of5560%. The resultant powder is not very

stable, particularly under humidconditions and deteriorates quite rapidly

during storage. To prolong the storagelife, it can be mixed with 0.5% sodium

bisulphate and stored in a cool, dry place.One of the uses of TKP is in the

preparation of a pectic-like gelling

substance called jellose. Thepolysaccharides in tamarind seed kernels

form mucilaginous dispersions with water

and can form a gel with sugar concentrates,

in much the same way that a fruit pectin

works. However, unlike fruit pectins,

tamarind polysaccharides can form a gel

over a wide pH range (fruit pectins require

acidic conditions to form gels). Also,

tamarind polysaccharides are not affected

by boiling in neutral aqueous solutions for

long periods (fruit pectins lose up to two

thirds of their gelling strength when boiled

for one hour). Tamarind polysaccharide canbe useful as a gel formation agent and may

be substituted for fruit pectin in jams and

jellies. Since tamarind polysaccharide does

not contain galacturonic acid, which is a

principle component of pectin, it cannot be

called a pectin and instead is referred to as

jellose.

Preparation of jelloseJellose is made on a large scale by addingtamarind kernel powder to 30 to 40 times

its weight of boiling water that containscitric or tartaric acid at a concentration of0.2%. The solution is stirred vigorously

and boiled for a further 30 to 40 minutes,then left to settle overnight. The following

day the supernatant liquid is siphoned off

The preparation of pectin from tamarindkernel powder

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ITDG Food Chain 30

Key words

Tamarind, pectin,

gelling agent, fruit

Asia

Small-scale manufacturers in developing countries

find it notoriously difficult to obtain pectin for the

preparation of jam and jellies. It is fairly costly and

quite difficult to obtain. An effective gelling agent,known commercially as jellose, can be produced

from tamarind kernels. This article by Professor

Gunasena from Sri Lanka describes the preparation

of tamarind kernel powder and the gelling agent

jellose.

Tamarind for sale in

polypaks

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and concentrated under vacuum, then it ispassed through a filter press and dried in

a drum drier. The resultant product ispulverised in a ball mill. A good sample of

jellose should have a relative viscosity of5.0% at 35C in 0.5% solution, which is

higher than cornstarch. Jellose is much