Food as a Basic Need and Human Right in Connection to Climate Change Education
International Scientific Conference eRA-6
Education II Session
1. Food as a Basic Need and Human Right in Connection to Climate Change Education. A Web-based Hypermedia Teaching Intervention for Primary School Learners
D. Gkotzos1, N. Larios2, V. akrakis3
1 Department of Primary Education, University of Crete, University Campus, 74100, Rethymnon - PhD Candidate, UNESCO Chair ICT in ESD, Tel. 6944449940, Email: [email protected]
2 Department of Primary Education, University of Crete, University Campus, 74100, Rethymnon - PhD Candidate, UNESCO Chair ICT in ESD, Tel. 6944533241, Email: [email protected]
3 Department of Primary Education, University of Crete, University Campus, 74100 Rethymnon - [email protected] - Professor, ICT in Education - UNESCO ICT in ESD Chairholder, Tel. 2831077625, Email: [email protected]
Abstract
This paper deals with a web-based hypermedia application entitled Food as a Human Right and Climate Change that is part of a broader hypermedia environment that introduces primary school learners on the issue of Childrens Rights and Climate Change Education. The methodological approach used is based on critical pedagogy and hypermedia technology. Through open source learning technologies and authentic learning activities that are enriched by open education resources elicited from the Web, learners are being informed and construct knowledge for the nutritional needs, while they are engaged in activities that lead to understanding food as a basic need and human right.
eywords: human rights, climate change, hypermedia technology, education for sustainability
Introduction
International data on food related issues provide shocking results. According to FAO [1] , it is estimated that more than 900 million people throughout the world, and particularly in developing countries, do not have enough food to meet their basic nutritional needs. The effect of inadequate food and famine is even more severe in children. It is estimated that about forty thousand children die each day to hunger related cases. Even in rich countries like US, hunger is a critical problem related to race. These figures will be increased due to climate change, which is already increasing the risk of exposure to hunger, malnutrition and food insecurity among the poorest and most vulnerable people [2]. Climate change will tend to reduce global agricultural production, increase food prices and intensify the risk of hunger and malnutrition. The number of people at risk of hunger is projected to increase by 10-20% by 2050 as a consequence of climate change [3]. The right to food has been addressed in UN conventions [4, 5] several world meetings, conferences, various human rights documents and in research studies.
There is increasing recognition that ICTs are critical to raising awareness and produce positive action in the field of global hunger and poverty reduction through climate change education. Indeed, ICT-enabled climate change education for sustainable development that may help decrease the risk of food-related problems is challenging educators and researchers. Our intervention Food as a Basic Need and Human Right in Connection to Climate Change Education belongs to the ICT-enabled Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) area [6] , which can become the framework for:
the contextualization of food-related and climate change issues through the model of action reflection action [7] , and a problem-based learning process enabled by ICTs;
help students develop an understanding of food as a basic need and human right;
use different graphic organizers to understand the relationship between food, health, climate change and human rights;
demonstrate the ability to practice positive health behaviours and reduce health and sustainability risks;
connect the problem of food shortage with other environmental and social problems and in particular with climate change impacts.
Design and development of the learning environment
Design and development methodologies
Through open source learning technologies and authentic learning activities that are enriched by open education resources elicited from the Web, learners are being informed and construct knowledge for the nutritional needs, while they are engaged in activities that lead to understanding food as a basic need and human right. ICTs play an important role in advancing sustainable education in two ways: a) by helping to promote new ways of interactive learning addressing sustainable development issues and b) by opening access to ICT-enabled education for sustainability and information and knowledge, in general [8, 9]. The hypermedia learning environment is enriched through the elicitation of learning objects found in the Web, including texts, images, videos organized and classified in a hypertext mode, which involves the existence of nodes linked with various ways and not only linearly [10]. It is also supported through the integration of various ICT tools, such as concept maps (Text2Mindmap), spreadsheets (Zoho Sheet), presentations (280slides), paint tools (Pixlr), word processing (Zoho Writer). In developing this hypermedia learning environment we used both ESD-based instructional design principles [11] and software engineering methods.
The back-end system of our hypermedia learning environment is based on Drupal- an open source Content Management System (CMS) similar to platforms like Joomla and Moodle- and offers a powerful and extensible framework. It is a database-driven web application written in PHP. Some of the advantages in using a CMS as a back-end are low development time along with high reliability and a wide variety of useful tools for educators such as blog, forum, user groups, privacy options, rich user profiles and easy management. The main learning content is composed of Learning Objects (LOs). The authoring tool that was used to create the LOs is Adobe Flash. Each LO is constructed from various media assets, such as text, video, animation, charts and sound narration, all gathered under a simple graphic user interface, comprising a dynamic and adaptable learning environment.
The structure of the hypermedia environment and its underpinning theory
The structure of our hypermedia learning environment is based on the principles of constructivism based on social as well as cognitive principles. Our goal is not only the acquisition of knowledge, i.e. we do not want learners simply to learn which factors are influencing their right to food. Our ultimate goal is to instill in our students active citizenship and the capacity to act as change agents, at the personal and social level. Personally, it is envisaged to change learners unsustainable behaviors, attitudes and beliefs and through participatory action to promote change agency action competencies [12]. Thus, it could be suggested that our approach has an emancipatory cognitive interest [13,14], as we emphasize on learners action reflection action process . We also adopt a human rights education approach that is based on empowering learners to differentiate between the charity dimension and other forms of aid, although valuable, and enabling learning environments that support learners to understand the roots of the food-related issues and get involved in action to help eradicate the problem. Empowerment is integral to any strategy that moves away from the benevolence model of food aid and instead emphasizes the right to food [15].
The learning environment consists of the introduction and four units: 1) Me and my food 2) Food as a basic need 3) Food as a right and 4) Right to food and climate change. Access to these units is available through the top menu of the home page of the learning environment. At the left side of each page there is direct access to the basic tools of the learners (concept mapping, word processor, painting) as well as to a modern Greek online dictionary.
The starting point of learners involvement in the web-based learning environment is the exploration of the knowledge about the concept of hunger.
At this point we should mention that the activities integrated within this learning environment are connected to the official Hellenic Primary School Curriculum through hyperlinks to the Digital School website, which has been developed by the Ministry of Education, Lifelong Learning and Religious Affairs (http://digitalschool.minedu.gov.gr/) and in particular to the subjects of Civics Education, Geography, Mathematics, Language and Religion.
The hypermedia environment and its learning process
The learning process in our problem-based learning environment in general terms takes the following course: (a) engagement, (b) exploration, (c) investigation, (d) creation, (e) sharing [16]. It could be suggested that the phase of exploration is connected with the emergence of learners life experience, the phase of investigation with the construction of new knowledge and the phase of creation with taking action. At the end of the exploration and creation phases learners are called to express their views for the problem under examination mainly through the construction of concept maps. The comparative examination of these maps is expected to lead us to conclusions regarding the degree of conceptual change that occurs in learners knowledge, perceptions and attitudes throughout the teaching intervention.
The engagement of learners in the web-based learning environment starts with the exploration of learners views about the concept of hunger. This exploration is made through the concept mapping strategy as well as through using painting software to elicit learners social representations concerning food and hunger. Learners are called to use the respective tools in order to answer the question: What does the word hunger mean for you? Initially each learner is asked to draw his/her own concept map and then learners groups are asked to compose the data of individual concept maps in a common concept map.
In the first unit titled Me and my food learners experience is explored through individual and group activities, with which they are called to mention their nutritional habits and to express their views regarding the foods that are necessary for our survival and growth.
Then, they are asked to investigate some web-based material about the information and labeling of food labels in order to identify the nutritional ingredients, which are included in various foods, as well as to become familiar with the labeling of food labels. In the following activities learners are asked to relate foods with the nutritional ingredients they contain and a first attempt is made to question the necessity of consuming foods from each group (learners have been previously asked to make a concept map in which foods are grouped according to the main nutritional ingredient they contain). Learners are also informed for the caloric value of foods and study the food circle that shows which foods we should prefer and which we should avoid from each group of foods.
In order to motivate learners towards an environmentally friendly nutrition, they are asked to explore their ecological footprint of food and, depending on their results, to think the possibility to change their nutritional habits.
In the following activity, learners in groups are investigating the controversial issue of the genetically modified foods. They are provided with online newspaper articles, that mention the positive and negative effects of this issue, in order to study them, and then they are called to create their own presentation for this issue and share their knowledge with others.
The school canteen plays a significant role in the everyday nutrition of learners. Therefore, after making an initial research exploring the foods that children buy from the school canteen, learners are investigating the foods that school canteens are allowed to sell and make a comparison with the kind of food they actually sell. Learners are encouraged to take action and make suggestions in cooperation with the classroom teacher, as well as with the person in charge of the school canteen, concerning healthy nutrition and the role of the school canteen.
After the engagement of learners in various activities, like the ones mentioned above, they are asked to create their own meal plan by selecting themselves the kinds of food that it will contain and then they share their knowledge with their parents and encourage them to create a similar meal plan.
Then learners, through the activities of the sub-section entitled Tell me where you come from to tell you what you eat, investigate the nutritional habits of other people and compare them to their own habits. They are also informed about the Fair Trade movement and its relation with our nutritional selections. They are also encouraged to take action and share their knowledge with others by selecting one of the activities suggested by the website of the Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) Fair Trade Hellas (http://www.fairtrade.gr/).
Then learners perceptions of advertising are explored through an activity contained in 6th grade Language student book. Learners investigate the main features of an advertisement (language, colors, etc.). Through other activities contained in the same student book learners attempt to create a food advertisement. They are advised to select a product which they consider important for our survival and development. At the end of the unit Me and my food learners working in groups are called to build a final concept map containing the foods, which they believe that are necessary for our survival and growth.
The main aim of the following unit titled Food as a basic need is to make learners understand how important nutrition is for human survival, making a connection to food as a basic need and human right, in particular with childs rights. Learners are engaged to imagine that they would have to live on an island on which there is almost nothing. Each learner group is asked to make a list of ten items that would take with them and to decide for each one whether it fulfills a need or a wish. In this way, we explore learners understanding and prioritizing of needs. Then, learners groups are engaged in a similar activity contained in 5th grade Civics Education student book. Through the comparative examination of the two activities they have the chance, if they wish, to change some of their initial selections.
During the investigation phase, learners are watching embedded advertisement videos about food made by the organizations Youth for Human Rights International and ction Aid. They are also asked to read the unit entitled Every day many children are dying from hunger contained in the 5th Grade Religion student book. Through the above activities it is attempted to make the transition to the unit entitled Food as a right. The engagement of students is attempted through the study of the text Childrens rights written by Antonis Samarakis, which is contained in the Greek Literature (Anthologium) student book. Through this activity, learners are grasping deeper the human rights approach of food.
Then, learners groups are investigating the four groups of rights, the so called four pillars [17] of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and they are asked to decide in which group the right to food should be included. At the same webpage, they are informed about the activities of Unicef on this issue. In particular, learners are called to create a concept map, in which they have to depict the factors, they believe, that have effects on their right to food and the ways to take action in order to protect it. In order to understand the importance of the above right, learners are called first to calculate the number of people in the world who are denied the right to food and to consider the consequences of that denial. As a case study, we selected the Horn of Africa Peninsula, an area in which a great amount of the population is malnourished.
Through the construction of a concept map, learners views are recorded concerning the relation of climate change and the right to food, as well as, the extent to which they could intervene in this relation. This activity is used for the engagement of learners in the unit titled Right to food and climate change. In this unit Pakistan is examined as a case study in comparison with the previously examined case study of the Horn of Africa Peninsula. Through this comparative examination, learners groups are asked to explore similarities and differences between these two areas, which have a high percentage of malnourished inhabitants. Through the study of selected texts and respective questions it is attempted to motivate learners to investigate the relation of the denial of the right to food with some extreme local climate conditions, that have been arisen as an effect of the climate change phenomenon. Then, learners groups are asked to find ways of action with which they could mitigate the climate change phenomenon and the denial of the right to food that is caused by the effects of this phenomenon. They are also called to search on the web and on selected websites about the issue mentioned above as well as to create a second concept map containing the same concepts with the one they made previously. At the end, learners groups are called to go through all the previous activities and to share their knowledge by making a presentation for a healthy and environmentally responsible nutrition.
Concluding remarks
The hypermedia learning environment Food as a Human Right and Climate Change presented in the previous sections can be used for enriching the primary school curriculum by integrating an education for sustainable development perspective. The activities integrated within this application are connected to the official Hellenic Primary School Curriculum through hyperlinks to the Digital School website, which was developed by the Ministry of Education, Lifelong Learning and Religious Affairs (http://digitalschool.minedu.gov.gr/) and in particular to the subjects of Civics Education, Geography, Mathematics, Language and Religion. A number of ICT tools have been used as scaffolds to advance the issue of food as a basic need and human right in connection to climate change education for sustainable development.
References
1. FAO, The State of Food Insecurity in the World. Addressing food insecurity in protracted crises, Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2010.
2. Parry, M., Evans, A., Rosegrant, M. & Wheeler, T., Climate change and hunger: Responding to the challenge, World Food Programme, 2009.
3. Parry et al., op. cit. [2].
4. United Nations, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, n.d., Retrieved July 24, 2011 from: http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml
5. United Nations, Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989, Retrieved July 24, 2011 from: http://www.unesco.org/education/pdf/CHILD_E.PDF
6. Makrakis, V., ICT-enabled education for sustainable development: Merging theory with praxis, Proceedings in the 4th Annual Conference on e-Learning Excellence in the Middle East 2011 - In Search of New Paradigms for re-Engineering Education, Hamdan Bin Mohammed e-University, Dubai, UAE, January/February 2011.
7. Diduck, 1999 in Kostoulas-Makrakis, N., Makrakis, V., Multiculturality and Education for a Sustainable Future, University of Crete: E-media Publ., 2006 (in Greek).
8. Makrakis, V., Making sustainable development research visible to the world through digitization and open access, In H. Westgeest et al. (Eds), Making Research Visible to the World, pp100-104, Amstelveen: Canon Foundation in Europe, 2010.
9. Makrakis, V., The challenge of WikiQuESD as an environment for constructing knowledge in teaching and learning for sustainable development, Discourse and Communication for Sustainable Education, vol. 1, no.1, pp. 50-57, 2010.
10. Makrakis, V., Hypermedia in Education: A Socio-constructivist Perspective, Athens: Metechmio,2000 (in Greek).
11. Makrakis, V., An instructional design module of ICT that empowers teachers to integrate Education for Sustainable Development across the Curriculum, In C. Angeli & N. Valanides (Eds), Proceedings of the 6th Panhellenic Conference with International Participation on Information and Communication Technologies in Education, vol. 1, pp.391-398, University of Cyprus, September 2008.
12. Makrakis, V., 2011, op. cit. [6].
13. Kostoulas-Makrakis, N. & Makrakis, V., 2006, op. cit. [7].
14. Mac Isaac, D., The Critical Theory of Jurgen Habermas, 1996, Retrieved July 24, 2011 from: http://physicsed.buffalostate.edu/danowner/habcritthy.html
15. UNESCO, A Human Rights-Based Approach to Education for All: A framework for the realization of childrens right to education and rights within education, Paris: UNESCO-Unicef, 2007.
16. Carbonaro, M., Rex, M. & Chambers, J., Using LEGO Robotics in a Project-Based Learning Environment, The Interactive Multimedia Electronic Journal of Computer-Enhanced Learning, vol. 6, no. 1, June 2004, Retrieved July 24, 2011 from: http://imej.wfu.edu/articles/2004/1/02/index.asp
17. Biersteker, L. & Robinson, S., Socio-economic policies: Their impact on children in South Africa, In D. Donald, A. Dawes, J. Louw, (Eds.) Addressing Childhood Adversity, pp. 26-59, Cape Town: David Philip Publ., 2000.
2. GAZE TRucking method use in the satisfaction evaluation of e-learning systems in marine education
D. Papachristos1, N. Nikitakos2, C. Alafodimos3
1Dept. Automation, TEI of Piraeus, Aigaleo, Greece, Tel.+30210 5381174, Fax:+30210 5381249, E-mail: [email protected]
2Dept. Shipping, Trade and Transport, University of Aegean, Chios, Greece, Tel.+3022710 35201, Fax:+3022710 35299, E-mail: [email protected]
3Dept. Automation, TEI of Piraeus, Aigaleo, Greece, Tel.+30210 5381542, Fax:+30210 5381249, E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
A research providing an objective data registration on the users emotional state which affects any ability in problem solving and project execution procedures, poses an important challenge. In particular, by the use of biometric tools and neuroscience methods, the adult education level and more importantly the marine education is expanded, opening new horizons in the educational research within the new educational frame set up by the use of new technologies. The development of an evaluation model of the students satisfaction happiness via e-learning system use in marine education is an important research subject. That can result via data translation recorded with the use of biometric tools (use of gaze trucking tool). The research methodology that will be used has its roots in the Neuroscience Sector and connects the behavioral evaluation with the neurological interpretation of the phenomena. The ultimate goal would be the use of her research results from the marine education sector (), the adult education sector scientists, as well as the learning systems developers in order to improve their work in the educational projects.
Keywords: neuroscience, evaluation, satisfaction, gaze trucking
Introduction
One of the problems arising in most of the evaluation techniques is the fact that we are based on observation and the users answers. Today a great interest is turned towards the use of the so-called objective usability testing. The two sectors that pose the greatest interest are the eyes observation and the physiology data measurement closely related to several human physiology data. The cognitive neuroscience application in the interpretation of the behavioral measurements of a user interacting with interface that concludes its study and the external conditions related to its appearance, as well as the inspection of nervous system mechanisms which intervene in this relationship, contributes in a better analysis and process of the users natural reactions [1],[2],[3].
International bibliography provides many sources on the Eye-tracking research in education. For instance, Schiessl et al., (2003) used an eye-tracker to investigate gender interfaces in attention behavior for textual vs. pretorial stimuli on websites. An investigate outcome was that, when the participants were asked where in the interface they thought they looked their perceptions often differed from reality, showing that accurate attention patterns could only be found with an eye-tracker. In Jakob explores issues surrounding the real-time processing of eye data such as efficient noise reduction and the organization of gaze information into tokens from which relevant data may be extracted. He then discusses the potential of eye-tracking as a tool in several forms of interface manipulation, including object selection/movement, scrolling text and navigating menus. Salvucci and Anderson applied these ideas to design IGO (Intelligent Gaze-added Operating system), a system that allows users to use their eyes to perform interface operations such as opening, closing and dragging windows. Sibert et al., (2000) describe the use of gaze trucking to assess reading performance in the Reading Assistant, a system for automated reading remediation that provides visual and auditory cues if user gaze patterns indicate difficulties in reading a word. Qu and Johnson use eye-tracking for interaction adaptation within the Virtual Factory teaching systems (VFTS), an computer tutor for teaching engineering skills. Eye-tracking is used to discern the time the user spends reading something from the time the user spends thinking before taking action, with the goal of assessing and adapting to the motivational states of student effort and confusion. Gluck and Anderson studied the use of eye-tracking to assess student problem-solving behaviors within the PAT Algebra I tutor, including attention shifts, disambiguation of problem statements and errors, processing of error messages and other information critical to problem solving [4].
In the field of learning and instruction, eye tracking used to be applied primarily in reading research with only a few exceptions in other areas such as text and picture comprehension and problem solving. However, this has changed over the last years, eye-tracking is starting to be applied more often, especially in studies on multimedia learning. Because eye tracking provides insights in the allocation of visual attention, it is very suited to study differences in attentional processes evoked by different types of multimedia and multi-representational learning materials [5],[6],[7].
In the marine education and training, in particular, the users satisfaction based on objective criteria poses an important research subject because via this we can determine the background that explains the satisfaction phenomena, recommending at the same time new considerations that will expand the up-to-date educational conclusions on the adult education in educational programs and software development [8],[9].
Optical Measurement Procedure
The optical perception includes the stimulants natural reception from the external world and the process/explication of that stimulant. The observation of eye movement, as well as the pupil movement, is an established method in many years now and the technological developments in both material equipment and software, made it more viable as a practicality measurement approach. The eyes movements are supposed to depict the level of the cognitive process a screen demands and consequently the level of facility or difficulty of its process. Usually, the optical measurement concentrates on the following: (a) the eyes focus points, (b) the eyes movement patterns and (c) the pupils alterations. The measurement targets are the pc screen areas definition, easy or difficult to understand. In particular the eyes movement measurements focus on attention spots, where the eyes remain steady for a while, and on quick movement areas, where the eye moves quickly from one point of interest to another [2],[10],[11]. The measurement methodology must fulfill all three requirements of the cognitive neuroscience (experiential verification, operational definition, repetition) and include data-tools: (a) Recording device: might include special glasses with the recording camera or a web camera, (b) Registration data process analysis software and (c) data process software. In the following figure is shown the optical data registration and analysis procedure:
Figure 1: Optical data registration and analysis procedure.
Research Methodology
The recommended research procedure aims at the modeling of the students-users (subjective) satisfaction of the marine education via user interface evaluation of several types of educational software. The research that will be conducted is a combination of qualitative quantitative methodology, on one hand, and a use of neuroscience tools (use of gaze trucker), on the other hand. This aims at the combination of the positive aspects of the corresponding methodologies: aiming at countable results & variable check (quantitative, questionnaire use), interpretative, explanatory (qualitative, interview use) and more objective measurements by observation of the users physiological data (gaze trucking use) [11]. The course of steps (4th parts) taken in the research procedure of the research conduction is shown in the following figure:
Figure 2: Research Steps.
In the research the optical data registration will be conducted by the Face Analysis software that was developed by the IVML Lab of the National Technical University of Athens, in connection with a Web camera set on the computer in which there is the subject of the research (educational software i.e. marine simulator) [10]. That particular software records a large number of variables (42) that concern data on the form of the face as well but in the present research we focus on the following parameters that refer to the users eyes and head movement: (a) eyes movement: vertical & horizontal eye movements (Eye gaze vector), (b) users head position in regard to the eyes up/down right/left movement (Head Pose Vector: pitch, yaw), (c) eye distance from the computer screen (Dist_monitor) and (d) rolling of the head (eye angle from a horizontal level): right left (Head roll) (Fig.3). In Fig. 4 is shown the softwares optical interface during the registration procedure.
Figure 3: iometric tool parameters interpretation (Face Analysis).
Figure 4: Face Analysis software in action.
The phenomenon of the subjective satisfaction of the user is the ultimate goal (Fig.5). It is complicated in its nature as it is affected by many factors varying from situation to situation and from individual to individual. The ultimate goal is to find an average, concerning the marine education and training and any special factors concerning: the education suitability (marine education models), the ability to simulate the functional abilities regarding the actual marine environment, the realism of situations in correspondence with the real-time situations, the controlled functional environment, the satisfactory interface for the users and the ability to conduct full-time system control by the educator-trainer.
Figure 5: Structural vision of the users-students subjective satisfaction phenomenon.
Conclusions
A research providing an objective data registration on the users emotional state which affects any ability in problem solving and project execution procedures, poses an important challenge. In particular, by the use of biometric tools and neuroscience methods, the adult education level and more importantly the marine education is expanded, opening new horizons in the educational research within the new educational frame set up by the use of new technologies.
References
1. S. J. Blakemore, U. Frith, The Learning Brain: Lessons for Educations, Oxford:Blackwell, 2005.
2. A. Dix, J. Finlay, G. D. Abowd, R. Beale, Human-Computer Interaction, UK:Pearson Education Limited, 2004.
3. U. Goswami, Neuroscience and education:from research to practice?, Nature Review Neuroscience, 7:406-413, 2007.
4. C. Conati, C. Merten, Eye-tracking for user modelling in exploratory learning environments: An empirical evaluation, Knowledge-Based Systems, 20:557-74, 2007.
5. J. Holsanova, N. Holmberg, K. Holmqvist, Reading information graphics: the role of spatial contiguity and dual attentional guidance, Applied Cognitive Psychology, 23:1215-26, 2009.
6. J. Hyona, P. Niemi, Eye movements during repeated reading of a text, Acta Psychologica, 73: 259-80, 1990.
7. M. A. Just, P. A. Carpenter, A Theory of reading: From eye fixations to comprehension, Psychological Review, 87: 329-55, 1980.
8. IMO-International, Maritime Organization, Issues for training seafarers resulting from the implementation onboard technology, STW 34/INF.6, 2003.
9. D. Papachristos, N. Nikitakos, Application Methods and Tools of Neuroscience, in Marine Education, Conference Proceedings Marine Education & Marine Technology, pp.177-190, www.elint.org.gr, Athens, 30 November 1 December, 2010,
10. S. Asteriadis, P. Tzouveli, K. Karpouzis, S. Kollias, Estimation of behavioral user state based on eye gaze and head poseapplication in an e-learning environment, Multimedia Tools and Applications, Springer, pp. 469-493,Volume 41, Number 3 / February, 2009.
11. D. Papachristos, N. Nikitakos, Evaluation of Educational Software for Marine Training with the Aid of Neuroscience Methods and Tools, Symposium Proceedings, TransNav2011 Symposium, Gdynia Maritime University, Poland, 15-17 June, 2011.
4. Nanotechnology and nanocomputing in society and education.
M. Tsoukalas., A. Koutsoukos
Introduction to Nanotechnology
The year is 1959. Caltech physics professor and Nobel laureate (1965), Richard The Feynman delivered a stunning lecture on the possibility of research in science bottom up.The event, cleverly titled, "there is plenty of room at the bottom," suggests that there is no limit to produce things on the atomic level up. Referred to as saying, "The principles of physics, because I can see, I do not speak against possibility of the individual things from the person. The questions arising form this conference were many. But he really sets the Feynman spark in nanotechnology. In 1808, John Dalton, a British chemist claimed that every single person in a certain item is identical. This idea will become very important later in this perspective. In 1868, Gregor Mendel, a Czech monk described the structures and functions of heredity. Certainly, both scientists could not have predicted what we would do the work. Probably the most daunting task was to build devices that would allow us to see things is the atomic size. The term "nano" means billionth him a meter. This is 100,000 times smaller than a human hair. The Feyman suggested in his lecture that we are building the best microscopes to accomplish the objective things at the atomic level. There was until 26 years later (1981) that invented the electron microscope detection. This device is widely used in industrial and basic research to take pictures metal surfaces at the atomic scale.Allows us to produce a three dimensional diagram of the surface which we use to characterize the roughness, defects, size, and shape molecules. The device basically works by putting a person at the bottom of a very sharp tip of a needle. This needle occurs within close proximity of the test surface. The voltage is then applied to the edge. The tip then interacts with the electron clouds the metal surface. As the tip moves over the surface, the distance between surface and the edge of change. Since the length changes so does the current flow between the tip and surface? These changes can then be converted into an image. And so ability to work at the atomic scale exploding. - 3 - is quite amazing to think that a piece of coal and a diamond consisting of exactly the same chemical substance: coal. The only difference is how the atoms are arranged. What would happen if we could manipulate atoms and diamond construction as easily as M &M; this raises are certainly some questions about how the economic climate forces our systems in the near future. An interesting discovery in the maneuver of carbon atoms have been around since 1985. The scientist Richard Smalley and his fellow researchers were able to construct a cage 60 carbon atoms. Certainly it appears that Dalton basic theory has opened a door for us to build the endless things with the basic raw data. On November 9, 1989 Almaden Research Center of IBM in San Jose, California Scientists wear Eigler and Erhard Schweizer began shortly individual handler own. With pride the company handled 35 Xenon atoms to form the logo "IBM". And so began the era of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology, from a business perspective, will create better and entirely new materials, devices and systems. What does this mean? It means new jobs because of new markets. It's amazing that the science of small will has a huge impact on society. In fact, alleged by the year 2010, demand for products and services nanotechnology in the U.S. only hit the $ 1 trillion in dollar amount. Funding for Nanotechnology research has doubled almost every year as the U.S. $ 710 invested one million dollars in research in 2003. So what exactly these research dollars spent? The applications of nanotechnology can be summarized into several key areas: Intelligent materials, sensors, nanoscale Viodom, capture and store energy, magnets, processing, electronics, and modulation A "smart material" means any material which is at nanoscale, which performs a specific goal. These are very unusual structures because they contain MOBILE e expenses. These costs can move to new positions in the structure prevent than to shine the light on the application or an electric field. The key to understand is that this change is like a code. It is very given as a bar code scanner at the grocery store. An example of a smart hardware-only car will be painted glass. Clearly, more often, but when it reaches sunlight at a certain intensity of the glass darkens to prevent the driver from blindness. One of the most exciting areas nanotechnology involves understanding molecular recognition. This implies that is able to capture and recognize a certain molecule. We design a molecular sensor with the ability to capture what called "residual", which means molecule that we want to analyze. Himself sensor has a vacuum that only the residue can cover. This idea is very similar to the idea represented as a Cinderella ONLY could wear the shoe. Once you absorb the sensor that residue change color forces To show his presence. These sensors have also been called Bioarrays. Since these sensors operate in the nanoscale could literally have billions of small detectors available for any type of materials you want to scan. This could be temperature, water, light, sound, and even biological and chemical agents. In the picture above, we see a example of color change when binding the carbon and nanosensor in DNA. These structures are designed to "emulate" a type of biological process. They also interact with a biological mechanism. One of the main focus of this research is the field of human repair and idea selfassembly. For example, when we are cut our body is able to heal and to repair the cut. But sometimes, in the case of broken bones, our body has a hard time repairing to perfect condition. The biostructures are to be inserted in body and will provide a template to help the body. Using the example of bone the biostructure will form an outer shell around the area to be repaired. The natural bone may then grow around the structure like a rose increased beyond trellis. So now do not have to replace the bone that can simply to restore the damage easily. Consider how much sunlight hits the earth really. We can safely assume that there is much ground available from which we could use to capture the rays sun. We determined that on average each square yard of land exposed to obtain 5 KW-hours of solar energy per day. So if you had an area covering 100 sq yards would generate 500 KW-hours per days. Upon careful inspection of the energy bill we find that the average U.S.. The family produces 500-1000 KW-hours of electricity a month. So if we could efficiently harness the sun's energy would be unlimited energy for our use. Nanotechnology is hoping to help it become a reality. A particular nanomaterial that Our interest is titanium dioxide. This material, when combined with an additional dye, will absorb solar energy and convert it to electricity. The hope is that these Photovoltaic cells made from nanomaterials would be more efficient, costs less produced, which have significantly less influence on the environment of the features solar cells used today. The soldier in the day is often referred to as a Christmas tree. It has all kinds of devices and each has a battery. Many times a soldier in the field brings a package of more than 80 pounds. One objectives of nanotechnology is to develop a suit capable of many different functions. One of these features includes rheological fluids generators. These fluids consist of magnetic nanoparticles. These molecules are so small that they light a costume to wear. When a ball approaches, the senses costume approach and the fluid - 6 - immediately stiffened to not allow bullets or shrapnel to penetrate the suit. Scientists have discovered that when a fluid is suddenly a drastic change in properties may to release or absorb the energy of a projectile. This science has implications even for local police as well. The basic idea is that nanofabrication devices can be designed or constructed the nanometer scale. To have any importance to society a material must be able to be constructed. This has proved difficult since these materials are so young. But there are many ideas about how this process might work. One idea is that device self-assembled to the person from the person using a small nanomichanism. This idea is similar to a seed, which tends to increase over time. The whole procedure structure must be able to generate massive amounts of clean material very effectively. The area of nanaoilektronics is very exciting as it is the combination of biology, chemistry, physics, engineering and computing. Imagine the smallest and faster computer chips. The Nanomate can absorb the heat and run on electricity as to make it ideal for computer parts. The Nanomo can be constructed and operated by nanochips. A interesting idea is to combine organic in nanoelectronics. Current research includes the union of nanoelectronics to the nervous system body. Both can produce an electric current, thus can be used together in one system. Diseases such as multiple sclerosis and Lou Gehrig disease could be physical problems of the past.
Introduction to nanocomputing
The Nanocomputing describes the calculation that uses extremely small, or nanoscale, devices (A nanometer [NM] is one billionth a meter). In 2001, the state electronic devices Progress could be as small as about 100 NM, which is about the same size like a virus. The industry of integrated circuits (IC), however, looks in the future to determine the smallest electronic devices possible within the limits of technology calculation. Until the mid-'90s, the term nanoscale general showed features circuits smaller than 100 NM. Since the integrated circuit industry began to builds commercial devices such size scales from the beginning of the 2000s, the term "that" has maintained equipment features well below 50 NM including the size individual molecules, which are only a few NM. Scientists and engineers are beginning only conceive new ways to approach the calculation using extremely small devices and individual molecules. All computers must operate with the basic physical processes. Modern digital Computers use patterns and trends in the tens of millions of additional transistor metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) covering a few square centimeters silicon. If the dimensions of devices could be reduced by a factor of 10 or even 100, then the function circuits will increase from 100 to 10,000 times. Moreover, if such a new architecture of devices or computers were developed, such as lead forces millionfold increase in computing power. Such circuits would consume much less energy per mode, increasing battery life and to shrink the boxes and fans necessary to cool the circuits. Also, it was remarkably fast and able to perform the calculations are still not possible on any computer. The benefits of significantly faster computers include more accurate prediction of weather patterns and the recognition of complex Numbers on the images and the development of artificial intelligence (AI). Eventually, single-chip memories containing thousands of gigabytes of data will be developed, capable of the whole libraries of books, music, or movie. Modern transistors are marvels of engineering, requiring hundreds of careful processing steps performed in ultraclean environments. Today's transistors operate microamps flows and only a few thousand electrons that produce the signals, but with reduced, fewer electrons are available to create a large voltage swings are required. This causes scientists and engineers to pursue new physical phenomena that will allow the processing information to be displayed using other mechanisms than those currently adopted for transistor action. Future nanocomputers could be evolutionary, reduced versions of today's computers, which operate essentially the same ways and with similar but nanoscale devices. Or they can be revolutionary vasimenos some new device or molecular structure not yet developed. Research on nano-devices aimed at learning the physical properties of very small structures and then determining how they can be used to perform some calculation functions. Nanocomputing Current research includes the study of micro electronics and molecules, processing, and architectures that can benefit from the inherent electrical properties. The Nanostructures that have been studied include semiconductor quantum points, single electron structures, and different molecules. Very small particles of the material limit the electrons in the ways that large no, so that the quantum mechanical nature of electrons becomes important. The quantum dots behave like artificial atoms and molecules because electrons in the can only have certain energy prices, which can be used to represent information logic sturdy. Another area is the "single electron devices," which, like name implies, represent information on the behavior of only one, single electron. The Latest reduced electronic devices are single molecules in a size range NM. Pharmacists can synthesize molecules easily and in large quantities they can be done act as switches or container costs almost any desired shape and size. A molecule that has attracted particular interest is this public deoxyribonucleic acid of the (DNA), best known from biology. The ideas for the association of smaller molecules, called "functional groups" with the molecules and the creation of larger sets of DNA in the calculation is under investigation. These are but some of the examination of several approaches. Apart from the discovery of new devices on the nanoscale, it is critically important to devise new ways to interconnect these devices for useful applications. A possible architecture is called cellular neural networks (CNN) in which the devices are connected with neighbors, and such imports are supplied to one side interconnects cause a change in devices like a wave sweeping across the range, providing a production at the other end. An extension of the concept of CNN is that of cellular automata quantum-point (QCA). This architecture uses the settings of single electrons interact with each other by the Coulomb repulsion over long ranges. The arrangement of electrons at the edges provides the computational output. Settings QCA electrons controlled by an external clock and operate in accordance with the rules of Boolean logic. Another possible architecture is that of "conversion cleats" in which the molecules are placed in sections of nanometer-scale wires. These molecules provide the coupling between the cables and provide function calculation. The processing of these nanoscale systems is also a critical area of research. The current integrated circuits built in a parallel process in which short wavelength light exposes a whole integrated circuit in a flash; it takes only a fraction of a second. Staggered procedures, which each device separately stated, are too slow in early 2002 to explain the billions of devices in a reasonable time. The partial processes which are able to nanometer, but not molecular, resolution include using the ray of electrons or ions to write the plans in an integrated circuit. The individual resolution can be achieved with the use of currents of very sharp edges, a process called scanning lithography checks to write on surfaces one person at a time, but this technique is too slow for construction unless thousands of tips can be used simultaneously. It is reasonable to look for molecules nanoscale, such as molecules, which do not require difficult processing steps. A alternative to direct formation of nanoscale system components is the only assembly, a process in which small molecules or molecules are arranged. Regardless of the method used to create the series of nanostructures, nanodevices that organize the relevant architectures, data that come in and, and performing the calculation problems are not solved yet. In summary, nanocomputing technology has the potential to revolutionize the way computers are used. However, to achieve this goal, significant progress in device technology, architectural computing and processing integrated circuit must first be completed. It may take decades before the revolutionary technology nanocomputing be commercially feasible.
The evolution of technology
The impact of technology on humankind has always been huge. Technology and science led to the renaissance and industrial revolution which continues a more sophisticated way today. Industry becomes increasingly specialized and sophisticated nowadays as in genetic engineering, Nuclear energy from fission and fusion efforts to war astron. I Technology is hard to imagine 100 ahead now as we have seen many times. The Tsiolkovsky, for example, had planned on paper and pencil rocket vehicles but was not aware of the naagki computer flight to space exploration and the momentum Didotou with them. Computers have any mechanical design project a detailed and accurate process. Today we cannot imagine a serious Space Exploration without using computers. Computers need to design spacecraft, to control sending, telecommunications and other data mission to analyze the findings and tilemtrika viewers and parts of mission. With the development of nanotechnolgias for materials and telecommunications and quantum nanoscale computers cannot imagine the kind of skills that Space missions to 50-70 years from now will have.
A new nanoekonomy
The development of technology in medicine and engineering will result the emergence of many new issues entire spectrum of the economy. This combined with growth in large groups like America, China, Europe, Japan and India will add more innovation pace in global growth. We are talking about large object-oriented databases, internet everywhere interwoven with nanaoupologistes. More intelligent process control in factories and uses of environment for green energy. Cheap energy from oil and nuclear energy will be possible to increase population and will lead to crucial developing economies in South America and Asia. We note again that technological development will be difficult to predict at all scales and orientations and possible combinations. Thus we expect the next 30 years an exciting world will make its appearance.
Information technology in the near future
As noted by Dertouzos to book new software companies will be displayed which will produce intelligent software adapted egegnos in our new digital world. With advances in computer science in areas such as semantics software inductive logic programming, logic programming with constraints, technology neural networks, evolutionary computation, kypsellotos computing, distributed systems, computing clouds, Quantum software future and the hardware part of an entirely new technology more advanced level will be developed. So for example in education intelligent software could teach and examines students.
Electronic Governance and Trade
If the internet was expected to grow 40-50% annually, we can imagine how the Internet and e-commerce will be in 20 years from now.
New technologies for global and local surveillance
The application of expert systems technology has benefited the intelligent control procedures and decision-making in recent decades. Note that there are open problems be settled in the area of logic programming. We can only imagine the possible development of these techniques for quantum computing in the coming decades. Much more complex problems can be solved with reliability, accuracy and speed. Processing huge amounts of data from meteorological quantum computers will for example, allow accurate simulation of the forecast from quantum computing and as result of the weather forecast will be that much more accurate and also we have an accurate forecast hurricanes and other violent weather phenomena. Also coupled with thousands actual counters years by various recording devices will able to predict the effect on environment all toxikogenon human industrial activities and prevent ecological disasters. economies of scale will make it possible reduce costs in many products that the benefit to the inhabitants of the land and industry, economy and the spread of science and technology large areas of common worldwide is possible.
Medicine, computers and technology
It is natural to assume that progress in medicine will be dramatic. New portable devices follow normal procedures and we will supply us with possible necessary metal elements, vitamins and medicines we need according to our needs. Also progress in medicine should be in all areas, such as replacing parts of the skeleton and nervous system is possible. Also new antiviral and antimicrobial drugs and new families medicines for common diseases. We have artificial hearts, stem cells, fertilized in a tube. Cloning animals and human beings are also possible.
Computers and Biotechnology
Today in 2011 that everyone believes the success of using computers to determine the structure of DNA in the human genome. In the future, human bodies can be designed order and we can easily see a future where there will be DNA banks, and where people will choose the gender and other characteristics of their children. There will be any DNA genotype a more expensive price but better is to avoid uniformity in the population.
Computers and the Law
Nowadays the legal databases are a reality. Yet there are numerous applications offer intelligent support to legal worker provides intelligent search, etc. Also in many countries as U.S. and other European countries, there have been many attempts to produce the law regulating access to private information of citizens by the government, businesses and other organizations. Since the crime computers getting more and more complicated will be the need for their lawyers to determine and legislators to produce the laws to suppress. It is very difficult for the various national and international police forces to keep the computer in a crime control and for lawyers to keep up with the numerous developments that would drive the practice of common social and business beyond the currently known forms of behavior. As has already been observed there is an accelerating dislocation in region defined where the system of law and daily practice cut and becomes increasingly visible aspect lawyer and also ordinary citizens. In this way paradox of contemporary crisis of the system within the law conditions of controlled inflation information maintained daily basis and tends to cause profound and permanent changes in the social phenomenon that is supposed to govern. The transition of this social phenomenon in sizes from human level was maintained for at least fifty years at low levels acceleration, mainly because of the parallel displacement of human scale in their respective highest levels. So the crisis that was taking place was maintained at least partially controlled phenomena. Already this quantitatively unbalanced relationship with the key feature constant distance and thus the constant crisis now reversed to such a degree at such a rate so Soon no figures are comparable.
Nanotechnology, nanoinformatics and school
For these above reasons it is imperative to introduce nanotechnology modules in schools. The teaching of nanotechnology should be combined with paidiagogikes methods to facilitate understanding of the students. It should be conjunction with physics and chemistry experiments to introduce students to nanotechnology thought. Here are the modules to teach students
Physics concepts Structure of atoms Structure and properties of matter Chemical reactions Motion and forces Conservation of energy and increasing disorder (entropy) Interactions of energy and matter
Standards' science and technology Potential technological design Comprehend science and technology
Science in personal and social perspective Personal Health and Health community Population Increase Natural sources of wealth Environmental Quality Natural and manmade hazards Science and technology in local, national and global challenges
History and Ethics of scientific practices Science as a human activity The nature of scientific knowledge Historical perspective
Conclusions
Overall we can say that tomorrow's society can be based on many most whole new technologies that would be difficult to predict at this point. The culture is different, the international relations will be different, new cultures will emerge very Most people will participate in the development of technology and science and will benefit from them. Based on the statistics can to say that only a hundreds persons have a personal computer today. Thus we see huge potential for development of industries related to new technologies even now the rest of the developing countries.
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5. Exploring the Effectiveness of Virtual Field Trips for Teaching and Learning Sustainability Issues
N. Kostoulas-Makrakis1 and V. Makrakis2
1 Department of Primary Education, Univeristy of Crete, University Campus, 74100 Rethymnon, Ass. Professor, Email: [email protected]
2 Department of Primary Education, University of Crete, University Campus, 74100 Rethymnon, Professor,Email: [email protected],
Abstract
This paper deals with virtual field trips as a means for promoting education for sustainable development in teaching and curriculum. Virtual field trips are a new trend in education today, giving students opportunities to visit far-off places, speak with experts in the field, or tour websites that offer valuable information for students as they study a topic. VFTs are founded on the principles of experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, anchored instruction and situated learning, which are explored in the paper in the context of education for sustainability.
Keywords: Virtual field trips, education for sustainability, teaching methodology
Introduction
Research shows that, although concern for the environment has grown, most people remain oblivious to natures interactions and functions [1] One solution for restoring the human/nature relationship was through outdoor education or field trips [2, 3] . A field trip is a fun and dynamic way to bring learners together to study a theme that usually includes hands-on activities that allow students to fully understand the concepts being studied [4]. There is an increasing body of literature that addresses the ways in which school aged children learn about environmental sustainability and education for sustainability through field trips and other outdoor experiences [5, 6, 7, 8].
However, most school systems currently lack the resources to take their students even in nearby field trips and perhaps would never have the chance to be exposed to distant field trips. Barriers found include inadequate knowledge about environmental sustainability, lack of training and teacher enthusiasm, fear of science and suspicion of scientists, cost of transportation [9, 10, 11, 12]. Others cite standardized curriculum, lack of funds and overloaded schedules as barriers to use field trips [13]. Field trips are not commonly used to engage students in authentic experiences that help them get the most out of interacting with the places, experts, or artefacts that field trips provide [14].
Students now have opportunities to span time and space touring the globe without leaving their classroom. Virtual field trips are a new trend in education today, giving students opportunities to visit far-off places, speak with experts in the field, or tour websites that offer valuable information for students as they study a topic [15]. According to Foley [16], a virtual field trip (VFT) is a guided exploration of pre-screened websites organized by theme and/or real-time video conferences where children interact with experts in the field. While not true substitution, todays technologies provide opportunities for learners to construct knowledge actively through interacting with experts, and artefacts. VFTs have a valuable role in supporting and enhancing real fieldwork and empowering students who are disadvantaged, financially or physically. The virtual here is meant digital alternative representations of reality [17]. Virtual Field Trips utilize state-of-the art technologies to create immersive, multi-sensory, interactive experiences with real world environments [18].
Internet and Web-based technology provide learners with the opportunity to search, explore, investigate and discuss various authentic learning issues. Authentic learning activities engage the learner in a real-life and meaningful task that is relevant to the learners interests and goals. By engaging learners in meaningful and real-life tasks, they can see the direct implications of their actions and apply the knowledge gained in real world situations [19]. Through the WWW learners have access to online databases and knowledge repositories containing valuable data, statistics and other resources. As Dede [20] states, web 2.0 causes a change from classical epistemology of education to a new epistemology, based on active learning pedagogies, constructivism, situated teaching, co-creation of knowledge, peer review and new forms of assessment. Siemens [21] also argues that current technological developments and social software are significantly altering the way learners access information and knowledge and dialogue with the instructor and each other.
In line of the potential of VFTs in promoting environmental sustainability, this paper addresses three main questions:
1. What are the key elements or characteristics of field trips in general and virtual field trips in particular?
2. What are the key foundational principles or learning theories underpinning VFTs?
3. How can better utilize VFTs to engage their students in authentic experiences that constitute a critical element of education for sustainability?
Elements or characteristics of VFTs
In general, Noel [22] identified three main elements of a winning field trip: 1) Field trips need to have a connection to the curriculum and should be timed to line up logically with curriculum; 2) teachers need to work with field trip site personnel to enhance student learning; and 3) teachers need to prepare students in class before the trip, especially through the use of materials from the field trip site, such as relevant primary documents or artefacts. The added value of going to VFTs concerns mostly the flexibility and logistical powers of going on a field trip without leaving the school building, but VFTs may add value in additional ways, such as the interactive components that enhance motivation and interaction with experts in the field [23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29]. However, similar to the research on traditional field trips, there is lack of studies using empirical data and even less critical examination of the content and pedagogy in VFT programs [30, 31, 32]. VFT programs designed for use in classrooms are structured as hybrid distance learning modules that incorporate classroom activities with media that can facilitate interaction with other students and experts [33, 34].
Components of successful hybrid VFTs cited by a number of writers, e.g. [35, 36, 37, 38, 39], share several critical elements or characteristics such as:
alignment with curricular objectives and standards;
focus on inquiry and problem-based instruction;
interaction between students, experts, teachers generated through Web 2 technologies and media;
integrating authentic learning activities;
promoting connections with others outside of the classroom, including other students and disciplinary experts;
providing access to information that may otherwise be unavailable because of distance, time, or cost.
Learning theories underpinning VFTs
The key elements and characteristics of VFTs described earlier reveal that VFTs are founded on the principles of experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, and anchored instruction and situated learning.
Experiential learning
The theory of experiential learning has gained prominence with the work of David A. Kolb in the early 1980s, who has stressed that learning is firmly based on the way we process experience [40, 41]. Rather than view learning in terms of outcomes, learning is conceived as the process of creating knowledge and constantly modified by experience and the transactions between the individual and the environment [42, 43]. Most models of Experiential Learning are cyclical and have three basic phases: an experience or problem situation (concrete experience); a reflective phase within which the learner examines the experience and draws learning from that reflection (reflective observation); that is then assimilated into a theory (abstract conceptualization) and finally a testing phase within which the new insights or learning, having been integrated with the learners own conceptual framework, are applied to a new problem situation or experience (active experimentation). Experiential learning can be thus defined as a learning model that begins with experience, reflection and action, which itself becomes a concrete experience for reflection. The model is a recurring cycle within which the learner tests new concepts and modifies them as a result of the reflection and conceptualization process. Put it simply, the experiential learning cycle integrates 1) concrete experiences; 2) reflective observations about the experiences; 3) generalizations about experiences and observations (abstract conceptualizations); and 4) active experimentations with the generalizations. The process of learning through experience does have remarkable implications when applied to the use of VFTs.
Inquiry-based instruction
Traditional curricula in most countries have emphasized a delivery of content-based approach at the expense of inquiry-based approach. The role of the teacher is to manage the delivery of the content knowledge, and the role of the learner is to absorb as much as possible. Learners, however, need to learn much more than mere facts and knowledge mostly based on textbooks. Instead, they need to be able to get involved in a process of knowledge construction that encompasses issues of real-life. They need to become active and citizens, able to function as agents of change [44]. Inquiry-based instruction is a student-centered and teacher-guided instructional approach that engages students in investigating real world questions that they choose within a broad thematic framework [45,46]. An important aspect of inquiry-based learning is the use of open/flexible learning (OFL) and open education resources (OERs). OFL does not necessarily demand a prescribed measured learning objective or result which students have to achieve. In general, inquiry based learning is a strategy whereby a teacher involves learners in the learning process through focusing on critical questions based on ill-structured problems, through reflective and problem-solving activities. Instead, view the learner as an inquirer, learning through work on meaningful problems in real situations. Figure 1 below places the primary interests of the learner in the framework of a cycle of inquiry [47]. For any question or problem, a learner should think of asking, investigating, creating, discussing and reflecting as means for its resolution.
Figure1: The inquiry-based instruction cycle adapted from Bruce & Davidson [48]
Anchored instruction/situated learning
Anchored instruction is a major paradigm for technology-based learning that has been developed by the Cognition & Technology Group at Vanderbilt (CTGV) [49, 50, 51, 52]. It refers to an instructional strategy based on the pedagogical principle that for learning to be effective, it must be anchored in a meaningful context for learners. Situated learning emphasizes the importance of context in establishing meaningful linkages with learners experience and in promoting connections among knowledge, skill and experience. Brown, Collins and Duguid [53] argue that knowledge is contextually situated and is fundamentally influenced by the activity, context, and culture in which it is used. In the situated learning approach, knowledge and skills are learned in the contexts that reflect how knowledge is obtained and applied in everyday situations. Collins defines situated learning as: the notion of learning knowledge and skills in contexts that reflect the way the knowledge will be useful in real life [54]. Situated learning uses cooperative and participative teaching methods as the means of acquiring knowledge. Jonassen [55] defines situated learning as occurring when students work on authentic and realistic tasks that reflect the real world. From a situated perspective, a realistic learning environment is crucial. Situated cognition theory conceives of learning as a sociocultural phenomenon rather than the action of individual acquiring general information from a decontextualized body of knowledge [56]. If knowledge is decontextualized, then it becomes, as described by Jonassen [57], inert, the student learns a new concept but is unable to utilize it since there is no realistic context for its use. Learning in context refers to building an instructional environment sensitive to the tasks learners must complete to be successful in practice. Traditional behaviourist/instructivist approaches strive for context independence, whereas a social constructivist paradigm views the context in which the learning occurs as central to the learning itself. Decontextualised knowledge does not give us the skills to apply our understandings to authentic tasks because we are not working with the concept in the complex environment, experiencing (exploring, evaluating) the complex interrelationships in that environment that determine how and when the concept is used [58].
Strategies for selecting a Virtual Field Trip
Based on the previous discussion on the key principles and the learning theories underpinning VFTs, a number of strategies haven been drawn that could help teachers select VFTs that are suitable to integrate sustainability issues (e.g., climate change, gender equality, fair trade, poverty, human rights) in their teaching. Before starting the selection process via a searching machine in the Internet, there is need to consider if virtual field trips are a suitable strategy to meet the learning goals for a theme. The next step is to conduct a thorough online search to identify possible VFTs using appropriate key words. Finding the best VFTs may be subject to the extent to which the VFT:
Provides opportunities for learners to ask critical questions that are challenging, debatable, and difficult to solve
Provides opportunities for learners to work in groups
Adopts specific procedures, strategies, or processes that are essential to problem solving
Provides opportunities to learners to become more actively involved in what they are learning
Integrates critical thinking and problem solving skills
Provides opportunities to apply concepts to new situations
Provides opportunities for learners to access information that is crucial to the inquiry
Provides opportunities to work with peers and experts
Provides opportunities for learners to be cognitively engaged during the field trip
Integrates tools that help reflect upon the success of the experience
Allows learners to search for information and learn on their own with the teachers guidance
Provides opportunity to span the globe without leaving the classroom
Gives learners the opportunity to speak with experts as they work virtually on-site
Dos not contain broken links that may detract from the overall experience
Integrates content that directly relates to curriculum standards
References
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6. Creative Uses of ICT at kindergarten: early childhood students experiences
K. Nikolopoulou, Secondary Education and Department of Ea
