Flying Boats Bridge between two Eras

Flying Boats, Aircrafts that Bridged Two Eras:

the romantic age of commercial aviation, 1920's to 1945

Dragoljub Krakovic

History 491

05/08/2014

1

"Some day a Clipper flight will be remembered as the most romantic voyage in history." (1) - Clare Boothe Luce, 1941

A ship was the only choice the first explorers had in crossing the Atlantic

ocean and venturing to other places around the globe maintaining its supremacy

without challenge for a few centuries in connecting continents enabling trade,

cultural exchange, and colonization. The twentieth century witnessed birth of the

2

aircraft and in the span of only three decades the first airliners made the crossings

between Americas, Asia and Europe carrying passengers and mail. An era lasting

several centuries was coming to a close and a new one fulfilling centuries old dream

to fly like a bird over the ocean was dawning in which flying boat served as the

bridge.

The heydays of flying boats lasted less than a decade without making a significant

impact on ocean liners in the number of passengers and cargothey carried however, their

role and importance in proving that aircrafts can safely andefficiently cross the ocean

much faster was enormous. World War Two similarly to World War One played a

significant role in accelerating the development of a long range aircraft and the

development of infrastructure to support land based aircrafts. Within a decade after the

war ended airliners took over supremacy from ocean liners inconnecting continents.

3

1. Barnaby Conrad III, Pan Am: An Aviation Legend (Emeryville: Woodford Press,1999), 14-15.

A human desire to conquer the skies and bridgedistances is as old as

humankind. The technological development in the design of internal combustion engines

in combination with advances in aerodynamics, constructions,and the manufacturing

processes resulted in the first heavier-than-air self-propelled flight. On the cold misty

morning of 17 December 1903 centuries old dream to take off and fly like a bird finally

materialized. This historic event took place at Kitty Hawk field in North Carolina where

brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright, with their creation called Flyer I made several short

flights which signaled the beginning of the era of aviation.Initially, many skeptics

forecasted a short life for these fragile aircrafts, as theydid for automobiles, soon proved

wrong once humans experienced what flying had to offer. In the early days aircrafts were

fragile machines and due to experimentation various odd looking creations took to the air.

Although the Wright brothers and the United States pioneered the first heavier than air

4

self propelled flight, development shifted across the Atlantic ocean to Europe making

France the center of aviation for the next two decades. Despite the fact that in the

beginning they met with numerous obstacles, aircraft development went much further

than infrastructure (airports, paved runways, navigation aids, etc.) necessary to support it,

and constantly improving its reliability that often was cited as the main limitation

triggering a bad reputation for land based aircrafts throughout the twenties.

Aircraft coming to age

In the first decade of its existence the aircraft had a slow start usually featured as

an attraction for the curious onlookers with little purpose for the future use. World War

One changed the fate of the flying machine with modest utilization in the reconnaissance

role, later expanded and used as fighters and bombers duringthe second half of the War.

When the war ended there was a surplus, making aircrafts cheap and easy to procure thus

creating the fertile conditions for entrepreneurs and enthusiasts to venture into the flying

5

business. The first recorded use of a aircraft to transport paying passengers occurred in

1914 between St Petersburg and Tampa, Florida but increased air service activity had to

wait until the end of the war when numerous new airlines were established, primarily in

Europe and United States. With the appearance of new companies on both continents, air

service slowly spread across the globe. The first passenger aircrafts were converted

bombers, an example was the Vickers Vimy (Figure 1) or military flying boats similar to

Felixstowe F.2. Quickly the outdated military aircrafts werereplaced with aircrafts

designed and built for passengers. However, it took another decade before passenger

aircrafts became airliners capable of safe and profitable service in connecting major cities

thanks to advances in technical development, design, manufacturing processes, and

airline demand. Throughout the 1920's and 1930's land based aircrafts were small and

light, suitable for a short intercity transport and only a few had enough range to travel

distances longer than 500 miles. Although considered long range aircraft the Imperial

6

Airways Handley Page H.P.42 took a week from London to reachSouth Africa and

Australia.

Figure 1. Vickers Vimy During the twenties Europe had the edge over theUnited States in air travel

due to government subsidies in promoting intercity travel and for some like the United

Kingdom and France, to connect with overseas colonial possessions. In the United States

where distances between major cities were much greater unreliable aircrafts had no

appeal for business people who preferred to take a train ride which offered scheduled and

on time arrival to their destination. As mentioned above, there were different outlooks on

emerging airlines between Europe and US. Airlines in Europe were subsidized by their

7

governments while in the United States mail service kept airlines afloat springing four

major airlines: American, Eastern, United, and TWA. Their survival and further

expansion were guaranteed by the lucrative government mail contracts awarded by the

Postmaster General. Airlines earned very well with profits soaring despite cut in rates

for mail chiefly due to the premiums the government compensated for the weight carried.

It is a little known fact that the Postmaster General Brown played a crucial role in

encouraging creation of the larger and stronger airlines by way of compensating them for

transporting mail. His formula was to pay contractors not bypounds of mail per mile

rather, by the amount of space available for mail. Naturallyairlines with larger capacity

aircrafts would survive while smaller ones had the option either to be absorbed or

disappear. American airlines concentrated on the domestic market and initially were

owned by aircraft and engine manufacturers, while European airlines due to close

geographic proximity between the capitals and their colonialand oversees territories

8

expanded towards Africa, Asia, and South America promoting international passenger

services. Most prominent airlines from the "Old Continent" were Deutsche Lufthansa,

British Imperial Airways, Air France, and Italian Air Littoria. Establishing and keeping

air routes operational were met with numerous challenges andobstacles imposing limited

passenger traffic and mail delivery. A typical flight connecting UK with the Orient lasted

several days and Imperial Airways premier aircraft Handley Page HP.42 had to make

multiple stops along the way, risking further delays in the event that weather or local

political conditions worsened.

The alternative for land based aircrafts were seaplanes capable of operating

from water surfaces and soon became the choice for the few airlines determined to push

the limits and try to establish intercontinental air traffic. One of the earliest airlines to

utilize flying boats for its service was Aeromarine Airways in the United States followed

with Deutsche Lufthansa, Imperial Airways, Aer Littoria, from Europe and the most

9

significant of all, Pan American Airways. It is important torecognize the contribution

airlines mentioned earlier played in the development of civil aviation due to their close

cooperation with aircraft manufacturers in designing and building airliners.

Although, flying boats exclusively operated on routes between Europe and South

America, US and South America and Asia carrying a limited number of passengers and

load with a high cost of fares it was clear the new era in intercontinental service was on

the way. The domination of ocean liners was dangerously threatened with the

possibilities of faster aircraft. However, scheduled passenger shipping service continued

until the sixties when the modern jet made international service fast and economical

closing the chapter on an era. Despite its slow speeds, flying boats offered luxurious and

romantic travel, serving as a bridge to fill the gap in intercontinental service between

grand passenger ships and modern days airliners throughout the thirties.

The flying boats golden days are long gone. Their glory were recorded in the

10

archives of aviation but we should not forget the immense role they played in pioneering

commercial aviation and the contribution in the expansion ofair travel bridging

continents and altering forever the landscape of intercontinental travel.

What is a flying boat?

Seeing a flying boat in contemporary times is a rarity and often when it appears it is

used to battle fires along the Mediterranean coastal regionsin the summer months during

the peak of a tourist season or seldom in military operations for reconnaissance or rescue.

In contrast numerous floatplanes are still in active servicearound Alaska, Canada, and

Caribbean islands as well the Maldives serving the small communities or transporting

tourists to remote luxury resorts. In aviation terminology and dictionaries readers often

may be confused about definitions of seaplane and flying boat. Reputable Jane's

Aerospace Dictionary offers the following:

seaplane 1. Float seaplane, marine aircraft having one, twoor (rarely) more separate

11

floats and conventional fuselage (UK). 2. Marine aircraft of any fixed-wing type (US).

flying boat Seaplane whose main body is a hull with planingbottom.(2) Perhaps, the explanation can still be puzzling butfocusing on the US definition can

provide more clarity since seaplanes can be divided into subcategories of flying boats and

floatplanes. When comparing these two it is fairly easy to notice distinction between

flying boat and floatplane. The flying boat as the name suggests is a combination that

2. Bill Gunston, Jane's Aerospace Dictionary. (Coulsdon: Butler & TannerLtd, 1988), 435.

includes design features of an aircraft and a boat. It is specifically designed and made to

take off and land on water surfaces thus incorporating a fuselage with seaworthy

characteristics. Such features greatly penalize an aircraft performance in relation to

speed. Every major commercial and military flying boat was high winged driven by

necessity to mount engines high above the water surface for clearing propeller blades and

12

ingestion of water which could cause the engine to shutdown.In addition some type of

stabilizing device had to be mounted to prevent tipping and damage to the wings while

the flying boat was at low speeds moving thru water. The solution was found with the

installation of small floats either on the wings or thru thecomplicated geometry of

rigging links around the mid section of the wings resulting in a decrease of the flying boat

speed. In the mid-thirties Pan American Airways took delivery of a revolutionary Martin

M-130 which used sponsons, additional short "wings" mounted on the fuselage above the

waterline, first used by Dornier Do J Wal. Sponsons had multiple usage, providing

additional fuel storage and serving as lift devices resulting in a considerable cleaner

aerodynamic shape with an increased flight performance. Boeing installed sponsons in

model 314 delivered to Pan Am Airways in 1939, the largest and most advanced

commercial flying boat with increased capacity and range to satisfy the newly opened

European routes. The most widely used and recognized commercial flying boats

13

were the Sikorsky S-42, Martin M-130, Boeing 314, Short Empire, and Latecoere 521,

A floatplane is a land based fix-wing aircraft with pontoons installed under the

fuselage to enable takeoff and landing from water surfaces. They are still actively used by

bush pilots in Alaska, Northern Canada and other places around the world and it is

usually four to six seats airplanes like the Cessna 180, Caravan, De Havilland D.H.2, and similar. Conversion is easy, consisting in removal of un-retractable landing gear and

installing pontoons that are shaped as a hull with a small rudder on its end and often with

small wheels to accommodate beaching. Despite conversion of a several large land based

aircrafts to floatplanes in the thirties to fulfill requirements of Deutsche Lufthansa like,

Blohm und Voss B.V 139 for airmail service to South America,Imperial Airways Short

Maio for routes to Australia, and Ala Littoria Cant Z 506 for the Mediterranean service

these aircrafts never found wide usage in the passenger service.

14

Another design modification for flying boats werethe installation of retractable

landing gears where the nose gear retracted inside the hull while the main gear was

stowed on the side of the hull. The idea was to make flying boats more versatile and

Sikorsky S.42 was initially equipped with such a configuration for testing however, due

to the additional weight that further penalized the operational performances for air routes

the installation was abandoned. Some military flying boats primarily the Consolidated

PBY-5A Catalina during World War Two successfully used advantages of modification

to utilize both landing mediums in combating the enemy. Modified aircrafts were named

amphibians and every modern post war flying boat is designedand equipped with a set of

landing gears enabling use of dual landing surfaces. The most prominent modern

amphibian aircrafts are Canadair CL-415, Shin Meiwa US-1A, and Beriev Be-200.

Development of Seaplanes and Flying Boats

On 28 March 1910, Frenchman Henri Fabre made history with his creation

15

called Le Canard, an hydroplane. The machine took off and landed on the water surface

in channels Martigues near Marseilles, France. Although thiswas not a flying boat since it had three floats it created the opportunity for the designers to experiment with

waterborne aircrafts. Not long after the first hydroplane flight across the Atlantic an

American Thomas Benoist, designer and manufacturer, constructed the first flying boat

financed by Mr. Fansler named Benoist XIV. The first commercial scheduled airline

service occurred on 1st January 1914 between St. Petersburg and Tampa, Florida. The

new air company St. Petersburg - Tampa Airboat Line used three flying boats of this type

to service the route for over three months transporting a total of 1,204 passengers without

incident and losing only four days of service due to mechanical problems. Local

newspaper St. Petersburg Times reported that the first passenger Mr. Abram C. Pheil,

mayor of St. Petersburg won on auction ticket paying $400 for a 23 minute flight to travel

18 miles and landing at Tampa Bay. All subsequent passengerspaid $5 for the one-way

16

ticket.

In 1919, a year after the conclusion of World WarOne, Boeing company designed

and manufactured a flying boat for commercial service named B-1, capable of carrying

two passengers and cargo. During the same year in Italy, thefamous aircraft

manufacturer Caproni produced a monster flying boat capable of carrying 100

passengers with aspiration to establish cross-Atlantic service. However, an odd design

during the second flight crashed in lake Maggiore permanently shelving the project.

Curtiss Aircraft Company became the leader in flying boat design and manufacturing and

one of their creations the F-5L became the flagship for the newly formed Aeromarine

West Indies Airways that connected US mainland with Cuba andthe Bahamas in the

1920. The airline lasted four years combining scheduled, charter and sightseeing flights

using Aeromarine 50 and 75 models. Aeromarine Airways inaugurated the first international passenger flight in United States between Key West, Florida and Havana,

17

Cuba featuring an in-flight movie and beverage service, offering a glimpse of what was

in store for future passengers on a long range flights.

In the meantime, land-based aircrafts made progress with newly built models to

satisfy the needs of new airlines in serving destinations between major cities in Europe

and U.S. The most prominent passenger aircraft appeared in the late twenties was

Handley Page Hercules and in the mid-thirties Boeing 247, Lockheed Model 10 Electra,

and Douglas DC-3 (Figure 2). These aircrafts had operationalservice with major airlines

such as United, Lufthansa, American Airlines, KLM, Eastern Airlines, Delta, Imperial

Airways, and many more worldwide. The seating capacities were between ten to just over

thirty passengers (DC-3) with ranges averaging 500 miles (Boeing 247 and Handley Page

HP.42), the exception was the DC-3, able to fly up to 2000 miles. The Boeing 247,

Lockheed Model 10 Electra, and DC-3 were fine aircrafts carrying between ten and

twenty passengers in the single row configuration and workedwell within US and major

18

cities in Europe. However, modern airliners of the thirties did not have the range and

payload to support intercontinental passenger service.

Figure 2. DC-3 Flying boats initiated commercial passenger service and throughout the twenties

offered several models that could carry reasonable loads, passengers and cargo to

distances making a profit. In the early twenties Aeromarine type 75 had the capacity to

carry up to fourteen passengers to distances of over eight hundred miles. By the end of

the decade German Dornier Do.J Wal reached distances of over1000 miles with fourteen

passengers aboard. The same company made a daring proposal with the construction of

Do.X for the intercontinental service, a large flying boat powered with twelve engines.

19

Only two prototypes were made and the aircraft set record for carrying 150 passengers in

1929. Dornier's initial target was to establish a route between Germany, taking off from

Friedrichshafen and landing in New York carrying 66 passengers in a ocean liner luxury

style interior. Indeed, the entire design of the flying boatreminded passengers of a mini

version of an ocean liner. Its windows were round, the upperstructure where the flight

deck was located resembled the control room of an ocean liner. Unfortunately, numerous

mechanical problems plagued the aircraft and the first intercontinental proving run

around the world ended unceremoniously taking nineteen months to complete, scrapping

its operational future. The new decade offered larger aircrafts capable of reliable service

and by the mid thirties a full intercontinental service was established using flying boats.

Several prominent models marked this era which will always be remembered as the

"Golden Age" of aviation. U.S. based manufacturers led the way with designs by the

Russian émigré Igor Sikorsky's S-42, Glen Martin's M-130, and Boeing 314 (Figure 3).

20

When comparisons were made with the contemporary land based aircrafts, flying boats

greatly exceeded their carrying capabilities. Sikorsky S-42 seated thirty passengers and

served the Caribbean and South American destinations, while Martin M-130 had a range

Figure 3. Sikorsky S-42, Martin M-130, Boeing 314

of over 3000 miles and carried forty passengers establishingservice between San

Francisco and Manila, via Honolulu, Midway, Wake island, andGuam. The crown jewel

21

was Boeing's 314, exceeding the capabilities of all previousmodels featuring modern

interior and offering numerous amenities for its seventy passengers with capabilities of a

range over 4000 miles. Besides the obvious advantages flyingboats offered, it was clear

that leading intercontinental companies had in mind rich clientele able to afford the

enormous fare. The important part o the development for commercial aviation were the

government sponsored mail contracts that infused new stimulus in establishing long

range routes. Airlines were part of the geo-strategic battlebetween the leading powers in

securing their long term political interest and at the same time opening routes enabling

access to a new resources of raw materials and future economic markets. Many

important business centers were located along the shores of the Pacific, Atlantic, and

Indian subcontinent and it was logically due to the lack of infrastructure for a larger land

based aircrafts for airlines to insist on flying boats development.

The flying boats provided unmatched luxury in airservice and aviation historians

22

pointed out that many features within them resembled ocean liners not only to attract the

elite since travel was very expensive, but to provide familiarity with grand ships and put

passengers to ease with a sense of safety. The latter was indeed a very important

characteristic of flying boats and passenger service overall. Tireless work of designers,

engineers, and manufacturers paid off handsomely resulting in total domination of air

transport earning the reputation as the safest mean of travel in the second half of the

twentieth century and beyond. The important design feature of a flying boat was the

combination of the boat's hull and the aircraft's fuselage in one enabling landing on

water and floating while rescue arrived in the event of an emergency.

Early Crossings of the Atlantic, and Pacific

The idea to cross the Atlantic and connect the Oldwith New World and vice versa

dates back to World War One and as early as 1913 when a few daring constructors

23

believed in designing and manufacturing flying boats capableof crossing the Atlantic

with few stop-overs. However, due to technical difficulties and unsuitable engines the

Atlantic crossing had to wait for the conclusion of the Great war. In 1919 enthusiasm was

high gearing up towards the future with several attempts made to cross the Atlantic

sponsored by the news media magnates and industrialists. Thefirst successful crossing of

the Atlantic occurred in May, when the US Navy prepared three flying boats, Curtiss

NC-1, NC-3, and NC-4 for the event. During the crossing NC-1and NC-3 had to land on

water due to bad weather and poor visibility and the only flying boat originating its flight

from New York on 8 May continued. The fleet starting point for the Atlantic crossing and

competition was St. Johns, Newfoundland. The remaining NC-4 landed in Lisbon fifteen

days later, after stopping over in the Azores for few days, eventually reaching it's final

destination Plymouth, England. The Daily Mirror prize of 10,000 sterling pounds went to

British aviators Alcock and Brown who flew Vickers Vimy fromSt. Johns to Clifden,

24

Ireland on 14-15 June crossing the Northern Atlantic in 16 hours and 27 minutes. During

this time aircraft manufacturers, airline's executives, and entrepreneurs followed with

great interest any attempt to set new records or cross oceans due to the possibilities of

opening new routes. The US Navy despite lean financial timesin the twenties decided to

put to test the new Curtiss flying boat designated PN-9 for a nonstop flight from

California to Hawaii. On August 31 1925, two flying boats ventured to test a new design.

Unfortunately, one PN-9 developed a oil leak and had to makean emergency landing but

the other continued. Due to excessive fuel consumption, aviator Rodgers and crew fell

short of reaching Hawaii. The flying boat's seaworthiness and the crew's skill enabled

to reach Kaua'i. Their effort did not go unnoticed. In January of 1926, the Spanish pilot

Ramon Franco, the brother future Spanish dictator Francisco Franco, made the first

crossing of South Atlantic from Huelva, Spain via Gran Canaria, Cape Verde,

Pernambuco, Rio de Janeiro, and Montevideo to its final destination Buenos Aires

25

with an Dornier Do J Wal named Plus Ultra. Another significant event was staged by the

Italian government for propaganda purposes to bolster successes and advances of

Fascism. On 13 February 1927, the Italian aviator Francesco de Pinedo crossed the

Southern Atlantic taking off from Dakar, Senegal and landed in Pernambuco, Brazil

using a Savoia-Marchetti S.M. 55 (Figure 4). Encouraged by this successful flight the

Italians had even greater aspirations. Air Marshall Italo Balbo assembled fleet of twenty-

four Savoia-Marchetti S.M. 55's and on 1st July 1933 flew information from Rome via

Amsterdam, New York, with landing in Chicago 48 hours later for the Century of

Progress International Exposition. The fleet returned back to Rome and received a grand

welcome hosted by Mussolini. Savoia-Marchetti S.M. 55 started its operational service in

1924 and had an unusual configuration. It was a double-hulled flying boat which evolved

into several versions reaching the pinnacle of evolution with model X who served

versatile roles as a bomber, reconnaissance, and passenger aircraft.

26

Figure 4. Savoia - Marchetti S.M. 55 In 1929, German's famous aircraft designer Dornier unveiled his grandest

passenger plane, scheduled to tour the world with plans to establish service between

Germany and New York and become a competitor to Zeppelin flying ships. Dornier Do-

X was a large flying boat capable of carrying seventy passengers and crew. The

dimensions alone exceeded all aircrafts built in the twenties with the idea to offer

scheduled flights to U.S. and destinations worldwide with Deutsche Lufthansa. The

Dornier Do X was equipped with 12 engines and a 157-foot wingspan with a lavish

interior offering its passengers dinning rooms, sleeping quarters and a central saloon

27

carpeted with Oriental rugs. Germans pioneered and spearheaded idea of the Atlantic

crossings using the northern route as early as 1911. It started with one man's vision to

offer a faster crossing between Europe and North America andbeat ocean liners.

Ferdinand von Zeppelin was manufacturer of numerous flying ships that were light in

construction, filled with hydrogen, enormous in size offering seating for 22 to 36

passengers in luxury quarters located on the bottom of the sphere complimented with

40 to 61 crew members to cater to the passengers needs and maintain the enormous

vessel throughout the flight. Flying ships like Hindenburg frequented the North Atlantic

and carried passengers across the Atlantic for almost two years prior to the disaster that

took place during landing at Lakehurst Naval Air Station, New Jersey on 6 May 1937.

The roaring twenties ended in a financial crisis which extended into the

early thirties. It was a bleak time for airlines but a few visionaries like Juan Trippe

saw opportunity to develop intercontinental transport choosing flying boats for a long

28

range service. As Pan American's Chief Engineer, Andre Priester, astutely observed, "A

seaplane carries its own airport on its bottom."(3). He was not alone, the European

airlines Deutsche Lufthansa and Air France had similar goalsin mind to establish mail

service between Europe and South America followed by passenger service but, there

were no aircrafts capable of long range to achieve this goal. Pan American Airways

ordered several Sikorsky S-40's to carry passengers between Florida and the Caribbean.

Juan Trippe hired famous aviator, Charles Lindberg to conduct reconnaissance flights to

3. Richard C. Knott, The American Flying Boat, an Illustrated History. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1979), 118.South America and Europe. He provided feedback for Pan American chairman, his

flight and technical staff which helped in planning new routes. The World War One ace

Colonel O'Neill founded NYRBA, (New York, Rio, Buenos Aires)and pioneered the

effort to connect two Americas using flying boats. He hired experienced US Navy pilots

who already made flights circumnavigating the south continent. The aircraft of choice

29

was the Consolidated Commodore and service lasted until 1930when his competitor Pan

American Airways acquired the company. Pan Am not only maintained existing routes

but expanded its service to other destinations across South America..

During this period Juan Trippe gained experience to formulate and crystallize his

ambitions to establish passenger service between United States and Europe. However due

to politics, Pan American Airways could not obtain permits to fly between New York and

Europe since Imperial Airways exercised its influence with the British government

preventing such a move. Besides no adequate airliner existedsince Pan Am's Sikorsky 42

had the range but no passenger capacity while the Imperial'sShort had the opposite

disadvantage. The German expansion to South America began inthe early twenties when

they offered technical support and knowledge to the Columbians and in 1921 established

a new airline SCADTA followed by the introduction of two flying boats Dornier Do J

30

Wal's named Atlantico and Pacifico in 1925 to demonstrate to theAmerican government

the possibilities for air service between two continents andadvances of German

technology. A year later the Atlantico was transferred to Brazil where the Germans

helped in founding a national airline VARIG. In order to make a connection with the

South American offspring Deutsche Lufthansa focused on opening a direct airmail run

between Europe and Rio De Janeiro and sought to shorten the mail run to four days as compared to ocean liners week long journey. Ingenuity was atwork due to a shortage of

aircrafts with a long range capability in the late twenties and early thirties. The German

airline launched a Dornier Do J Wal named Monsun from a cargo ship once the South

American continent was within range. A similar idea in connecting France with South

America via colonial possessions in Africa was in Bouilloux - Lafont's mind, a

businessman who purchased the famous French airline Lignes Latecoere and renamed

it, Aeropostale. He hired the most famous French aviator Jean Mermoz to lead the epic

31

flight. In 1935, the French premier aircraft manufacturer Latecoere tested type 521 named

'Lieutenant de Vasseau Paris', a six engines flying boat with a range of over 2500 miles

intended for service between Europe and America. The maiden flight commemorating

300 years of French presence in America took place in January 1935. On the return leg,

the aircraft was damaged by a hurricane while in Pensacola, Florida postponing its entry

in Air France's passenger service. Eventually, type 521 madefour round trips to New

York in 1939, and at outbreak of World War Two was assigned to the French Navy. In

the early 1930's Deutsche Lufthansa crossed the Atlantic viathe northern route several

times to launch the first airmail service between Germany and U.S using a similar

method to carry mail to South America. Initially Do J Wal, serviced the route

followed by another flying boat Do 18, eventually replaced by the sleek floatplane Blohm

und Voss Ha 139 in the mid-1930's. The race to provide the first transatlantic service

spurred up with Pan American trial flight in 1937, the stagefor the revolution in

32

intercontinental traffic was set. The development and use offlying boats to serve

intercontinental routes had several reasons primarily a short range of land based aircrafts,

non adequate infrastructure around the world to support large and heavy aircrafts, safety,

and luxurious interiors resembling ocean liners for wealthy passengers. Therefore, these

factors need to be discussed in details.

Domination of Ocean Liners in Intercontinental Travel

Intercontinental passenger service from the end of the nineteenth century

throughout the first half of the twentieth century was exclusively reserved for ocean

liners. The rapid development of the United States attractedimmigrants from less

fortunate places in Europe and Asia who were seeking new opportunities and a better life.

Ships were the sole transportation for centuries and the only mean for connecting distant

places carrying cargo and passengers. Ships played a major role and was a tool used

by rulers of the Old World to trade, explore, and colonize far corners of the globe.

33

Without any doubt, ships projected power which shaped political and economic relations

across the world leaving an indelible mark on the future. Aspassenger service steadily

increased, so did the capacity of ports where ocean liners originated and terminated their

ocean voyages in the Mediterranean, (Marseille, Livorno) along the North European

coast (Liverpool, Southampton, Hamburg) as well the Far East(Hong Kong). Major ports

for the arriving passengers in North America, were New York and San Francisco, while

in South America, Rio de Janeiro and Buenos Aires. Ocean liners offered

accommodations for the wealthy passengers by placing them onthe upper and to the

poor on the lower decks depending on the size of the ship. Over a period of a hundred

years, circa 1830 until mid 1950's the time it took to crossthe Atlantic decreased from

eighteen days to four as technology, primarily new design and propulsion advanced

(Figure 5). During this time four distinctive periods can berecognized starting with

34

Figure 5Note: Liverpool / New York.Source: data from P.J. Hugill (1993) World Trade since 1431,Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, p.128. Stopford, M. (2009) Maritime Economics, Third Edition, London: Routledge.

the early liners powered by sails, carrying on average of about 200 passengers in a

wooden hulls. From the 1860's, maritime crossing of the Atlantic further decreased and

traffic on other oceans increased chiefly due to the introduction of iron hulls, steam

engines, and screw propulsion. As a result of constant technological improvements

passengers and cargo capacity of ocean liners drastically increased (carrying up to 1500

35

passengers) and at the same time transatlantic crossing was cut in half. The period from

the turn of the twentieth century until the late thirties was remembered as the "Golden

Age" of ocean liners, when the most majestic and glamorous ships were built and

transverse across the oceans. During this period the highestspeeds were attained and

RMS Mauritania held the speed record for three decades, crossing Atlantic between

Liverpool and New York in four and a half days. Luxury and speed were the driving factors also, increased immigration from Europe to the United States dictated higher

capacities for ocean liners to accommodate lower paying passengers. The average ocean

liners carried between 1,000 to 2,000 passengers and were powered by steam turbines

and quadruple screws. Perhaps the most glorious ocean liner of all times was RMS

Titanic famed by its size, speed, and claim of invincibility. However, the majestic ship

never completed her maiden trip and on 14 April 1912, sunk when she collided with an

iceberg. After World War Two ended, the first airliners capable of non-stop service

36

between US and Europe arrived challenging ocean liner supremacy. In 1956, as statistics

showed more passengers crossed the Atlantic by air than sea.By the 1960, jet engine

powered airliners, Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8, conquered the skies further reducing

travel between Europe and the United States to eight hours. Despite Cunard Line

advertisement claiming "Getting there is half the fun!" the era of ocean liners was

coming to an end mostly due to business people and travelersneed for a faster and more

frequent service between the continents something the ocean liners could not provide. From 1830 up to the first two decades of the twentieth century ocean liner

frequency between Europe and North America constantly increased as Cunard Line,

White Star Line, Hapag - Lloyd, and other fleets grew. At its peak ocean liners departed

New York three to four times a week to several destinations in Europe, primarily to

Southampton, Glasgow, Plymouth, Cherbourg, Hamburg, etc. Themajor companies

competed for the glory with grandiose liners, in the constant quest to surpass competitors.

37

The ocean liners left a legacy that influenced commercial aviation is still found in many

procedures, uniforms, nomenclatures, even definition and distinction between airfields

and airports. In the early 1920's Instone Air Lines introduced a new uniform resembling a maritime officers, smartly dressed in dark blue uniforms, standard for commercial flight

officers all over the world that remained until the present days. Pan American Airways

went one step further with uniforms, adding four golden stripes on the coat's sleeve and

named the pilot-in-charge a captain. Despite the passing times the terminology remained

the same, as an example, the aircraft flight control for a yaw is called rudder, the same as

the ship control for stirring left and right , terminology for sides mirroring those used in

the maritime world, left is port, right starboard, etc.

Airfield versus Flying Boat Base

The early airfields were unsophisticated places which suitability was determined

by the openness and relative flatness of the land as well asthe vicinity to major cities.

38

During the early days of aviation the major cities had relatively ample of cheap land and

setting an airfield was easy, giving the city a prestige over others. Germany led the way

with Delag, a passenger service company operating Zeppelin airships and setting up the a

network of airfields across the country prior to World War One. An airfield of the

twenties consisted of a simple building for checking in air travelers and their bags

with a few other rudimentary services. Due to the light weight of aircrafts and the number

of passengers they carried, airfields and early airports didnot have a need for paved

surfaces and associated runway equipment. Most aerodromes had two right-angle

runways up to 2,500 feet in length. The prominent aerodromes/ airports were located near

a large economic centers across Europe and United States like Le Bourget near Paris,

Croydon south west of London, Tempelhof in Berlin, La Guardia, in New York. Modern

day passengers could hardly imagine that the pilot's duties back then included baggage

handling, ticketing services, and much more. The aircraft was still considered a novelty

39

and curious masses were attracted to watch take off and landings making airfield/ airports

the social gathering places where the number of observers outnumbered actual travelers.

Airfields and aerodromes in Europe and United States steadily developed to

accommodate the growing number of air travelers. The European nations built an

impressive air route network while in the US scheduled airmail service became the

driving force requiring sophisticated airports. An importantfactor in forcing construction

of fixed runways, was the capability of aircrafts equipped with more powerful engines to

take off in crosswinds. The first fixed runways were initially marked and mowed grass

strips aligned with the direction of the wind. As airports grew more complex, air

terminals appeared usually styled after railway stations in the Art deco style. Airports

well into the 1930's had no navigational equipment, adequatelights, and a few basic

support services . Ironically, the airport authorities sought to develop commercial

activities adding restaurants, shops and built hotels nearbybefore investing in control

40

towers, navigational equipment, communication, and lightningsystems to improve air

travel safety. Croydon, the first civil airport in London introduced a large rotating

'searchlight' beacon and wireless communication, very essentials of to the air traffic

control system. A little known fact about the name change from airfield to airport was an

administrative move. Since the first international service took place between United

Kingdom and France arriving passengers were required to clear the customs which

played a detrimental role in the transition from air-FIELD to air-PORT, the evidence

that maritime laws and terminology played important role in commercial aviation. As the

number of passengers increased new terminals were built adding control towers, maintenance facilities and hangars for aircrafts, paved and lighted runways and taxiways,

airports started to take familiar look. The lack of paved runways until the mid-thirties,

presented the greatest problem for the development of larger airliners (Figure 6). During

heavy rains the grassy/soil runways became soft, making takeoff and landings unsafe,

41

almost impossible. Besides, the dirt created dangerous conditions (grooving) when

subjected to the pressures from larger aircrafts resulting in limiting their gross weight and

size. New York's Newark airport claimed to have the worlds first hard paved runway.

Stockholm's Bromma airport constructed concrete runway, followed by other Northern

European countries due to a problem with standing water in the late spring months caused

by thawing of snow. Further improvements followed with the installation of more

powerful beacons, mobile and fixed landing flood lights, a wind direction indicator

together with clear boundaries and obstruction lighting allowing for night-flying. Le

Bourget near Paris where Charles Lindberg landed after non-stop flight over the Atlantic,

had these equipment.

42

Figure 6. Croydon Airport 1936 To counteract the shortcomings of land-based aircrafts and airports several

airlines, primarily Pan American Airways and Imperial Airways ordered flying boats as

their primary aircrafts for establishing air service betweencontinents. Besides, building

airports in remote parts of the world would be prohibitivelyexpensive in comparison to

flying boat bases. Any larger water surface like the sea, lake, and river could be used for

landing and take off with minimum modifications to docks in existing harbors/ naval

bases that already provided amenities flying boats passengers could use. Pan American

Airways led the way with its Marine Air Terminals in New York and Miami (Figure 7)

while in UK Southampton Water became the principal entry/exit port.

43

Figure 7. Pan American’s Marine Terminal at Miami

Flying Boat Revolution

Pan American Airways founder and long time president Juan Trippe had a vision

to connect the world using flying boats. He differentiated from the competition, instead of focusing on the development of domestic air routes, Trippe directed his efforts in

building network of international and intercontinental routes. His vision made a great

impact and left a long lasting positive consequence on the airline industry overall. Pan

44

American Airways was founded in 1927, serving government sponsored contract

delivering mail on the route between Key West, Florida and Havana Cuba. Trippe soon

acquired numerous small ailing companies in Central and South America paving the way

for his grand plan to establish service between New York andMiami with the major

cities along the east coast of South America. The take over of NYRBA (New York, Rio,

Buenos Aires Line) equipped with a fleet of Consolidated Commodore flying boats was

his most significant acquisition. Juan Trippe soon hired thefamous aviator Charles

Lindbergh, to tour South America and explore possibilities for new routes. Pan

American soon became the symbol for American aviation in theworld. The fleet steadily

grew with arrivals of new aircraft and soon became premier airline, not only in US but

abroad as well. After dominating the South American market, Trippe turned towards

Europe and the Pacific. He was determined to open air routesto UK and France but due

to bilateral agreements between these countries and technical issues Pan Am had to wait

45

until the late 1930's to materialize this plan. Similar conflict influenced change in the

Pacific route where Trippe had to settle for service to Manila, Philippines instead of

Hong Kong, which was firmly in the hands of British ImperialAirways. Pan American's

influence on future airlines cannot be overstated and as early as 1928, the company hired

the most experienced pilots like Edward Musick, who was chief pilot with Aeromarine

Airways in the early twenties, Charles Lindberg, the most famous aviator in the world to

conduct reconnaissance flights to South America and Europe, Dutch engineer Andre

Priester, a wizard of air operations, and RCA engineer Hugo Leuteritz, who introduced

radio navigation, followed by scheduled Trans-Pacific service, and much more. Perhaps

the most significant component in his success was his ability to enlist financiers and

leading figures in aviation to work towards the common goal and realization of his

vision. Cooperation with Igor Sikorsky, Glen Martin, and William Allen of Boeing

resulted in designs and development of new aircrafts that suited the needs for new routes.

46

The American aircraft industry, after lagging behind Europe for two decades, took back

the lead with models made for Pan American routes such as Sikorsky S-42, Martin M-

130, and Boeing 314, becoming the best passenger aircrafts setting standards for future

airliners. At the same time knowledge learned from this operation led to further

improvements and enhancement of aircraft systems and performances. Juan Trippe will

be forever remembered in aviation and beyond as "the man whoshrank the world."

Pan American spent weeks of preparation for the survey flight to Hawai'i and on

April 16, 1936, Sikorsky S-42 named the Pan American Clipper commanded by Captain

Musick gently lifted off from San Francisco Bay flying across the Pacific toward

Honolulu. Some 18 hours and nine minutes later the world learned that flying across

large water surfaces became reality - the Pacific route was feasible. Several months later,

on 22 November Pan Am equipped with a state-of-the-art aircraft Martin M-130, named

the China Clipper would carry mail from San Francisco to Manilawith plans to follow

47

with passenger service. Once again, legendary aviator Captain Musick was in charge of

aircraft attracting a crowd of over 25,000 people gather to witness history in the making.

The aircraft arrived in Honolulu 17 hours later and upon rest continued the trip to

Midway atoll with fourteen passengers all Pan Am employees, a relief crew for Wake. The third stage was the flight to Wake atoll followed by segment to Guam. The China

Clipper landed in Manila on 29 November, greeted by several hundred thousand

residents lined up on the waterfront. The entire trip lasted59 hours 48 minutes and

crossed 8,210 miles in less than a week, only a third of a time businesspeople and

tourists usually spent while traveling by ocean liner. The first scheduled passenger

service began on October 21 - 27, 1936, followed by weekly flights and expanding its

network to Hong Kong, Macau, and Singapore in 1941. Besides three M-130's, a new

Boeing 314 operated on the South Pacific routes bi-weekly.

Trippe's dream to establish scheduled service to Europe materialized on May 20,

48

1939, when the first scheduled airmail flight took place between New York and Marseille

it was soon followed on June 28 with the first passenger service between the New and

'Old World'. Leading European airlines focused their effortsto procure efficient aircrafts

capable of crossing the ocean and carrying profitable payloads. British Imperial Airways

and German Lufthansa already maintained long distance flights over land but the

challenge remained in crossing the Atlantic. The French national carrier Air France soon

entered the arena with the same goal in bridging Europe withSouth America via Africa

using Latecoere 521. Several fine aircrafts were developed and introduced into service on

routes to former colonies and overseas territories. The British aircraft manufacturer Short

from Belfast, supplied Imperial Airways with Calcutta, Empire, and G Class. The

German aircraft industry geared towards a new war used the civilian design to gain

experience for the military aircrafts. Deutsche Lufthansa introduced Dornier Do J Wal,

"the first great flying boat", to carry mail and survey routes to South America. The Italian

49

national carrier Ala Littoria flew Savoia-Marchetti S.66 andlater Macchi M.C. 100 on the Mediterranean routes. The flying boat services, both with Pan American and

European airlines had a positive impact on the regions they flew, many South American

countries and Australia/ Far East benefited from it and withtheir help opened local

airlines and built supporting infrastructure.

Within two decades the design of aircrafts significantly improved, in both land and

sea based machines. New designs were accompanied with the development of engines,

steadily increasing their power and reliability. The age of the open cockpit on commercial

aircrafts was nearing its end due to increasing speeds. Sleek passenger aircrafts with

clean lines and all metal construction appeared in the earlythirties with increased

capabilities and range. The number of passengers grew and sodid the enthusiasm and

hopes of airlines, forcing aircraft manufacturers to resort to new engineering solutions

and improvements. The wheel of progress towards constant improvements in reliability

and safety, still propels aircraft industry.

50

There were several reasons for the development and domination of flying boats in

intercontinental service. Safety was the primary reason and ultimate goal especially, for

flights over large water surfaces. When U.S. Navy Captain Rodgers and the crew landed

their PN-9 near Hawai'i, they floated in the water for a fewdays and after surviving the

ordeal until rescue arrived, it confirmed that flying boats were the right aircraft for early

intercontinental flights. The second reason was the infrastructure was still in its infancy

and unable to support heavy passenger aircrafts. Almost at the same time when the first

aircrafts took to the skies human imagination devised a new flying machine that

combined a boat and an aircraft, thus creating a flying boat. Soon, it proved to be a

worthy design, entering into history on 1st January 1914, when Benoist XIV made the

first commercial flight with paying passenger between St. Petersburg and Tampa, Florida.

From there, the conquest began with the first airlines appearing and bridging the

51

major cities within Europe and across North America, soon connecting continents using

flying boats by the mid-1930's. Pan American Airways was theforerunner of modern day

airlines, setting new standards and developing new procedures which became an essential

part for safe and efficient air operation. Flying boats flourished in the so-called "Golden

Era of Aviation" from the mid-1920's until the end of the 1930's. Flying in those days

was an event evoking adventure and romantic times traveling in luxury to a distant exotic

places. The privileged passengers who boarded flying boats experienced travel like no

other, enjoying unsurpassed service in the air and while resting along the route. Perhaps

such an experience could be only matched by traveling in a private jets. Majestic flying

machines had widespread utilization in the military, especially during the Second World

War. The leading airlines recognized and maximized the flying boat potential but knew

that it was only a matter of time before land based airliners would take over and dominate

commercial aviation. Despite the decision of four major airlines in the early 1930's, to

52

use flying boats for transoceanic service to carry mail and passengers, seven years later

the realization came that the demise of these great aircrafts was on the horizon and it

would happen sooner than expected. In 1938, Deutsche Lufthansa non-stop flight from

Berlin to New York by an Focke Wolf FW 200 Condor in under 24 hours and arrival of

pressurized airliner Boeing 307 in 1939, capable of flying above weather left no doubt

that the end was near.

Conclusion

Flying boats will always be remembered as majestic flying machines that

conquered the skies in the early days of aviation, evoking memories of romance and

exploration. Early on, flying boats spearheaded the first commercial flight and served as

passenger transport until the end of World War Two. Since two-third of the Earth is

covered with water it seemed natural for seaplanes to becomethe primary vehicle in

connecting distant places. The evolution of intercontinentaltransport began with ocean

53

liners, lasting a century and directly influencing air transport in developing flying

machines capable of operating on water . Commercial aviationowes much to maritime

tradition, it assumed navy blue for the crew uniforms, terminology, as well as procedures.

Three main reasons influenced airlines in choosing the flying boat to bridge

continents. Land based aircrafts had short range, carried a few passengers and cargo

resulting in long travel times over land to reach places like South Africa or Australia

from Europe or cities across the United States. Constant reliability issues dissuaded

business people in utilizing aircrafts, instead they opted to ride a train for sure and on

time transport. Light aircrafts did not require sophisticated infrastructure and the

authorities responded accordingly. First airfields as the name suggested were just that,

consisting of a grass landing strip without navigation equipment or communication. It

took two decades for airports to take shape so familiar to present day travelers. The flying

boat enjoyed abundance of existing ports to commence and terminate it's flight. The

54

aviation magazine The Aeroplane predicted the use of flying boats in civil service

because: 'As aircraft grow larger the question of landing space will become more and

more prominent. The flying-boat can be increased in size to any limit commensurate with

efficiency, and there will always be room in which to alightwithout laying waste land

possessing other and greater uses'.(4) The success of an airline depended on a good safety

record that put passengers at ease in knowing that in an event of an emergency flying

boat could land on water and float until rescue arrived.

However, the flying boat had limitations and shortcomings leading to it's early

demise as passenger transport. With the increased demand forair travel, what once was

an advantage became a serious hindrance as more inland cities developed airports. The

flying boats were slow due to a compromise in achieving sound design and construction

for a safe flight and capability for floating, take off and landing on water. World War

Two was a catalyst in accelerating technological developmentof aircrafts and

55

infrastructure, the long-range bombers demanded reliability and concrete runways,

immensely helping commercial transport.

From the early ninetieth until mid-twentieth century, ocean liners were the only

mean of transport carrying passengers and cargo between the continents. The flying boats

changed the perception about flying and opened up possibilities to safely carry

passengers between the continents with considerable reduction in travel times. Flying

commercially during the "Golden Era" of aviation was a distant dream for the majority

especially, traveling by flying boats. The flight from San Francisco to Hawai'i lasted over

seventeen hours costing over $1500, a fortune in those days,possible only for a small

number of wealthy passengers. Nevertheless, aviation visionaries like Trippe sensed the

4. John W.R. Taylor and Kenneth Munson, ed. History of Aviation, (New York: Crown Publishers, 1972), 236.opportunity aircrafts offered for the future. Introduction of the flying boats on routes over

56

water built the foundation for a revolution in air travel that started after World War Two

and still continues.

Although flying boats did not impacted ocean liners and their routes with numbers

of passengers and cargo they carried, aircrafts showed greattechnical achievements in the

span of three decades from the first flight, indicating capability in providing safe and

reliable transport over long distances. The ocean liner's monopoly was over and by 1956,

more passengers crossed the Atlantic by air, signaling the birth of a new era in travel. In

only two decades from the time it took Boeing 314 twenty four hours to fly between New

York and Europe with stop-over, a modern jet airliner reduced the crossing to only seven

hours. The arrival of Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8 signaled the new era that opened

doors for mass travel and cheap tickets allowing unprecedented economic, cultural, and

technical exchange worldwide. It all started with the majestic aircrafts called flying boats

that once connected the continents, perfectly summarized in the following quote:

57

"Quickly outmoded, they understandably remain a focus of nostalgic fascinationfor

many modern air passengers who, trapped in the cramped blandness of a

contemporary airline interior, like to imagine a time when a journey by air was an

experience to be savored and an adventure to be remembered for a lifetime." (5)

5. R.G.Grant, Flight 100 Years of Aviation, (New York: DK Publishing, 2007), 163.

Bibliography

Allen, Oliver E. The Airline Builders. Alexandria: Time-Life Books, 1986.

Allen, Roy. The Pan Am Clipper, the History of Pan American's Flying-Boats 1931 to 1946. New York: Barnes & Noble, 2000.

Allward, Maurice. An Illustrated History of Seaplanes and Flying Boats. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1993.

58

Anchor Donaldson Lines. Sailing Schedule Cunard and Anchor Lines. U.S.A.: T.C., 1925.

Capelotti, Peter, J. Explorer's Air Yacht: The Sikorsky S-38 Flying Boat. Missoula: Pictorial Histories Publishing, 1995.

Casey, Louis, S., and John Batchelor. The Illustrated History of Seaplanes and Flying Boats. New York: Exeter, 1980.

Cochrane, Dorothy, Von Hardesty, and Russell Lee. The Aviation Careers of Igor Sikorsky. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1989.

Cohen, Stan. Hawaiian Airlines: A Pictorial History of the Pioneer Carrier in the Pacific. Missoula: Pictorial Histories Publishing, 1986.

______ .Wings to the Orient: Pan American Clipper Planes 1935 to 1945. Missoula: Pictorial Histories Publishing, 1994.

Complejo Museografico Enrique Udaondo: El Avion Plus Ultra. Llegada a Bs As 10 Febrero de 1926. http://www.lujanargentina.com/turismo_ lugares_museos_ complejo_museografico_udaondo_avion_plusultra.htm. Conrad, Barnaby III. Pan Am, An Aviation Legend. Emeryville: Woodford Press, 1999.

Davies, R.E.G. Lufthansa an Airline and Its Aircraft. McLean: Paladwr,1991.

______ . Pan Am An Airline and its Aircraft. McLean: Paladwr. 1987.

59

Deutsche Lufthansa Aktiengesellschaft. Die Geschichte der Deutschen Lufthansa 1926 - 1984. Dortmund: Fritz Busche Druckereigesellschaft m.b.H., 1984.

Flying the Lindbergh Trail. Produced by Palmer Miller and Curtis F.Nagel. 1937. New York, NY: Pan American Airways System. 1937. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PfZwNEZqHgU.Gaulin, Kenneth. "The Flying Boats: Pioneering Days to SouthAmerica." The Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts 15 (1990): 78-95.

Gli Atlantici. Produced by Eduardo Ceccuti. 1940. Archivio Storico Instituto Luce. Roma, Italia. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jMugoL64lpE.

Grant, R.G. Flight 100 Years of Aviation. New York: DK Publishing, 2007.

Green, William. Flying Boats. Garden City: Doubleyday and Company, 1962.

Gunston, Bill, Jane's Aerospace Dictionary. Coulsdon: Butler & Tanner Ltd, 1988.

___________, ed. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Propeller Airlines. New York: Exeter, 1980.

___________. World Encyclopaedia of Aero Engines. Sparkford:Patrick Stephens Limited, 1995.

Knott, Richard C. The American Flying Boat, an Illustrated History. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1979.

60

Kusrow, Daniel and Bjorn Larsson. The Aeromarine Website. http://www.timetableimages.com/ttimages/aerom.htm.

Manila Roars A Welcome to China Clipper. 1935. Fox Movieton News. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dlKi7cei1P8.

Mondey, David. The International Encyclopedia of Aviation. New York: Crown Publishers. 1977.

Nikolaou, Stephane. Flying Boats & Seaplanes: A History from 1905. Osceola: MBI Publishing, 1998.

Oliver, David. Wings Over Water: A Chronicle of the Flying Boats and Amphibians of the Twentieth Century. London. Quintet Publishing. 1999.

On the Step. Videocassette. Directed by Alan R. Martin. 1996; Bethesda, MD: Wingspan Home Video, 1998.

Rodrigue, Jean-Paul, Claude Comptois, and Brian Slack. The Geography of Transport Systems. New York: Routledge, 2013. Accessed February 1, 2014. http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch3en/conc3en/linertransatlantic.html.

Ruano de la Haza, Jonathan. "The Rise of the United States' Airfield Empire in Latin America, north Africa, the Middle East and Southern Asia (1927-1945)." PhD diss., University of Otawa, 2012. Taylor, John W. R. and Kenneth Munson, ed. History of Aviation. New York: Crown Publishers. 1972.

61

Simons, David, and Thomas Withington. The History of Flight. Bath:Parragon, 2004.

Spanning the Pacific. New Air Link Between America and the East. 1935. Pathe Gazette 1935. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iQ6Ut2QYlPw. The Final Frontier. Videocassette. Directed by Alan R. Martin. 1996; Bethesda, MD: Wingspan Home Video, 1998.

The Giants. Videocassette. Directed by Alan R. Martin. 1996; Bethesda, MD: Wingspan Home Video, 1998.

The Great Clippers. Videocassette. Directed by Alan R. Martin. 1996; Bethesda, MD: Wingspan Home Video, 1998.

Thompson, Jonathan W. Italian Civil and Military Aircraft 1930 - 1945. Fallbrook: Aero Publishers, Inc., 1963.

Trans Pacific. Produced by Palmer Miller and Curtis F. Nagel. 1935. New York, NY: Pan American Airways System. 1935. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dGroxVdz3jc.

Trans-Pacific! 1935. The March of Time. April 19, 1935. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zqOSQ5qSHXI.

Yenne, Bill. Seaplanes of the World. Rialto: O.G. Publishing, 1997.

62

63