Fluidum Continuum Part 1s

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FLUIDUM CONTINUUM UNIVERSALIS

PART I

INTRODUCTION IN FLUID MECHANICAL PHYSICS

by

Arie M. DeGeus

Columbia, South Carolina, USA

September, A.D. 2000

Writer in laboratory, Lexington, South Carolina, Summer, 2000

11

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART IINTRODUCTION IN FLUID MECHANICAL PHYSICS

+PREFACE VI

SUMMARY viiINTRODUCTION XIV

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xviSTATUS OF PHYSICS-A.D. 2000 xvii1 PROPERTIES OF THE FLUIDIUM CONTINUUM 1

1.1 General Considerations 11.2 Physical Characteristics 31.3 Method of Description .4

1.3.1 Method of Lagrange 41.3.2 Method of Euler 4

1.4 General Differential Equations in any "Continuum" in Motion or at Rest. 51.5 Stationary Inviscid Irrotational Flow 71.6 Derivation of the Velocity Distribution .101.7 Applicable Laws 131.8 Potential and Kinetic Energy 141.9 Pressure and Density in the Universal Fluidum Continuum 161.10 Determination of the density P in the FC in an area with "space-time

curvature", as a function of Po,c* ,n,R and LPmc = m*) 181.II Velocity of "FC Energy" Waves 191.12 Velocities Greater than C* ("Speed ofLight") 201.13 Wave and Vortex Phenominae in GeneraL 25

1.13 .1 Wave Phenominae in General 251.13.2 Considering the "bending" of light beams in "space-time curvature": someexamples 251.13.3 Vortex Phenominae in GeneraL .29

2 VORTEX PHENOMINAE 322.1 Open Fluid Flow Vortexes : 32

2.1.1 Rotational Energy (See Fig. lO) 332.1.2 Irrotational Flow 332.1.3 "Helical component" Flow 342.1.4 Total energy ofal! flows of the Open Vortex tube 352.1.5 Values for: PR and PI as: f(R,po) ? 35

2.2 Calculation of the So called "Root-Mean-Square" Velocity of the "RandomMotion," Corresponding to the Observed "Background Radiation" 36

2.2.1 Computation of the Average Velocity 372.2.2 Computation of the Average of the Square of the Velocity 37

III

2.2.3 Calculation of the: vrms of the "Random Motion" in the FC 382.2.4 Closed Fluid Flow Vortexes .402.2.5 Interrelationship of the FC Density with Electro- magnetic Factors ..422.2.6 Summary Considerations of Waves and Vortex Entities ..42

3 THE ELEMENTARY PARTICLES 443.1 The Electron-Neutrino 44

3.1.1 The Energy of the Eectron-Neutrino and also of the Anti-Neutrino .453.1.2 Rotational Energy of the "Toroid" or Single Vortex-ring (See Figs. 18aand b) 463.1. 3 Circulatory irrotational Energy Through and Around the "Toroid" (SeeFig. 19) 473.1.4 Cross-section and Velocity Distribution Outside the Neutrino .483.1.5 Are there "higher harmonic orders" for the "toroid"? (The size ofneutrino's) 49

3.2 The Muon-Neutrino 503.2.1 Calculation of the magnitude of size of the muon-neutrino and associatedvortex ring 51

3.3 The Proton 523.3.1 Calculation of the diameter ofthe outflow of "toroid" hole of the proton533.3.2 Calculation of the width of the split 1m (between the vortex rings of theproton) 553.3.3 The size of the vortex "eye-wall" diameter of the proton 583.3.4 The "mass" of the proton 593.3.5 "Charge" and "Spin" of the Proton 60

3.4 The Electron 603.4.1 General considerations 603.4.2 Pressure and density "inside" the electron. 643.4.3 The electron "at rest" 653.4.4 The Electron "in Motion" 673.4.5 Wave-particle duality for electrons 68

3.5 Impulse-Interaction of Photons with Electrons Causes the "Compton Shift" forthe Photons 70

4 HYDROGEN 724.1 Atomic Hydrogen 72

4.1.1 "Fractional" states 794.1.2 The reactivity of "fractional hydrogen" 82

4.2 Bi-electronic and Molecular Hydro gen ··· 844.2.1 Derivation of a rule which governs the energy quantum levels 854.2.2 Molecular (ordinary) hydrogen 86

4.3 Deuterium 874.4 Tritium 88

APPENDIX I 90APPENDIX : II 95BIBLIOGRAPHY 98GLOSSARY 100INDEX 106

IV

PART IIMICRO-SCALE PHENOMINAE

5. "POSITIVE" AND "FRACTIONAL" MASS AND ENERGY5.1 "Mass" Attraction5.2 Gravity and Maintenance Function5.3 Relativity Theory Revisited

6. UNSTABLE "PARTICLES"6.1 Neutron6.2 Meson6.3 Other Particles; Quarks?

7. CHARGE AND ELECTRO-MAGNITISM8. MAGNETISM9. TORSION FIELDS10. NUCLEO-SYNTHESIS AND THE ELEMENTS

10.1 Helium and Helium-310.2 Lithium, Beryllium, Boron10.3 Elements up to Argon10.4 Elements beyond Argon

11. PHOTON DEC AY PROCESSES11.1 Positron and Electron Formation11.2 "Electron in Motion" Subjects11.3 Proton Formation and Anti-matter

PART IIIMACRO-SCALE PHENOMINAE

12. GAMMA RAY BURSTS13. QUASARS14 THE HUBBLE CONSTANT REVISITED14. ASTROPHYSICAL SUBJECTS15. SUPER PROTON AND SUPER ELECTRON (HIGHER HARMONICS?)17. BLACK HOLES18. WORM HOLES19. CYCLICITY OF THE UNIVERSE

19.1 General Considerations19.2 Evolution of Galaxies

20. UNIVERSE MODEL21. SUMMARY22. POSTULATES23. NEW PROCESSES AND MATERIALS

v

PREFACE

Writer's opinion and fmdings by means of research of the "Fysis" of all things inthis or these Universes coincide with Sir Isaac Newton's scientific legacy as is laid ownin his "Principia Mathematica". All is deterministic; nothing is left to chance and allinter-relationships are ofa "clean-cut" elegance. One hundred fifteen years later ( 1812)we fmd the same vision with Pierre-Simon de Laplace in France as he states in hisTheorie Analytique des Probabilites" :

"An Intellect which at any given moment knew all the forces which animateNature and the mutual positions of the beings that comprise it; if this Intellectwere vast enough to submit its data to analysis, could condense in a singleformula the movement of the greatest bodies in the Universe and that of thelightest atom: for such an Intellect nothing could be uncertain, and the future justlike the past would be present before its eyes".

Writer also found that over and beyond the deterministic inter-relationships of the"Fysis" of all things, that there is also a deterministic Maintenance Factor involved andconnected to the continued existence of this or these Universes in its or their basic inter-relationships, which show mathematical elegance on a grand scale.

The level of this book is such that it assumes at least under-graduate knowledge ofcalculus, general physics, fluid mechanics, nuclear physics and astronomy.

A.M.D.G.

Writer, who humbly serves his Creator, feels greatly privileged that the GreatArchitect considers him worthy to be able to see, contemplate, and give form to theconcepts and the establishment of the basic inter-relationships, which underlie andregulate all things. Many of the concepts and most derivations of inter-relationships inthis book are new.

Columbia, South Carolina, USA, August A.D. 2000

Vl

SUMMARY

Chapters:

1.1.0 The "Fluidum Continuum" ( = FC ) pervades all of space albeit at varyingdensities as to certain locations. Varying densities are cause of "space- timecurvature" and as such the density ( = p ) determines the phenomenon "mass" ( =m) and the maximum allowable velocity in the FC, which is the "speed of light" (=c) at location. Energy is constituted by motion and by density in the Fe. Motionin the FC is the sum-total of all motions: stationary, non-stationary, wave-typeand vortex type, all of which can be super-positioned upon each other.

1.1.1 The Physical Characteristics are: Homogenous, Coheasive, Inviscid (= friction-less) and Compressible.

1.1.2 The chosen method for describing the "Fluid Mechanics" is the 'Euler' -method.Vortex phenominae are characterized by: "Rotational Flow" ( DC R ),"Irrotational Flow" ( DC 11R) and a "Helical Component" Flow, which is parallelto the "vortex-thread / centerline". The velocity in the "eye-wall" ofa vortexapproximates the "speed of light" c. In the compressible FC is valid:

( )

L1v 2

(Bernouilli for the FC) KFC .T.ln li = __ 1,2_ ,wherein K i'C = theP2 2

correspondent of the "gas-const. but for the FC, T = absolute temperature,p = pressure, v = velocity.

1.1.3 (Away from "Black Holes" ) is valid, P / p = C *2, and c* = .J1.K FC.T , wherein

c * = "velocity of light" in "standard" space, which is space with a density Po'

1.1.5 The "Gravitational Maintenance" inflow to "mass" is v = Q I m2c, ,wherein

!,"'av. R

Q = "gravitational constant" for the FC, me, = Ak "mass" of center k '

A = ( !;X nve) Pve' R = distance to center of the vortex The "attraction force"

ImImbetween groups of "mass" entities is GGM = Q ", 2 '" and the densityR

fu . ~". ". Q2m*2nctton .Lor space-tnne curvature IS P = po·exp 2'

2.c* R

Vll

for "gravitational lensing" as well)

1.1.6 The maximum allowable velocities inside "vortex tubes" are higher than e * ,e . I = ~ ..J2..jp / p, (a = radius of "vortex tube", R = distance to center)In.'v. R

For "space- time curvature" the "first derivative" of e wrt R isde _ J2Qm* 1dR-- ~R3The maximum velocity allowed for an electron-neutrino in "space-time

" . * .J2 (om * ~ h . - . d d'curvature IS Vrnax = e +- -- _0 ,w erem, .::.= proJecte lstance2 e* .::.-

between the trajectory of the neutrino and the "mass" center.

1.1.7 The "bending of light" in the FC alongside an "extended length" "mass" object (

I . I ) . a.fi Om * 1 ( I h . A-d'e.g. a ga actlc pane IS - - ""---2 X - X = engt aXIs, 0'::'= Istancex 2 c*3 L13

between paralleling beams, a = angle of deflection) . The "bending of light" in

the FC around a "mass" point is -tx, "" O:~ x ~ (this formulation can be used2.e ..::. L1.::.

n;2.1.1 The "Rates of Energy" for Vortex tubes are E Rotational= 4' P RdLc *3,

_ n; *3 (Rv) _ n; *3 { (~)}Elrrololional--PldLc In -- ,EHelical - dLe PR +2PI In ,2 d/2 4 'd/2

wherein, d = diameter of "vortex tube", whereby the "eye-wall" velocity is e,L is the length of the "vortex tube, Rv = radius to where the "irrotational flow"

borders the "Brownian" motion in the FC , which relates to the 2.72 oK"Background Radiation" temperature in the universe. P R "" .55 x Po; PI"" Po'The estimate for the "Root- Mean- Square" velocity of the "BroWnian" motion inthe FC is vrms "" 285 m/sec, the value for Rv "" 525,000d .The Rotational Energyrate of a "vortex tube" is independent of its diameter D, but is always

n; PRdLe*3. The permeabilityxpermitivityproduct is µoEo The relationship as to4

Vlll

3.1.1 Neutrino I Anti- neutrino: The energy rates are E Rotalio"al "" 1.1X: POd,,2c *3 and

E = 7r d 2' *3lrra/ationa! 4 Po 1/ C . E IlelicComp = .1 : Pod" 2C *3 (is included in the Rotational

Energy rate )

3.1.2 Muon-neutrino: E=207eV, DMoo"",,9xl0-19m, "mass" ",,3.7xlO-34kg.

3.1.4 Proton: "Eye-wall"diameter: dpR ""del =dpo , dpolar-Olitf/ow=J'3xdPR Total

"fluid-dynamic" energy rate is ""6.00x ~ Po.d PR'C *3. Potential Energy is4

"" .40xPO·C*2 ; density inside proton is Pi"l ""1.2xpo ' "mass" of the proton is

"".60x Po.dp/ . This corresponds with the classical mass of 1.67x 10-27 kg.

Calculatory estimate ofdplI gives d PR "" 1.09x 10-15 m . ~Pi" at inside "toroid" hole

diameter is Vlpi" "" .064xc* ,and OJ "" 3.2xl026 rad./scc. "Charge" energy rate

'~307r d2*3IS ~ . X-Po' PII .e4

3.1.5

4.1.1

Electron: Calculatory estimate of del is d e/ "" 10-15 m ; the diameter of the polar I

axial inflows ( electron "at rest") is ""_I-del; fluid-dynamical "mass" of the27

electronis "" .034xPo.d/. ~Pin "" .064xc* ,and EsPi" "".06xPo·d/.e*3

"Charge" energy rate is "" .00128xpo.d/.e*3and "Angular Momentum": lil2 (Ii = hi 27r : "Planck's constant I 27r '). The value of the angular momentum is5.3xlO-35

. The electron "in motion" shows a spiraling trajectory (2 sine-wavemotions with 900 phase difference super-positioned on each other) ; this provesthe "Complimentarity Principle" of Bohr and gives confirmation of the Davisson-Germer experiment. Limitations are imposed for larger "particles" . The electron"grows" as it comes into "relativistic" velocities, the "toroid" hole diameter ofthe inflows enlarges, as does the outflow split; the internal fluid density lowers.

d e2 13.6 h' I 1 1Hyrogen: E,,= 2 =--?-eV,werem n=quantum eve;e=eem.n 87rEOaH n-

charge; Eo =pennitivity; aH = Bohr radius, Frequency ofradiation when

electrons go from higher to lower quantum levels is v = EI - E2 . Fromh

astronomical observations and fmdings in the laboratory, it became obvious thatalso "fractional states" can exist. The energy levels can be found by substitution

f "fr . " . ~ 1 13.6 VII 1 V lid ~o actIOns m energy l.ormu a E =--2-e ,n=-,-,-,.... a .Lorn n 234

IX

distances between proton and electron ( is Bohr radius) is aH = .053xn2 X 10-9 m

and for orbit velocity is v = ~xl. = 2.2x1061.m Isec.1/ 2h£o n n

Frequencies of emitted radiation are ("Rydberg" formula) , v = RZ2 (~- ~),. ~ ~

4

wherein, Z =1, and R = m~ =1.09x107m-l• Total "fluid-dynamical"

8£ h3o

energy rate ofthe hydrogen atom is "'"8.2x: podeJ 2e *3 . Reactions between

"fractional states" are governed by: H(I/;) + H(n,) ---t Hh,)+H+ + e- +photon "Bi-

Electronic Hydrogen: "Angular Momentum of an electron is rmv =!!:!!...For the2Jr

quantum numbers of the energy states is valid nk

= _1_; nl=_1

Pk PI

( 1 1) 1 me*. .-+- =-xaHxax-- (wherem, aH= "Bohr radIus"; .a="fmePk PI 2 h

structure const~nt"is 2Jre2

"'" _1_; _h_ = Compton wavelength) . "Bi-electroniche* l37 me *

hydrogen" reacts as a negative ion: H- (1I P ) .

•,1ichelson-Morley (Appendix I):

Incoming "aether- wind" is ( v = Q :L,(7e) ), for Earth is "'"1.1 miles Isec.

R:L,(me) = total number of protons in the earth. Value found for

4

o "'"345 m 2 xl 012 (= gravitational constant for the FC)Ne/.u, sec

"Speed of light" as function of time and density of space is

e (!r.f») "'" 1 2 ~ e ""'DC 4, for a younger universe evolves to(t-;,<,- ;,.H) I

c ""'DC ~ for an older universe.t

C (f(R) ) = ( ~: *)x R2 ~ (in "space time curvature") :::::}

c (fr,) ) ~.J2( Qi~"",},(in universe, r is radius),

x

Conclusion:

r2 ""DC ~ as the universe ages.t

r ""DC ~ (young universe) evolves tot

2 1so r ""DC 2'" evolves tot '

Xl

1 .)r ""DC 2'" (old umverse .t

L

Fluid ClassicalFluid

ClassicalFluid Flui

Dynamic Dynamic DynalDynamic PhysicsEnergy Physics Charge Spi"Mass" MassRate

EnergyForce Energy

Potential SpirEnergy Veloc

POd3 kg nPOd2c *2 POd2cUnit _pd2c*3 Joule

Expression4 0

POC*2 eV c*

NeilL kg N L2r-3 MJ3r2 N 'Lr-2NeL"L

2

Dimensionality elu e LIL

Nel"L-1r-2 LT

Electron-N eutrinol Anti- '" 6x10-3 '" 5xlO-36 ",1.] <5eV N.A. ",.1

Neurtino

"'.IlMuon- Neutrino '" 7.5 3.7xlO-34 '" 2.0 207eV N.A..OM

Proton! Anti- 6.00 "'.3",60 1.67x 10-27 938MeV ",3,0proton AO .064

Elecron! Pos,2.73 '" .04Positron Neg. 2.70 9,lx10-3

' '" 2.2 51lKeV .00128"at rest" Net .327

.064

Electron '" .2~"in motion" ",59 '" 1.65 x 10-27 '" 5,9 ",900MeV '" 2.9V= .99c* .064

4.4xlOHydrogen

'" 60.03 '" 1.67xlO-27 ",8.2 "'938.5MeV N.A. 2.2xlAtom

mlsec

.-t-~

6

9

XII

Classical Physics Constants

Boltzmann's ConstantCharge electronGas Constant

Gravitational ConstantPlanck's ConstantPermitivity of Free Space

Permeability of Free Space

"Speed of Light"

k = 1.38 xl0-23 J I mol.Ke = 1.60xlO-19 Coulomb *R = 8.32xl03 J Ikg ImolG = 6.66x 10-11 Newtonh = 6.62xlO-34 J sec *Eo = 8.85 xl0-12 Farad I m

µo =4n xlO-7 Henry I mc*=3xI08mlsec *

*) This is the same constant in the Fluidum Continuum with the same value.

Fluidum Continuum Constants

Fluidum Constant

Boltzmann's Constant kSolFC= magnitude of 10-2 (L2r'B-I)

Density in "standard" space Po = magnitude of 10-6 (Ne1uL-3)

Gravitational Constant (univ) O=345xl012 m41Nelusec2 (L4Nelu-lr2)*2

P =KFCT KFC=~=3.3xl016m2 Isec2 K( L2r'B-I)p T

C. =U ",3xl04JIN K (L2r2e-IN -I)he T elu. eLu.

Specific Heat Constant

"Eye-wall" Diameter of:a. Proton, Electron, Positron

b. Muon-neutrinodpR = del =dpos ",10-15md 9 10-19

muon:::::::: X mc. Electron-neutrino, aAnti-neutrino

Root-mean-square velocity "Brownian" motion

"Standard" Volume in "standard" space"Standard" Mass in "standard" space"Planck Length"Planck Density

d '" 3xlO-19m/I

vrms '" 285 m Isec

1.00 m3

'" 1.5x 1097Planck units of mass'" 4.05xlO-35 m'" 1.5xlOl03 Planck unitslm3

(N FCis the number of elementary units in the Fluidum Continuum)

Xlll

INTRODUCTION

The new approach to physics as contained in this book of 3 parts introduces anEnergy Continuum which not only behaves like a fluidum, but is in actuality a "mass"-less fluidum, which consists of elementary units !; ,which are certainly not larger then10-25 m and even could have a size as small as the "Planck length," the definition ofwhich is

~

.G"Planck length" = -

C*3 '

wherein h = the Constant of Planck ( 6.62 x 10 -34 j-sec ), G = the GravitationalConstant ( 6.66 x 10 -II Newton) and c *= the so called "speed of light", which is themaximum possible velocity of a wave in such area of space, which has essentially a"flat" "space-time" characteristic. ( c *= 3 x 10 8 m sec -I ) The "Planck-length" is4.05 x 10 -35 m. If this value is taken for the smallest possible 3-dimensional unit, we fmdfor a "Planck-density," 1.5 x 10 103 units m ~3. The Gravitational Constant is fromclassical physics and still refers to kilogram-mass. This constant has its analo~mscounterpart for the Energy Continuum or Fluidum Continuum. This constant which shallbe indicated by Q, is new to physics and can be defined as: the "gravitationalmaintenance factor" for the vanms types of vortex entities which exist in the FluidumContinuum together with all the wave types. Q is the proportionality factor between thenon-wave) velocity vgmv.' which is perpendicular to a given cross-section in the Fluidum

at a distance R from a center of vortex entities divided by the number of basic vortexentities which are being served with additional fluid energy. This quantity of "mass"-ortex entities be indicated by :L,A . Formulations are:

n VgravR2 ) ~h.O.l.l. = ",' ( 2 and, PlancklengthFc = -3 ( 3 )

~A c*e size magnitude range with regard to most subject matters in Part I of this book is

- m the size of the hydrogen atom down to the "Planck-length FC ". From "our reality" ofit is 15 magnitudes down to the size of the electron and from the electron to the

ximum size of the elementary units, !; is 8 - 10 magnitudes down and from the size; to the "Planck-length" is about another 10 magnitudes down. Part I mostly harrlles

_-sics phenorninae in the size range: 10-10 _10-25 m. Since "Mass" in classical sensenot exist in the FC, the energy E is always expressed as a product of the "standard-

-jty": Po' the square of the diameter of the elementary vortex: d and the third

of the speed of light in "standard space": c *3 . The exact definitions of theselo..A..ui;:' are in Part 1. The so-called "Background radiation" (2. 72K ) is not the lastcet:=l;nder of a so-called "Big Bang." Its existence is responsible for a "Brownian"~on of the elementary units in the Fluidum, which has a "root- mean-square velocity,"

( 1 )

XlV

Vrms' which has a estimated value of 285 m sec -I . This "Brownian" motion is the reasonthat the "frictionless" character of the Fluidum is limited in the outermost range of the so-called "irrotational" flow, (which is the surrounding flow of all vortex type entities). Thelimit where the velocity of the "friction-less" "irrotational" flow equals the velocity of therandom "Brownian" motion is calculated to be at a distance of 525,000 d ( d is thediameter of the elementary vortex) in outward direction and it limits the energy of"open" vortexes, namely the energy of the irrotational flow is maximally 26x the energyof the "rotational" flow. In the case of "closed" vortexes there is always a total energybalance between the "rotational" flow together with the "helical component" flow and the"circulatory" flow, which is "irrotational", The "Brownian" motion, which is random, isnot fully "friction-less" or "super- fluid"; it causes the slightest of drag in the outer- mostrange of the "irrotational" flow and is therefore also cause for the need (althoughinfinitesimal) for additional fluid energy over time. This inflow of additional fluidtoward vortex entities in the Fluidum is called "Gravitation". This subject matter is beingdiscussed in all 3 Parts of this book. Curiously calculations with regard to the electronshow that the "rotational" and "irrotational" energies of its elementary "vortex rings" isgreater than the energy equivaent of its "mass" in classical physics's sense. This has ledto the undeniable conclusion of the existence of "Fractional Mass" I "Negative Mass". Anew postulate as to what the phenomenon "Mass" means can and shall now be defmed.The existence of "Fractional Mass"and associated "Fractional I Negative Energy" isdirectly linked to the "collapse of matter" and the physics of extreme "space- timecurvature". This also gives credence to phenominae which take place in the so called"ergosphere" of active black holes. Also parallels can be seen with the so-called "Penroseprocess", whereby energy can be "borrowed" between entities. In the case of thehydrogen atom, reduction in energy of its electron translates into a smaller size of the"circulatory" ( = "irrotational") flow "envelope" , which causes the electron to descendfrom the "ground-state" to lower quantum levels in the fluid dynamic flow "chalice". All"fractional states" are very stable. This descent through lower quantum levels isaccompanied by photonemissionjust as is the case by descent from "excited states" tothe "ground-state". Writer developed a process whereby this energy is being "harvested"for multiple beneficial uses.

xv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In the late 1970's writer met Arnold G. Gulko. At that time Mr. Gulko practicedpatent law in Crystal City, VA. His office was located within walking distance from theUS Patent and Trademark Office. Mr. Gulko did pate~t work for me which was mostly inthe realm of thermo-dynamic processes, particularly relating to "alternative energy"applications. It was the time of the Carter Administration and of the promotion of"alternative energy". The "gas-lines" were fresh in the memory. Mr. James Schlesingerwas at the helm of ERDA (= Energy Re-Development Administration). Writer gotgovernment grants for developing certain devices in solar and wind energy applications.Mr. Gulko, who I saw regularly, familiarized me with new physics, which had beenpioneered before by Mr. C. F. Krafft, in live patent examiner at the Patent and TrademarkOffice. This science of physics, which involves the micro- as well as themacrocosmological phenominae, is "Fluid Mechanics" based; it is in essence a revival ofthe "aether" or Fluidum Continuum theories. Writer studied Gulko's "Vortex Theory"and was astounded by its truth and logic in the research and development in many mattersof physics. Over the years Mr. Gulko expanded the Fluidum Continuum theories,particularly in the field of astronomy. Writer is thankful for having met Mr. Gulko who isa great thinker in the fields of physics and related astronomy. Writer then started his ownresearch and put mathematics am fluid mechanics to work on concepts from Planck,Gulko and Winterberg Writer added and corrected, while keeping the developingtheoretical knowledge on a sound mathematical footing. This brought new inter-relationships in elementary physics to light, which provided new nuclear processes,which were proven to be correct in the laboratory. In 1999 writer met Prof. Thomas G.tanford, who teaches Chemical Engineering at the University of South Carolina.

Professor Stanford is knowledgeable in many disciplines in the exact sciences; hispersonal scientific library is bigger than the one at his department; he is always willing to

my sounding board and reviewed the developing science on a continuing basis.\Vorking with him is always a pleasure. This bodes well for Parts II and III. of this book.Also thanks to my nephew Ir. J.M.Verheij for his help and commentary.

XVl

STATUS OF PHYSICS-A.D. 2000

Early into the 20th century, physics experienced a golden period of scientificdiscoveries and expansion of knowledge, with Einstein's relativity theories forming the"crown" piece.

With Heisenberg and others like Born and Schrodinger came the quantummechanics, which parts away from deterministi.:, measurable and verifiable physics.

Writer also uses some of 'classical' quantum mechanics as a "useful tool" asEinstein used to say. Quantum mechanics developed further with little opposition. Eventhe educated public was and is not capable of evaluating quantum mechanics at the levelit came to. In the 50-ties no one questioned the 'physics community', particularly afterthe successful development of the A- and H bombs, which elevated physicists to a status,where no one could really question them as to the merits of going into certain directionsof research. The physics of the A- and H-bombs and Nuclear Fission in general (as it isbeing applied in nuclear power plants) are relatively simple and the achievements in thisarea stand for the last major advancements in physics. The necessity to limit nuclearwaste and the need for inexhaustible and inexpensive fuel started the research in thermo-nuclear fusion This multi-billion dollar program failed. No Tokamak ever ran for anylength of time in any country. No "overunity" or "breakeven" has ever been achieved.Nevertheless the 'physics community' continues into this direction while there is no hopefor reaching commercial viability.

In the 1980- ties "cold fusion" looked to be a possibility, which was short-livedsimply because the rate of reactions was too slow. Recently there have been slightlybetter results. Even while the "cold fusioneers" are down, the physics community keepsfighting them (e.g. R. Park, who calls "cold fusion" fraudulent and also Huizenga with abook, titled: "Cold fusion, the fiasco of the 20- th century). The real fiasco is thermo-nuclear fusion, which wasted billions of dollars. "Cold fusion costed only pocket money.Funding for "thermo-nuclear fusion" in the US is curbed now, however CERN'sactivities have increased. Writer predicts that some of their programs, particularly thosewho look for exotic particles, will be of little merit.

• How did physics get to the point of not being able to go forward? The answer liesin quantum mechanics, the success of which can be attributed to (quoting Dr. R. L. Millsof Blacklight Power Inc.): (1) the lack of rigor and unlimited tolerance to ad hocassumptions in violation with physics laws, (2) fantastical experimentally immeasurablecorrections such as virtual particles, vacuum polarizations, effective nuclear charge,shielding, ionic character, compactified dimensions and renormalization, (3) curve fittingparameters that are justified s'olely on the basis of that they force the theory to match thedata. Quantum mechanics is now in a state of crisis with constantly modified versions of

XVll

matter represented as undetectable miniscule vibrating strings that exist in many un-observable hyperdimensions, that can travel back and forth between interconnectedparallel universes. Recent data show that the expansion of the universe is accelerating.This observation has shattered the long-standing unquestionable "doctrine" of the originof the universe as being a "Big Bang". The "Bohr" Theory as well as "Schrodinger'swave equation" show enormous problems in certain areas, which simply are never beingaddressed by the physics community. Schrodinger himself even disliked theincompleteness in validity; however since there was never anything better in that periodof the 20-th century the Schrodinger equation became "the accepted truth". Herewith weshall address a simple example, which shows the incompleteness and invalidity of someof the "Bohr" Theory: At OK , the velocity of the electron in a hydrogen atom wouldbecome = 0, according to formulation:

average kinetic energy = ~ mC2 = 2. kT (k = Boltzmann's Constant) ( 4 )2 2

However the relatively strong "Coulombic attraction" force between the proton and theelectron still exists and should cause the instantaneous joining and annihilation of thecharges. This does not happen; the electron stays away from the proton at a certaindistance, which will be explained by writer in chapter 4.1.1 and a calculation shall bemade as to this distance. Also the so called "Strong Force" and the "Weak Interaction"are objectionable; they are artificial contrivances brought into being, by lack of betterunderstanding of nuclear structure and nuclear synthesis during the period of the 1930-ies, because of the success in the acceptance of quantum mechanics, which ousted othertheoretical proposals at that time. These forces do not exist. The nuclei of the elementsare kept together by a 'mechanism', whereby the electro-negative end of the neutronskeep the protons in place by way of attraction. One electro-negative end can keep twoprotons in check. (See Chapters 10 of Part II) . The neutron is a composite "particle",witness of which is the half-life of 11 minutes and there being f3 emission; the 'cigar-like' neutron is a proton at one end and an electron at the other; both are being kepttogether as well as kept apart at a certain distance by an anti-neutrino.

The Electro-Magnetic Force, Spin and Magnetism are all fluid-mechanicalphenominae and Gravitation is 'represented' by the pressure/density-gradient in thefluidum Continuum. The "Holy Grail" in physics today is to unite the 4 Forces oflassical physics. (e.g. : See Scientific American, Millennium Issue, Dec., 1999 , pages

-75) Writer states: two of classical physics' forces do not exist and the other two are~d- mechanical phenominae; so no forces need to be united and certainly not in the 11th

. ens ion and at an energy level of 10 18 Giga-electron Volts. Also there are no merits in-ding out what happened before 10 -43 second (so called quantum gravity period) after-Big Bang", which likely never happened as "Cyclicity" of the Universe(s) is recently

oming more and more apparent. The "Quark Theory" has some validity (for about 1/3.:Thewhole), however quarks have no "particle" (in the classical sense) nature, but are-- and only fluid-mechanical phenominae. See Chapter 6.3 of Part II, where the

lationship insofar it exists shall be shown. "Space-time" ( 4-dimensional) ande- time curvature" are great concepts; they are highly useful tools; they areively being used and integrated into the physics of the Fluidum Continuum, as are

XVlll

many parts of 'Relativity Theory' related concepts. The inter-relationships with thefluidum density and the gravitation phenomenon are also contained within this book.

A totally new approach to physics is being introduced herewith and this approachis "Fluid MeclRnical" in character. This was not done before, but the research of it,resulted in new insights. Discoveries have recently been made, e.g. other forms ofhydrogen, including so-called "Fractional Hydrogen" and "Bi- Electronic Hydrogen".This in turn has led to discovery of new energy generating processes and to the creationof new materials, hitherto unknown and of extreme importance. Also nucleartransmutations which never were searched for or known have recently been found bywriter and associates in the laboratory. These new processes and related technologies,which are supposedly impossible in the sense of classical physics, supply ample proof forthe correctness of the underlying theories and the validity of the new concepts and newpostulates as shall be introduced in this book. Physics shall never be the same andastronomy shall be affected similarly.

XlX

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PART!

INTRODUCTION IN FLUID MECHANICALPHYSICS

1 PROPERTIES OF THE FLUIDIUM CONTINUUM

1.1 General Considerations

Over the last few centuries many men of intelligence have wondered andcontemplated about the existence of a substance or medium, which provided for thepropagation of "light", electro-magnetic waves in general, and of magnetic and electricforce fields. 'Sound-waves had air as a gas to propagate itself through' was the reasoningand therefore "light," the wave character of which had been discovered by Huyghens,should have a medium for its propagation as well. These two matters show closeparallelism. In earlier years the medium through which "light" or waves, like radio wavespropagated was called "aether" or "luminoferous aether". The term was kept in use eventill after the Second World War. Writer still remembers his father (who was also anamateur radio-set builder) telling him that the radio waves went via the "aether"". Writerwent during his education in classical physics to "vacuum" and afterwards after manyyears of research and auto-didactism in the new physics back to the "aether" under thename "Fluidum Continuum", which hereafter shall be abbreviated to FC. Many "aether""models" were theoretically developed by scientists, especially by: M. Planck (forreference, see F. Winterberg 1990 Z. Naturforschung 45, Planck Aether Model of aUnified Field Theory, and Z. Naturforschung 46, A Model of the Aether comprised ofdynamical Toroidical Vortex Rings). Winterberg made substantial contributions, as didsome Russians at their 'Academy'. Important work was done by e. F, Krafft in the US,which was followed by extensive work by A. G. Gulko with his "Vortex Theory", all of'hich will be referred to in extenso. Planck also discovered the "discrete quanta", in'hich "light"/ electro-magnetic waves came or could be absorbed. The flrst episode of,e "wave-particle duality" was born herewith. Expansion of this concept to "matter /

mass" having also wave characteristics came with DeBroglie. This forms the secondepisode of what is now known as the "Complimentarity Principal" which was formulated'y Bohr. Writer agrees 100% with the duality principle with regard to "waves," howeverith regard to "matter / mass" he agrees only partially. Similarly writer agrees with some

of Bohr's formulations as well as with Schrodinger's but only in limited areas ofIplication.

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In this new fluid mechanical approach in the FC physics, which is more basic thanclassical elementary physics a number of concepts change, like "particle" becomes"closed fluid flow entity", which is an entity, which is made up out of one or more"vortex rings", whereby the largest entity consists of five "vortex rings", all of whichhave a common axis of rotation. There are new more basic concepts for "mass","density", "maximum velocity of a wave in the FC" and some other new concepts ordefmitions for "charge ", "spin", "torsion fields" and "magnetism".

The FC pervades all of space, albeit at varying densities as to certain locations."Space- time curvature" relates to this, which shall be shown in several Chapters. Largeparts of the observable "local universe", where "space-time" is essentially "flat" ha ve acorresponding fairly constant density, which we shall name the "standard" density andwhich shall be indicated hereafter by Po'

The existence of the FC cannot be proven directly, however it can be provenindirectly and by association. The Michelson- Morley experiment, which was conductedto directly indicate the existence of the FC, was unsuccessful. This was puzzling anddisturbing to most scientists of that period. Lorentz had an explanation for this mishap,namely: 'the contraction of material bodies when moving' (in the direction of motion).When this modification was applied to the Michelson- Morley interferometer the overalleffect was nullified. Writer highly recommends this subject matter as it is being handledin the book: "Six not so easy pieces" by Feynman in his chapter of "Special RelativityTheory". The scientific community accepted the "Lorentz contraction" as theexplanation, but it was quite artificial, with which writer agrees. Since other experimentsconducted at that time period in an effort to discover an "aether-wind" also met withdifficulties, the accepted opinion became as it was voiced by Poincare: "that it wasimpossible to discover an aether-wind by means of any experiment". Einstein then alsoshowed why the experiment could not work. This closed the case for the existence of an"aether" at that time and this conclusion is still adheared to in today's physics. Thisconclusion is wrong: writer agrees that on the earth's surface the execution of the 1887Michelson- Morley experiment might not succeed. However, this does not disprove theexistence of an "aether" either. Michelson remained convinced that there was an aetheruntil his death. Writer is of the opinion that all who looked at the results of theMichelson-Morley experiment overlooked a most basic, important aspect. Namely: Whenthe earth moves through the aether it was assumed that the aether-wind came tangentiallypast the surface; the apparatus was set up for this. However, the aether-wind is strictlyperpendicular to the earth's surface right at the surface. This also was remarked by A. G.Gulko. For this situation the apparatus would have to be constructed differently. Thissubject matter shall be addressed in Appendix 1. In light of this, writer suggests that theMichelson- Morley experiment be reconsidered and a new proposal shall be made fOratest on earth and / or in space, and with the apparatus positioned on a radial to the Sun orJupiter. This proposal is taken up in Part I as Appendix 1. See also Part II, Chapters 5.1and 5.2

One indirect strong indication for the existence of the FC was found when usingsynchrotrons in tests where electrons were accelerated to substantial relativistic velocities

Page 3

(greater than 90% of the "speed of light") and under vacuum conditions: 'A densificationof radiation' was noticed extending away from the moving electron in a cone-like pattern,like that observation ofthe sound-wave densification when an object moves through airat a velocity close to the speed of sound. Magnetism is also a clear direct (made visibleby its action) proof for the existence of the Fe. 'Iron filings, being magnetizedthemselves, line up like boats in flowing rivers within the FC'. (See also Chapter 8 inPart II)

1.2 Physical Characteristics

Since Huyghens' discoveries in 17th century Holland, we know that the mediumthrough which electromagnetic waves (including "light," which is electromagneticradiation with wavelengths between approximately 400 and 700 nm) propagate is of afluid-like nature and the wave phenominae therein were indicated by many scientists innumerous tests.

The properties of the FC are:

A. Homogenous: there is no other substance and there are no entities of a substanceof a differing nature anywhere in the FC in the observable universe.

B. Coheasive: the basic elementary units of the FC stay together, even to the pointof the density of the FC approaching zero.

C. Inviscid or super- fluid: which means that there is no friction* within the FC andbetween its basic elementary units.(*this matter shall be discussed in several Chapters)

D. Compressable: like a regular ideal gas).

Besides wave-phenominae, which have been studied extensively by scientists like'Huyghens, Planck, Schrodinger, Compton and others, a fluidum like the FC, which hasharacteristics as mentioned above, can also produce vortex phenominae. Bothhenominae can occur and also simultaneously occur with other types of motion in the

T:'e. The motion in the FC at any given point in time is the sum- total of all: stationairy,on-stationairy, wave and vortex type motions.

Vortex phenominae have been studied by scientists like Helmholtz, Thomson, von~ann and others and many books in fluid mechanics carry the subject matter (e.g.

damentals of Fluid Mechanics by Munson, Young and Okiishi). However, the subject:mer always relates to fluidae, which consist of atoms or molecules, but not out of~entary "massless" units of which the FC is formed. This book will extensively

s the vortex phenominae. This includes all "open vortexes" and all "closed .fluidyortexes" and "composites" thereof, which are known as "particles."

The vortex phenominae have led to new insights, new concepts and numerous'eries and related calculations of inter- relationships, particularly in the area of

~rary physics, all of which are likely to lead to a new age of great advancement in

Page 4

physics. New materials of superior properties and new inexpensive, large-scalepropulsion systems for 'deep space' exploration are now showing up as result of thisnewly acquired knowledge.

1.3 Method of Description

There are several ways to describe the flow of fluidae. The best known of theseare the method of Lagrange and the method of Euler.

1.3.1 Method of Lagrange

Application of this method means that every elementary unit of the Fluidum,being ('dx , dy , dz ) in Cartesian coordinates, is being followed in its motion. Thetraveled distance, velocity, acceleration, pressure, density and temperature arecharacteristics of the elementary unit which is being considered and are functions of theboundary values or conditions of the concerned elementary unit at the beginning pointand also as a function of time. This method fmds substantial application in Meteorology.

1.3.2 Method of Euler

Applying this method means that at any given point in space through which thereis motion or flow of a fluidum at any given point of space and time (x, y, z, t) the valuesof the velocity, acceleration, density etc. in the fluidum for that elementary unit ( dx , dy ,dz ) which passes through the concerned point in space at the concerned time is beinggiven. The identity of the elementary unit is of no importance in the method of Euler.Velocity, acceleration, density, etc. are now functions of the three space coordinates andof time, F( x , y , z , t ). In utilizing this method of description and if one describes thevalues of: velocity, acceleration, density, etc. and lor whichever else is of interest in allpoints of space, then the concept of a "field" is being established and in this case a "flowfield" (at the considered point of time). The flow of the fluidum is such that each quantitywhich passes through, is instantly followed by a new quantity. (This is the so-called"Continuity" concept) .

•

Defmition: The "velocity field" is that "field" which is obtained at time point t, whichshows the velocity vectors in each point of that "field" V ( x, y, z, t ).

Defmition: A "streamline" is a line which lies in the "velocity fie ld" in such a mannerthat at time point t, each of its points lies tangentially to the velocity vector.

Page 5

Definition: A "stream function," l/f(x,y,z), can be formulated as

a2 a2 a2 a2 a2

~ + ~ +~ = O. For two-dimensional flow, we have ~ + ~ = 0,ax2 ay2 az2 ax- aywith the stream function being l/f (x ,y). In this case, the velocities are

al/f al/fu=- and v=--ilv ' , axThis is in line with the 'continuity equation' for steady flow:

ap + a(pu)+ a(pv)+ a(pw) =0, ap +V.pv =0 (5)at ax ay az at

For areas in space where the density is constant: V.p v = 0 ( 6)

and: au +av ~ =0ax ay az (7)

Definition: A "stationary field" is one in which velocity, density, et cetera at each pointhave values which are constant with time.

Fluid Mechanics has largely accepted the Euler method and it is this methodwhich is used in this book. For aid of understanding of formulations, laws and derivationswhich are going to be used in the following chapters, "An introduction of the Eulermethod in fluid mechanics" is given herewith. This method is valid for the FC with itscharacteristrs as are noted in Chapter 1.3.2.

1.4 General Differential Equations in any "Continuum" in Motion or atRest.

The body and surface forces on an elementary unit (8 x, 8y, 8 z ) are shown inFig. 1.( x - coordinate forces are drawn in only) and the forces in the directions x, y, zare:

8Fy = 8may

and 8m= p8x8y8z (8)

Page 6

(OTrx 8Z)__,_ T"" --- 8x8y

I I l az 2

OX8Y(Ta + aTz:c oz)az 2Fig,l (

_ OTy.t OY)8X8Z'(Yo< ay _ 2

It now results for the forces on the elementary volume unit that the elementary volumeunit cancels out so:

a(Ju aTyx aT x (au au au au)pg +_,_+ __ +_2 =p -+u-+v-+w-x ax ay az at Ck i?v az (9)

aTxy a(J'yyaTzy (av av av av)pg +--+--+--=p -+u-+v-+w-y ax ay az at (k ~ az ( 10)

( 11 )

The FC is inviscid or frictionless; this eliminates the T 's so the pressure p , is the

negative of normal stress, - p = (J'xx = (J'yy= (J' zz :

This leads to the Euler equations of motion:

( 12 )

( 13 )

ap (aw aw aw aw)pg --=p -+u-+v-+w-Z az at ax ay az ( 14 )

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The vector notation being: p g - Vp = p [~; + (v.V) v J (l~ )

Since the FC is "massless," the gravitational term in ( 15 ) does not have to be taken intoconsideration. This enables us to reduce ( 15 ) to:

( 16)

We can formulate for the acceleration of a fluid entity as:

ov ov ov ova=--+u--+v--+w--ot ox oy oz

Furthermore 'steady flow' reduces ( 16 ) to -V p = p (v .V) v ( 17)

Using the vector identity -Vp =.£V(v. v)- p(vxVxv)2

We can now establish Bernouilli' s equation Vp +.!. V (v2) = V X (V x v)

P 2

Or Vp ds +.!. V (v2) ds = [ v x (V x v) ]ds . Along a 'strea~line' the vectors

p 2

ds and V are parallel and the vector v x (Vx v) is perpendicular to v . Therefore

[vx(VxvlJd. ~ 0 and Vpds ~(ix}ix+(: )dY~dP

'berefore, dp +vdv= 0p

( 18 )

1.5 Stationary Inviscid Irrotational Flow

This type of flow occurs in circulatory and vortex motions in fluidae. In a'onary flow field (we shall consider a 2-dimensional flow field) there is no rotational'on shown by the small elementary units as they flow along the curved "strea~lines".tuality, the elementary units show angular deformation. (See Fig. 2 a and 2 b, where

~ velocity variation, which causes rotation and angular deformation is being shown. See: Munson, Young and Okiishi : Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics)

Page

In interval 8t, OA and OB willrotate throµgh angles 8a and8[3 to positionsOA' andOB'Angular velocityofOA

. 8aWOA = Ltmol~O -

8t

S,.....

FJ'_~u+ ~ f)I o'j 'j

Sy

tv.. I.\.For small

angles

tan8a",,8a= (ov/ox)8x8t8x

= ov 8tox

Wherefore

. [( av / ox) 8t J oVWOA = Ltmol-->o 8t = ox

W· h ov b . ..It, - emg posltlve, WOAoXwill be counter-clockwise.

Similarly, Wos = ou . With ou being positive, Wos will be clockwise. The rotationoy oyaround the Z-axis is the average of the angular velocities WOA and Wos of the twomutually perpendicular OA and OB'. Consider counter-clockwise rotation being positive,then it follows that:

--(E(dV-- '-6,---1bD<A ~xoxo

_ ~(av _ ov ) andWz - 2 ax oy and W =~(ou _ ow)

y 2· OZ ox

In vector notation the combined vector is W = w) +w) +w/c ( 19 )

The rotation vector is 'is the curl of the velocity vector, thus W = -.!:. curl v = -.!:. V X v2 2

i j k

So ~vxv=~1 ~ ~ ~ ~ 1/2 (aw ~ a, )1+ 112(au ~ aw )1+ \/2 (a, ~au ):'2 2 ox Oy dz Oy ~ ~ ax ~ ~

u v w

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And the vorticity is 2 x the rotation vector, ~ = 2(0 = V X v When the rotation around the

Z- axis is zero, then (~:)~ (~ ). and '\7 x v ~ 0 The rotation and the vorticity are zero,

then the flow field is "irrotational".

The Bernouilli equation in Irrotational Flow is: (along a streamline)

(vXVxv).ds =0 and ds =dx.l +dy.) +dz.k

wherefore, dp +1/2d (v2) +gdz = 0

p

In the FC there is no factor gdz, therefore, Jdp +~ = Constant.p 2

(20 )

The Velocity Potential <p ( x,y ,t ), u = a<P, and v = a<p, and v =V <pax ayIn vector form V= V <P and for an incompressible "irrotationa1" flow

a2<p a2<pV.v =0 and V2

<p = 0, So the Laplacian Operator -2-+--2 = 0 (Cartesian)ax ay

1 a ( a<P) 1 a2<p-- R.- +---=0 (Polar)

R aR aR R2 ae2

The stream- functio n ( 2-dimensiona~ is u = alfl and v = _ a lfIay ax-elocity Distribution in the circulatory flow fields is as in Fig.4. There are 2 flow

- elds a. Within the vortex "eye-wall" there is a linear distributionv=KlxR (21)

b. Outside the vortex "eye-wall" there is a hyperbolic distribution1

V=K2X- (22)R

Fig. 3 and Fig.4.

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R

'FlCi-.3

1.6 Derivation of the Velocity Distribution

Equilibrium of forces gives dp dn.Rdq>= (pRdq>dn) v2

-'t dp = p~ (23 )dn R dn R.

And P +~=Constant (Bernouilli), which means -pv dv = p~ dp =-pv dvp 2 dn R dn dn

dv v dv dv dRWherefore -=--=- and -=-- ;so lnv=-lnR+lnConst. (24)

dn R dR v R

In In Canst. Canst. d' l' r 2 R ( 25 )Or v= --; so v=--- an Circu atlon = n .VR R

v = wR :::::}Canst. = WR2. When R = a:::::} v = Wa:::::} Canst. = wa2

So for ranges R S a, v = wR for: R = a, v = Wa and for R ~ a, wa2

v=--R

Fig. 5 shows the Pressure Distribution For circular motion dp dpdn dr

Whi h' dp pv2 d h wa2 h dpc gIves -=-- an w en V=--, ten -dn R R dr

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poi 4 . PW2 4

So P = f 3a

dR= 1/2 ?a + Const.R R- (26 )

Boundary Conditions give:

R --:) 00 : P = Po --:) K = Po

1 2 2R =a: P = Po --pw a2

1 ? a4

R?:. a: P = Po -'2pw- R2

The FC has the property of being" inviscid"/"frictionless", wherefore the hyperbolicvelocity distribution of the "irrotational" flow would lead to an infinite value at its center.However, the value of the velocity is limited by the "speed of light, "(which is the local"speed of light"; this subject matter shall discussed in the furtherance hereof). It is at thismaximum velocity where the "eye-wall" is located and there the velocity approaches c ;at the "eye-wall" there is a slight rounding in the velocity distribution where the"rotational" flow converts into the "irrotat~onal" flow. Keeping in mind that due to thealready lower pressure and density at the "eye-wall" location that c should be somewhatgreater than the "standard" c * , it is likely that the actual resulting c could have a valueof 3x 108 m sec -lor slightly better. So at the "eye-wall", we have wa = c (27)Finding this reality shall prove of the utmost importance for establishing relationshipsand for calculations with regard to the vortex entities in the Fe. Now therefore we canxpress the pressure distribution as follows:

1 2 a2

P = Po -- pc -2 ( 28 ), R = a,2 R

2 1 2 R2 2o < R < a, P = Po - pc +- pc -2 (30), R = 0, P = Po - pc2 a

R?:.a, (29 )

(31 )

e relationships between the "speed of light" and the pressure and density in the FC'!h regard to vortex entities can also be written as follows:

-~r R?:. a, c ~ R J2{PO P", (32 )a p

0< R< a, c= ./Po- P(R) + w2R2(33 )

P 2

R = a, ("eye-wall") c ~ .12( Po -;''"'' J (34 )

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R = 0, ( center) c=Po - P(CTR)

P(35 )

Now whereas the FC has the property of being compressible, we shall now takethis into account with regard to the use of the formula of Bemouilli. (See also: Munson,Young and Okiishi: Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics) Accounting for compressability

requires integration of f dp when p is not constant. In the FC we encounter thep

condition of isothermal flow character. Reason being; the velocity of a wave in the FC is3xlOR m.sec-I

, which is the velocity with which elementary units in the FC transfermotion from one to another. Furthermore, the elementary units in the FC are in themagnitude of 10 -25 m or smaller and it is even possible that these units are of a sizemagnitude of the "Planck" length If we assume a value of 10 -25 m, then it is clear thatthe motion transfer occurs between 3 x 1033 elementary units of the FC in a single second,which means that the FC is highly isothermal. Witness to this is also that the temperatureof the "background radiation" in the universe is quite equal from location to location withexception to extended locations with substantial "space- time curwture" where, notsurprisingly, deviations are being recorded. Due to the similarities let us now compare theFC with a perfect gas for which we have

p = RT , when T = Canst. Then for steady inviscid flow:p

f dp v2.

RT -+-=Canst.p 2

(36 )

( J2 2

. .. P V2 -VIWherefore, along a streamlme IS valId: RTln _I = (37)

P2 2

Also, Jl. = 1+ (PI - P2) ,whereby we shall name PI - P2 = E , which can be termed to~ ~ ~

be the 'relative pressure change'. Further consideration being that for small values of E.

In (1+E ) "" E, which then leads again to the standard Bernouilli equation

Transforming from an atomic or molecular gas to the FC, the gas-constant Rneeds to be replaced by the counterpart constant which is valid in the FC, be indicated byKFC :xx Therefore, we can now substitute in (36) and ( 37 ) and validate for the FC

dp (p) L1v2KFCT-+vdv =0 (38) and KFCTln _I =- (39).P ~ 2

•

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- Applicable Laws

For steady isentropic flow in an atomic or molecular gas is valid J!..... = Canst.p"

'ever all flow in the FC is highly isothermal, for which is valid P = Canst.;p

- = 1 and P = KFCT. For those areas "away from Black Holes" in the FC,p

e v,,~(;~1=> c~J;~)ar C~~k= and =~KFJ.whcrefore

=.JIXKFcXT C*2( 40 ) .. This formula can also be written as KFC = - ( 41 )

T

Over vast areas of space, (the local universe) we have observed by means ofBE that the temperature of the "background radiation" is about 2.72K at this "timeage," with a gradual lowering being reported (see Chapter 5.2 in Part II). Also

ed is that the velocity of light (maxinlum velocity of a wave) in areas with--nab Ie "flat" "space- time" equals 3 xl 08m.sec -I • We shall call this the "standard"

of light, indicated by c * . Substituting these values in ( 40 ) gives a value for= 3.3x1016 (42). The dimensioning of this important constant for the FC is

*2-T-

2e-l) . Since P = K FCT and, since K FC= ~ , we fmd that fOrmost areas in the

p T

- excluding Black Holes, P = c *2 = 9 xlOl6 m2 .sec-2 ; ( 43), the dimensioningp

g (L2T-2). The importance of the formulas: ( 41 ) , ( 42) and ( 43) can not be

timated; in th~ furtherance extensive use is made of them.

For formulations and calculations in the FC, use can be made of someensionless Groups", namely the numbers of:

J,fach =~c

Cauchy = pv2

Ev

and, Euler=Lpv2

The law of the Conservation of Energy is also valid for the Fe.rial Energy + Kinetic Energy + Internal Energy = Constant. The Internal Energy

=ConstT is actually part of the total Kinetic Energy. Also, the Continuity equation isor the Fe. The cohesive character together with steady flow, mean that along a

c1l>-!2II1lineis valid -vdx +udy =0 ( 44 ) In atomic or molecular gases, f( =...!!...and. C

v

x T. In the FC it appears that cp = Cv , which shows a Hamiltonian analogy for this

Page 14

specific characteristic between atomic or molecular gases at the "critical point" conditionand the Fe. The specific heat constant for the FC will be named CFC •

1.8 Potential and Kinetic Energy

"The existence of Potential Energy makes it possible for Kinetic Energy to comeinto being. The Potential Energy can be characterized by the pressure P and the Kinetic

Energy can be indicated by the term ~ pv2• The energy of the "Background Radiation"

2is the Internal Energy U and can be expressed by the term CFC X T . ( 45 )

In this local universe it can be observed that once Potential Energy is convertedinto Kinetic Energy it remains Kinetic Energy and that there is no return to PotentialEnergy other than through the formation of the Protons or possible other vortex entitieswhich have an internal fluid pressure higher than the "standard pressure" which generallyprevails in the FC in vast areas of space where "space-time" is "flat"(see Chapter 3.1.4).This statement departs from concepts of classical physics, particularly relating to theconcept of "Mass," which is thought to contain or to be existing out of Potential Energy,which can be converted into Kinetic energy via the formula E = m.c2

• ( 46).However, Einstein and also Feynman state in their various publicized theories that thephenomenon "Mass" is created by the phenomenon of "space-time curvature". Writeragrees and shall definitively show that "Mass" per-se (tangible) does not exist. It is thedensity distribution in the FC, (which roughly coincides or approximates "space-timecurvature") that determines the concept and quantity of "Mass". Thus we have in FCphysics the following defmition for "Mass": "For equal volumes of space, "mass" is thequotient between the value of the density p in the FC at the considered location and theaverage "standard density value" (Po), which exists in those areas of the local universewhere "space- time" is essentially flat".

Two important notes are to be included here:

a. Writer shall show that this quotient can be less than 1, (e.g. for the electron, seeChapter 3.4). This now leads to the introduction of the concept of either"Fractional Mass" or "Negative mass". Associated therewith we also get theconcept of "Fractional Energy" or "Negative Energy", which concept can beconsidered as a calculatory one. However, the terminology and concept of"Borrowed Energy" as it is being used with regard to the so called Penroseprocess, which is an energy extraction process with regard to black holes showsthe same aspects (see: A Journey into Gravity and Spacetime, by John A.Wheeler, pages 214 - 216 ). The concepts of "fractional/negative mass" and"fractional/negative energy", as difficult as they may seem, are more than justcalculatory ones.

Page 15

If an entitiy moves through the FC at "relativistic" velocity then it creates adensification of the wave fronts in front of it in the direction of its motion. This isa local densification in the FC and this phenomenon is observed as an increase in"mass". Commonly known and excellent examples of this are the electron at"relativistic" velocity and the electron-neutrino at "relativistic" velocity (only ifthe neutrino's propulsion vector is pointed in the direction of its motion, seeChapter 3.1.1). This phenomenon is expressed as

(47 )

In our local universe, we observe four major energy conversion processes:

a. The "Photon Decay" process is that process whereby FC waves with sufficientlyhigh energy converts into electron-positron pairs. Electrons and positrons("leptons') are "closed fluid flow" entities in the category: vortex entities in theFe. They each consist of a pair of helical vortex rings (toroids / doughnuts) whichroll against each other. They consist of rotationaL irrotational and helical flowcombinations and have primarily kinetic energy. "At rest" they have only a smallamount of potential energy. So the conversion here is, "Wave Kinetics intoVortex Kinetics".

The "Gamma Ray Burst" is the process whereby an "aged" black hole instantlyexplodes into super high-energy gamma rays. An approximation for the lifetimeof a black hole is given by t[ "" 1066 M3 yrs . (M is number of units of solar mass)(See: Black Holes by C. A. Pickover). This event, which is the largest possibleexplosion known, happens when in a "grouping" of "vortex ring sets" the densitybecomes so great that the part of the irrotational flows which are close to the"eye-walls" collide with each other in counter flows (this phenomenon shouldoccur if the distance between "vortex ring sets" lowers into the size range of:10 -16 - 10-17 m. (see Chapter 17 in Part III) This process is in essence the oppositeprocess from the photon decay process. The conversion here is, Vortex Kineticsinto Wave Kinetics.

The "Proton Creation" process. C. F. Krafft flrst proposed the idea that positrons,which are created by means of the photon decay process, can be instantaneouslyconverted into protons. Positrons are de facto mini-protons. If sufficient waveenergy is present at the outset of the photon decay process, then this conversioncan take place (see Chapter 11.3 in Part II). The conversion here is, WaveKinetics into Vortex Kinetics and, importantly also, into Potential Energy. Theprotons have positive "mass" (density quotient for an equal volume is > 1 )

In astronomy we are observing that the temperature of the "background radiation"is gradually diminishing, which at flrst sight might indicate that the Internal

Page 16

Energy of the FC is decreasing. This is puzzling, since energy conversionprocesses are subject to increase in entropy and energy dissipation means anincrease in the "Brownian" motion. This is valid for atomic and molecular fluidae,but not necessarily for the Fe. Writer found (see Parts II and III of this book) thatthe lowering of the temperature of the "background radiation" is caused by theexpansion of the universe. The conversion here is nil. Internal Energy remainsInternal Energy, albeit this energy is gradually at lower temperature due to thelarger volume of space it is spread out over. The total quantity of internal energyincreases continually, however, the expansion of the universe occurs still faster.The universal processes of ( a) and ( b ) are key parts of an apparent UniverseCycle: Wave Kinetics into Vortex Kinetics and back to Wave Kinetics etc.

Comparison of the events of ( a ) and ( b ) with regard to energies:

a. Gamma ray burst from the explosion of an "aged" black hole of galacticproportion of say 300 billion solar masses produces energy of 5x 1059 Joule.

b. Photon decay conversion, whereby 1 electron and 1 positron are being formedmight take roughly 2 MeV = 3.2xl0-13 Joule.

The conclusion is that it takes roughly 1.5xl072 events of process (b) to equal 1 eventof process ( a ), which is the gamma ray burst of a proportion given herewith.

1.9 Pressure and Density in the Universal Fluidum Continuum

The laws of energy conservation and Bernouilli show that in the FC, (consideringthe flow along a streamline) a velocity increase means a decrease in pressure. Wavephenominae in the FC result from energy emissions resulting from explosions likeSupernovae and Gamma Ray Bursts. The other flows are of a gravitational maintenancetype. Vortex-type entities need to have an infinitesimal supply of new new fluid energyover time (see Chapter 5.2 in Part II), wherefore fluid flows towards each entity or groupsof entities. In the case of groups of entities the flow at distance away from such a group,flows into the direction of the "mass" center, which is the geometric center of alllocations with increased density within such group. Since entities or groups of entities viefor fluid from one and the same "space", they also show the phenomenon of attractingeach other. There is a Hamiltonian analogy between "centers of mass" in the sense ofclassical physics and "centers of fluid dynamic mass" in the Fe. "Fluid dynamic mass" isthe product of a "volume of space" times the density which exists in the concerned"volume of space." This "volume of space" can be an area of "confinement" betweenvortex rings or an area oflocal densification of wave fronts (as occurs in front of vortexentities which travel at "relativistic" velocities). In the Introduction we launched theconcept of "vortex entity mass": A. A is different for each type of vortex entity and itstands for the product of the "volume in space" times its density p . The vortex entities

Page 17

of the elementary units !; , which are the tri-dirnensional units in the FC, whichfor the phenominae of irrotational and rotational flows. The "volume of space" for

"" "'<Ok;.ain vortex entity can be written as nve x!; , wherein nve has a specific value for eachvortex entity and the density for such "volume of space" (being "at rest") be

~:ared by P ve . Each type of vortex entity has a specific P ve .( ve stands for vortex

_ ,. So, A = (!;X nve ) Pve' Let us consider a few locations of vortex entities in the FC:

___...... A ,which have corresponding fluid dynamic mass quantities AI,A

2, ...... .A . If

- p p

oose a given point 0 in space, we now can assign vectors OAI ,OA2, OAp to;> locations. Each vortex entity now has a momentum

OAk xAk ,( k = 1,2, p), wherefore:

'.-L xAk = OAI xAI +OA2 xA2 + ..... 'OAp XAp' We now defme a new "mass" point,

- .hich comes in place of all the various "mass" point locations. For this point isp

that the total "mass" is m =" Ak (k =1,2, .....p). ( m. is "mass" center)00/ ~ C

I

p

omentum of the total "mass" is 02X me,v, = LOAk X A k , wherefor~ vectorI

"'" OA, xA, -- "'"OA" "L.; or OZ - L.; kI P I

LAkI

o i--= .,~ ....OApA?

Z lOZ(I\l+A.1+ ... AP)oAp

When we draw in all vectors then the resultant vector is OZ. We can now also-'ude that the location of Z is independent of the choice of the location for the given

-, O. In the furtherance we shall indicate the fluid dynamic "mass" of a vortex entity

Page 18

or group of vortex entities by me, with the understanding that this fluid dynamic "mass"is located at its "mass center", as defmed in the above.

Let us now consider two "mass centers". The inflow of fluid is always directed atthe "mass center". The velocity of the inflow vgrav , decreases with the square of the

distance R2 , from that center. Furthermore, the inflow volume is directly proportionalwith Lmc, ; this is valid for both "mass centers", so for a point in between the 2 "masscenters" we have, that the "inflow draw", which is represented by v gray. , can be expressed

as being proportional with the formulation~mx~m

v DC LJ e, LJ ''2 ( 48 )gUll. It

The mutual "inflow draw" causes a fluid mechanical attractive force. The proportionalityfactor is: Q .(this factor was defmed in tre Introduction).So the gravitational fluidmaintenance force between entities or groups of entities, which is equivalent forNewton's Law in the FC, can now be formulated as

G =0 I,me,X Lmc, (49)GM R2

1.10 Determination of the density P in the Fe in an area with "space-timecurvature", as a function of Po, c*,Q, Rand L Pme = m*)

dp dvWehave --= pv-

dR dRand p = C *2 , which results in

P-C*2~=V dv

p.dR dR(50 )

m* dv Om*and v = 0-2 ,wherefore - = -2--3- and

R dR Rvdv =_202m*2

dR RS( 51 )

From ( 50 ) and ( 51 ) we fmd that _ d P =p

02m*2so -In p = 2' + Canst.

2c* R

02 *2For R=oo, p=po,thereforeweobtain -lnPo=O+Const., -lnp+lnpo= 7 d'

2c* R

( )

02 *2 Q'm*'. . pm. . -~4

which results m : In - = 2 4 thiS result can be wntten as p = poe 2c RPo 2c* R

02m*2or as p.= Po exp- 2 4 ( 52)

2c* R

Page 19

~nrmula (52) shows "space-time curvature" towards a center of "mass" in the sense offining "mass" in FC physics. This formulation is valid until the perimeter of the "mass"'ch is LmCk ' is being reached. Within this perimeter, the relationship for p as

::nction of Po, R ,Q, m * and c * becomes roughly spherical. At the named perimetertangents of both functions are equal. (Other functions are valid in the immediate

inity of black holes). P = F(po,R,Q,m*,c*)is depicted in Fig. 6.

I-----t---- .--

f

In classical physics and using the classical sense of "mass", "space-time curvaturesometimes been formulated as follows:

this formula, R = radius of "mass" , r = radial vector for Z(r) ( a 3 - dimensional

ace) and M = "mass" . In classical physics, the shape of "space- time curvature";thin the radius of "mass" is also roughly spherical.

.11 Velocity of"FC Energy" Waves

First we shall redefme "c ", which is the so-called "speed of light" as "theimum possible velocity physically allowed for a W<l.vein the FC at a given location".

~' defmed velocity at any given location is a function of the density p. Over vast areas:space with "flat" "space-time" (i.e. a lack of "mass" concentrations) the density is

-te constant and we already called this the "standard" density Po' The maximum"owed velocity for a wave in this case is the "standard" velocity "c ", which we shall

,te as c * . In areas with "space-time curvature" "c " can be different and lower than... In "open vortexes," "c" can be higher than c * .Planck's formula for the energy of ave

Page 20

E = ~ ' (54)

shows that if the wavelength approaches zero, then the energy required would be infmite,which is the case in classical and FC physics alike. When a vortex entity moves in theFC, it causes a wave densification in front of itself in the direction of its motion. Thisdensification not only expresses itself as "mass" but since more energy is required as thedensification increases ( = wavelength decreases), it creates a drag on the moving vortexentity. (See following Chapters, e.g. 3.1) However, if the moving entity enters a region oflower density "space- time curvature') then it will require a higher velocity of the movingentity in order to build up the same densification level in front of it in the direction of itsmotion compared to moving through an area with the "standard" density. Therefore, themaximum possible velocity in the region of lower density, from an observation point inthe area with standard density is higher than c * .

The dependence of the "speed of light" on the density ofthe FC has profoundinfluence on General Relativity of Einstein as well as on subject matters like the HubbleConstant and on various other matters in physics and astronomy. In some cases profoundadjustments are needed and in others, only slight adjustments or expansions for thepurpose of wider validity. The density of the FC determines "space-time curvature ",therefore it also determines "mass" and the "maximum velocity of waves". Density in theFC is one most important concept in the FC physics.

1.12 Velocities Greater than C* ("Speed of Light"

We next give consideration to two examples in FC physics whereby velocities areencountered which can be greater than c * :

A. The motion of an entity which is moving parallel to a centerline/vortex threadinside a vortex tube including locations in the center area, at the "eye-wall" andjust outside the "eye-wall".

Fig.7 shows a cross-section through a vortex tube perpendicular on its centerline /vortex thread. In a vertical plane the pressure and density are being shown as function ofthe distance to the centerline and in a horizontal plane the distribution of the "maximumpossible velocity" as function of the distance to the centerline, is given (of a motion inparallel to the centerline)

Page 21

Fig. 7

The value for the rotational as well 'as for the irrotational tange nti<llvelocity at the'on of the "eye-wall" approximates c * as has been shown in previously. In additionese two flows there is still another flow component, which is parallel to theerline. This latter component, either combined with the irrotational flow or the'onal flow, gives the total flow, which is then "helical" in character. The tangential

cnm;x>nents of both irrotational and rotational flow are substantially greater than thenent which is parallel to centerline, except for in the centerline of the rotational

., In the following calculatory overview, the parallel component is not being-.idered.

In Chapter 1.6 the Formulas ( 28 ) through ( 31 ) show the pressure distribution

-> a cross-section inside as well as outside the "eye-wall". Since in the FC, p = C*2,

Pdensity p shows the same distribution. For the sake of simplified calculation, we

--11 assume a vortex having a pressure at the centerline of zero. Now

= Po -1/2pc2 and ~tr = Po - pe2 so ~tr = 0 which gives Po = pe2

1 1P. = pe2

-- pe2 = _ pe2

~e 2 2

R P 2 c2R2side the vortex tube Vtan = ~ and - - ~, wherefore P = P --2-

a p 2 2a

~or R = 0, P = 0 and for 1 2 ~ fER = a, eeye = 2.pc so Ceye = '\12'~p and,

er than in vincinity of black hole s, and ceye =.J2.c* (55 )

Page_

Inside the vortex tube (i.e. inside of "eye-wall"), we have c = !!....J2. fE ( 56 )R Vp

Outside the vortex tube (i.e. outside of "eye-wall"), we have c = .J2 ..JFa - P R (57)P a

Equating these results at R = a ,gives P =..!.. Fa and P = ..!..Po .2 2

Further outside the "eye -wall" c goes asymptotically to c * .

These results are summarized in the table below.

p P c IR - -Fa Po c*

00 1 1 1 I1 1 J2At "eye-wall" a - -2 2

1 1 1 4J2Inside Vortex tube -a - -2 8 81 1 1

1&./2Inside Vortex tube -a - -

4 32 32

Inside Vortex tube 0 0 0 00

Consideration is given to the possibility for certain entities to be able to 'travel' inside avortex tube, which is a motion which is mainly parallel to the centerline and in thepositive direction of the helix. Spiraling around the centerline is presumed to be the mostlikely motion.

•

No group of entities, like atoms or molecules, or "composite particles," likemesons or baryons, can survive entering a vortex tube in the FC where there is always avelocity at the "eye-wall" which approximates c * . Also, a proton, which has a higherdensity inside compared to density outside in the FC, cannot survive entry, tangentially orotherwise. However, there is a good chance that the electron, which has an internal fluiddensity which is much lower than the external fluid, when moving at relativistic speed(see Chapter 3.4.4) could enter the vortex tube if a tangential approach is taken. Inside thevortex tube, the electron would be transported at super high velocity in the positivedirection of the helix, moving along a helical path where the pressure, while lower thanoutside the "eye-w,all", is always slightly higher than the pressure inside the electron. Theelectron-neutrino also has a chance surviving a tangential entry into a vortex tube. It islikely to disintegrate at the "eye-wall", where the velocity is c * , however, if entry ismade, then survival is likely as long as it moves in a helical path where the pressure along

Page 23

path remains higher than the pressure inside its single toroidical vortex ring. This~ect matter will be visited again in Part III.

The motion of an entity going from "standard" density through a region withconsiderable "space-time curvature". This motion of a vortex entity through aregion with considerable "space-time curvature" is depicted in Fig. 8 . Considerthe vortex entity to be an electron-neutrino, which has its own propulsion.

The electron- neutrino moves essent ially at the velocity c * when it moves---ough regions of "flat" "space-time". As we shall see in Chapter 3.1 the electron-

'utrino has a "propulsion vector flow" which at its perimeter has a velocity c * beingslightly les at the center of the propulsion. Therefore, it moves through the FC essentially

velocity c * . In the following, there is an approximate determination of the velocity cf the electron- neutrino when it "cuts" through a "space- time curvature" region, deter-

mined by m * ,Q ,c * ,Po and 2: . Here 2: is the projected distance between the path ofvel and the "mass" m * .

(02m*2) f¥-pIn formula (52) we saw that P = Po exp. 2 4 . Now since e DC _0__ , and2c* R , P

d~ Po -1P n2 ~dOl Ol.~ m

we have e ~ ~po -p ~ ~p" -1 ; de ~ ~ _ p,exp 2.c*' R'P P dR dR dR

d ~-1 d~ 1 -1,,~ _ e-x

P =C*2P

(02m~ ) , de

- ,ame: ? 4 = x, so we can wnte: -2c*- R dR

I

de =!(_1__ 1)-2x_l_x e-x (-llv (-4~),using exponential expansions givesdR 2 e-x e -2x r R

dR dR

I

de 1( X2 )-2 ( 4X2 X X2) ( x) "- = - 1+ x + - -1 1+ 2x + - 1- x + - (-1) -4- .Approxlmatmg bydR 2 2! 2! 2! R

discarding all terms with X2 leaves

de 1 1 2 x 2x 1 2..Jx r:; Om * 1-= --(1+2x)(I-x)4x/ R "'-(I+x)- ",--",-",,,2-- (56)dR 2..Jx ..Jx R..Jx R R c* R3

I . d' , . h d' . P Q' r:; Om * 1The ve OCltycomponent envatIve m t e IrectlOn - IS '/2---3 coscpc* R

What is the velocity of the electron-neutrino at location Q? (See Fig. 8)

Pag -

In Fig. 8 and above we show that the electron-neutrino, which has its ownpropulsion vector with a velocity of about c * , reaches super-luminous velocities as ientered and trave led through a region with "space-time curvature". This is due to thethat lower density was encountered in this region. A higher maximum velocity is nto get an equal densification of fluid in front of the electron- neutrino when comparedspace which has the "standard" density Po . As the electron-neutrino leaves the regiwith "space- time curvature" it slows down again to the velocity c * when it comesto "stamard" space. In the above calculation several approximations have been madealso no consideration has been given to the "bending" of the path of the electron-neutrino. The path "bends" just as is the case for a "beam of light". If the "bending" -:the path is accounted for, then extra terms need to be added into formula ( 57 ). A 10trajectory in "space-time curvature" means more time spent in this region and somehigher maximum velocity being achieved. InPart III the more general formulationbe used when neutron stars and black holes shall be considered.

Various subject matters in this book describe that the local speed of light cdepends on the density p. However, one can say that there is also a time dependen _

because the density Po is dependant on the volumetric state of the universe. Thisknown to have changed over time due to the expans ion of the universe.

Fig.8: The neutrino (electron-type) when 'traveling' through"space-time curvature" :

..

Page 25

1.13 Wave and Vortex Phen om inae in General

1.13.1 Wave Phenominae in General

As was shown in the last chapter, the vortex entities and in particular the electron-neutrino, which travels through "standard" space ("flat "space-time") at velocity c * ,can reach super-luminous velocities in regions of considerable "space-time curvature."The ability of a vortex entity to achieve super-luminous velocity is highly dependant onthe velocity with which it approaches this low-density region. The velocity of approachshould already be close to c * in order for the vortex entity to achieve super-luminousvelocity. Therefore, super-luminosity can only be achieved by the electron-neutrino andby super high speed electrons and positrons.

The force causing the acceleration is the density gradient within the FC, and thisforce is identical to the gravitational force. Einstein and Feynman state this too. Wavephenominae in "space-time curvature" are subject to "bending", but by way of a differentmechanism when compared with vortex entities which go through regions of low densitywhich means they pass close by mass concentrations. A beam of light slows due to thefact that the "communication velocity" between the elementary units !; in the FCbecomes lower whenever the density lowers and the elementary units are more distant toeach other. The lower the density of a region, the more slowing occurs, this means that'wave- fronts formed by parallel and adjacent light beams, which are travelingimultaneously through differing densities relative to each other, start to "angle". Since

the beams are perpendicular to the "wave- fronts", they "angle" to the same degree. The'wave- fronts" will show curvature themselves. (The angling is greater as beams go-deeper" through "space-time curvature.) Einstein first discovered this and thephenomenon has been verified numerous times.

1.13.2 Considering the "bending" of light beams in "space-timecurvature": some examples

In Figs. 9 the line, AB is a wave- front. Two beams are traveling parallel to eachther through "standard" space and then enter a lower density region. Beam AA' followstrajectory which goes through higher density "terrain" compared to the trajectory which

- occupied by beam BB'. Due to the differing densities along the paths of each beam,:am AA' travels faster than beam BB' and this results in wave-front A'B' rotating

:elative to the original wave-front AB. Light beams are always perpendicular to theirve- fronts, which means that the beams angle to the same extent. The degree of thisnding" depends on the steepness of "space- time curvature" in the location where the

ams cross. It also depends on the projected distance from the original beam trajectorythe outside of the "mass" center. A calculation of the inter- dependency of the various

':-utors which playa role, shall be given herewith: Angle a can be expressed as a = F (~ .m * , c *, 2: ). From the formulas ( 32 ) through ( 35 ) , formula's ( 43 ) and ( 52 ),

Page 26

we have that for "space- time curvature" is valid de = 12Om * ~. (See Figs. 9a, 9bdR e* R

and 9c.) We shall now consider the calculation of the angling of "light" beams while theypass by either (A), an 'extended-length' "mass" object (like certain types of nebulae inspace) or (B), a 'point' "mass" object (like high density stars, even neutron stars).

In both examples the beams pass by the objects at some distance 2. ,and thedevelopment considers only small angle deviation. No consideration is made for the factthat the actual deviations place the beams closer to the object and therefore increase theexponential part of the overall relationship. This will be addressed in Part III, Chapter 17,Black Hole s, where is a general formulation which also accounts for this factor ispresented and used to calculate the spiraling to below the "event horizon".

Fig. 9 a The "bending" of light when passing in front of an 'extended length'"Mass". : --- -- -- --- --r AI (fL.)

Fig. 9 b: The "bending" of light when passing in front of a "point" "Mass" :

C'"..,P. Ar ~)

/\\

Sub-A: (See Fig. 9a)The beams are named (a) and (b). Name AA' = BB' = x.Name A'A"=dx. Name MB' = 2. and name B'A' = L12..Sincede / dR = Canst. along x, ( because of the' extended length "mass" object)we can now equate

Page 27

x+dx xalso tan a = dx / L13 and tana ""a for small angles,

- :=:+~:=: de :=: deso, dx = aA.=.., also V(R==)= C * and vIa) = f dR dR, V(b) - f dR dR,

R== R==

wherefore x+M3"'+~'"f de dRR==dR

x, and also valid is : dx

"'f de dRdRR==

----=x

and : f de dR = _ .J2 Om * 1dR 2 e* 11 which makes : V(b)= J de dR = 12 Om *

R==dR 2 *_2c =..

12 Om* 12 Om* .J2 Om*- + v -v =2 c*(3+L13)2 2 e*(3)2 (a) (6) 2 e*(3+L13)2

A- J2 02m *2 ' d A_ _- a.D.=.. = X- ( ) an D.="«=",

2 e * 32 +23L13+L13 2

can be disregarded, therefore we can have

a 120m* 1-- ""-2 -*_2' A-

X C ~ L.l.C

so L132and. 3L13

(58 )

This logical formula shows

The angling is proportionate with 1/32 (twice as close = 4 x the angling)The angling is per unit of length (2 x the lenght of the. "mass" =2 x the angling)The angling is proportionate with 1/ L13

The "bending" of light due to "space- time curvature" is cause for a host ofenominae, which are observed in deep space. The general term used is "gravitational

,~nsing." Multiple images can be produced and also image amplification is possible. Ifalignment between the background light source and the lensing object is perfect, ane in the form of a ring is produced. If the alignment is not perfect or the lens is not

_mmetric, then multiple images or a number of small arcs are produced.

, -B: (See Fig. 9b)The bending of "light" beams while they pass by a 'point' "mass" object. The

nomenclature is that used in Sub-A. However, in this case de is not constantdR

along the paths of the beams x =R cos qJ • We have

Page

dx = If dR cos cpdcp orv(a)avg -V(b~vg

tan a.L13 = If dR cos cpdcp in additionL1vavg

we also have If dev = -dR cos cpdcp ,

dR

1

n.__* 12:+62::!>lJrt . nl2V = SIn

(a) 2c * R2 R~= I cplo

tana ~a ,

1Om * I" Isin cpl~12

V(b) = 2c *R2 R~=and,

Qm* Om * = IRI~Isincpl~/2= 3 .

2c*32

Therefore,

and,

L13«3 gIves,

Om* 1-a~--.-2e *3 L13

( 59)

A myriad of subjects associated with wave phenominae and the interactions with"particles" and the "wave-particle duality" (Complimentarity Principle of Bohr) havebeen researched and discussed by many scientists in the field of general physics. Writerrefers to the multitude of textbooks which discuss these subjects and assumes that thereader has some familiarity.

Fig. 9 c Wave- fronts of "light" in "space-time curvature"At locations distant from a "mass" concentration, corresponding to locations withrelatively low density, the "angling" of the wave fronts or bending of the light isless. This is expressed by the formula for the gradient of the maximal velocity in

the direction of the "mass" center de = -fi Qm * -;. (56). The actual wave. dR c*. R

fronts near a sufficiently strong "mass" concentration are steeply curved.Fig.9c

Page 29

1.13.3 Vortex Phenominae in General

The vortex phenominae constitute all the "particles" and are equally as importantas the wave phenominae in the Fe. The scientists Helmholt~ Thomson, Planck, vonKarmann, Mach and Hert~ and others did substantial research in the area of fluidmechanics. However, this research related mostly to fluidae which consist of atoms ormolecules and not with a view towards the entities, which can and do exist in the FC.Also, the structures of such entities received little attention other than by a few scientists,among whom we cite Planck and Winterberg (who still publicized rather recently) andalso C. F. Krafft (now deceased) and recently A. G. Gulko. These scientists all proposedmodels with regard to "vortex physics" and checked them against reality. Mr. Gulko, whobuilt upon Mr. Krafft's work, has been very successful in this. It is upon the extensivework of these scientists that writer has been able to build in giving further underpinningto the theories and giving mathematical and fluid mechanical expression to them. Themathematical analyses have revealed new facts and understanding and have openedwhole new areas in FC physics to investigation.

Thomson determined that the "circulation" along a "closed streamline" is constantand independent of time in inviscid irrotational flows.

r = ~v,ds = Canst. (60):\lso it is noted that streamlines in such flows remain in tact neither adding noreliminating elementary fluid entities. Helmholtz indicates, and nature shows, that:otational flow; exist within these irrotational flows, while the irrotational flows around:hose rotational flows remain in tact. It is further noted that vortex threads or centerlines,'ortex tubes, and the irrotational flows, which are at the outside and around these

experience continued fluctuations in shape. It can be stated that there are 3--onstitutional forms" in which vortexes exist:

They go to infinity from -00 to +00. These are the "open vortex tubes". There arestrong indications that the open vortex tubes exist in many locations in theuniverse(s). Possibly there are a number of sizes (See Chapter 2.2.3.2 ).

They end on a border wall or fluidum surface. Also, one end may go to infinity,while the other end terminates at a border surface of another hyperdimension(another universe).There are indications for occurrences of these phenominae.

They close into themselves and form "toroidical" / "doughnut" shapes. In thismanner all "particle"- type entities are formed and exist.

ong the observed classes of "particle"- type entities we have:

1. "particles" without "mass" (classical or FC defmition)2. "particles" with "mass" (classical or FC defmition )

Page 3

. 3. "particles" with "negative" or "fractional" "mass" ( FC definition)4. "Anti-particles" of ( 1 ) , ( 2 ) and ( 3 )5. "Composite" "particles: (mesons and baryons)6. Exotic short-lived "particles"

As vortex entities we have:

Sub-I. A single rotating vortex ring of the first order size is called "neutrino"; this is the .electron-neutrino. Mathematics forbids any other than one single size (SeeChapter 3.1.5). However, under certain conditions and as part of a vortex ring setor as part in a "composite" entity, the single vortex ring can exist in a stretched-out form. The neutrino is "super stable".

Sub-2. A vortex ring pair, whereby the two rings roll against each other in such a ma111?-erthat there is a peripheral inflow and two polar outflows forms the "proton." Thepolar outflows show "spin". The "proton" is stable, but less stable than the"electron" and much less stable than the "neutIino."

Sub-3. A vortex ring pair, whereby the two rings roll against each other in such a mannerthat there are two spinning polar inflows and one peripheral outflow forms the"electron." It has "mass" in the classical physics sense, but can also have"negative" or "fractional" mass in the FC physics sense (when in motion). The"electron" is stable, but les~ than the neutrino.

Sub-4. The "anti-neutrino" is identical to the "neutrino", in that it consists of a singlevortex ring. The difference is in the mode of motion. The propulsion vector pointsforward in the direction of the motion. The "anti- neutrino" is stable.

Sub-5. The anti-proton is unstable. It resembles the electron at high relativistic velocity.

Sub-6 The positron can be long-term stable, but can also decay into a "proton" if enoughenergy is available in the fluid around it. This. conversion process is highlyimportant. (See the Proton Decay process in Part II, Chapter 11) It also explainsthe observable lack of "anti- matter in the universe.

If vortexes are formed in certain areas in space and within a given closedcirculatory region, then "counter-vortexes" must be created in such a way that the sum-total of all the circulations of all vortexes created and existing be equal to the totalcirculation of the original enclosing circulatory fluid system. (See the work of Thomsonand von Karmann) For example, when two vortexes are created with circulations rl andr2' the enclosing circulatory system has a circulation: rTotal = K , SO

rl+rZ=rrotal=K and rl=K-r2 (61)

This has been mu<;:hdemonstrated in laboratory tests. Particularly tests with liquid heliumwhich has properties approaching those of the FC, show, that when a vortex is created,another, but counter-rotating one appears immediately. Also in nature, e.g. in

Page 31

hydrodynamic laboratory models, in aerodynamic / wind tunnel set-ups and in the"vortex trails" behind a moving ship. If an open vortex tube is created in the FC within acertain section of space which in itself has an overall closed circulation, (no matter thesize) then a counter-rotating vortex tube is created as well. The same goes for the singlevortex ring which is the electron-neutrino. When it gets formed, then another one whichcounter-rotates gets formed as well. However in this case both single vortex rings areidentical. If one is rotating or counter-rotating only depends on the frame of reference ofobservation.

Page ~_

2 VORTEX PHENOMINAE

2.1 Open Fluid Flow Vortexes

In space these Vortexes go from: -00 to +00. As explained earlier, it is alsopossible that one end goes to infinity and the other end to a surface border of ahyperdimensional space like another universe or part universe.

For the characterization of "open vortexes, we note the following flow patterns,which are shown in a cross-sectional plane through an open vortex, which isperpendicular to the centerline or vortex thread:

A. Rotational Flow, which occurs inside the so called "eye-wall" and which has alinear velocity distribution

B. Irrotational Flow, which occurs outside the so called "eye-wall" and which Inaddition there is a flow which is parallel to the centerline or vortex thread. This isthe "helical component" * flow. This is a

e. Linear Flow parallel to the centerline. Its velocity distribution, cross-section- wiseis not linear; not outside the "eye-wall" or inside the "eye-wall".

D. Calculation of the energies of "open vortexes".

*) The helical component causes a motion of the elementary fluid unitsinside the "eye-wall" of the vortex, but also to a lesser extent through the area ofthe "eye-wall" and even less outside the "eye-wall" area. It is possible that highvelocities can be obtained close to and parallel to the centerline, these velocitiescan be super luminous as has been shown. It is entirely possible that certainvortex entities like the electron and the electron- neutrino can be transported ormove on their own kinetic energy lengthwise through the open vo rtex tube,including to a hyperdimension.

Calculations of the energy of an open vortex tube as function of the "standard"density, Po, "standard" "speed of light", c *, "eye-wall" diameter of the "standard"single vortex ring d, and the length of the tube, L.

Page 33

2.1.1 Rotational Energy (See Fig. 10)

1bis flow is inside the "eye-wall". The velocity distribution here is v = 2c * R .d

C*311(1 )ERotaliOllal = 2npR dL '2 4'd2-O (62 )

2.1.2 Irrotational Flow

The velocity distribution here is v = c * d This flow is outside the "eye-wall" If2R

'e integrate Elrrolational while using this velocity distribution with 'inflnity' as boundary,'e would fmd that this energy would become infmite as well. This is in conflict with

:eality. The energy must be fmite. This boundedness is established by the energy of the-background radiation" which is the internal energy in the FC, which is indicated by U.In actuality, U represents part of the total kinetic energy and it has a characteristic "mean'elocity". At substantial distance away from the "eye-wall", the velocity of theotational flow must approach this "mean" velocity v, which is the "root-mean-square"locity of the so-called "random motion" of the elementary units of the Fe. This

-random motion" is analogous to the "Brownian" motion of atoms or molecules of:egular fluidae. The internal energy U is equal to the "background radntion"emperature( = 2.72 K) x the "specific heat" constant for the FC, CFC' This "randomotion" in the FC, which is a basic underlying motion, is some times referred to in

,hysics literature under the term "zitterbewegung." (See Chapters: 5.1 and 5.2 in Part II)

Page 34

Later in this chapter we shall evaluate specific quantities related to this. For now, weshall indicate the outer-boundary for R, where the velocity becomes v , by R,l' Then

*2 R, 27fL *dE = ~ f f fC .Irrolalional PI 2 --dRdcpdl

R-=d 12 rp=D I=D 2R

*3

R

"dR (R)en. 3 •E . =2n dL- - =- dLc* In _v_IrrulallOl1al PI 4 f R 2 PI d /2

R=d/2

(63 )

2.1.3 "Helical component" Flow

In this case, the velocity distributions areR

vHelicalRolalional = 2 (C *cot ljI) if and V HeliealIrrolaliol1al = (C *cot ljI ) ~2R

Fig. 11 shows the velocity distributions

The energy components are

E - n d'L *3Helical.Rot - '4 PRe cot ljI n ( R.) 3and E HeliealJrrol = - PI dL In _v_ C * cot ljI

. 2 d /2

ENelicalTulal = : dLc *3 cot lff { P R +2 P I In ( d; 2 )} (64 )

Page 35

2.1.4 Total energy of a" flows of the Open Vortex tube

Here we have,

E",,"Ma ~ IE,", + E,ff", + EH,,,,.,,,, ~ : dL{ 1+c" 00(0/ J{p, + 2p, InL;2 )} (65)

2.1.5 Values for: PR and Pr as: f(R,po) ?

We show in formulas ( 28 ) and ( 30 ) that for density outside the "eye-wall"1 2 a2

P = Po -2,pc R2

2 1 2 R2P = Po - pc +- pc -2

2 a

R? a, and for density inside the "eye-wall" 0 ::;R ::;a,

ince in the FC P = c2, we can have, for R? a, P = Po _-.!. P a: and

P 2 R1 R2

P= Po-P+2,P--;;

h R> P = Po d h 0 < R < P = Po h --.!.dowen _a, 2 an wen - _a, 2,wena-a R 21+- 2--

2R2 2a2

."e obtain for R? a, P = Po 2 and for 0::; R::; a, P = ~ _d 2R1+- 2--8~ d2

P Rotational = P R' be defined as the average density within the "eyewall", R::; d / 2 and

et P Irrolational = PI' be defined as: the average density outside the "eye-wall", R? d / 2

or

Now let

Then we have

andd/2

Pr·525,000d = f Po _ dRR=525,000 d 1+~

8R2

The number 525,000d is an approximate limit of the irrotational flow due to theexistence of a "random motion" in the FC, and corresponding to the observed-'- ackground radiation" temperature.

Page 36

Calculation of the averages of P R and P I can now be effected'\

PI? = 2 Po {~lnd +R + d In3} which results in PR = .5493pod 4 d -R 4

(66 )

_ {d 2RJ2 d arctg~J21PI- Po l---arct --- 2 . '2R.fi g d 2J2 R-d/2 whlchresultsm PI=·9999xpo

(67 )These values shall be considered again in Chapters 3.1.3, 3.4 and 3.5 as well as in PartsII and III.

In Formulas ( 64) and (65) we can now substitute these values for P Rand PI andobtain

EHeIiculTo/al = : PodL( c *cotljl)3 {-55 +2ln (d/ 2 )} ( 64')

( 65')

2.2 Calculation of the So called "Root-Mean-Square" Velocity of the"Random Motion," Corresponding to the Observed "BackgroundRadiation"

The similarities between the so-called "Brownian" rmtion in atomic or molecularfluidae and the "random motion" in the FC are striking. Wherefore this calculation can beundertaken in a similar fashion. Herein we must replace "mass", m with density Po andalso replace the number of molecules per unit volume, dn, by the number of theelementary units in the FC per unit FC volume, dnFC' Further we replace the Boltzmann

Constant. KBolFC = c *2/ T and KBolFC =kBoIFC = XK FC' wherein X is a proportionalityconstant. We also replace N the total number of molecules per unit volume with NFC ,

the total number of FC elementary units per unit volume. Now since N FC = . 1Plancklength

we have N FC = 11~ ;~ . (See Introduction) The distribution function for a component of

the velocity, whereby no direction is preferred over any other, is a "Maxwell distribution"

Page 37

( )

/2 2

and is characterized r5ythe formula dnFC = NFC Po. exp Povx wheredvx 2nK BolFCT 2K BolFCT

v,. is the x component of velocity. For, x = 0, then, ddnFC is a maximumVx

() ( )

1/2dnFC _ N Podvx max - FC 2nKBoIFCT

The distribution of speeds then can be written as

dnFC = 4NFC ( Po )V2 exp( Po·v

2). For v = 0, then dnFC = 0 , v

max'* 0,

dv .Jii 2KBoIFCT 2KBoIFCT dv

and is called the "most probable speed". These distributions have been verified by the so-called "Zartman experiments". (See also Goble and Baker: Elements of Physics, 1962,Ronald Press, New York)

2.2.1 Computation of the Average Velocity

The average velocity, v, can be evaluated as

f~v dnFC dv

dvov=~fdnFC dv

dvo

(68 )

2.2.2 Computation of the Average of the Square of the Velocity

The average of the square of the velocity, v2, is evaluated as

~f 2 dnFC d f~ 2 dnFC dv--v V--v-2 0 dv 0 dvv = =~ _

JdnFC dv NFCo dv

K3 BolFCT

Po(69 )

Comparing of the "root- mean-square" velocity with "average" velocity, we fmd

Page ..,

that

3KB 11~'CT v f37i() , which gives ;' = V8 = 1.085 ( 70

2.2.3 Calculation of the: v of the "Random Motion" in the FCrms

The density Po is the density in "standard" space, which means space away fromregion(s) with "space-time curvature". As will be discussed in following chapters, thedensity factor is mostly one of comparative nature and not of absolute value. In thiscalculation, we shall assume a value Po = 10-6• In the calculation of the energies of theproton and the electron this value shall be considered again. (See Chapters 3.3 and 3.4),T , the temperature of the background radiation is known to be 2.72K at this time.Question: What should be the value of a Boltzmann- type constant, which is valid for the

FC? Boltzmann's Constant for atomic or molecular gases is 1.380xlo-23 j . Sincemo/·K

the FC behaves isothermally and since there are no entities to consider other than theelementary units of the FC, which are much smaller than atoms, the Avogadro numberneeds not to be considered, likewise we have no need for a molar Gas Constant. The

C*2Boltzmann- type constant for the FC, kBaLFC = X .KFC = X· T

Backg,:Rad.

of magnitude of ""10-2• The valuation of this Boltzmann- type constant for the FC shall

be discussed in Part II, Chapter 5.1.2.

should be in the order

In the following calculation we shall use Po = 10-6 , which value shall be revisited inChapters 3.4 and 3.5, where corroboration is found for this magnitude of value.Here we take kBo/FC = 10-2

, which gives

- 3xlo-2

x2.72 ~ 285 rnIvim" - V 1O-{; ~ sec.

This value is highly plausible for the vrms as being the velocity at the outer perimeter ofthe irrotational flow, particularly when compared to the value for the velocity at the "eye-wall", which is roughly equal to c* = 3x 108 rnIsec.

( 71 )

2.2.3.1 Calculation of this "outer perimeter" of the irrotational flow

The velocity distribution is v = ~:~ . Substitution of vrms

for v glVesv

3x108

d = 525,000dRv = 2x285 (72 )

Page 39

Substituting the value for R" = 525,000d in the formula for the energy of theirrotational flow, which is equation ( 63 ) gives

_ n *3 (525,000d) "" 26x n dLc *3Elrrolational - 2 PodLc In d / 2' 4 Po

For an "open vortex" we have Elrrolalional "" 26.& ,and PR "" .55PoE ROlational PR

EJrrolational "" 26/.55 ""47.3E Rotational

(73 )

(74 )

The sum-total for both energies for the open vortex "" 6.68xnPodLc*3 (75)

The energy for the helical motion is evaluated .1 n PodLc *3 (.55 +2 x 13) cot", ( 76 )4

or"" 4.8 xERotational cot",. The evaluation for cot", will be discussed in Chapters: 3.1.4,3.3 and 3.4, where the "spin" phenominae will be discussed and evaluated.

2.2.3.2 Calculation of the energy of an open vortex tube with a larger"eye-wall" diameter

(See Fig. 12) Herein is shown an example of arotational flow with an "eye-wall" diameter of<I> = 5xd. Fig. 12 shows the velocity distributions ofthe rotational and irrotational flows. Since this openvortex did not yet tighten up to the maximum, there is arotational flow within <I> = 5xd. We ask: What are thevelocities in P and Q? To answer we use an imaginaryirrotational distribution represented in Fig. 12 by dottedlines. For this hyperbolic distribution is we have

c*dV=--.

2R

- .ow in P and Q, R = 2.5xd which gives c*vI' =vQ =- .The rotational energy can now

5• evaluated as

*2 2.5xd 2n L 1 * *3- PRe f f f c - PRe (I 12.5xd)(1 12n)(IIL)E Rolalional.CP~5d- -2- 2.5' dRdcpdl - -w R 0 cp 0 10

Ro=O 'FO 1~0

orP C*3

ERolalional.<P=5d=-R--2nLx2.5xd = n pl/dLc*320 4

( --

Wherefore we now fmd that the rotational or internal energy of an openvortex tube is independent of its diameter. Previously we found for the density asfunction of the radius of a vortex

Within the "e ye-wall" is and outside . For

the velocity v = c we found

Outside the "eye-wall" c = R 212.c * ~ Po -1 ; inside the "eye-wall"d P

c = c * .1Po -1+ 2~2 Figs. 43a and b show the respective density and maximumP d

velocity distributions

Fig. 43 a: Fig 43 b:

I

fI

'ftc

2.2.4 Closed Fluid Flow Vortexes

Theoretically these closed fluid flow vortices can have any closed "flowing"shape. It is possible that in a fluidum and certainly in the FC an open vortex can closeinto itself and become a closed one. The complex photon decay process (See Part II,Chapter 11.1) is an example of a fluid-dynamical system, which has aspects of this kind.However, it is also possible that vortexes which are closed into themselves are at oncecreated by a sudden jet-like phenomenon. Even with regular atomic or molecular fluidae

Page 41

such as air this is well known, as observed for example in the blowing of a "smoke-ring"from a cigar. The photograph shown as Fig. 13 is another nice example of this. Thispicture was taken 5 - 7 minutes after an explosion on the ground during an air-show atMcEntire Air National Guard Base, near Columbia, S.e. in 1999. At the time this photowas shot, the diametric size of this vortex ring was estimated at about 300 feet.Mushroom clouds resulting from great fires or explosions e.g. nuclear tests or tallthunderstorms which are the result of great updrafts all show the phenomenon of creatingring-like vortexes, also called "doughnut" or "toroid" shaped formations.

High velocity impulse- motions in a fluidum, either liquid or gas, cause thecreation oftoroidical vortexes. In the FC, which is inviscid, these will continu to exist in

rpetuity. However, there is the slightest of friction in the outer-most region of theotational flows where this flow meets with a random ("Brownian") motionrresponding to the 2.72K "background radiation" temperature. (See Chapter 2.1) Thisenomenon calls for the inflow of new fluid-energy. In fluidae, which consist of atomsmolecules, the actual vortex diameter, which can also be called the "eye-wall"

-ameter" diameter can take on many sizes, but it is always smaller than the diameter of:ie "doughnut" / "toroid" hole through the vortex ring. In the FC, however, there is for a.::-relyexisting ring-like toroidical vortex only one defmite relationship possible, as will'- "hown in Chapter 3.1. Due to the fact that freely existing vortex rings have a jet-like

:' ow through the "toroid" hole, they are continually being propelled and on the move'tb velocities close to the "standard" "speed of light". Vortex rings can also pair up and

table in formations, like the electron, positron and proton (See Chapters 3.3 and 3.4).M possible is a three-ring configuration with all "doughnut" / "toroid" holes on one

axis, this is the meson structure. Its stability when on its own is minimal. Howeybound states there is some stability. The five-ring configuration, with all "toroid--on one axis is also possible; this structure forms the neutron It has a "half-life" 0-

minutes and it is built up as follow.;: "An electron at one end and a proton at theend, held together as well as being kept apart by an anti- neutrino". The 3-ring grocomposite of an anti- neutrino and an electron is also a meson. Therefore, one can Jstate that the neutron consists of a proton and a meson.

• Besides the rotary- type, rotational and irrotational, motions of the vortex fin:..they also display helical motion This last named motion causes flows in or out of"toroid" holes to have a twisting-type motion. This phenomenon is called "spin".will be discussed in the following Chapters where descriptions of every "particle" \'\displays "spin" are being presented.

A rule of thumb: "e ven numbered vortex ring set formations have "charge" runeven numbered ones have no "charge ". "Positive charge" means outflow e.g. theproton and "negative charge" means inflow e.g. the electron

2.2.5 Interrelationship of the FC Density with Electro-magneticFactors

For permeability µo and permitivity Eo, we have c = ~ ( 7'\jµoEo

Also c DC .J Po- P and since P = c *2, therefore c DC .J Po - P . Combining withP P P

(78) we now obtain ~ DC .JPo - P , which makes for µoEo DC _P- (79)'\jµoEo P Po - P

(79) shows the dependence of these electro-magnetic factors as to the FC density.

2.2.6 Summary Considerations of Waves and Vortex Entities

( a) From the chapters 1.1 and chapters 2.1 we can now conclude that in FC physicswe found that formulations for energy and rates of energy for waves and vorticesrespectively are expressed in the same dimensionalities and basic factors.( a )Wave energy is expressed in a size (= wavelength A) and in the local velocity oflight (= c), which in turn depends on the local density ( = P ), which has adependency on the "standard" density (= Po)

Page 43

(b) Vortex energy rates are expressed in a size (= "eye-wall" diameter of theelementary vortex d) and in the "standard" velocity of light (= c *) and in the"standard" density ( = Po)

These fmding of fact are in full agreement with the convertibility processes whichare found in nature, namely the photon decay process, which stands for the conversion ofwaves into vortex entities (electron and positron) and the gamma ray burst, which standsfor the conversion of vortex entities, which are compacted in an aged black hole intowaves (high energy gamma rays).

Wave and vortex phenominae are two realms in which the most basic factors innature can interrelate with each other.

•

3 THE ELEMENTARY PARTICLES

3.1 The Electron-Neutrino

The electron- neutrino consists of a single continually rotating vortex ring, whiMis closed into itself, it has the form of a "toroid".

• The electron- neutrino can have 3 states of motion: See: Figs. 14 a, band c.

( a ) The electron- neutrino is "at rest". This is only possible if it is bound andpart of a "composite" "particle", which holds it into its place. It has fluidcirculation through the "toroid" hole and around the outer perimeter of the ring.Its kinetic energy relative to the "composite" of which it is part is zero and it hasno "mass".

( b ) The electron- neutrino moves in a direction which is opposite of the flow throughits center ( "toroid" hole) and is called anti- neutrino. The vector of this flow is apropulsion vector and since the "eye-wall" velocity is approximately c * (theaverage velocity over the "toroid" hole cross-section is .99 c *), so the electron-neutrino moves through the inviscid FC at essentially v ""c * . The motion throughthe "toroid" hole which is cancelled out by its forward motion, provides that thereis virtually no densification in the FC in front of the neutrino in its path of motion.Only in a very narrow ring-like area there could be some densification. (See Fig.15 a), wherefore the anti- neutrino in this mode of motion has "no mass" topossibly an "infmitesimal mass." Writer estimates that the magnitude of this verysmall "mass" effect could be that fluid dynamic "mass", which corresponds with

an energy magnitude Of: pod" 2c *3 xl 0-4. Drawing analogy from the calculation

for the "mass" of the proton versus its energy, which, respectively, are 60 POd3

and 6.00 n POd2c *3 (Chapter 3.3.4), gives for the fluid dynamic "mass" a value of4

n POd2c *3 X 10-3• Its kinetic energy therefore is also infmitesimal. The helical

4flow motion in the vortex ring provides for its "spin" and the "spin"-axis is in linewith the path of motion. However, if the anti- neutrino "grazes" another "particle"this "spin"axis starts to wobble or oscillate relative to its path of motion and it ispossible that the anti-neutrino makes a 1800 "flop-over" to where the "spin"-axiscomes into line with the path of motion again. This causes the "propulsion" vectorto now point "upstream." (See Chapter 3.2).

( c ) The electron- neutrino moves in the same direction as the vector of its flow, whichis its "propulsion" vector through its "toroid" hole. Substantial densificationofthefluid "upstream" from the neutrino is now being created and the electron- neutrinosuddenly gets noticeable "mass." This substantial densification leads to the

Page 45

"stretching" of the "toroid" hole diameter and the energy as represented by the"mass" Xc *2 is now being made part of the circulatory energy of the neutrino.Herewith the muon-neutrino has been born. (See Fig. 15 b and Chapter 3.1.3).

Fig. 15 ,a and b :

3.1.1 The Energy of the Electron-Neutrino and also of the Anti-Neutrino.

Fig. 16: shows a cross-section of the "toroid" through the plane in which thevortex thread / centerline is located. The velocity distribution is vertically set out overthis cross-section and goes from: -00 to +00. It be noted that the velocity distributionwithin the "eye-wall" where there is rotational flow, is linear and that the velocity

distribution through the "toroid" hole, where there is irrotational flow, is DC ~ • OutsideR

of the "toroid" the DC ~ distribution needs to be multiplied by x~ and so becomes DC 4R R R

(here not only dR expansion but also Rdcp expansion)

Fig. 17: shows a top- view of the neutrino which is perpendicular to the cross-ectional plane of Fig. 16.

Page

Fig. 16

IRl'i'Or.' • '1?tn:' I J'/tl?Or.' 'RoT. ' -XRROT.

Fig. 17

3.1.2 Rotational Energy of the "Toroid" or Single Vortex-ring (SeeFigs. 18a and b )

Velocity distribution ( a ) translates into velocity distribution ( b ).(a) (b)

h I· d' 'b' . I' 2c * RT e ve OClty lstn uhon IS mear: v = --d

Vlin = C * /2 Hence, 15R can be directlymultiplied by vIin and we have

Page 47

2po13 3d 12 2n 2nE = f f ff~RalTor 2R2 d

P=Po12R=d12 'I'='! rp='! 2 __d2

C*2 3dl2 2" C* (3d d)E = 55 - - --- Rd dR

ROI.Tor . Po 2 RL2rpL 2.d 2 2 cp

) [

9 2 1 "j3 23d/2 -d -d-C* R 2n n *3 4 4E = 55 - - = 55 -c -----,"ceo, . Po 4 (121,0"" Icpl,~) . Po 2 2 2

C*22c* RdRdlflRdCP2

ERofationalTor (80 )

3.1.3 Circulatory irrotational Energy Through and Around the"Toroid" (See Fig. 19)

Here we have the energy of the flow "coming up" through the "toroid" is thesame as the energy "going down" around and outside the outer "eye-wall" perimeter.

d122" *d *2Since 151= Po, ElrrotalionalTor = Po f f c

2RRdcpdR c2

R=Orp=O

*3 dE = _c (lid 12 ) (I 1211: ) _ n *3IrrotalionalTor Po 4 R R=O qJ rp=O - '2 poe d [d / 2 - 0]

E - n 2 *3/rrotationalTor - - pod c

4( 81 )

Fig. 19:

Page 48

3.1.4 Cross-section and Velocity Distribution Outside the Neutrino

The velocity distribution outside the outer perimeter of the "eye- wall" is the

". . 1"d' 'b' 1 hi h . 1 l' h" canst F R d /2lrrotatlOna lstn utlOnx-, w c IS a -0 re attons IP, I.e. v = --2-' or = ,R R- R

4c* 4c*v=c* so const=-- and V=--., d2 d2R2

Since no energy is added to the neutrino during its existence, ( This is not so with regardto the proton and the electron, which have need over time for infinitesimal addition offluid energy.) all energies must be totally balanced.

W ~ d h E - 1[ 1 1 d2 *3 d - 1[ d2 *3e loun t at Rot.Tor - 4' x . x Po c an Eirr01Tor - 4' x Po c

Since the rotational energy of the vortex ring causes and is in total harmony with, thecirculatory energy which goes through the "toroid" and comes around the vortex ring, thedifference between the two values which have been found for the rotational andirrotational energies equals the helical energy. This energy has a flow pattern whichextends all throughout the inside of the vortex ring and minorly into the area outside thevortex ring.

Therefore, E Helical =.1 X 1[ pod 2c *3 ( 82 )4

These values for the three types of energies which are identified with the vortex typeentities are basic factors in the FC physics and are equally as important as Planck'senergy fonnula is for wave energy.

Fig. 20 shows a cross-sectional view (under angle) of a vortex ring showing thevelocity vectors of the helical component of the flow. For the helical energy we

1[have E = cot ljIx-p d2

c*3 andHelical averaged 4 0 'cot averaged ljI = EHel / ERat = .111.1 ~ .091

We note that cot averaged ljI has contributions at the top am bottom of the cross-section

~ .Jiof the vortex These are cotouler.perimvort.ljI = .091x ,,2 and cotinner.perimvort.ljI = .091x 2.With this, we found the rotational velocity which exists at the inside perimeter of the"toroid." This is also the "spin velocity" of the neutrino,

VSPIN = .064xc * ( 83 )

o ' 0 ' 0 ,Values for ljI are ljI outer. peri", ~ 83 40, ljIinner.perim ~ 87 20 and ljI averageperim ~ 85 50 ( 84

Page 49

Fig. 20 Cross-section of vortex ring with helical velocity vectors

Since there is total harmony between the helical energy of the vortex ring and therotational energy which is communicated to the circulatory flow through the "toroid"hole, we can state that ESPrN == EHelical = .091 xERotatiunol

which gives ESPIN "".lxn

P d2c*34 0

(85 )

3.1.5 Are there "higher harmonic orders" for the "toroid"? (The sizeof neutrino's)

Let us examine the energy balance of a single vortex ring ("toroid") having in thisexample, a given diameter of the "toroid" hole which is twice the diameter d of theortex ring. Here dluroidhole= 2dvurtex ( dvurtexis"eye-wall" diameter). Refer to Fig. 21,

which shows a cross-section of this proposed vortex ring, together with the velocitydistributions. In this case,

*2 2d 2n *- C f fC - 2 *3ERutTur -.55Po2 2RdcpdR -.4125xnPod C

Rood ~o

d 2n * d *"_ ffC d c-_n 2*3_ 2*3ElrrotTor - Po 2R Rd cp 'Rx 2-'2 pod C - .50x nPod cR=O'f!=O

.e now fmd that the rotational energy would be smaller than the circulatory energy. This- impossible; the rotational energy which includes the helical energy must be at least~l or slightly more than the energy of the circulatory flow. In this example is shown

(a)

(b)

Page 5

that a larger diameter of the "toroid" hole compared to the vortex diameter isharmonically impossible.

Fig. 21 Cross-section of a hypothetical vortex ring

3.2 The Muon -Neutrino

The Muon- Neutrino can be forced into existence. It is an unstable vortex entitywith a short lifetime, namely 2xl0--{' seconds. It has a "mass" for that short time, theenergy equivalent of which is 207 eV . Fig 15b shows a cross-section of the muonneutrino.

The substantial densification which takes place when the vector of the circulatoryflow through the "toroid" hole points "upstream", causes the stretching of the vortex ringand enlargement of the diameter of the "toroid" hole in order to be able to "swallow" thedensified fluid "prop" and making this densified fluid a part of its circulation whileabsorbing its associated energy. The proportions, as shown in Fig. 15 b, suggest that the"toroid" hole diameter should enlarge to at least 2.5 xd in order to facilitate the densified"prop", which is directly "upstream" and in contact with the vortex ring, then becomingpart of this ring, whereby this electron- neutrino is being converted into a muon- neutrino.From the value given for the energy of the muon-neutrino and taking the assumed valuefor Po' which we use in several calculations in this book (See Chapters: 2.1 , 3.3, 3.4) wecan establish a value for the stretched "toroid" hole diameter of the muon- neutrino.

Page 51

3.2.1 .Calculation of the magnitude of size of the muon-neutrino andassociated vortex ring

We have for the muon- neutrinon

Emuon =207x1.602xl0-19 Joule, and assume Po =1O-{), then ""'2POd2C*3

"" n 10-{)d 2C*3 = 2x207x1.602xlO-19, so d2 = 414X1.60:4X 10-: = .8xl0-36 m2 ,

2 nx27xlO xlOwhich gives dmlloll "" .9xlO-18 m, wherefore delneu/rino "" 3.0xlO-19 m (86)

The diameter of the centerline of the muon vortex ring is DmuolI.vor/celiterI "" 2.5 x 10-18 m, so

the diameter of the outer perimeter of the vortex ring is ~ 3xl0-18 m

Figs.22a and b show a size comparison between the electron-neutrino and themuon-neutrino, which is based on an assumed value for the density, Po =10-6• The outerdiameter of a spherical volume in the FC (around the vortex ring) within which 99.99%of all circulatory (i.e. irrotational) energy is contained should be about 25 - 50 timesgreater than the outside diameter of the muon-neutrino. This gives a size for the muonneutrino of order 3xlO-15 to 10-16 cm. The value for the outside diameter of the muon-neutrino vortex ring is about 2.0-2.5 x 10-16 cm. This value shows that the order of size ofthe muon- neutrino is between 400 to 500 times smaller than the size of the electron "atrest" , which has a size of about: 10-13 cm. The size of the outside diameter of the vortexring of the electron- neutrino is about 1500 to 1200 times smaller than the size of theelectron "at rest".

Fig. 22 a Fig. 22 b

-we now determine the "mass" equivalent for the muon-neutrino

E 207x1.602xl0-1934 k C . h' , h h f h

-2 - 16 ~ 3.7xl0- g. omparmg t IS WIt t e mass 0 t ec* 9xl0

'!'lectron, which is 9.1xl0-31 kg, then we find a "mass ratio of about: 2500. Thisoborates quite well with the size ratio given above (Note: The size ratio needs to be

ultiplied by a factor with relation to the "mass" ratio). The tau-neutrino shall be--ussed in Part II, Chapter 6.3.

P .."age --

3.3 The Proton

The Proton consists of two vortex rings which stably roll against each other.Together with the electron, the positron and the anti-proton, it forms the group of "2vortex ring"- combination structures. The anti-proton is not stable. For the stability of theproton a value is given like: > 4 xl 023 seconds. The "lives"of the electron and positronare indefinite, likely 00. The positron, which is structure1y a mini-proton can convert inra proton if enough energy is present. This conversion mechanism can occur instantly inthe photon decay process if the photons have sufficiently high energy (See Part II,Chapter 11). Figures 23 a, band c show a cross- section and a left and right side view 0

the proton. The 2 vortex rings roll against each other in such a manner that there is aperipheral or equatorial inflow from all around the rings and 2 polar or axial outflowsalong a single axis, called here the "spin" axis.

Figs.23 a, b and c :

Fig. 24 shows the same cross-section as in Fig. 23 b, but the fluid flow patterns and thevelocity distributions have been added

Fig. 24:

Page 53

The stability of the proton can now be understood. The axial momentum of bothpolar outflows cause reaction forces in the fluidum around the proton in oppositedirection and those forces press the rings against each other. The peripheral or equatorialintake cross-section, which can be formulated as fPli xnDpR is larger than the two cross-

sections of the polar outflows which can be formulated as 2 x~( DpR - d PR)2 • (This will4

be corroborated in a subsequent calculation.) The smaller total outflow cross-sectionalarea compared to the inflow cross-sectional area, together with the fact that the "eye-wall" velocities of the continually rotating rings are eqrnl for both cross-sectional areas,cause the fluid inside the proton to be compressed and the density "inside" to be higherthan the density "outside" the proton. The increased density "inside" (location A in Fig.

24) presses the rings outwardly and this outward force, which is roughly ""n D2 x M is4

countered by the reaction forces in the FC "outside" of the proton (location C in Fig. 24 ).Because of the fact that the "eye-wall" velocity Gust like any "eye-wall" velocity) in thepolar out flows is c * and because of the fact that the pressure "inside" the proton has asubstantial +M , we can conclude that the outflow velocity over the whole cross-section of the "throat" or "toroid" hole equals ""c*. Fluid mechanics suggests that theactual velocity in between the "eye-walls" in the "throat" can be higher than c *(location B in in Fig. 24). However, with the rapidly expanding flow cross-sectionsoutwardly from the "throats" this is actually not the case or a negligible factor. We cansafely state that the "outflow velocity" in the "throats" is quite constant over the cross-sections and is essentially"" c* . This important evaluation of the velocity of the polaroutflows enables us to formulate the flows and corresponding energies for the proton,which in tum will provide dimensions. It also provides for an approach for the calculationof the: flows and corresponding energies and dimensions of the electron in chapter

3.1.5. Formula (80) shows that the rotational energy ofa vortex ring is 1.1 n POd2c*3.4

Size d, being the "eye-wall" diameter of the vortex ring, as used in formulations for theproton shall be indicated by dpR . dpR differs from and is bigger than dneutrillo' However,ince the origin of the proton rests in a positron to proton conversion, which can be aubsequent process to the photon decay process, (see Chapter 11) the "eye-wall"

diameters of the vortex rings of the proton and of the electron and positron are the same.d PR = del = d po .

3.3.1 Calculation of the diameter of the outflow of "toroid" hole of theproton

The rotational energy of both rings is ""2.2 n Pod PR 2c *3 . This value is based on4

'ortex rings which have an outflow diameter ""dPR and it includes the helical energy.-ince no energy is added, (the infmitesimal amount of energy which is needed over

Page 5

extended time to compensate for the slightest of friction in the outermost region of thesurrounding irrotational flow is not to be considered in this calculation) this rotationalenergy equals the energy of the circulation of the fluid through and around the vortexrings of the proton The flow outside "eye-walls" of the vortex rings is always irrotatio~flow, whereby, PI "" Po ). For a complete energy balance we have

2 n (D d)2 * C *2 _ n *3 ( d)2 _ 2 n d 2 *3-Po PR- PR C ----poe DpR- PI? - .2-po PR C4 2 4 4

( 87)

So (DpR -dpR)2 = 2.2xdp/, which gives Dpli = 2.483xdpR. This gives diameter sizes 0

the "throats" (i,e. the diameter of the outflows) being ""1.48x d

We now can conclude that due to the higher pressure of the fluid inside the proton

the rings are stretched to a factor 2.4 = 1,24 , therefore the rotational energy and also the""2

circulatory energy have increased to 2.72 x n POdpRC *3 . The rotational energy increase4

linearly, but the circulatory energy increases with the square of the size of DpR' In orderto fmd the DpR for which the rotational energy equals the circulatory energy thefollowing more general equation needs to be applied

n *3 ( d)2 _ Dpli n d 2 *3 (D d)2- PO'C DPR - PR - --x2.2x- Po PR C ,so PR - PR4 2dpR 4

This gives DpR "" 2.732xdpR . Therefore the total equivalence between the rotationalenergy and the circulatory energy occurs at a value of

Therotationalenergyoftheprotonringsis( 2.73X2.2=3.00) 3.00xn Podp/C*32 4

The circulatory energy is the same and the he lical energy was included in the rotationalenergy, wherefore the total "fluid-dynamical energy" of the proton is

( 89)

Page 55

3.3.2 Calculation of the width of the split j~R (between the vortexrings of the proton)

It will be shown that the cross-sectional area of the peripheral or equatorial inflowis larger than the cross-sectional area of both outflows, wherefore we can conclude thatthere is a higher pressure and a higher density "inside" the proton This energy of this"confmed" fluid is a potential energy. This energy shall be calculated and in adding thisto the fluid-dynamical energy we fmd the total energy of the proton.

From the densification ratio between the density "inside" the proton Pins and thedensity "outside" and at distance from the proton, which is Po and from the value of the"internal volume" we shall be able to determine the "mass" of the proton. Also the"charge" energy rate and "charge" force of the proton shall be determined. This force isthe force of the outflow, which shall be indicated as being positive.

Per definition: Outflows mean positive charge and inflows mean negative charge.Furthermore the "spin" energy, the "spin" velocity at the outflow diameter and the radialvelocity in the outflows shall be determined.

3.3.2.1 Velocity distribution as shown by curve ( b )

U . l' d' 'b . const (S . 2 I' ( b ))smg ve OCIty Istrl utlOn v = -- ee FIg. 5, meR

f:RINFLOW"

Fig. 25:

'::'or R = d PR /2, v = c * which gives v = d PRe * . In order to find fPli / d we equate the2R

ow energy with the outflow energies (outflow energy = circulatory energy)

d d''R/2+ 11'11 /2 1-x f -dR

*3 2 R3 00 7r d 2 *3 - ( 2 73d r) c R=dpil /2. Po - I'll C - Po 7r X. PRX.J PR

4 2 fpR /2

3.00 dpR =(llnRld~/2+rpR/2)dpR =In(l+fpR JdPR

1 365 J: R-d"1I1? r d r. pR J pR pR .J PR

2.197 = In(l + fpR ) , which gives fPR = 8.00dpR (94 )dpRd c*

v = pR = .11Ie * ( 95 )center 2 (.50 + 4.00) dpR

The inflow cross-sectional area is 7rx2.73dpR x8.00dpR =68.62dp/

7r(h)2 22x'4 -v3.dpR = 4.71dpR

14.56 .

The outflow cross-sectional areas are

Ratio of inflow / outflow areas is

3.3.2.2 Calculation of the density "inside" the proton (Pill')

Previously we determined that P eye-wall = 3. Po' What is P over the inflow cross-3

section? (vcenter = .111.c *) Determining the averaged velocity in the inflow

4.5dpll c*d

f -dR 1 4.5d2R 1 (I 1

4.5dl'lI) --c*ln-- ,R=d

pR

/2 =-c* lnR R=dI'II/2 - 8 .5dv = d 84 pRc*ln9 _ 274c*V= -- -.

8

Applying Bernouilli (from outside proton to inflow) Fa = P,lItzow+!P III 'lowv2

. 2"

Divideby Po, and since P/p=C*2, therefore I=Plnjlnw+!Pllltzow.075c*2Po 2 c*Po

I Phl//ow (1 1 075) h" - 96 fu h '" 'd"=70 +'2x. , t ISgIves Pllljl()w=. XPO' rt er mS! e , Pns > Po'

Consider the polar outflows where the velocity over the whole cross-section ""c*.

(Bernouilli) P'IIS = POutj7()W +±x % poe *2 . Divide by POutj/ow' since

h ~ P . 1 POutj7ow *2 1 C *2t ere.Lore inS =1+----c =1+---= 1.52 P 2 *2P Outflow Ou((low c

P/ P =C*2,

Page 57

3.3.2.3 Density "inside" the proton versus density "outside" Pins / Po

The circulatory energy per polar outflow is 1.5x n Pod PR 2C *3 . The outflow force4

, . 1 5 n d 2 *2It exerts IS . X- Po PR C4

1 5 n d 2 *2. X- Po PR C 1 5 d 2 *2

P - 4 -' XPO PR C - 20 D / -1 2ins - Po + n - Fa + 2 - Fa +. Xro, SO Pins Po - .-(d + d )2 (2.73dpR)4 oul PII

This value will be used in the calculation for the "mass" of the proton

( 96)

Fig.25 shows one velocity distribution, which is shown by curve (b) and which

is DC ~ (from "eye-wall" to the center of the inflow). The distribution, which is shown byR

curve ( a) is DC ~ (from "eye-wall" to the center of the inflow). The first derivative ofR

the latter distribution at the "eye-wall" complies with the conditions for irrotational flow.It be noted that while the velocity distribution for irrotational flow inside toroid holes is

DC ~ , that the velocity distribution for irrotational flow outside the toroid is DC ~

R R

3.3.2.4 The velocity distribution as shown by curve ( a )

For curve a we have

ij'lI12

J R2dRC * * R 2

_ C * 2c* R~O C * 2c*v=-+2c -- v =-+ =-+--

2 fpR 2 ' 2 fPR2 f~R /2 2 fpR23

2c* fpRc* 24 c* c* 2v=-+ 3 =-+-=-c*=.67xc*2 fPR /2 2 6 3

I~T'"fpR /2

(97 )

Page 5

This averaged velocity differs much from the averaged velocity of the "hyperbolic"distribution, which is v = .274 X c * . With relatively large sizes of fpR and doUlfiow the

velocity distribution of curve ( a ) and fonnula ( 97 ) cannot be used in case of the protonHowever, if these sizes are small as is the case with the electron / positron then there islittle difference in the results and either distribution can be used.

We wish to estimate the Pressure ratio P'nsidePR / Fa ? The outflow energy rate for

each "toroid" hole is 1.50~Po.dp/.C*3 (Force X velocity) . Therefore, the force with4

which the vortex rings are being pressed together is 1.50 1[Pod PR2c *2. The total area

4inside the proton upon which the inside pressure is being exaerted is

1 0 1[d 2 *21[ .5 Po - PR C

APlins =1[ Dp/ = - (2.73d PR)2 • The pressure is M = 4 = .20PO'C*2( 98 )4 4 1[ (2.73xdf

4This pressure-difference is positive( > Po ) and according to formula ( 43) Po = PO'C *2 ,

We have P'nsidePR = Po + .20Pa and PlnsidePR = 1.20 x Po ( 99 )The term .20 Pac *2 ( 98 ) represents a quantity of potential energy and manifests itself as"mass". This amount of energy is additional to the kinetic type energies, being therotational-, the irrotational- and helical energies, the total of the rates of these

energies is Etotal = 6.00 X: Pod p/ c *3. The potential energy is .40 Poc *2 ( lOO)

The dimensionality is Ne/rlr2 (Nel is number of elementary units in FC )

3.3.3 The size of the vortex "eye-wall" diameter of the proton

We have in physics mpr = 1.67 X 10-27 kg and Epr (me *2) = 1.67 xl 0-27 x (3xl08 r J

Assume a value for Po = lO-6 and consider the energy rate of the proton per unit oftime

(1 sec.). This gives 1.1x1[xl0-6xdp/xc*3xl =1.67 xlO-27XC*2.

1.67xl0-27 xl06 ..JTherefore dpR "'" ,/ 8 = 1.18xl0-30 = 1.09xlO-15 m ( 101 )

1.5x1[x 3x 10

This estimate did not include the value for the potential energy. If the potentialenergy were added, then we fmd a slightly higher value for dpR' The exact value fOrPowill be extensively researched in following chapters and in Parts II and III. Fig. 44 is across-sectional drawing of the proton with proportions as calculated above.

Page 59

Fig. 44:

3.3.4 The "mass" of the proton

As shall be clear from the foregoing chapters, "mass" as being something"tangible" does not exist. The phenomenon "mass" relates to either confmed or non-confined locations in the FC where there is an altered density of the Fluidum compared toa "standard" density which prevails over vast areas in space (micro or macro). If thedensity P > Po, then we can defme this region to have "mass" and if the density P < Pothen we can defme the region as having "fractional mass". Since "fractional mass" fallsshort of "standard mass" we can also speak of "negative mass"by indicating the shortfallor difference relative to "standard mass".

Furthermore, if a certain L1p exists in a given volumetric area, then the "mass" isproportional to the product of the volume of the region multiplied by L1p.

m DC Vol,p XL1p ( 102)

nere Vol,p is the volume of space in the FC. "Mass" which originates from non-confined altered density regions in the FC always relates to moving "particle"- type~tities being at "relativistic" velocities. For example an electron at high velocity creates'" densified fluid area in front of it in the direction of its motion, which can be expressed

- increased "mass" mv DC 1/ .Jl- v2/ C *2 . If the entity slows down again, the n the value

--the observed "mass" comes down again as per this formula.

~ "mass" of the proton, (See Formula ( 96 )) can be formulated as 1.20x Po x vol PR •

Page

volpR = 7r: (2, 73d PR )2 X (8.00+ 1.00) dpR -7r:X 2.40dpR X 7r: d p/ =4 8

52.68dp/ -2.96dp/ = 49.72dp/ .Therefore the "fluid mechanical" "mass" of the proton is

1.20x49.72PodpR 3"" 60Podp/ ( 103 )The proton has 2 outflows and 1 inflow. This corresponds in the Quark Theory with 2"hadron" up-quarks and 1 down-quark.

3.3.5 "Charge" and "Spin" of the Proton

The polar / axial outflows have a circulatory energy of 3.0 X 7r: POdpR 2C *3.4

This circulatory energy incorporates a helical energy, which is roughly 1110 of the

circulatory energy, so E"elical "" 0.3x 7r: Podp/C *3, which is equal to the Spin energy.4

The charge energy rate of the proton is E.} "" 3.Ox 7r: Podp/ C *3, ( 104 )CJ. 4

So the total charge force is F::h "" 3.0 Podp/ C *2 ( 104 ')

The rotational velocity of the "spin" ( at the stretched diameter of 1.73 d PR ) is from

formula ( 83), VSPIN = .064xc*. Therefore OJ = .064xc * 7r: radians / second.1.73xdpR

Substituting the value for c * and the estimated value for d PR calculated herein,

we obtain a spin angular velocity of OJ = .064x3 xl 08

I~ 7r: = 3.2 xl 026 rad./sec.( 105 )1.73 x1.09 xlO-

3.4 The Electron

3.4.1 General considerations

The electron consists of two vortex rings which continually roll against eachother. This rotation is in opposite direction relative to the rotation of the vortex rings ofthe proton The electron together with the positron have their origin in the "photon decayprocess" which is described in Part II, Chapter 11. The positron and electron have vortexrings of the same size. However, the distance between the rings is not equal. The positroncan instantly convert into a proton, when one or more high-energy photons hit thepositron in such a fashion and with such sufficient density that the rings split open further

Page 61

so that the higher density of the in- flowing fluid has the force to establish a stretching ofthe vortex rings. (For a related calculation see Chapter 3.4 and Part II, Chapter 11)

The electron is the most important of all elementary vortex entities and also themost stable. The high stability results because the fluid pressure, and therefore thedensity, inside the electron are relatively low compared to the pressure and densityoutside the electron, particularly when "in motion". Therefore, there is a pressuregradient exerted on the vortex rings with a net force of

( 106)

When the electron moves at relativistic velocities, the under-pressure increases. Thispressure differential can then be greater and is over a larger area in comparison with thepressure differential and resulting forces which are exerted by the outflowing polar jets ofthe proton. The stability / life of the electron is virtually infinite. Writer is convinced thatthe electron can even survive a tangential entry into a vortex tube going through the "eye-wall" area where the fluid velocity is approximately c * , simply because the electron'sinternal pressure and density are lower (wherefore it can maintain its integrity) than thepressure and density which are encountered in the' "eye-wall." (See Part III, Chapter 18)

The two vortex rings, which have rotations opposite those which characterize theproton, establish two polar / axial inflows and one peripheral/equatorial outflow. Thepolar / axial inflows have "spin" and the outflow is not straight radially, but curvedradially, like a pinwheel. See Fig. 26 a, band c, which show left and right views and aperpendicular cross-section through the electron See Fig. 27 for a cross-section, whichshows fluid flow patterns.

Fig. 25

x X'

p

/'I,i;

'~ I

\

~

Fig. 27 : Cross-section through electron, showing fluid flow patterns :/ /' -'," / ,,"~ -.... '"I I' ...---.,' '0='1 I' ...--, 'X' \I I, " \\'I I , '" ,,'

I I / ", \ I I1/ \ \ I\ I I J \ I I\ , 1 I I I\ \ \ I I I\ \ \ / I /, , \ , I /

,...... '...........', .... , // // ../

'-... --.. ." ---

With the electron, there is no stretching of the rings, but a shrinking of the inflowdiameters, as calculations shall show. This means that dill < del

In the following calculation, we chose the velocity distribution as shown in Fig.

25 by curve (a), whereby v DC -.;. when calculated from the center while com-plyingK

with "irrotationality" near the "eye-wall", where the fIrst derivative of this curve isidentical to the fIrst derivative of the curve for the irrotational flow. Then we have

c* R2v=-+2c*--

2 d 2III

( R is calculated from the center), and v = ~ c * .3

-----------------------~ ------

Page 63

n 2 *2The rate of energy for the two inflows is 2x-d2pO-C*~

4 III 3 2

hence E IlIflmv = : P odill2

C *3 ( 107 )

This indicates a value of less than the rotational energy of the vortex rings which is

2X1.1: Pod/c*3 and the likelihood that dill < del'

Equating the outflow energy rate with the inflow energy rate, we have

so

It is well known that the ratio "mass" proton/ "mass" electron is 1836, The values fortheir respective masses are 1.67x 10-27 kg and 9.1x 10-31 kg and their respectiveenergy-content equivalents are 938MeV and 511KeV. These values were obtained byobservations a.o. of deflections in electric fields.

The "electrical" properties of the proton and the electron arise directly from their"fluid-dynamical" properties, specifically from the circulatory flows, the energies ofwhich are the factors, which determine the influence of "particles" upon each other. This"influence mechanism" from a "fluid dynamical" standpoint is observed and calculatedwith in Chapter 4.1 where the atomic structure of the hydrogen atom is being discussed,

The "outflow" energy of the proton is directly connected to the 93 8Me V energy.

The "inflow" energy of the electron is directly connected to the 51lKeVenergy.

The circulatory energy per each "outflow" of the proton is 1.5 n pod p/c *3 ,4

The "eye-wall" diameters of the proton, electron and positron are the same, i.e.d PR = del = d po' Therefore the circulatory "inflow" energy rate for each of the polar /

1 n d2 *3.5'4PO el C

1836axial "inflows" of the electron has the value

We also have P II/flow"" 0.9 x Po . This is expected because of the small magnitude of the

inflows of the electron and also because the "eye-wall" density is ~ Po' Thus, the3

"inflow" energy rate can be equated which gives

So we obtain

9

'4 ~ 1---~d = --xd ~d ",-d.9x1836 1I1 3672 eI {II 27 el ( 108

Further ( 109)

Fig. 28 : is a cross-sectional drawing of the electron which shows the proportions--r----.

3.4.2 Pressure and density "inside" the electron

The force which is exerted by the pressure from outside of the electron by the FCapplies over the side area of the vortex rings and can be expressed as

~ (2 x .75del + din) 2 PoC *2 . There is also a reaction force equal to ~ (del + din) 2 PinsC *2 ,

Pin, _ (1.5del + din )2 '" 2.1d/ '" 2 1Po (del +din )2 d/ .

The "inside" volume of the electron is ~ ( d e/+ din) 2 (fel + del) -J[ (d in+ .64d el) ~ d/ ,

thus,

J[ ( )2 ( ) ( ) J[ 2 3 3 3'4 1.04 del 1.0 1del -J[ .68de/ ide! = .855del -.839del =.016del

The "fluid mechanical" "mass" of the electron is 2.1po x.016de/ = .0336Pode/ (111),

the "fluid mechanical" "mass" of the proton '" 60Pod p/ and d PR = del . Division of thisvalue, (the "mass" of the proton), by 1836 should corroborate the value now found for the

so

..(110)

Page 65

electron. Thus we have 60 Pode' 3 / 1836 = .0327 POdet3. In view of several

approximations which were applied, this is an excellent corroboration of fluid mechanicalcalculatory results when compared with the data, physics found over one half centuryago.

Comparing the circulatory energy versus the rotational energy,

we fmd 1.5/1836 = .0014. The rotational energy here is less, namely it is.6

approximately .55 x 1.1x: Pod/ c *3 . The reason for this is that the diameter of the circle

of the vortex thread is only slightly more than half of the outside diameter of the standardsingle vortex ring, which has a "toroid" hole diameter, which is roughly equal to the"eye-wall" diameter.

3.4.3 The electron "at rest"

The "charge energy"rate for both vortex rings is .00128 POd}C*3 '=Fxv (112)

The two polar inflows have an attracting force of .00 128Pode/c*2 . The electron has two

rotating polar inflows. Also "inflow" means "negative charge ". From Quark Theory weknow that two "lepton" down-quarks represent the inflows and the one up-quarkrepresents the outflow. The attractive force between the proton and the electron isdetermined by the "charge energy" rate of the electron, which is the smaller of the tworates. This guarantees the possibility for a hydrogen atom to exist even at absolute zerotemperature as will be shown in chapter 4.1. The charge of the electron is

e = 1.60xl0-19 Coulomb. The force between charges is F = QIQ2,. With these4:7l'Eor

2

expressions we obtain .00128xPod/c*2= e -12 0 Thefluidforceis4n x 8.85 xlO Xr

, ated close to the electron, r should be :<s; 10-9m . Substituting known values for c * ande we find: Pod/ "" 1.98 X 10-36

• With an assumed value for Po ='10-6 we fmd for

..Id "" 1.4 x 10-15 m. This value shall be commented on later in this chapter.

The "Spin" Energy is primarily determined by the helical energy, which is about% of the rotational energy. Therefore

ESPIN",,·06xPode/c*3, and VsPIN"".064xc*. (113)value is the same for the proton, the electron and the positron Only the direction ofchanges with positive or negative charge. Due to the small size of the inflows, the

=-~larvelocity in the inflows is high. Taking for del = 1.4xlO-15 m, we obtain

Pag<

.064c*W= 1C",,1.16xI025rad./sec. (114)

del/27Physics gives a value for the angular momentum

1 h n-x-=- . (115)2 m 2

(See Goudsmit and Uhlenbeck, 1925 publications) The dimensionality of Joule.sec isMi3rl and the value of the angular momentum of formula ( 115) is 5.3xlO-35 Thedimensionality of a momentum is MLrl. Therefore "Spin=1I2", which is the value forseveral elementary "particles", must have a dimensionality of CIT2. Writer protests t:ll3.-"Tables" for "elementary particles" never show dimensionality for "spin". Defining the"fluid mechanical" "spin momentum" as f x mel X VSPIN •We assume the values: "mass"

"".034x Pod/, VSPIN "" .064xc* ,Po = 10-6 and del =1.4xl0-15 m. Using these data we

get a value for the momentum of ""1.4xl0-36, which is quite close to the value of

formula ( 115 ), which indicates again that we are close to a corroboration.

The circulatory flow is of the irrotational type and its influence extends faroutside the vortex ring set. The velocity "outside" the ring-set decreases roughly with thsquare of the distance. If we can imagine an "energy envelope" to exist around the "4-lobed" shape of the irrotatonal flow pattern, which exists around the vortex ring set, wecan safely state that 99.99% of all circulatory energy is contained within a radius ofapproximately 103/2 X del . With a generally accepted "outer size" or "charge radius" of

the electron "at rest" of 5xlO-15 _10-14 m, we should fmd del"" 5 xlO-16 _10-15 m .Values

for the so called "charge radius" r and Po can be indicated by using the formulation for2

the "charge energy", ~. The "fluid-dynamical" "charge" force is .00128x Pod/ c *2.r

., 2.56xl0-38xl03

Equatmg these glVes Pox r = 16 " = .11 X 10-21• If we take for

1.28x9x10 x1.96xlO-r = 10-15 m, we would fmd that Po ""10-6, which shows good corroboration. In Chapter

3.3.3 we found an estimated value for dPR "" 10-15 m . As stated previously

d = d ""del IX) PR'

If an exact value for the density in "standard" space Po can be established then albecomes exact. In Parts II and III this valuation forms an important subject matter. It isobvious and known that the density of "standard" space is directly related to theexpansion and contraction of the universe as a whole, Po = F (t) , herein is t is time. In

previous chapters we found that c* = F (Po) and P = F ( Po' R), herein is R is thedistance to a "space-time curvature" center.

Therefore ( 118

Page 67

Formula ( 118 ) gives quite a shake to the postulates set in the early 20-th century, byEinstein and others, The magnetic moment of the electTon, which is eh = 4nmelc* should

roughly equate with the force of the "spin" energy Xr . (See Fonnula ( 113 )). This·\Pe

momentum is approximately .06 x Pode/ c *2 t;;p, . Equating gives

4nmeI 2--=.06xPOdel r. (119)* '~PeC

It is reasonable (because of the small inflow diameter) to assume that rSPe

"".5 x del'

S b'· f h kn 1 ' 4n X 9.1 X 10-31

03 d 3 hi hi'u stltutlOn 0 t e own va ues gIves 3x 108 "" . X Po el W C resu ts m

Pode/ "" 1.3xl0-36. With Po = 10-6 , we fmd for del"" 1.1xlO-'2 m, which is at the high

side, but not far away from corroboration. The results of previous comparisons betweenthe values for the "fluid mechanical" factors and values for factors which are adhered toby classical physics gave good corroboration.

3.4.4 The Electron "in Motion"

When the electron attains relativistic velocities then, because of the densificationof the FC "upstream" in its path of motion, the diameters of the "inflows" enlarge, whichin turn causes enlargement of the "outflow" split. The size of the "confinement area""inside" the electron grows, but the fluid density lowers. The increase in "mass" isstrictly from the fluid densification in front of the moving electron. In tests wherebyelectrons were accelerated in synchrotrons, increases in "mass" have been achieved ashigh as 2500 times (Fermi Lab). Therefore it is possible that an electl'on becomes as bigas a proton provided that the relativistic velocity is high enough. Whatever velocity isbeing reached, the vortex "eye-wall" diameters always remain the same. Otherdimensions are subject to change. The motion of electrons in space when in anelectrostatic, electromagnetic or magnetic field is highly curious. So is the motion in anatomic lattice. Besides the linear motion there are "sine-wave" motions in 2 planes,which are perpendicular to each other and both of which ~ through the path of travel.These motions are super-positioned on the linear motion which originates from the field.The overall motion is a "spiraling" one. When moving in a magnetic field the resultingmotion can even be cycloidial and motion through solids can be spiraling also.

Electrons "at rest" always start moving if there is any density gradient. Due torheir need for additional fluid energy over time, they always move toward higher density.This is the fluid dynamic "electron drift." If an electron is being accelerated in an.21ectrostatic or electromagnetic field, then as result of the deflection type force, which isxerted by the field, another rotation is being initiated, which is not around the "spin"-xis, but around an axis which is perpendicular to the "spin"-axis and which goes through

''-e middle of the outflow split. This latter rotation is energy-wise much less powerful

Page 6

than the "spin" energy, but it plays an important role in the phenomenon of magnetism(See Part II, Chapter 8)

3.4.5 Wave-particle duality for electrons

In the early years of the 20th century Planck had shown that electromagneticwaves show "particle" characteristics and that "light" came in "discrete quanta". Thisduality is valid for 100% of the electromagnetic spectrum and photons of any energylevel have a "mass" equivalent. For the energy as function of the wavelength we have the

known Planck formula E = he and the "mass" equivalent of photons isA

hm =--

ph Ac*

The momentum p = mv = E =!!.. , the 'de Broglie' formula givese A

which shows the reciprocal proportionality between A and p.

( 120)

A=~mv

( 121 )

Wave-particle duality may be 100% correct with regard to waves, but is it alsotrue that all matter can show wave characteristics? The answer is yes and no. Theelectron, positron and proton defmitely have wave properties which they display when inmotion and "lighter" atoms show wave properties too. However, most atoms and mostmolecules do not show wave characteristics. Classical physics teaches that all matter haswave equivalency and this equivalency is used not only as a calculatory tool. Writeragrees that all matter has wave equivalency insofar that matter is made up from"particles" for which the wave equivalency is valid. The explanation for this phenomenonas well as its limitations shall be given herewith, whereby the "Davisson-Germerexperiment and its confirmation will be examined using "fluid-dynamics." This enables 11

to define a criterion for wave- "particle" duality from the side of "matter". Figs. 29 a amb show a top and side view of the actual path of an electron which is in motion in anelectrostatic field.

Description: The electron travels from negative plate P to positive plate Q. Dueto the electron's need / voracity for additional fluid energy, the electron moves towardsplate Q where the density in the FC is higher compared to the density at plate P .Atposition A, the "spin"-axis is in line with the path of travel and the negatively chargedinflow incurs the repulsion force from the negative side of the field. This is a "deflecting'type force, which causes that the electron's a -inflow is pushed out of alignment from"path of travel" 00'. Between the positions A and B the "spin"- axis increases its anglewith the "path of travel", then becomes perpendicular and moves through this positiontowards a next "spin"-axis alignment whereby the f3 in-flow is subjected to the repulsionforce from negative plate P. What we are describing is a continuing rotation of theelectron around axis YY'. We shall name the spin around this axis spiny. This spin isperpendicular to spin x' which is the main spin around the XX' axis, which is the "spin"

Page 69

of the inflows of the electron This spiny occurs when the electron is "in motion". Also itoccurs when the electron is "at rest", if simultaneously subjected to a magnetic field.E. <E ..

Spllly Spill X

The electron has a linear accelerating motion between the plates. As soon as thereis an angle between spin axis XX' and the "path of travel", then there is a vectorcomponent of the linear motion which is perpendicular to spin axis XX' and now the fastrotating (around XX' axis) electron becomes subject to the "Magnus-Effect" , which isthe fluid-dynamical phenomenon that a rotating body in a moving field is subject to eithera lifting or a downing force depending on the direction of rotation relative to the motionthrough the field, The more angling between the XX' axis and the "path of travel", thegreater the perpendicular component of the field motion onto the XX' axis of rotation; themax imum being in position B where the angle is 900

. The force of the ''Magnus Effect"increases from position A to position B, then decreases from position B to become zeroin position C and whereas the electron has turned around now, its spin is opposite and theforce of the "Magnus Effect" now increases but in downward diTection, to becomemaximal in position D, then decreases again back to zero in position E. The conclusion isthat this force describes a sine- wave, the frequency of which is determined by the spinaround the YY' axis, The actual motion deflection from the "path of h'avel" is 900

delayed in "phase." (See Figs. 29 a and b, which illustrate these sine-wave motions.)During the angling between the XX' axis and the "path of tTavel" there is also acomponent of the field which is then parallel to the XX' axis and which causes themotion ofthe electron to be deflected sideward. This is shown in Fig. 29 in the horizontalplane. The size and angle of the two vectors are 900 out of "phase" and the sidewardsinesoidic motion is 900 "ahead" of the motion in the vertical plane. This means that theresulting motion of the elech'on is a "spiral" around the linear "path of travel".

The above description is also valid for the motion of a positron and for the motionof a proton whereby the opposite "charge" needs to be taken into account." Davisson andGermer" cou ld detect the wave characteristic of the electron due to its small "mass".

ccelerating a proton in a same field gives a Ap/'OwlI which is smaller according to itsgreater "mass", The wavelengths for certain "light atoms" can also show this effect onaccount of their spin, but are extTemely small due to greater "masses" and can be out ofrange of measurement. (Even in case of the proton it is hard to detect the waveharacteristic.) However, the spiraling of the polar outf10ws has been detected in tests,hereby 'polarized proton' beams hit a liquid hydrogen target. If the spin of the target-rotons was parallel to the spin of the oncoming protons then some of the oncoming,rotons were bounced off at large angles. With opposite spins between beam-protons and

:arget-protons, the oncoming protons did not bounce off and moved right through theget. This phenomenon will be discussed in Part II, Chapter 6.

For the motion of electrons through a lattice of atoms, we have the 'Bragg' law"-hich is nA' =2dsin8 ,whereby A' = A (nz / nl) and n2 / nl (122)

Page

being the relative refractive index. Outside a lattice of atoms am in a force field we ha

the de Broglie relationships It =~ = h .J h, ( 123P J2me,Ekil/ 2mel·eY

herein is E.fdl/ is the kinetic energy of electrons and V is the potential difference, which

causes the acceleration in the field. Substituting the known values for h, mel' e and

expressing V in volts, leads to the simplified expression It = ~ nm ( 124 I

G. P. Thomson showed the wave characteristic of electrons in 1928 using a diffractiontest, whereby clear interference results showed. These results were similar to the resultswhich were achieved by Debye-Scherrer with X-ray diffraction These results wereempiric and dd not show the fluid-dynamical causes, which are shown here. Spectralanalyses can show multiple lines for a given element for a variety of reasons e.g. theisotope mix of that element or nuclear spin or nuclear magnetic moment. The formula ti

which is used for this is µN = eh - J!:.JL ( 1254rcMpR 1836

For "lighter" elements, nuclear spin can cause wave characteristics when in motion.However, "heavy" elements and molecular stmctures other than a few do not show wavecharacteristics when in motion, wherefore writer stated that the "particle-to-wave" part 0-

the "Complementarity Principle" of Bohr is not universally tme, but the Hamiltoniananalogy can be fruitfully used in tandem with fluid-dynamical analysis in calculations ofthe physics of the electron

3.5 Impulse-Interaction of Photons with Electrons Causes the "ComptonShift" for the Photons.

Ifwe consider the conservation of energy and linear momentum, we have

h h .2 ( 1 1) d 0 hv? ' f) mv . rn h' h 'VI = v2+mc"' .J . ,an =-- Sill - . Sill,/" W IC gI] - v2 / C *2 C * -11 _ v2 / C *2

L11t=_h_(l_ cosf)). The term _h_ is called the "Compton" wavelength,mdc* mdc*

which is 2.43xlO-12m (126)

Recently A. G. Gulko suggested a concept that this "Compton" wavelength isequal to the "length of the energy" in the electron's circulatory flow. The shorter thewavelength, the higher the energy and thus the greater "mass"; this checks out in theformulation, In Part II, Chapter 11 this will be examined after complete fluid-dynamicalanalysis of the "photon decay" process. Also included there are: the fluid-dynamicalanalysis of the "Lorentz" force, the photon-electron "in motion" interaction, the electronin a magnetic field and the fluid dynamic "drift" of electron; in space

Page 71

Fig. 29 a and b:

p

The total motion of the electron in an electrostatic field(Confirmation of Davisson-Germer Experiment)

HOTION IN THIS PLANE

(90" AHERD)

t--s~.+ +f- t t +t t-t-I 1$<Sl.. I• • lY, I I I I I +

I .'.~.. . . I I I I I +Q$. ~-r'-~$' ar-!--~--!---J:::2tL_o~r;L~_0<. • j3 I (3 •• I I I Q\~~ TRAVEL.

+ '+ ~~PW£W + .

-- ---+- -- ~ -- ~ -- .-....;--EEL]) -<---- --,

I~7~~I'Y'I I Bel , If I I I

1 1 1 I

I I 'HOT/ON IN peRP(;ND/~ULAR PL.ANE

II

II

+

PIITH oF'TRIIVeL

Page 72

4 HYDROGEN

4.1 Atomic Hydrogen

Atomic Hydrogen is built up out of 1 Proton and 1 or 2 electrons. The commonvariety with 1 electron looks much like a neutron minus the anti- neutrino, the differencebeing that the distance between proton and electron in the case of hydrogen is muchgreater. Fig. 30 shows a cross-section through a hydrogen atom, whereby this cross-section goes through the middle of the proton as well as through the middle of theelectron. The fluid flow pattern is indicated in Fig. 30 as well.

Fig. 30

•'" .... _-

--- ------- -- --

----------------------

PROTO'"

--- ------------------ - --- - ----, --....---- ........--- \.-- ---.:(N07"7'O SCAI.£J ...... _- /

/

'Bo#R.'-7?lfZJlvs _ ....."eUU!TROfll---:.:,.;...;;'----'-===-1,....... __ -

".I;

As is shown, one of the two polar "outflow" jets keeps the electron attracted (inthe case of common hydrogen). The electron draws in only a minor part of the total fluidof the outflow of the proton, because of the small size of the inflow of the electron "atrest.". The fluid which is drawn in, is from the center part of the "outflow" jet of theproton. The majority of the "outflow" fluid keeps the electron at distance by counteringthe circulatory flow (i.e. repulsion) of the electron after the circulated fluid comes out ofthe equatorial outflow of the electron. Classically the distance between the electron andthe proton is known as the 'Bohr' radius. The backbone of the "Bohr Theory" forhydrogen is the equating of the centripetal force, which is due to the orbiting of the .electron around the proton, with the Coulombic attraction force, which is created by thefact that the charges of the proton and electron are opposite. (Bohr assumed the orbit tobe circular) This law is expressed by

2 2e 2 - mel V ( 127 )

47lEor rMaxwell's Theory states that while the electron is "centripetally" accelerated

during motion it should radiate / loose energy and spiral into the proton and annihilate the

Page 73

charges. To break this problem, quantization of the energy levels was assumed, because

these energy levels showed agreement with Rydberg's formula: v = R[4-~J( 128)nJ ni

herein is: R",,109.7cm-1 nJ=I,2,3, ..... n;=2,3,4, ..... n;>nJ.Formula(128)isempirical and was achieved by work from 'Balmer' and later from 'Rydberg'. Thisformula relates to the spectral lines of hydrogen The quantization assumption and the'Rydberg' formula confirmation relative to the energy levels of the electron in hydrogen

made for Bohr's formulation, En = 2 e2

=- 13;6 eV (129)n 81fEOaH n

Herein is quantum leve~ n = 1,2,3, .... , aH = Bohr radius. For n = 1~ aH

"" .053nm(130) e=1.6xl0-19Cau!amb; Eo",,8.8xlO-12farad.m-1 (is permitivityofthe FC).

The energy, which is J:. of the potential energy, can be arrived at by using2

p (r')dv' 2Poisson's formula, ¢ (r) = - f I 1 ~ ¢ (r) = __ e_ (for point charge at r) ;

v' 4nEo r - r 41fEorZ2 2

wherefore the total energy is E = e_ (for hydrogen, Z = 1) .81fEor

Bohr's model is limitedly valid for hydrogen. There is no validity for Helium etc.What happened was; 'Newtonian' mechanics were mixed with 'Schrodinger' quantummechanics. 'Newtonian': for elliptic orbits is valid: m (r - r(j2) = F (r), and

m (2fe + rtf) = 0; which results in 'Kepler's law, which is

r2e = canst. = L / m

F (r) = central force, L = angular momentum and

( 131 )1

U=-r

The general (any orbit) energy equation is E = .!..-m~[( 82~ )+ u2] +E (u -I) ( 132 )2 m2 8e

The general solution leads to a simple formula ( with the eccentricity=O ) for a circular

orbit, which is what Bohr used, being E=2n2aorb

( 133 )

With quantum mechanics and using Schrodinger, [1 8

2]V2

--2-2 '¥(r,e,¢,t)=O (134)v 8twe can arrive at a similar result.

The spectral analyses of hydrogen gave us the 'Lyman', 'Balmer,' 'Paschen,' etc."series" with regard to the energy differentials between the quantum levels of the orbitsin which the electron can be when in motion. When an electron changes orbit /quantum

Page 74

level (coming from a higher state and going to a lower one), a more or less energeticphoton is being emitted and the frequency of the radiation which is obtained can beexpressed by

( 135)

Fig. 31: is a diagram, which shows the energy levels between infinity and the lowestenergy state, which has_been known for decades as the "ground state". The energydifferential between infinity and the "ground state" is 13.6eV.

Fig. 32 shows 5 orbits "outside" the "ground state" and the 'Lyman' and 'Balmer'"series":

Fig. 31 :::t:i 0 Fig. 32:• _ o.8S

3 -j,5.1

2 - 3..lto

1. ------13.6

Observations which were made as early as 2 decades ago detected spectral linesfrom sources in deep space in the "Soft X-ray to extreme left UV"range of theelectromagnetic spectrum. It must be stated that the whole ranges of frequencies between2 nm to 250 nm never drew anyone's attention in astronomy until recently, which seemsstrange to writer. It now appears that background radiation of this frequency range can befound all over interstellar space and also in the corona of the sun. All other areas of theelectromagnetic spectrum were always of interest and writer experienced whileattempting to acquire observational instruments for detections for the range hereindicated, that none were available. However, many types and makes of instruments areavailable for other frequencies. Writer hereby refers to research work done by 'Labovand Bowyer,' who found a number of frequencies, which can be attributed to hydrogenwith energy states which are lower than the "ground state". These states have now beennamed "fractional states" for the simple reason that these frequencies can be found by

substituting "fractions" e.g. n =.!.).). ,etc. into the 'Rydberg' formula.234

Page 75

These researchers also found "helium lines". The majority of the spectral lines whichwere found corresponded with energy transitions of hydrogen between energy levels,which are below the "ground state" and which levels can be found by substituting"fractions" into the Rydberg formula. Fig. 33, which is taken up herewith shows adiagram of the energy levels of the "fractional states" of hydrogen for:

n = ~):. ,1.-, l,~and ~ , it also shows the energy of the photons which are emitted and2 3 4, 5 6 7

which relate to the transition between the two energy levels; the correspondingwavelengths are shown as well. The distance aN between electron and proton for the

"fractional levels" can be calculated using a /I = .053 x n2 xl 0-9 m , ( 136 )

Fig, 33:

E ~ GrSt. E~oo liE AnRydberg (eV) (eV) (eV) (A)

10 -13.6 ni ~nf 912.0"Ground State"

I 1-40.8 -54.4 1~-

303.9- 2240.8

1 I 1- -108.8 -122.4 -~- 182.43 2 3

68.0

1 1 1-204.0 -217.6 -~- 130.2- 3 44

95.2

1 I 1-326.4 -340.0 -~- 101.3- 4 55

122.4

1 1 1-476.0 -489,6 -~- 82.9- 5 66

149.6

1 1 1-652,8 -666.4 -~-

70.1- 6 77176.8

Page 76

For example the electron in the "ground state" has an energy of 511 ,000e V, so

for the n =..!.. "fractional state," the electron has an energy of 511,000-652.8=7

510,347.2 eV. The relative energy change is rather small and the constitution of theelectron is certainly not endangered. The vortex ring set which is at the center of theelectron and its rotational and helical energy do not change, wherefore the energyreduction is in the circulatory flow and more specifically in the outermost range, whichhas the irrotational flow characteristic. So the overall "volume" of the roughly sphericalembodiment of the circulatory energy becomes smaller at lower energy levels and thenthe electron can move in closer to the proton and form "fractional hydrogen" This can beunderstood from Fig. 34, which shows a cross-section of the hydrogen atom and theoverall fluid flow pattern

Due to the much greater "mass" of the proton and its much greater circulatoryenergy the polar outflow of the proton is much greater than that the small inflow of theelectron can handle. Only the very central portion of the "beam" which goes out from theproton becomes the inflow of the electron. The outflow of the proton gradually widensand the vast majority of this circulatory flow curves back for the return towards its ownequatorial inflow. The flow lines, which are shown in Figs. 30 and 34, are "streamlines."The circulatory flow of the electron collides with that part of the proton's outflow whichis right around the center "beam". The center "beam" is absorbed by the electron'sinflow. (See zone ZZ' in Fig. 30)

Colliding flows are totally destructive. Since the hydrogen atom's constitution isstable a small diameter vortex ring might form in zone ZZ' (See Fig. 34 ). As thedrawing shows, this additional vortex ring largely supports the proper flow for both thecirculatory flows of the proton and of the electron The diameter of the circle of thevortex thread of this additional or 3-rd ring should be = 2 x del + ; this vortex ring hasonly rotational flow and its diameter is small. At its "eye-wall" it has a velocity of muchless than c * . Upon ionization, this ring disintegrates into low energy photons. This ringexists within the hydrogen atom and the ionization energy should be roughly equal to itsrotational energy.

Fig. 34:J./YJJROGEN ATO!1

1>'ROTON.SUBS'ANTIIiL. ])ISTANCE:. •

ELECTRON

Page 77

The configuration of the electron with the third ring has its counterpart in theconfiguration of the neutron, wherein the anti-neutrino fulfills a similar roll as this 3-rdring. The 3 rings together can also be considered to constitute a meson This is valid notonly for the hydrogen atom, but also for the neutTon. The two differences between thehydrogen atom and the neutron are: ( 1 ), close proximity of the ring sets of the protonand of the electron in case of the neutron; but substantial distance between the ring sets ofthe proton and the electron in the case of the hydrogen atom (although this distance getssmaller for the "fractional hydrogen" atoms); ( 2 ), in the case of the neutron the "inbetween" ring is constituted by the stable anti-neutrino (the anti- neutrino stays closer tothe electron than to the proton). In the case of the hydrogen atom the" in between" ring isconstituted by a ring with a large diameter for the vortex thread and a small diameter forits "eye-wall", which configuration is unstable. This ring also stays close to the electron.The energy of this ring is roughly equal to the ionization energy of the hydrogen atom.Fig. 35 herewith shows a cross-section through a neutron:

NOT 70 SC'AL.&t

PT?OTON

-- ...."'''-

"\I

JI

Referring to the circulatory fluid flow pattern of the proton as is shown in Fig. 24,we observe that the "streamlines" of the circulatory flow for the outflows form a"chalice" outside each of the outflows. In Fig. 36 such a "chalice", which is the result ofthe make- up of the circulatory flow pattern, is being pictured. The electron which drawsin fluid is attracted to the outflow and, when the electron comes into the proximity of aproton, the draft of the inflow pulls the electron in to where the 'roughly spherical' - , or,if one prefers, 'lobed' 'envelope' of its circulatory energy comes to "rest" against theinside of the "chalice" which is made up by the streamline pattern. The formation of thethird ring occurs instantly so as to minimize the fluid-dynamical "shear". When thetandard stable electron with its energy of 511Ke V together with the proton fOlms the

hydrogen atom then the electron comes to "rest" with its 'energy envelope' against the"chalice" at a distance of all = .053nm. This is the so-called "ground-state". The ground-5tate is stable and it is the outennost stable state. When an electron has lost energy than- circulatory flow is less and its 'energy envelope' is smaller and the draft of its inflow

makes the electron move "deeper" into the "chalice" according to Equation ( 136 ),aH =.053xn2xl0-9m.

"EXf:/7'E.[)II

/

~ " I'(_ III ' .....33/r I ~II:;::' I

/~p 11 I t~=-1-~~;~

1/ \ uEN£7?GY ENVEI..Ol'E. T J VNS7'I}Bl.E.

\

\"Cll?CUL.AT10N I.OBES

£LEC7'RON

"""VORTEX :JUNG SST

"FRflCTIONAL"... 1 \ \ I J I

4 '71::;jII

\ I\ I\ I~ 1\ I\ I\ I\ I =t;

~

'PR()7'OJ.J

Page 78

Page 79

We note that in Fig. 36 n =1 , indicates the "ground"-state.n > 1 , indicates the "excited" states.

n = ~, p > 1 , indicates the "fractional" states.p

The physics and spectral analyses of the "excited" states: The Lyman, Balmer,etc.-series are well known and shall not be addressed other than to explain the essence"of being in an "excited" state". Fig. 36 shows 2 "excited" states. When energy is addedto the electron from the "ground" state to a higher quantum level, the increase in the sizeof the 'erergy envelope' is less than the increase in size of the cross- section of the"chalice" for any given quantum level above the "ground" state. (Note that the back-curving of the streamlines of the circulatory flow of the proton increases rather rapidly.)With very small energy increases with the quantum levels above the "ground"-state thesize of the electron enlarges only infmitesimally. So at higher quantum levels the electroncan move rather freely in the now "wide" "chalice" and the electron's kinetic energyincreases at higher quantum levels and ionization is achieved after 13.6eV in energy hasbeen added to the electron. For stability the electron needs to come back down to the"ground"-state.

4.1.1 "Fractional" states

The diagram of Fig. 33 shows the energy levels of the "fractional" states and thewavelengths of the emitted photons. All fractional states are stable just as the "ground"-state is and for the same reason. Fractional hydrogen is quite inert and can only interactwith other elements, which present themselves as cat- ions. This can only occur if anadditional electron is attached at the other outflow of the proton The properties ofmaterials so formed can be substantially different and here lies an area of enormousimportance. According to reports, it seems that Blacklight Power Inc., Cranbury ,NJ. isactive in the research and development of new materials based on "fractional" hydrogen.Writer's company, AMDG Scientific Corp., which is active in the research anddevelopment of "fractional" hydrogen, presently emp hasizes energy generating processesand derivatives thereof and plans to enter materials research in the near future.

Laboratory tests show that the "fractional" states can react with each other and+arm new "lower" "fractional" states as well as a protons and photons. Reactions witheuterium look possible as well. The formulation of such a reaction between "fractional"tes is as follows,

H(n,) + H(nk) --7 Hh) +H+ + e- + photon ( 137)

rem IS ni =/:. nk and, np < npnk' The energy of the photon equals the total energy of the- ctional" states before the reaction, minus the total energy of the products of the

tion.

Page 80

The interesting question is: How does one obtain "fractional" hydrogen andhow do reactions as shown by Formula ( 137) occur? Blacklight Power Inc. obtained apatent which relates to an electrolytic process( es) with potassium. The patent number( US ) is 6,024,935. Writer's company, AMDG Scientific Corp., applied for patents for aprocess which produces "fractional" hydrogen as well as for derivative nucleartransmutational processes. These processes are not electrolytic in nature and totallydifferent from Blacklight Power's. These processes of our company also occur in thecorona of the sun and in numerous locations in deep space. These processes also involveother elements. There should be many locations in the universe where pressure andtemperature together with availability of certain isotopes are conducive for the formationof "fractional" hydrogen. Information about these processes is proprietary.

In astronomy, scientists have struggled to fmd the vast amount of missing "mass"which might be present in our universe in order for it to stay together and expand only atthe rate as we presently perceive. The answer lies in "fractional" hydrogen. There is to bean abundance of "fractional" hydrogen all over the universe. There are many "fractional"states in which hydrogen can exist and it is obvious that the universe contains much more"fractional" hydrogen than "ground" state. In the cosmos "fractional" hydrogen is hard todetect except when it is at high temperatures (e.g. in neighborhood of stars) whereradiation can occur as result of transitions. Testimony to this are the reports of 'Labovand Bowyer' which refer to emissions in the ranges: 5.5< log T < 5.7, log T=6 and 6.6<log T < 6.8. The "fractional" hydrogen lines which were found in the spectrum of thecorona of the sun likely are of the latter category since its temperature is found to beabout 1.5 million K .

From the empirically acquired knowledge by Balmer, Rydberg et al we know thatthe energy levels of the electron are quantised. Bohr determined that the angular

b ' d h nh d mv2

Ze2

S b' ,momentum can e quantIse . Weave: r x m v = - an, -- = 0 • u stItutlOn2n r 4nEor

2h2 Z 2

glVes for rn = n ~o and for, vn = _e_ ,where Z =number of positive electronicnme Z 2nhEo

charges in the nucleus; Z = 1 for hydrogen. With all known values substituted we findthat the r" = .053n2 x10-9 nm, which was formula ( 136 ). The sum total of the kinetic

d . 1 . E 1 2 _e2 1 e2 S b' . .an potentIa energYls =-mv +--=----. u stItutmg r=rn,glVeS

2 47rEor 24nEor

E me4Z2 1 13.6 h fi f h . d di' . fr" = 2 2 2= - -2- e V . For t e requency 0 t e emltte ra atlOn gomg om state8Eo h n n

nl down to state n2 we get

For the hydrogen electron we have

Page 81

•What would be the Lowest possible "fractional" state? Writer answers by noting

that this is the transition where the energy requirement for the increase in kinetic energyequals the energy availability increase between a given transition and the next transition.

The kinetic energy is ""~ (mL1 v2 + L1mL1 v2) , the first term is provided by the

2"preservation of angular momentum" , the second term represents the relativistic energyincrease. The transitional energy is

( 1 1) 6( 1 1 )EX"'>x+1 = 13.6 --2 --2 and, L1v = 2.2xl0 --;;---;; . We found fornx+1 nx x+1 x

n = 1, that: vGrOUlid-stale = 2.2 xl 06m.scc ...1 • It is obvious that the n = 1~o state cannot be

reached, because substitution in fonnula ( 138 ) shows that we would be very close tovelocity c * , The energy increase between 2 given transitions is

M=Ex+2_7X+1 -EX+I .....x =13.6{(~-~)-(~-~)} (139)nx+2 nx+1 nx+1 nx

2

Let X = ~, then the increase in kinetic energy between given transitions isc*

Equating ( 139) with ( 140) gives

13.6X1.6~10-19 {(_1_. 2 _~)_(~_~)}= ~ (141)nx+2 nx+1 nx+1 n,

When all the available energy is used for the increase in relativistic energy,1 ' 1 1 3 .

then M=L1 ..--, f r;---;-;=--(1-Xf2 and, IX =1. Equating givesI-X v'l-X 2

-~(l-Xr% = 1 ==) X"" .37, v2/ C*2 "" .37 ==) v "" ,6lx C ""1.83xl08 m.sec-I

, and2

2.2x106 _I = 1.83xl08==) nx "" ~ . Substituting in ( 141 ) and verifying the

nx 83"mass" increase, we fmd that the available transitional energy is13.6x1.6 xl 0-19{(852

- 842) -( 84 2 -832)] = 4.35x 10-18Joule. The increase in

1 (1 1 J 2- mo ~ 2 - ~ 2 ( V,,=85 - VII=83)2 1- v / C *2 1- v / C *2

11=85 11=83

.1 J(1.87 -1.83)2 xl016 =3.64 xl 0...18xlO-18Joule

]-.61

relativistic energy is

~ -'-x9.1 xlO-" x( .Jl.l622

Page 82

Given the approximations which were applied this is close corroboration. Thedifference of .71xl0-18 Joule = 4.4eV is the energy of the emitted photon This energy isnow close to zero and for the next transition no further energy will be emitted. We nowobserve that in the formation of the "fractional" states, at fIrst the energy of the emittedphotons increases rapidly as the "fractional" states go lower. However, due to therelativistic energy needs of the electron at higher angular velocities, i.e. at very low"fractional" states, the availability of energy for emission gradually decreases to zero.

We are now finding an anology with the physics of "Black Holes", where noradiation can be emitted from below the "event horizon". In the case of "fractional"

hydrogen, no radiative emission is possible below a "fractional" state of n = 2. .Fig. 3784

shows the energy of the photon, which is emitted as function of the "state".

A similar analysis can made with the use of classical quantum mechanics,whereby the Sommerfeld formulation can be applied for 2 adjoining "fractional"quantum levels. In this case,

Enk = - µe4:;42 a2 (~_2) (142)

8Eon h k 4n

~J¢d¢k = is the azimuthal

h,t p,.dr

n = 'f is the,. hradial quantum number, (from radial momentum). When we have substantially lower"fractional" states, the orbits become elliptic with strong precession, whereby theresulting motion describes "rosettes,"

2ne2 1.where a = -- ""-- IS the fme structure constant, and

hc* 137

quantum number, (from the angular momentum) and n = nr + k,

4.1.2 The reactivity of "fractional hydrogen"

Referring to Fig. 33, we see that e.g. for the "fractional" state n =.!.. the energy3

of the electron already is -108.8e V relative to the "ground"-state. So it becomes verydifficult to pull this electron away from the proton and for all practical purposes"fractional" hydrogen below the fIrst few "fractional" states is inert.

The "spin" of the proton is carried over to the electron via its outflow, the verycenter part of which becomes the inflow of the electron. The electron has its own "spin"around the same axis, which it has in common with the proton (See Figs. 30, 34). Due tothe fact that the curved "pinwheel"-like equatorial outflow of the electron, which has thesame rotational direction as its individual "spin", cannot be rotation-wise in a collisiontype mode with the more major rotation, which surrounds it, (which is the rotation ofthe

Page 83

outflow of the proton), the individual "spin" of the electron can be added to the "spin" ofthe outflow of the proton, which it transfers to it. Since the individual "spins" were equal,this means when we observe from a frame of refereoce of the hydrogen atom, the "spin"of the electron has doubled. (See also Chapters 3.3 and 3.4).

Fig. 37, which shows the energies of the emitted photon for all quantum levels

_____ i/i'l!~_ J*ad" 2171. ;.2.lljo'" I ...... -.--,jo--.-- .._...... S,{.{tJ

/' I I 9111fo I .27sfo, ;lUo ,--. __ .. __ ../1 r I '[ I I , I I I ?SOD I 30b'O-+13bO

3 f I I' I I I I I I I I I ,',. I f I 'I I , ' , '\.340

~

<t;}I lIv.....srIC' I I I I I I I I I!", iI , I I I' I I '\

eV I I I i I I I : I I : I : I I I" r.3.;;~ I 1 I ' I I , I , I I I , ' , '\ 3.4-lL" I I I' '," I I : I ! i I '~_ f.S'I.IJs- st;7. , , I I • ,_ __

" ~ 7;: 50 -7'5''''0 )5' .30 JS S? 3 -4 S ~ co

The energies of the hydrogen atom are:

The total "fluid dynamical" rate of energy of the proton

. Total "fluid dynamical" energy rate of the atom is

-227r d2*3- . -Po el C

4

-827r d2*3- . -Po el C4

Kinetic energy of "ground"-state electron is ~x 9.1x 10-31 x (2.2 X 106 )2 = 2.2 xl 0-18 Joule2

In the "ground"-state the constitutional energy of the electron is: 5ll,000eV.

At the "fractional" state of n = _1_ , the loss of energy is 13.6x 7056 = 95,962e V, which84

translates into 18.8% of the constitutional energy of the electron. The conclusion is, that )the electron's constitution is still "healthy", in such a low "fractional" state. However,long before reaching such real low energy states another phenomenon takes place,namely that an another electron may be added to the same proton and then at the oppositeside's outflow. This matter will be discussed in Chapter 4.2

And for the electron, also while ( d pr = del )

Summarizing, it must be stated that the "fractional" hydrogen formation processesare of immense importance for energy production and the released energy is much greaterthan with chemical reactions. For instance, when hydrogen and oxygen gases react toform water, the enthalpy of formation which then becomes available is286kJ / mol = 1.48eV . Compare this to the first step down in "fractionization,"

Page 84

(n = 1~ ~ ). whereby 40.8eV per hydrogen atom becomes available. The diagram of

Fig. 33 shows the energies which become available from transitions between lowerquantum levels. The activation of these transitions occurs according to formula ( 137 ).When the proper catalyst is being applied, these transitions create an enormous amount ofenergy per hydrogen atom. Moreover, these reactions do not create radiation at a levelwhich is harmful for humans and there are no nuclear waste products.

4.2 Bi-electronic and Molecular Hydrogen

Last year there was the introduction of bi-electronic hydrogen In an article inFusion Technology, Volume 37, 2000, R. N. Mills of Blacklight Power Inc., Cranbury,NJ., describes a number of the physical aspects of bi-electronic hydrogen in connectionwith the primarily electrolytical process technologies his fmn is involved with. Writerknows from his own laboratory work that this form of hydrogen is present. It is likely thatthe acceptance of a new electron becomes more possible as the "fractional" state of the

attached electron is lower. Writer assumes that under given circumstances, that for n < ~5

the acceptance should become possible. For all practical purposes "fractional hydrogen"

is inert, other than maybe for the "fractional" states n = .!.,!.That a "fractional2 3

hydrogen" atom can accept another electron rather easily can be understood from FCphysics and the fluid-dynamical constitutions of both the proton and the electron.

The additional electron attaches to that outflow of the proton which is at theopposite side from the location, which is occupied by a "fractional" state electron. Fig. 38shows the cross-section of a bi-electronic hydrogen atom, whereby the newly attachedelectron is shown to be in its "ground"-state.

~.

---

The article in Fusion Technology, Volume 37, March 2000 speaks about theelectrons being indistinguishable from each other. Writer disagrees with this. The Pauli

Page 85

Exclusion Principle would be violated if this were so. However, once the "fractional"hydrogen atom has reacted with an electron, certain rules can be determined whichgovern this more complex 3-"particle"-entity system, It is possible for the newly attachedelectron (by means of interaction with a catalyst) to also come down to a "fractional"state.

4.2.1 Derivation of a rule which governs the energy quantum levels.

The angular momentum of an electron can be described as rXmv =~. We shall2n

consider only those "fractional" states for either electron which are "non-relativistic".Then we can state that ml = m2 ~ ml +m2 = 2m . The sum- total of both angularmomentae when these electrons were still in their "ground" state is 2aH mVgrsr

n2h2£0 Ze2

Now rk vk +rlvi = 2al/vg!'Sr r = 2~ and v =--nme Z 2nh£0

Wherefore ~(nk + nl) = 2af/ ~ and, nk = _1_, nl = _1_ where integers Pk' PI ~ 1nm ~£o A ~

(1 1) ne2m 1 meso -+- = af/ --2-=-af/.a.- (143)Pk PI £oh 2 h

053xlO-9 x_l_

(1 1) Bohrrad.xFineStructConsl. . 137

or -+- = = n "" ,08Pk PI 2x Compton.wavelength

A bi-e1ectronic hydrogen atom, which is created by adding 1 electron to the neutralcombination of 1 proton and 1 electron reacts as a negative ion, and can have a number of

states which shall be indicated as H-( ~ )- Reactions with cations ace possible (e.g. to

form hydrides). A formula for such hydrides can look like: MHII.M' .anion, whereby

n =~ is an integer and M,M' are cat-ions. This formulation shows that polymeric (P

structures can be formed and this has been confirmed in the laboratory. It is now clearthat a great many new molecules can be consb'ucted, which promises an equally greatnumber of new materials. Any moiety which has cation character can react. Alsoreactions with deuterons are possible. Binding energies have been calculated, the firstfour are:

H- (n = 1) = .754;H-( n =~ )= 3.047;H- ( n =~ )= 6.610;H- (n =± )= 11.23eV

The total "fluid dynamical" rate of energy of the bi-electronic hydrogen atom is

Page 86

'"10.4: POd/C*3

The kinetic (rotational) energy of the bi-electronic hydrogen atom is approximately8.6x 10-18 Joule, provided that one of the electrons is in the "ground" state and the otherat a state not remote from the "ground" state, or both electrons are close to the "ground"state. The "spin" of each electron is opposite from the other. The "spin" energy levels,however, are equal and double the individual "spin" of the proton.

4.2.2 Molecular (ordinary) hydrogen

Physics teaches that diatomic hydrogen has a constitution whereby the electronsare positioned in between the protons. This is a covalent chemical bond. The "fluid-mechanical" layout of the molecule is shown in cross-section in Fig. 39

1 ~ ,IQi,r~ p-r- ~ \1(0--W------- I ---------~-~I'-~ ~_l_ ~ J~

I

Fig. 39

Each of the electrons circulates fluid to both protons and the polar outflows (at theinside of the molecule) dispense fluid to the inflows of both electrons. In a plane YY'which goes through the equatorial outflows of both electrons, the "spins" (pinwheelmotion) of the outflows of the electrons can occur in 2 ways, ( a), both have the samerotational direction or (b), the rotational directions are opposite. Case ( a ) shows"ortho"- hydrogen and case ( b ) shows "para"- hydrogen The outflows of the electronscreate a repulsive force between those electrons. In case of a counter (colliding) flow inthe area in between the electrons and in plane YY', the electrons must stay apart ratherfar in order to prevent destruction. This flow occurs when both electrons have the samerotational direction in their circulatory flows and this corresponds with "ortho"-hydrogen.However, if the outer perimeter of the circulatory flows of both electrons are in the samedirection, then the electrons are facilitated flow-wise and the electrons although repulsingcan be much closer and this corresponds with "para"- hydrogen. At 300K ordinarymolecular hydrogen consists of 75% "ortho" and 25% "para" hydrogen. However, below20 K all molecular hydrogen is of the "para"-type. This is easily understood because the

Page 87 .

lower available energy at low temperature requires a "lower energy" and so a morecompact configuration Because of the fact that each proton's outflow serves ( in the caseof "para"-hydrogen ) two electrons with opposing "spins", we can be certain that oneproton will govern and be equal-rotational with one electron and that the other protonwhich is equal rotational with the other electron has an opposite "spin". Also in this waythe Pauli Exclusion Principle is not being violated. In Fig. 39 the positions P and Qschematically indicate the "para" configuration. Since each proton can now serve fluid totwo electrons instead of one, some of the internal "confined" fluid (when the bond isbeing made) is being dispensed, which creates photons. This is the energy of formation.The "spin" axis XX' goes through the outflows of the protons. The fonnation ofmolecules based ern two "fractional" hydrogen atoms is impossible. However, two bi-electronic atom; can form a molecule, provided that the additional electron in case ofeach of the protons would be in the "ground" state. The configuration of this molecule isthe same and as in Fig. 39. The calculation of the "fluid-dynamical" energy rate of thehydro~n molecule is not simply an addition of the energies of protons and electrons dueto the unique configuration. This fluid dynamic energy rate is greater than

n 2'16.4x- POdel c *04

4.3 Deuterium

Deuterium consists of a proton electron pair which captured a neutron Fig. 35shows a schematic cross-sectional layout of the neutron which basically makes for a short"cigar"-like shape in space. This was basically confirmed in 1961 by 'R. Hofstadter' asreported by L. Pauling and R. Pauling in "Chemistry" (W. H. Freeman & Co, 1975, page683). This confirmation can also be seen in the sizes given: "the neutron can be describedas involving a central ball of positive charge, extending to the radius of about ,3 frn.Surrounding the ball is a shell, extending to about 1 frn with a negative charge. Inaddition there is a fi'inge of positive charge, which extends to about 1.5 frn". Just as withthe bi-electronic hydrogen atom it is possible that instead of an electron a neutTon can beattracted with its negative end onto the polar outflow which is opposite from the polaroutflow which already carries a "ground"-state or "fractional" state electron. If thisoccurs, deuterium is being formed. (In nature, the ratio deuterium to ordinary hydrogen is (about 1 / 6000 ). If the opposite side of the proton has a "ground"-state electron than itcan easily ionize and give a deuteron, ionization might still be possible for the first"fractional" state as well, but not likely beyond that state.

Page 88

A schematic cross-section of deuterium is given herewith in Fig, 40.

• Fig. 40

4.4 Tritium

Tritium can be formed by neutron capture onto deuterium and the attachment canonly occur as follows: the proton end of the neutTon of deuteriwn can attract still anotherneutron with its negative end whereby a configuration is being established as is shown inFig. 41.

I { +

~

+++-+++-+-- -.-

... ... +

j 1+

~ ')j- e- --

This long configuration is rather unstable, the "half-life" is 12 years, tritium is asoft f3 emitter. This emission automatically eads to the fonnation of Helium ( 3 )"because the proton of the secondary neutron will attach to the electron of the firstneutron; the anti- neutTino as well as photon-energy disengage and a new configuration isin effect, as is shown in Fig. 42. This is the process of "fluid- mechanical" nucleo-synthesis, because with the capture of yet another neutron a much lower energyconfiguration and a very stable atom is being created, namely Helium ( 4 ). Nucleo-synthesis is discussed in detail in Part II.

Fig. 42

•

End of Part

Page 89

,...----'"-" ......,.... ~ "~ 'V \

'.::>~ 1/ "-( J

I fI~'" :J>--....e;.-" ~/I II I

\ ef' ....J/f

Page 90

APPENDIX I

Michelson-Morley Experiment RevisitedBy: Arie M. DeGeus, 12-11-00

Copyright

There is no other cause as great as the mishap of the Michelson-Morleyexperiment, which contributed for physics: ( 1 ) to go with the concept of "vacuum",which would allow propagation of electromagnetic waves and: ( 2 ) to go very far inapplying quantum mechanics and: ( 3 ) to go, since no major progress was achieved indecades, with many wild unverifiable theories and: ( 4 ) to make mention of certaintheoretical achievements, which are unverifiable ( e.g, quarks, which are fluid-dynamicalphenominae and which are non- matter or non-"mass" ) and: ( 5 ) to elevate certaintheoretical achievements into dogmas upon which physics has been building forward. Tomake a certain theory into a dogma requires a lot more than that the concerned theorycannot be disproven in a certain relatively short period of time. The right intellect mightstill disprove the theory later on. Deterministic verification is the only way to buildforward.

Since Michelson-Morley weighed- in so much with regard to condemning the"aether" into oblivion, writer feels that it needs revisitation, in view of what wasfoundthrough close examination by writer.

Fig. 1 shows the set-up of the experiment as it was done in 1887.Assumptions were:

I. The earth moves through the "aether" and the "aether-wind" (relative motionbetween the "aether and the earth) is therefore always "tangential" to its surface(parallel to the surface in a given location). For conducting the experiment, certaintimes in the day need to be considered and certain times in the year.

WRONGAnswer: The relative motion between "aether" and earth is only perpendicular tothe earth's surface.

2. The velocity of the "aether-wind is 18 miles per second, which is the velocity ofthe earth in its trajectory,

WRONGThe velocity of a local relative motion between "aether" and earth is to bedetermined by the fluid mechanics of "space-time curvature", with as parameters:the "fluid-dynamical" "mass" of the earth and the 6,400 km radius to the surface,

Page 91

3. It does not make any difference of how the frame with the minors is placed (the90 degrees shift over); BC comes into the path of the "aether wind" and BE isperpendicular upon it. Correct: if the light source remains in the same position,but ...

WRONGIf the light source is turned 90 degrees as well (see position: "A")

Description of Michelson-Morley as the experiment was conducted: See Fig. 1. Ais the light source; B is the partially silvered glass plate; C and E are mirrors, All of this ismounted in a ridged frame and on a ridged base. The earth + apparatus moves to the rightwith velocity: u; the distance between the point of reflection / transmission on plate Band mirrors C and E is L; c * is the "standard" speed of light". Consider the tTaveltimes of light to and from mirror E: While the light is on the way to E the apparatusmoved over a distance U.tl' and the mirror came to be located in E',tl = timeB ....E; t2 = timeE ....IJ• Valid for the "going" time is

Lc * .tl =L +U.tl => tl =--

c*-uAlso valid for the "return" time is

Lc*.lz =L-u,t2 =>t2 =-,-

c"'+u

Total time is tl + t2 = 2L.c * (c *2 _u2) =. 2L/ c * ? (MM 1 ). 1-u- / c *-

Consider the travel times oflight to and from mirror C: meanwhile this mirror movesover a distance: U.t3 to position C'. In the same time the light travels a distance: c * .t3

t3 = timeB ....C'; t4 = timeC'_>B'; t3 = t4 Valid for the going time is:

( * . )2 _ 2 ( .)z . 2 _ (*z 2) 2 . _ L .C .13 - L + u.13 or. L - c -u t3 and. t3 -.J? '

C *- _uz

2L1 c*(MM.2)

As is obvious; the denominators in ( MM 1 ) and ( MM 2 ) differ, whereforeinterference should take place when the beams come back together. The experiment ledto nil interference, which was not understood at that time. The reasons were theassumptions, which were made and these were incorrect. 900 rotation of the frame in thesame plane makes no difference, however if the light source is moved to location "A" andpointed parallel and in the same direction as the incoming motion of the "aether-wind" inthe FC, which is perpendicular to earth's surface, then there is interference. Thisinterference can be measured if the velocity of the incoming "aether-wind" is highenough in context with the speed of light.

Page 92

At the time of the test, explanation was made by 'Lorentz' for the reason of themishap. This reason was the so-called' Lorentz contraction'. Lorentz suggested thatmaterial bodies contracted when in motion in the direction of such a motion.

Fig. 1: Sideview of the experimental set-up which was used for the Michelson-Morley test:

L

"IN PHASE''' "OUT OF ;rwAS~ /I

What is the velocity of the incoming "aether-wind", which is perpendicular to theearth's surface?

Mass of earth:radius:surface area :

""6xl024 kg ;6.4x106 m ;(4nr2) ""5.1xlO14 m2 ;

m9.81--2 ;

sec3"" 60podpR ;

g:

"fluid-dynamic" "mass" of proton

assume for the value of Po = 10-6 and d PR = 10-15 m; so, the "fluid-dynamic" "mass" of

the proton is ""6x 10-50• The "fluid-dynamic" incOlning velocity (see formulation ( 48 ))

v=o I(mc)

R2Q = "gravitational maintenance proportionality factor" and

I(mJ = (number of all protons + neutrons in the earth )x60Podp/

(Electronic mass is not being considered herein.)

IS (MM3 )

whereby,

What is the velocity of an incoming object due to gravitational attraction at theearth's surface assuming no friction anywhere?

Page 93

M 2 26

.4XIO" M [IMI6.4<I0

6 J 2a(~R)) = R2 ~ V(~R) tU/1uc/4nRearth = 1I4nRell J~R2dR = - Ii R= /4nRea

= 6xl024

2 = 1821~ =6557 kph =1.1 miles (MM 4 )6.4XI06x4n(6.4xl06

) sec sec

In the original Michelson-Morley test, the value of 18 miles/sec. was beingconsidered as being easily measurable. In this calculation we fmd a velocity value, whichis 17 times smaller. Writer is convinced that it should be possible to measure this velocityof 1.1 miles/sec provided that high quality optical materials are being applied and due tothe fact that optical interference is sensitive. Also the use of coherent light (laser) whichwas not available to Michelson will be helpful in getting a good result.

This velocity is ""1.8x 103 m /sec = 6x 1O-6.c * (MM5)

The number of all protons and neutrons in the earth is: "" 6x 102~27= 3.6xl0511.67x10

Therefore, I (me) "" 3.6xl051 (60Podp/) = 3.6 X1051x60x 10-6xl0-45 = 2.16x 102,

which is the value for the "fluid-dynamic" "mass" of the earth. (MM 6 )

We can now find a value for Q .From ( MM 3 ) we have,

vR2 1821X(6.4XI06t m4

Q= = ""345x1012------,-I(mJ 2.16x1014 Nelu

sec2 (MM7)

This is the value for the "Fluid-Dynamical Gravitational Proportionality Factor", which isthe same as the "Fluid-Dynamical Gravitational Constant," which should be valid for theuniverse as a whole.

The values for: Q, Po' d PR = del = d po are the most important factor values in theuniverse, even more so than the speed of light, which is not constant and dependent on:Po,t and R, wherein, R is the distance to a center of "space-time curvature". (SeeAppendix II.)

Writer now proposes to set up a similar experiment as the one by Michelson-Morley in 1887, thereby correcting for the wrongful assumptions which were made,which led to mistakes and failure. If the interference cannot be measured here on earththen it would be logical that the same test be undertaken in space either close and on a'radial' to Jupiter, which has a mass of 318 x the mass of the earth or close and on a.radial , to the sun, which has a mass of 3.3xl05 x the mass of the earth. The new test,which we plan to make in early 2001 will make use of coherent light.The particulars of the test set-up are proprietary as of now.

Page 94

"Michelson- Morley" Experiment Revisitedby: Arie M. DeGeus, 12-11-00

Columbia, S.e., USACopyright

Page 95

APPENDIX : II

The "Speed of Light" as Function of:Time and the Density of Space

By: Arie M. DeGeus, 12-12-00Copyright

In a series of recent publications mention is made that the "speed of light" hasbeen slowing over the last 3 centuries. Some of the measurements:

In 1677 Roemer (from the 10 eclipses with Jupiter)In 1881 MichelsonIn 1885 HarvardIn 1923 MichelsonIn 1933 MichelsonIn 1983 National Bureau of Standards

: 307,600 km/sec.: 299,853" ": 299,921" ": 299,798" ": 299,774 ": 299,782" "

Setterfield and Norman (Australia) in "The Atomic Constants, Light and Time"state that over the last 300 years there have been 163 measurements of the "speed oflight" by 16 different methods, According to mathematician A. Montgomery (Canada),these measurements show a continuing slowing down, which is proportionate tocos ec

2 (t), (with 99% accuracy) .This can also be written as

(C 1 )

As discussed in various Chapters, including: 1.1.6 and 1.1.7 : the local" c" is afunction of the density, which in tum is a function of the "standard" density in "standard"space and of the distance to a center of "space-time curvature."

(C 2)

The velocity of light in "standard" space is c = c * In "space- time curvature" are valid:02 *2

Formula ( 52 ) , P = Po xexp .n: 4 , and ( C 3 )2.c *- R

de ~(Qm*~Fonnula ( 56 ) , - = -,,2 -- ( C 4 )dR e* R3

Page 96

Herein is: Q = "gravitational maintenance proportionality factor", which is the"Gravitational Constant" for the universe as a whole. m * is the "mass" corrected for"standard" space. The other 2 factors are explained above.

Assume the universe to be roughly spherical and having a radius r. The volume

of the universe is then ~ n .r3• If after a period L1t , the radius has increased by L1r,

3

then the volume of the universe has become ~ n (r +L1r)3 , which is equal to3

~ n {r 3 + 3 r 2L1r + 3r (L1r ) 2 +(L1r) 3] .

In a young universe, where L1r >r ~ L1Volllllle= ~n [{3r(L1r)2 +(&n _r3 ]

In an older universe, where r »L1r ~ L1Volllllle= ~n [(r3 + 3r2 .L1r) _r3] = 4nr2.L1r.

Assume that we live in an older universe. Then the relative expansion is:~?& & " 3&4 = 3-- and the rate of expanslOn IS: -- (C 5)-nr3 r r L1t3

Taking only the first 2 terms in the denominator of Formula ( C 1 ) , then we have

( )2 ( )21 t3 t5 t3 t4 t6 1

cf(t) DC t-6+ 120 DC t-6 DC t2 -3+36' or, e "'DC t

2(l-~+-'

3 36

Over a short period of time c "'DC ...;.. ( C 6 ); after a long period c slowst

de 2e=-"'--

dt t3

dr (2 X R3

c* )- (in space time curvature) = - 3' - ~--dt t \/20m*

('''' ''\ ( C 3 ) , f dcd'R ~2Om * f dR Om * 1c m space-time curvature" see IS c = - = -" L-- -.-3 = r,::: -2dR c * R '"II2c * R

Outside "space-time curvature" and away from Black Holes is e =t .If the density in

space lowers, then the communication speed between the elementary entities lowers aswell; in other words, the expansion of the universe means a lower "speed of light."

faster. The rate of decrease of (C 7)

Now: dr = dr de = _3.. drdt de dt t3 de

1 (om*)From: ( C 4 ) we have e ( f~)= --r:; -- (C 8 ). R2,,2 e *

Since the universe herein was assumed 'round'/'spherical', then the universe as a wholecan be considered to be a reciprocal "space-time curvature" object, whereby the density

Page 97

decreases outwardly instead of inwardly. The formulation ( C 8 ) relates to a circular"space- time curvature" field, We can assume tffit the' density field' of the observableuniverse is also roughly circular. For the universe, Formula ( C 8) translates into

cCf,) =J2[ i* }r2 (C 9)Q Mulllv,

From Fonnula (C 6) we found that over a shorter period,1

C ""DC 2' and over a longert

period, c ""DC ~ From formula (C 9) we found that, c = const? (that is if thet

"mass" of the tmiverse remains constant) So, r2 ""DC -;.. over a shorter period andt

r2 ""DC ~ over a longer period of time in the universe's history. From Formulas ( C 6 )t

and (C 9) we can conclude r ""DC ~ to -;.. over time (C 10)t t

"The radius of the universe is proportionate with the reciprocal of "time" over a shorterperiod of its existence and proportionate with the reciprocal of the square of "time" aftera long period.

The "Speed of Light" as Function of :Time and Density of Space

By: Arie M. DeGeus, 12-12-2000Columbia, S.e., USA

Page 9

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Bostick, W. , 1966, "Pair Production of Plasma Vortices", Phys.Fluids , 9 ,2078-2080.

Correa, P. ,Correa, A. ,1995, "Electromechanical Transduction of PlasmaPulses". US.Pat.#5,416,391.

Durr, S. ,Nunn, T. ,Rempe, G. , Sept. 3, 1998, Nature, Vol. 395, pp. 33-37.Einstein, A. ,Podolsky, B. ,Rosen, N., 1935 ,"Can Quantum Mechanical

Description of Physical Reality be Considered Complete ?" , PhysicalReview, 47, 777 .

Einstein, A. , 1911 , Annalen der Physik, 35.Fermi, E., 1950, "Nuclear Physics" , University of Chicago Press, Revised

Edition.Feynman, R. , 1997 , "Six not so easy Pieces" , Addisson- Wesley Publishing Co.

Inc., Reading, Mass.Feynman, R. , 1985 , "The strange Theory of Light and Matter" , Princeton

University Press, Princeton, N.J. .Feynman, R. , "Space-Time Approach to Quantum Electrodynamics" , Physical

Review, 76, 769.Goble, A. , Baker, D. , 1962, "Elements of Modern Physics", The Ronald Press

Company, New York, N.Y.Gulko, A. , 1980 , "The Vortex Theory" , copyright by author, Wheaton, Md.Gulko, A. , 2000 , "Calculation of the Electron's Characteristics from its

Geometry and Action" , copyright by author, Wheaton, Md.Gulko, A. ,1996-1999, various articles in: "Tooth Maathian Review" and in:

"Reality & Meaning" , relating to: electrons, the shape of the nucleus,propgation of electromagnetic waves, etc.

Haisch, B. , 1996 , "Zero- Point- Field Induced Inertia and Gravitation" , InfiniteEnergy magazine, Concord, N.H.

Haus, H. , 1986 , "On the radiation from Point Charges" , Am. Journal ofPhysics, 54 , pp. 1126-1129.

Hofstadter, R. , 1961, Structure of the neutron; in "Chemistry"(see Pauling)Kiehn, R. , 1997, "The Chiral Vacuum", http//www22.pair.comicsdc/pd2 .King, M. ,1994, "Vacuum Energy Vortices", Proceedings Int. Symposium on

New Energy, 257-269.King, M. , 1989, "Tapping the Zero-Point Energy", Paraclete Publishing,

Provo, UT, 77106.Krafft, C. , 1960, "The Structure of the Atom" , copyright by author,

Annandale, Va.Krafft, e. , 1956, "Glimpses of the unseen world" , The Borderland Sciences

Research Associates, San Diego, Ca.Labov, S. , Bowyer, S. , 1991, "Spectral observations in the extreme Ultra-

Violet background, The Astrophysical Journal, 371 , pp. 810-819.

Page 99

Mesyats, G. , 1996, "Electon Processes at the Cathode in a Vacuum Discharge",Proceedings 1ih Int. Symposium on Discharges and Electrical Insulationin Vacuum, 720- 731.

Mills, R., 1999, "The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Quantum Mechanics"Edition, Blacklight Power Inc. , Cranbury, N.J., distributed byAmazon.com.

Mills, R. , 2000, "Novel Hydrogen Compounds from a Potassium CarbonateElectrolytic Cell" ,Fusion Technology, Vol. 37.

Mills, R. , 2000, "The Hydrogen Atom revisited" , Blacklight Power Inc.,493 Old Trenton Rd. , Cranbury, N.J.

Mills, R. , 2000 , "Low Energy Hydrogen Methods and Structures" ,US. Pat. # 6,024,935.

Misner, e. ,Thorne, K. , Wheeler, J. , 1970, "Gravitation" , W. H. Freeman &Co., Inc., New York, N.Y.

Munson, B., Young, D., Okiishi, T., 1994, "Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics"2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, N.Y.

Panov, V, et al , 1998, ( Perin University) "Torsion Fields and Experiments",Journal, New energy 2, 3-4, 29-39 .

Pauling, L. , Pauling, P., 1975 , "Chemistry" ,page 683 , W. H. FreeIIian & Co.,Inc., New York, N. Y.

Puthoff, H. , 1989, "Source of Electromagnetic Zero-Point Energy", PhysicalReview A, 40, 4857-4862.

Puthoff, H. , 1987, "Ground-state of Hydrogen as a Zero-Point-Fluctuation-Determined State" , Physical Review ,D, 35, 3266-3269.

Sacharov, A. , 1968, "Vacuum Quantum Fluctuations in Curved Space and theTheory of Gravitation", Soviet Physics Doklady, Vol. 12, #11, 1040-1041.

Van de Putte, L. , 1958, "Technische Stromingsleer", University forTechnology, Delft, NL.

Wheeler, J. , 1962, "Geometrodynamics", Academic Press, New York, N.Y.Wheeler, J. , 1990, "A Journey into Gravity and Space- Time", W. H. Freeman

& Co., Inc. ,New York, N.Y.Winterberg, F. , 1995, "Equivalence and Gauge in the Planck-Scale Aether

Model, Int. Journal of Theoretical Physics, Vol. 34 ,Nr. 2.Winterberg, F. , 1990, "Maxwell's Equations and Einstein-Gravity in the

Planck Aether Model of a Unified Field Theory, Zeitung furNaturforschung , 45 , 1102-1116.

Winterberg, F. ,1991, "Substratum Interpretation of the Quark-Leptonsymmetries in the Planck Aether Model of a Unified Field Theory" ,Zeitung fur Naturforschung 46,551-559 : A model of the aethercomprised of dynamic, toroidical vortex rings.

These references have information, which might have "touch-points" in certain aspects asto writer's work, however writer disagrees with many parts of the theories therein.

Page 100

GLOSSARY

Aether:The "Fluidum" which pervades all of space albeit at varying densities as to certainlocations.

Anti- "particle":A "Closed fluid flow" "Vortex"- type "Entity" with an oppositely directed"Circulatory Flow" and oppositely rotating "Vortex Rings" when compared withthe corresponding "particle" entity.

Anti- Proton:A "Vortex ring set" of the same size and proportionality as the Proton, but with"anti- particle" characteristics.

Axial Flow:Either inward or outward flow along the "axis of rotation", which all "vortexrings" have in common.

Background radiation:Radiation which exists over the whole universe and which results from 2.72 Ktemperature, which represents the "Internal Energy" in the "Fluidum Continuum";this radiation is quite uniform over the universe; this temperature lowers as theuniverse expands.

Beta- Emission:The ejection of an "electron", which is accompanied by the ejection of an "anti-neutrino; beta emission results from "Neutron Decay

Bi-Electronic Hydrogen:Hydrogen atom with 2 electrons attached to its proton; there is 1 electron attachedto each polar outflow of the proton; the energy states of the electrons can be"ground-state" or "fractional" and differ from each other.

Charge:a. Charge Energy rate, is the energy rate for the "polar flow", which is either

an outward or an inward flow through the "toroid" holes of the "vortexrings"; these flows have a twisting or spinning motion; outward flowcorresponds with Positive Charge and inward flow with Negative ChargeCharge Force equals the Charge Energy rate divided by c * (is the speedof light in "standard" space)

Closed Fluid Flow:A circulatory flow in "vortex entities", which remains constituted by the same"elementary units" of the fluid-in-motion; as "Closed Fluid Flow"-types we can *distinguish:a. "Rotational" Flow, which is from the "eye-wall" to the center of the

vortex.Irrotational" or "Potential" Flow, which is outward from the "eye-wall"."Helical Component" or "Parallel to the Vortex Thread" Flow , which ispart of the "Rotational Flow" as a whole.

b.

b.c.

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Circulation:The flow along closed "streamlines."

Circulatory Flow:That flow, which circulates continually through the "vortex ring set" and throughits immediate surrounding space; this flow can also further circulate through aneighboring "vortex ring set" before returning to the fu'st "vortex ring set"; thisflow is primarily "irrotational".

Electron:A "Vortex ring set", in which the "toroidical" "vortex rings" roll against eachother in such a manner that there are 2 inflows along the mutual axis of rotation ofthe vortex rings and J equatorial or peripheral outflow.

Elementary unit in the FC:Unit of fluid which consists of flows, like the "irrotational," "rotational and"helical component" type; relative motion between the elementary units isfrictionless; in the "irrotational flow", the "angular deformation" characteristicsshows, The size magnitude of the elementmy units should be in the order of:10-25 _10-27 m, but this size could be as small as the "Planck length".

Energy envelope:An imaginary spherical envelope which encloses 99,99% of the "irrotational flow(s)" of "vortex entities"; this envelope encloses the "lobed" type shapes of thecirculatory flows of multi vortex ring entities.

Equatorial Flow:Either inward or outward flow through a circumferential "slit" area, which existsbetween "vortex rings" of a "vOliex ring set" which is in continual rotation; theequatorial flow is identical to the "peripheral flow".

Excited State:An energy state above the "ground-state"; the excited states are unstable.Electronsreturn from excited states back to "ground-state" under emission of a more or lessenergetic photon.

Eye-wall:That section of a vortex where the velocity is the highest and it is where the"rotational flow" of the inside of the vortex meets the "ilTotational flow", whichexists outside the vortex; the velocity of the fluid at the eye-wall locationapproaches or is equal to the "speed of light,"

Fluidum Continuum:A medium with fluid-like characteristics which pervades all of space, albeit atvarying densities as to certain locations: The Fluidum Continuum is identical tothe "aether". In the following, the term: Fluidum Continuum shall be abbreviatedto: Fe. The physical characteristics ofthe FC are: homogenous, coheasive,inviscid or super-fluid and compressible.

Page 102

Fractional Hydrogen:Hydrogen atom whereby its electron is in an energy state which is below the"ground-state"; the "fractional states" are stable and the distance between theproton and the electron is less when compared with the "ground-state" hydrogenatom; also the electron is smaller in size and has slightly less "constitutional"energy.

Friction:The phenomenon of resistance to motion, which is caused by disorderly orrandom motion, either by bordering onto disorderly motion or by being inside ofit.

Gravitation:The phenomenon of an inward flow of fluid in the FC towards a "vortex-typeentity, or entities, or groups of entities, which have an "irrotational flow" as"circulatory flow". New energy is being supplied by the fluid "in motion" in orderto compensate for the slightest of "frict!on" which occurs in the outermost regionof the "irrotational flow", where it borders the disorderly "Brownian" motion inthe FC, which manifests itself as the 2.72K temperature of tie "Backgroundradiation".

Gravitational Constant:The proportionality factor between the gravitational force (which is mutualindraw force) between entities or groups of entities and the product of the "fluid-dynamical masses" of such entities or groups of entities divided by the the squareof the distance between the centers of such "fluid dynamical masses". (see"mass"); the origin is the need for additional fluid energy over time by all"vortex-type entities. (see Gravitation)

Ground-state:That energy state of the hydrogen atom which is the first "stable" state; theground-state is the highest energy state of all "fractional states", all of which are"stable".

Helical Component Flow:A flow which is parallel to the centerline or "vortex thread" of either an "openvortex tube" or "closed vortex ring"; this component is part of all of the"rotationa 1flow" and part of the innermost region of the "irrotational flow",which is just outside the "eye-wall"; this flow is directional.

Internal energy:That part of the "kinetic energy" in the FC, which results solely from the randomor "Brownian" motion This energy is the product of a Constant: CFC (is thespecific heat constant) and the absolute temperature T (2. 72K ); this absolutetemperature is dependent on the expansion or contraction of the universe.

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Irrotational Flow:That flow in the inviscid / frictionless FC, which is characterized by the "angulardeformation" of the individual elementary units of fluid as they flow along"streamlines" and alongside each other in adjoining "streamlines", The velocitydistribution of such a flow is hyperbolic; the maximum velocity is being reachedat the "eye-wall", where it is essentially c * .

Mass:Mass is the quotient between the Product of the density of a localized volumetricarea of space x its volume and the Product of the "standard density" Po x thevolume of the "standard volume" in "standard space", The phenomenon "mass"occurs in two categories:a. as result of altered density in localized confined or stably shaped volumetric

areas in the FC when compared with the "standard density" in "standardspace".

b. as result of densification of the fluid in front of a moving "vortex- typeentity"; this mass phenomenon increases with the velocity of the "vortexentity" and decreases again when the same slows down.

Mass Deficit:A quantity of "mass" which converted from a "vortex status" to "wave status."This quantity is usually expressed in "energy" ( E = me *2 ).

Meson:A composite vortex ring entity, consisting of 3 vortex rings with a common axisof rotation: it consists of an electron and an ant i-neutrino, which might be"swollen" to the size of a "muon-neutrino". The meson itself is unstable;however, if fluid- flow-wise bound to a proton, then there is some stability.

Negative Charge:The phenomenon of "po\ar / axial inflow" (as it occurs with the electron); thisinflow has a rate of energy and as such an "indrawing" / "suction" force. Thereare 2 "polar inflows", 1 for each "vortex ring".

Neutron:A composite vortex ring entity, consisting of 5 vortex rings which have a commonaxis of rotation; it consists of a proton and an electron which are held together andkept apart by an anti-neutrino. It can also be said that the neutron consists of aproton and a meson. The neutron itself is somewhat stable (half-life = 11minutes), however, if bound to protons with its negative end, then the neutron islong term stable. .

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Open Vortexes:"Vortex tubes" which are not closed into themselves but go from: -00 to +00 . Alsothey can end at a surface of another dimension either with one end, while theother end goes to 00; or both ends can border onto surfaces of other ( hyper)dimensions. Open vortex tubes are stable; they consist of: rotational, irrotationaland helical component type flows.

Peripheral Flow:See: Equatorial flow.

Polar Flow:See: Axial flow.

Photon:An energy packet in the compressed zone of a propagating wave.

Positive Charge:The phenomenon of "polar / axial outflow" (as it occurs with the proton); thisoutflow has a rate of energy and as such exerts an outward force. There aretwo"polar outflows"; 1 for each "vortex ring".

Positron:The "anti-particle" of the electron; initially with same size and proportionality asthe electron. The positron can convert into a proton, provided that there is enoughenergy exerted onto the positron; otherwise the positron is stable.

Proton:A "vortex ring set", in which the "toroidical" "vortex rings" roll against eachother in such a manner that there is one equatorial/peripheral inflow in betweenthe "eye-walls" of the "vortex rings" and two polar / axial out- flows centeredaround the axis of rotation and in opposite directions.

Quantum / Quanta:Quantative or discrete unites) of energy, the quantization being there for fluid-dynamical balancing in the wave- and vortex phenorninae.

Quarks:Fluid-dynamical phenomenae as to inflows or outflows in and out of compositesof "vortex rings". Herein, only the "up" or "down" characteristics are consideredacceptable. Characteristics as: "strangeness" and "flavor" are not recognizedherein; they are quantum mechanical artificial contrivances.

Rotational Flow:That flow in the inviscid FC, which is characterized by equal radial velocities forall elementary units as they are positioned along "streamlines"; there is no relativemotion between the "streamlines"; the velocity distribution is linear and goesfrom: 0 to essentially c * in the "eye-wall".

Speed of Light:The maximum possible velocity for a wave or vortex entity in the FC; Thisvelocity c is dependent on the local density p.

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Space- Time Curvature:A concept for the purpose of stereometric visualization of the impact of "mass'concentrations on characteristics of the FC with regard to locations of "mass"concentrations (the three dimensions are condensed to "flat space" and the factor"time" becomes the third coordinate).

Spin:The characteristic of rotation around an axis. All "vortex entities" display "spin."The "spin" has a rate of energy, an angular momentum and as such a velocity, atthe diameter of the in- or outflow openings of vortex rings. Electron-neutrino,muon-neutrino, electron, positron and the proton, all display "spin".

Standard Density:That density which exists in all parts of space which are away from "space-timecurvatory" occurrences. The density Po is only dependant on the volumetricstatus of the universe.

Standard Mass:That "mass" which belongs the "standard volume" Vol * x the "standard density

Po'Standard Space:

Space at large, upon which all wave and vortex phenominae are superpositioned;so this space can also be defmed as: all space away from "space-time curvature"occurrences. Standard space is time dependant.

Standard Speed of Light:The maximum possible velocity allowed for a wave or vortex entity in "standardspace". This velocity is at present about 3x 108 m/sec.

Standard Volume:One cubic meter of "standard space" which contains 1.5x10lo3 units of spacewith the "Planck length" as its spatial coordinates .

Strong Force:A non-existing artificial contrivance; the strong force is supposed to hold thenucleus of an atom together; in reality this role is fulfilled by the negative ends ofthe neutrons; 1 negative end of a neutron can keep two protons at a given location.

Toroidical Vortex Ring:A vortex which is closed into itself within the FC; it has the shape ofa toroid /doughnut. The flows which make up the total fluid motion are: rotational,irrotational and helical component (parallel to "vortex thread" / centerline) flows.The energy rates of those flows are in complete balance with each other.

Vortex Ring Set:A pair of vortex rings which roll against each other in continual stable motion.(See: Proton and Electron and their Anti- "particles")

Vortex thread:The centerline of a vortex, either open or closed where the velocity of therotational flow is zero.

V2, 9, 73

aether, xvi, 1, 90, 100, 101aether-wind, x, 2, 90, 91, 92angular momentum, ix, x, 66, 73, 80, 82,

85angular velocity, 8, 60, 65annihilation, xviiianti- matter, 30anti-neutrino, ix, xviii, 30, 42, 44, 72,

77, 88anti-neutrino eye-wall diameter, xiiianti-particle, 30, 100anti- proton, 30, 52, 100at rest, ix, 15, 17,44,51,66,67,69,72atomic lattice, 67average velocity, 37,44Avogadro, 38Avogadro's Number, 38axial flow, 100azimuthal quantum number, 82background radiation, 12, 13, 15,33,35,

38,41, 74, 100Balmer, 73, 79, 80bending of light, viiiBernouilli, vii, 10, 12, 16,56Bernouilli equation, 7, 9, 12beta emission, 100beta emitter, 88Big Bang, xiv, xviiiblack hole, vii, xv, 13, 14, 15, 16, 19,21,

24,26,43,82,96Bohr, ix, xviii, 1, 28, 70, 73, 80Bohr radius, ix, x, 72, 73Boltzmann's Constant, xiii, xviii, 36, 38Boltzmann's Constant in the FC, xiii, 36,

38bombs, xviiBragg's law, 69Brownian motion, xiv, xv, 33, 36, 102Cartesian coordinate, 4chalice, xv, 77, 79charge, ix, xvii, 2,42, 65, 66, 69, 73

Page 106

INDEX

charge energy, 60, 65, 66, 100charge force, 60, 100charge radius, 66circulation, 10,30,31,44,50,54,101circulatory energy, 45, 48, 49, 54, 55,

57,60,63,65,66,76,77circulatory flow, 9,49,50,63,66, 70,

72, 76, 77, 79, 101classical physics, xiv, xv, xviii, xix, 1,

14, 16, 19,30,67,68closed fluid flow, 100cold fusion, xviicollision, 82Complimentarity Principle, ix, 1, 28Compton, 3Compton wavelength, x, 70configuration, 77, 87, 88Conservation of Angular Momentum, 81Conservation of Energy, 13, 16Constant, gravitational, xiii, xiv, 96, 102Constant, gravitational, for the FC, vii,

x,93continuity concept, 4conversion, electron- neutrino - muon-

neutrino, 50Coulombic attraction, xviii, 72covalent bond, 86, 87cross-section, 53, 56, 61, 76, 79, 84, 88Davisson-Germer experiment, ix, 68, 69,

71de Broglie, 68, 70Debye-Scherrer,70densification of fluid, 15,20,24,44,50,

67, 103densification of radiation, 3densification of wave fronts, 15, 16density distribution, vii, x, 14, 19,21density distribution in the FC, 14density of the FC, vii, xiii, 3, 11, 20, 38,

59,68determinism, vi, xvii, 90deuterium, 79, 87, 88

deuteron, 87diffraction, 70doughnut, 15,29,41, 105doughnut hole, ix, 42, 44, 45, 49, 50, 53,

58,65,100e, xiii, 65, 72, 73Einstein, xvii, 2, 14,20,25,67,98electromagnetic spectrum, 68, 74electron, x, xiv, xviii, 3, 14, 15, 16,22,

30,32,38,41,42,43,48,52,53,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,75,76,77,79,80,82,83,84,85,87,88,101

electron at rest, ix, 51, 66electron charge, xiii, 65, 72electron diameter, 53, 63, 83electron diffraction, 70electron drift, 67, 70electron eye-wall diameter, xiiielectron magnetic moment, 67electron mass, ix, 51, 64electron quantum level, ixelectron spin, 69, 86electron spin energy, 65electron spiraling trajectory, ix, 69electron volt, 63electron volume, 64electron-neutrino, viii, 22, 25, 30, 31, 32,

44,50,51electron-neutrino at rest, 44electron- neutrino diameter, 51electron-neutrino eye-wall diameter, xiiielectrostatic field, 68, 71emission, xv, xviii, 82, 88energy continuum, xivenergy dissipation, 16energy envelope, 101energy levels, ix, 73, 74, 75, 76, 79, 80,

86energy, charge, 60, 65,66, 100energy, fractional, 14energy, helical, 76energy, internal, 13, 16,33,40, 102energy, kinetic, xviii, l3, 14, 15,32,33,

44, 70, 79, 81, 102

Page 107

energy, potential, ix, l3, 14, 15,55,58,73,80

energy, rotational, viii, 39,48,49, 53,63,65,76

energy, vortex, 33,34, 35,43energy, wave, 15,42,48equatorial flow, 101ether, xvi, 1,90, 100, 101ether-wind, x, 2, 90, 91, 92Euler, vii, 4, 5Euler equations, 6eV,63excited state, xv, 101Exclusion Principle, 85, 87eye-wall, vii, viii, 9, 11,20,22,32,33,

35,38,40,43,44,45,47,53,57,61,62,63,65,76,77,100,101

eye-wall diameter, 39, 4],49,63,67farad,73Feynman,2, 14,25,98.field, density, 97field, electrostatic, 68, 71field, flow, 4, 7, 9fine structure constant, x, 82fission, xviiflat space, 14, 105flow field, 4flow field, irrotational, 9flow field, stationary, 7flow, helical, 15flow, irrotational, 15flow, rotational, 15,39fluid dynamic energy, 87fluid force, 65fluid mechanics, vii, xvi, 3, 5, 7, 12Fluidum Constant, xiiiFluidum Continuum, vii, xiii, xiv, xvi,

xviii, 1, 101force, charge, 60, 100force, gravitational, 18,25, 102force, indraw, suction, 18, 102force, repulsive, 68, 86fractional mass, xv, 30, 59fractional states, ix, x, xv, 74, 75, 79,

102frequency, 69, 72, 74,80

friction, vii, xv, 3, 41,54,92, 102fusion, xviigamma ray burst, 15, 16,43Gas Constant, xiii, 38Gas Constant in the FC, 12GeV, xviiiGoble and Baker, 37Gouldsmit and Uhlenbeck, 66gravitation, xv, xix, 7, 102gravitational attraction, 92gravitational lensing, viii, 27gravitational maintenance, vii, xiv, 16,

18,92,96ground state, 74, 75, 76ground-state, 102Gulko, xvi, 1,2,29,70hadron, 60half-life, xviii, 88, 103Hamiltonian analogy, 13, 16, 70Heisenberg, xviihelical component of flow, 100, 102helical motion, 39,42helium, 30, 75helium ( 3 ), 88helium ( 4 ), 88helium, spectral lines, 75Helmholtz, 3, 29Hertz, 29Hofstadter, 87Hubble Constant, 20Huyghens, 1, 3hydrides, 85hydrogen energy levels, 79hydrogen ground state, xv, 76, 83hydrogen, "ortho "-, 86hydrogen, "para"-, 86hydrogen, bi-electronic, x, xix, 84, 85,

87, 100hydrogen, diatomic, 86hydrogen, fractionaL xix, 76, 77, 79,80,

82, 84, 102hydrogen, spectral lines, 73, 74, 75hyperdimensions, xviii, 29, 32ideal gas, 3inflow draw, 18integer, 85

Page 108

interference, 70, 91, 93interferometer, 2inviscid, vii, 3, 6, 11, 44, 103ionization, 76, 79, 87ionization energy, 76, 77irrotational flow, viii, xv, 21, 33, 35, 38,

39,45,54,57,62,76,100,103isentropic flow, 13isothermal flow, 12isotope, 70k, xiii, xviii, 36, 38kBol.FC, xiii, 36, 38KBoI.FC, 36, 38Kepler's law, 73KeV, 63Krafft, xvi, 1, 15,29Labov and Bowyer, 74, 80Lagrange, 4Laplace, viLaplacian operator, 9lepton, 15,65linear momentum, 70Lorentz, 92Lorentz contraction, 2, 92Lorentz force, 70luminoferous aether, 1Lyman, 73, 79Mach,29magnetism, 2, 68Magnus Effect, 69mass, 103mass center, 18mass deficit, 103Maxwell, 36, 72meson, 42, 77,103MeV, 63Michelson- Morley experiment, 90Mills, xvii, 84Munson, Young and Okiishi, 3, 7, 12muon-neutrino, 45,50,51muon-neutrino diameter, 51muon-neutrino eye-wall diameter, xiiimuon- neutrino mass, 51n, nj, 73, 75, 76, 79, 80, 82, 83negative charge, 42,55,65,87, 103negative energy, xv, 14

negative mass, xv, 14, 30, 59neutrino, ix, 15, 30, 45, 48, 77neutron, 42, 72, 77, 87, 88,92,93,103neutron star, 24, 26Newton, vi, xivNewton's Law in the FC, 18!VFG 12,36,37, 101!Va, 38nuclear transmutations, xixPark, xviiPaschen, 73Pauli Exclusion Principle, 85, 87Pauling, 87peripheral flow, 101permeability, viii, 42permeability of free space, xiiipermitivity, viii, ix, 42, 73permitivity of free space, xiiipermitivity of the FC, 73phase, ix, 69photon, xv, 74, 79, 82, 83, 88photon decay, 15, 16,30,40,43,52,53,

60, 70pinwheel, 61, 82, 86Planck, xvi, 1,3, 19,29,48,68Planck density, xiii, xivPlanck length, xiii, xiv, 12Planck's Constant, ix, xiii, xivPlanck-lengthFc, xivPoincare, 2Poisson's formula, 73positive charge, 42,55,87, 104positron, 15, 16,30,41,43,52,53,58,

60,68,104positron diameter, 63positron eye-wall diameter, xiiipositron spin energy, 65positron spiraling trajectory, 69precession, 82pressure distribution, 10pressure ratio, 58propagation, 1, 90proton, ix, x, xviii, 22, 30, 38, 41, 42, 44,

48,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,63,65,67,68,72,75,76,77,79,82,84,85,87,88,92,104

Page 109

proton charge, 72proton creation, 15proton diameter, 63proton eye-wall diameter, xiiiproton mass, 64proton spin energy, 65proton spiraling trajectory, 69quanta, 1, 68, 104quantum gravity, xviiiquantum levels, ix, xv, 73, 74, 79, 82, 84quantum mechanics, xvii, xviii, 73, 82,

90quantum number, xquark, xviii, 60, 65, 90, 104Quark Theory, xviii, 60, 65radial quantum number, 82radius of the universe, 97relativistic energy, 81relativistic velocity, 30, 67Relativity Theory, v, xix, 2root-mean-square velocity, xiii, xiv, 33,

37rotational flow, 21, 29,32,39,45,76,

lOO,104Rydberg, x, 73, 74, 75,80Ry,39scattering, 70Schrodinger, 3, 73Schrodinger's equation, 73Sommerfeld, 82space-time curvature, vii, xv, xviii, 2, 12,

14,19,20,23,24,25,38,66,90,93,95,96,105

specific heat constant in the FC, xiiispectral lines, 70, 73, 74, 75spectral lines of helium, 75spectral lines of hydrogen, 73, 74, 75speed of light, vii, xiii, xiv, 3, 11, l3, 19,

20,24,32,41,91,93,95,96,104spin,42,52,55,60,61,65,68,82,87,

105spin angular momentum, 66spin angular velocity, 48, 65spin energy, 60, 65stability, 42, 52, 53, 61, 79

standard density, 14,20,66,95, 103,105

standard mass, 105standard mass in the FC, xiiistandard space, 105standard speed of light, 105standard volume, xiii, 103, 105standard-density, xivstationary field, 5steady flow, 5, 7, 13stream function, 5streamline, 4, 7, 9, 12, 13, 16, 29, 76, 77Strong Force, xviii, 105Sun, corona of, 74, 80super luminous, 32supernovae, 16superposition, 3synchrotron, 2, 67tau- neutrino, 51temperature, absolute, vii, 102Thomson, 3,29, 30, 70toroidical vortex ring, 105tritium, 88ultraviolet, extreme left, 74, 75Unified Field Theory, 1units, elementary in the FC, 12,36, 101universe, contraction / expansion, xviii,

16,24,66,96,102universe, volume, 96vacuum, xvii, 1,3,90vector notation, 7, 8vector, helical, 49vector, parallel, 7vector, perpendicular, 7, 69vector, propulsion, 15, 23, 24, 30, 44vector, radial, 19vector, rotation, 8velocity distribution, 11,32,33,38,45,

46,48,55,57,58,62,103velocity field, 4von Karmann, 3,29,30

Page 110

vortex, vii, xiv, 3, 7, 9, 20, 21, 23, 29,30,32,48,66,76

vortex diameter, 39,40,41,43,49,50,51,67

vortex energy, 33, 34, 35, 43vortex entities, xiv, xv, 11, 14, 15, 16,

18,25,30,32,43,50,61vortex kinetics, 15, 16vortex phenominae, 43vortex ring, xv, 2, 15, 16,23,30,31,32,

41,42,44,48,49,50,52,53,58,60,61,63,64,65,66,76

vortex ring pair, 30vortex ring set, 42, 105vortex thread, 20, 29, 32, 45, 65, 76, 77,

105vortex tube, viii, 20, 21, 22, 29, 31, 40,

61vortex, five-ring configuration, 2, 42vortex, open, 3, 32, 39, 40, 104vortex, three-ring configuration, 41, 76,

77wave densification, 20wave energy, 15,42,48wave equation, xviiiwave kinetics, 15, 16wave phenominae, 16, 25wave, electromagnetic, 3, 68, 90wavelength, 20wave- particle duality, 1, 28Winterberg, xvi, 1,29X-ray diffraction, 70Zartman experiment, 37A, xiv, 170, xiv, 18,23,25,27,28A, 70, 75v, 72, 73, 74, 80p,17,23,24,35,36,56Po,23,24,35,36, 38,44,46,48,49,54,

56,63,64

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This book is written for the cause of the expansion of knowledge inphysics. The approach is deterministic and the outcomes of the theoreticaldevelopments are continually tested against the reality. Besides seeingverification in the laboratory of the phenominae described, a numberof tests shall be undertaken for the purpose of further verification,particularly in the arena of the "slowing of time" in regions withconsiderable space-time curvaulre, A revisitation of the Michelson Morleyexperiment shall be done as well with a different set up and with the useof laser. These tests will be done in full view of the public. In the lateI970-ties author found while researching physics and thermodynamicswith relation to conversion processes of solar radiation into other usableforms of energy, that certain basic matters as described in textbooksabout the constitution of the hydrogen atom were clearly wrong, Certaininterrelationships which are being taught have only limited validity.Moreover many formulations in physics are empirical in nature and thebasic backgrounds of understanding are still lacking, e.g, the subjectof magnetism. The first part of this book is an introduction in fluidmechanics and applying it to wave and vortex phenominae. The secondpart will describe the micro-scale phenomi-nae, nuclear structure, thephoton decay process and the subjects of magnetism and torsion fields.The third part will address astrophysics in light of the findings in partsone and two. Parts two and three should be ready for publication inrespectively early 2002 and late 2002.

Most of Arie M. DeGeus's education was in The Netherlands: DordrechtLyceum, Economical University, Rotterdam and Technical University,Delft. He currently resides near Columbia, Sc. From 1964, he hasbuilt and co-owned two textile fiber mfg. facilities in the USA, as wellas built and co-owned a carpet-yam plant in Georgia and carpet mfg.facility in Holland. He also has real estate and forest development activities.During the energy crisis he commenced with R&D in alternative energyprocesses and designed and built solar and wind energy equipment,mostly in the USA an.d has since developed new hydrogen and nuclearenergy technologies in own lab facilities. For the next two. years it isplanned to create production facilities, so that these technologies can beof benefit to mankind. Author is protestant Christian and actively relatesacquired scientific insight with theological and historical subject matters.

ISBN 1-58898-270-X

9 "781588"982704