Floodplain sediments of the 2002 catastrophic flood at the Vltava (Moldau) River and its tributaries: mineralogy, chemical composition, and post-sedimentary evolution

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Floodplain sediments of the 2002 catastrophic flood at the Vltava(Moldau) River and its tributaries: mineralogy, chemicalcomposition, and post-sedimentary evolution

Tomas Navratil Æ Jan Rohovec Æ Karel Zak

Received: 7 September 2007 / Accepted: 28 December 2007 / Published online: 24 January 2008

� Springer-Verlag 2008

Abstract Fine-grained floodplain sediments of the cata-

strophic 2002 flood deposited along the lower reaches of

the Berounka and Vltava Rivers, Czech Republic, were not

highly contaminated with heavy metals and other toxic

elements. This is due to the dominantly mineral character

of the sediments (Ctot in the range 3.97–5.01%, relatively

low content of clay minerals), and due to the very high

degree of contamination dilution by eroded pre-industrial

non-contaminated floodplain sediments. Despite this high

degree of dilution, the influence of the small Litavka River,

draining the historical Pb–Zn–Ag Prıbram ore region, is

well visible. The Litavka River is one of important sources

of Pb and Zn contamination in the whole Berounka–Vlt-

ava–Labe river system. The 2002 flood sediments

deposited in the floodplain of the Berounka and Vltava

Rivers show poor vertical chemical zoning, except for

some components enriched in the uppermost layer by

precipitation from evaporated pore-water contained in the

mud, i.e. secondary carbonate. The content of Ccarb of the

sediments (0.05–0.15%) is partly represented by this sec-

ondary carbonate, which is later leached by rainwater, and

partly by fragments of river mollusk shells. A majority of

the heavy metals contained in sediments can be readily

leached by diluted acids, and to a much smaller degree by

rainwater.

Keywords Vltava (Moldau) River � Berounka River �Floodplain sediments � Czech Republic �2002 Catastrophic flood

Introduction

River valleys of the lower reaches of the Vltava River

(Moldau in the English and German languages) and its

tributaries in the western part of the Czech Republic are

characterized by a relatively wide floodplain. The surface of

this floodplain is usually located 2–5 m above the water level

during normal river flow. The main gravel and sand accu-

mulations of this floodplain were deposited during the late

Weichselian and Early Holocene periods. A layer of fine-

grained sediments, usually 0.5–2.0 m thick (locally[2 m),

accumulated on the surface of these gravels and sands during

the Late Holocene (most of the deposition occurred during

the last 1,000 years; Czudek 2005, pp. 138–141). Floodplain

sediments (Darnley et al. 1995) reflect the geochemistry of

the surface weathered zone in their entire upstream river

basin (Demetriades et al. 2006), because fine-grained allu-

vium (silt and clay) is carried in suspension from eroded

source materials over significant distances, and is finally

deposited on the floodplain in low energy environments.

These fine-grained sediments, with particles mainly of silt

size (silt particles: 1/256 to 1/16 mm), to a smaller degree of

clay size (clay particles:\1/256 mm), and occasionally also

with grains of sand size (sand particles: 1/16 to 2 mm), are

formed by the deposition of suspended particulate matter

(further abbreviated SPM) from the muddy floodwaters. The

widespread deposition and subsequent formation of fluvial

soils in floodplains during the last millennium is usually

interpreted as the result of several factors, including defor-

estation, an increase in the area with agricultural activities in

the catchments, and climate change. Floodplain sediments

are an important geochemical media, as they can be used in

the search for new mineral resources, in monitoring envi-

ronmental change, and also in the prediction of potential

environmental hazards (Demetriades et al. 2006).

T. Navratil (&) � J. Rohovec � K. Zak

Institute of Geology AS CR, Rozvojova 269,

165 00 Praha 6, Czech Republic

e-mail: [email protected]

123

Environ Geol (2008) 56:399–412

DOI 10.1007/s00254-007-1178-8

Floodplains of the major Czech rivers cover a relatively

small proportion of the area of the whole Czech Republic

(less than 1%); nevertheless, they represent areas of

intensive agricultural activity, important groundwater

resources, and unfortunately also areas where parts of

towns and villages have been built. Depending on the

relative elevation above the usual water level, these

floodplains are flooded from several times per century to

several times per millennium. Since the studied rivers

belong to low- to moderate-gradient rivers, the water on

their floodplain usually flows slowly during a flood (typi-

cally 1 m s-1 or less). Each flood event can deposit a

sediment layer from several mm to several tens of centi-

meters thick. Because of very quick bioturbation and

agricultural activities (plowing) the original layering of

these sediments is usually quickly destroyed. In excavated

vertical profiles, these Late Holocene floodplain sediments

are usually quite homogeneous.

The August 2002 flood of the Labe (Elbe) River, Vltava

River and most of their tributaries was the biggest flood

recorded in this area during at least the last 200 years, and

one of largest floods of the last millennium (sine 2003a;

Becker and Grunevald 2003). It was caused by extreme

rainfall amounts originating from a ‘‘Genoa cyclone’’

(Becker and Grunevald 2003). Several hundreds bridges

were destroyed, more than 300 villages and towns were

flooded, and some parts of the city of Prague were evac-

uated. Descriptions of the meteorological preconditions of

this flood event, data about precipitation quantity, river

flow data, and data about the quantity of SPM transported

have been published several times (e.g., the final official

report about this flood event, sine 2003a; Becker and

Grunevald 2003). The contents of persistent organic pol-

lutants (POP), and environmentally important elements

have been studied both in river water, suspended matter,

and sediments (e.g., sine 2003a, b; Holoubek et al. 2003;

Baborowski et al. 2004).

This paper focuses on the mineralogical and chemical

composition of the floodplain silt-dominated sediments

deposited by the 2002 flood in the lower reach of the Vltava

River and its largest tributary, the Berounka River. The

quantity and composition of SPM in the river water evolved

during the flood, and the SPM particles were further sorted

by their size and density during sedimentation. The aim of

this study was therefore to improve understanding of the

primary mineralogical and chemical composition of the

deposited sediments and of their vertical zoning. Another

focus of this study was to evaluate post-sedimentary pro-

cesses, including a study of the leachability of main and

trace elements both by diluted acid and rainwater. Results of

this study are quite important, since these sediments are

incorporated into cultivated soils, and in fact represent the

dominant component of modern floodplain soils.

The Vltava River was the largest source of SPM for the

upper reach of the Labe River during the described August

2002 flood. Since the chemical composition of SPM

transported by the Labe has been monitored (Baborowski

et al. 2004), a study of sediments further enables an eval-

uation of chemical differences between sediments

deposited during the flood in the Vltava watershed and

SPM sampled during this flood in the Labe about 400 km

downstream in Magdeburg.

Studied rivers and selected sampling sites

The Vltava River, the main southern tributary of the Labe

River, has a total catchment area of 28,090 km2 and

baseflow discharge at the confluence with the Labe of

151 m3 s-1. The largest Vltava tributary, the Berounka

River, has a catchment area of 8,861 km2 and average flow

at the confluence with the Vltava of 36 m3 s-1. The peak

flow conditions of the Vltava and Berounka Rivers during

the August 2002 flood at the gauging profiles closest to the

study area were (all data from sine 2003a):

• Berounka River at Beroun (35.6 km above the conflu-

ence with the Vltava River); common average flow at

this profile is 35.6 m3 s-1; peak flow was 2,170 m3 s-1

at 23 p.m. 13 August 2002.

• Vltava River at Praha-Chuchle (immediately below the

confluence with the Berounka River); common average

flow at this profile is 148 m3 s-1; peak flow was

5,160 m3 s-1 at 11 a.m. 14 August 2002.

The positions of these gauging profiles together with

sampling locations are shown in Fig. 1. Sampling was

designed to understand both the primary composition of the

deposited sediment, and subsequent changes. Firstly,

sediments either collected immediately after the flood or

deposited at sites protected from rain were used. These

were sediments of the Berounka River collected in the field

at sites that were already completely dry and that were

protected from rain, such as below rock overhangs, in

shallow caves, or below bridges. Next, a repeated sampling

of mud from an area not protected from rain was performed

during the period from November 2002 to August 2003.

The sampling sites and collected samples were further

studied with respect to ichnofabric (bioturbation, animal

traces, etc.) by Mikulas (2007).

The sampling concentrated on sites where the water

flooding the river surroundings was slow-flowing (typically

below 1 m s-1). Such circumstances are typical for the

lower reaches of the Berounka and Vltava Rivers. Natural

or man-made depressions where water was stagnant, in

some cases even a long time after the flood, and where the

sediments contained a larger fine-grained fraction, were

400 Environ Geol (2008) 56:399–412

123

avoided. The sampling focused on sediments all having a

similar grain size distribution, being dominated by silt-size

particles.

The sampling at the Berounka River was further

designed to evaluate changes of the chemical composition

of the deposited sediment above and below its confluence

with the Litavka River. The Litavka River is a small river

with a watershed area of 629.4 km2 and average flow at the

confluence with the Berounka of 2.71 m3 s-1. It drains the

Prıbram ore region, where Pb, Zn, Ag, and later also U ores

were mined and processed in the past. The Litavka River is

known for its high contamination by heavy metals (e.g.,

Ettler et al. 2005).

Laboratory methods

Samples of floodplain sediments deposited during the

August 2002 flood were collected in the field as bulk

samples covering the whole thickness of the deposited

sediment layer. The bottom sections of the samples, con-

taining traces of the underlying materials, were removed.

In the laboratory, all sediment samples were air-dried at

ambient laboratory temperature. The thickness of the sed-

iment layer after drying varied from 20 to 70 mm. Sub-

sample aliquots were removed for physico-chemical anal-

yses. In cases where several sub-samples were taken from a

vertical profile, the boundaries between the samples were

selected based on visible changes in grain size or sediment

color. Prior to analytical procedures, samples were sieved,

and the size fraction \2 mm was further homogenized in

an agate mill. The fraction [2 mm contained almost

exclusively larger fragments of organic materials (wood,

fragments of plants, etc.) and was not included in the

analyses. During all these procedures, only plastic metal-

free tools and sieves were used. Portions of several samples

were then used for X-ray mineral determination using a

Philips X’Pert Automated Powder Diffraction apparatus in

the laboratories of the Institute of Geology AS CR.

Three methods of sample decomposition/leaching were

used:

– total concentrations of studied elements in sediments

were analyzed after digesting the sample completely in

a mixture of HF and HNO3,

– the maximal possible concentrations of elements which

could be released from each of the sampled sediments

under natural conditions were evaluated after digestion

of sample with 0.1M HNO3 for 24 h at laboratory

temperature. This content is referred to as the acid-

leachable concentration of the studied elements (Brug-

mann 1995),

– the more realistic concentration of elements which

could be readily released from the sediments under

natural conditions was tested using leaching with a

collected bulk precipitation solution. This concentra-

tion is referred to in the text as the ‘‘exchangeable’’

concentration.

Approximately 5 l of rainwater used for leaching experi-

ments was sampled during a single storm event. The

chemical properties of this rainwater were typical for

precipitation in the region (pH 4.9); the detailed compo-

sition can be found in Table 1.

Total content of Si was not determined (due to the

removal of SiF4 in the course of total decomposition). All

sample decompositions and analyses of solutes were per-

formed in the laboratories of the Institute of Geology AS

CR, Prague. The obtained sample solutions were analyzed

using the ICP EOS technique on an Iris Intrepid 2 Duo

instrument, equipped with a concentric nebulizer. The

plasma and instrument parameters were set according to

the manufacturer’s recommendations: axial plasma view,

RF power 1,150 W, auxiliary argon flux 1.0 ml min-1,

nebulizer pressure 25.0 psi, sample uptake 2.40 ml min-1.

The instrument was calibrated by mixed standard solutions,

prepared from 1,000 ppm certified single standard solu-

tions (supplier Analytika, Praha) in 3% HNO3. The

calibration curves were constructed using at least four

points (blank and mixed standards) covering the whole

range of the actual sample concentrations. The calibration

was performed for the major and micro elements sepa-

rately. The quality of analytical results was assured by

certifying the analytes of a QC standard material (River

14o13'

50o0'

Prague

Beroun

akvatiL

aknuoreB

avatlV

VLM3,4,8,16,

20,22,27,28

BE 1,3

BE 2

BE 4

BE 5-6

N

4km

VLM 1,13

VB

L

Berounka sub-basin

Moldau basin

Fig. 1 Positions of river gauging profiles operated by the Czech

Hydrometeorological Institute (L Litavka gauge, B Berounka gauge,

V Vltava gauge) and of the sampling sites (BE and VLM). At thebottom position of study are in the Moldau basin and Berounka sub-

basin

Environ Geol (2008) 56:399–412 401

123

Stream Sediment, Analytika, Praha) inserted into the ana-

lytical run. This QC standard was measured after each 20

samples to prove calibration validity and instrument sta-

bility during the course of analysis.

Total carbon concentration (Ctot) was measured using an

IR C/S analyzer ELTRA CS 500 (detection limit 0.01%).

The carbonate fraction of carbon (Ccarb) was determined

using coulometric titration on a Coulomat 7012 (Sixta

1977, detection limit 0.05%). The organic carbon propor-

tion (Corg) was calculated as the difference between Ctot

and Ccarb. Carbon analyses of sediment samples were done

in the laboratories of the Czech Geological Survey in

Prague.

The grain size distribution was only evaluated for the

sediment profile deposited at the site BE1. Four sediment

samples from separated layers were mixed with water and

small quantity of sodium hexametaphosphate solution (to

facilitate separation of particles) and agitated in an ultra-

sonic bath for 30 min. Samples were then wet-sieved on a

0.063 mm sieve. The fraction [0.063 was washed with

distilled water, dried and dry-sieved on 0.125, 0.250, and

0.500 mm sieves. The size fraction \0.063 was separated

by the usual sedimentation method into three size fractions:

\0.004, 0.004–0.016, and 0.016–0.063 mm. All size

fractions were dried at 105�C and weighed; grain size

distribution was calculated in wt.%.

Results

Firstly, a mineralogical and basic geochemical description

of the floodplain silt-dominated sediment samples depos-

ited by the single 2002 flood was performed.

Mineralogical composition of flood sediments

According to the X-ray analysis, all examined samples

contained quartz as the dominant component. The less

abundant components were micas (muscovite, biotite),

feldspars (mostly albite), and chlorite. Among the acces-

sory minerals, anatase was found in one sample (BE1) from

the Berounka River. One sample from the Vltava River

(VLM13) contained traces of secondary phosphate miner-

als. The method used enabled a determination of minerals

abundant in quantities above 2%. From other studies, it is

known that the heavy mineral fraction of Quaternary sed-

iments of these studied rivers contain secondary Fe

minerals, pyroxenes, amphiboles, garnets, and ilmenite,

and in the case of the Berounka River also abundant leu-

coxene (e.g., Zak et al. 2001).

Content of organic and carbonate carbon

The Ctot content of the studied sediments is fairly uniform,

ranging from 3.97 to 5.01%. The majority of the carbon is

represented by organic carbon (Corg; 3.87–4.93%), while

the carbonate carbon content is much smaller (Ccarb; 0.05–

0.15%; just above the detection limit of the method used).

In the samples with vertical profiles studied, the content of

carbonate carbon is higher in the uppermost sediment layer.

All C content data, together with sample descriptions and

sample positions in the vertical profiles, are contained in

Tables 2 and 3.

Grain size distribution determined in the vertical profile

reveals that the majority ([89%) of the sediment in the four

studied layers is composed of particles with size\0.063 mm

(Table 3). Particles with grain size[0.063 mm were more

abundant in the lower two (B1/C and B1/D) layers. Frag-

ments of organic particles occured frequently in the size

fraction 0.250–0.500 mm. Finally, the fraction[0.500 mm

was composed of organic fragments only. Some fragments

of wood from the fraction[0.500 mm were up to 10 mm in

size.

Major and minor elements

The concentrations of major and minor elements in the

studied samples after total decomposition, in acid leachate,

and in rainwater leachate are contained in Table 4. A

Table 1 Appropriate wavelength, detection limit and element con-

centrations in rainwater used for the leaching experiments

Analyte Wavelength

(nm)

Detection

limit

(ppb)

Rainwater

analysis

(ppb)

K 766.5 10.0 24.3

Ca 393.4 0.05 19.0

Mg 280.3 0.1 1.4

Na 589.0 1.0 39.0

Al 328.1 0.4 0.6

Fe 259.9 0.6 0.9

Mn 259.3 0.6 0.1

Ni 221.6 0.4 0.07

Li 670.7 1.0 0.02

Pb 220.3 3.0 \Sr 407.7 0.3 0.05

Ti 334.9 0.5 \Zn 213.8 0.3 1.8

Zr 339.1 0.4 \P 213.6 10.0 0.3

Cd 228.8 0.2 0.003

Co 228.6 0.6 0.002

Cr 283.5 1.0 0.007

Cu 324.7 0.4 0.2

402 Environ Geol (2008) 56:399–412

123

Table 2 Carbon concentrations and characteristics of each sample and sampling site

No. Sample location Sample description Ctot (%) Corg (%) Ccarb (%)

Samples collected shortly after the flood or at sites protected from rain

BE1 27.4 km, left bank, shallow

artificial cave

Calculated average for sample

BE1, thickness-weighted

4.29 4.19 0.10

BE2 32.8 km, left bank, shallow

artificial cave

Average for the whole

thickness, silt-dominated,

homogeneous

4.41 4.33 0.08

BE3 27.4 km, left bank, below rock

overhang



homogeneous

4.66 4.58 0.08

BE4 27.4 km, right bank, below a

bridge



homogeneous

4.43 4.34 0.09

BE5 48.1 km, left bank, sediment

below rock overhang



homogeneous

4.59 4.53 0.06

BE6 48.1 km, left bank, sediment

below rock overhang, another

sampling site



homogeneous

5.01 4.93 0.08

VLM1 46.1 km (Prague-Holesovice), left

bank, sediment deposited on

compact soil



homogeneous

4.47 4.41 0.07

VLM3 48.0 km (Prague-Liben), right


grass



homogeneous

4.35 4.27 0.08


bank, sediment deposited within

a building



homogeneous

4.45 4.38 0.07



sandy road



homogeneous

4.33 4.25 0.08

Samples collected with longer time span after the flood, at sites not-protected from rain

VLM13 46.1 km (Prague-Holesovice), left


compact soil, the same as VLM-

1; sampled March 2003

Average for whole thickness,

coarse silt-dominated,

homogeneous

3.97 3.87 0.10


bank, the same area as VLM 3,

4, 8; sampled August 2003

Average of whole thickness,

silt-dominated,

homogeneous

4.49 4.42 0.07





silt-dominated,

homogeneous

4.36 4.29 0.07





silt-dominated,

homogeneous

4.36 4.27 0.09





silt-dominated,

homogeneous

4.37 4.32 0.05





silt-dominated,

homogeneous

4.47 4.40 0.07

The river kilometers are calculated at Berounka River from its confluence with Vltava (Moldau) River in direction upstream, and at Vltava River

are calculated from its confluence with Labe (Elbe) River in direction upstream

BE samples from the Berounka River, VLM samples from the Vltava River

Environ Geol (2008) 56:399–412 403

123

comparison of the resulting total, acid leachable and

exchangeable fractions of a studied element may indicate

its form in sediments and the chemical behavior of the

sediment when flushed with rain.

Since the content of Si was not determined due to the

use of hydrofluoric acid for sample digestion, the most

abundant major element of those studied was Al. Alumi-

num is a basic structural component of alumosilicate

minerals, i.e., feldspars, micas and clay minerals. There-

fore, a relatively small proportion of Al from the total Al

content was acid leachable, ranging from 9 to 12% for all

samples, and the exchangeable fraction of Al was negli-

gible (all samples\1%). The acid leachable fraction could

be probably attributed to secondary Al precipitates or labile

secondary minerals such as clays etc.

The second most abundant element was Fe. Iron is a

structural component of dark minerals (e.g., micas) and is

also present as various secondary Fe minerals (hydroxides,

oxides) in sediments. Compared to Al, a relatively higher

proportion of Fe was acid leachable (28–38%) but again a

very low proportion of Fe was exchangeable (\5%).

The majority of total K concentrations originates from

the content of potassium feldspars, micas and some clay

minerals contained in the sediments. Relatively small

proportions of K were acid leachable (6–16%) and

exchangeable (1–4%). Similar trends were observed in the

case of Na but with lower total concentrations: 2–23% of

Na was acid leachable and 2–20% exchangeable.

The other most abundant elements found in sampled

sediments were the 2+ charge base cations Ca and Mg.

Calcium is a base structural component of the feldspars

from the Na–Ca feldspar series and it also occurs com-

monly in river sediments as either biogenic or inorganic

carbonate (CaCO3). Magnesium is usually found in dark

micas such as biotite, mafic minerals or as an isomorphic

admixture in carbonates. From the major abundant ele-

ments, Ca and Mg exhibited the largest leachable

proportions of their total concentrations, with 56 and 35%,

respectively. The leachable fraction of Ca varied signifi-

cantly (ranging from 40 to 80%) in sampled sediments, but

the Mg leachable fraction was fairly stable (ranging from

30 to 40%). Both Ca and Mg were also among the elements

with the highest exchangeable proportions, on average 13

and 4% of the total concentrations, respectively.

Minor elements (Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu, Co, Ni, and Cr)

showed generally high acid leachable proportions (ranging

from 42 to 90%), but low exchangeable proportions

(\1.5%). The potential geochemical risk resulting from the

contamination of sediment with selected environmental

contaminants (Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu, Co, Ni, and Cr) was eval-

uated by comparison with the Dutch ecotoxicological

limits for soils (Swartjes 1999). Concentrations of all

compared elements were higher than appropriate ‘‘Target

values’’ for soils (concentrations of contaminants in clean

soils) but never exceeded the ‘‘Intervention values’’ for

soils (criterion for potentially contaminated soils).

The most significant differences between sediments

collected from the Berounka and Vltava floodplains were

the acid leachable concentrations of Ti and K (Table 4).

Significant differences were also found in leachable con-

centrations of Al, Mg, Ca and Sr.

Discussion

Mineralogical and chemical composition of the studied

sediments

Bulk chemistry of the sampled sediments corresponded

closely to their mineralogical composition. The content of

Table 3 Carbon concentrations, characteristics and grain size distribution in wt.% of each sample from the profile through the flood sediments at

site BE1 deposited during the single 2002 flood event at the Berounka River 27.4 km, left bank, shallow artificial cave. All data in ppm

No. Sample description Ctot

(%)

Corg

(%)

Ccarb

(%)

Grain size fractions (mm)

\0.004 0.004–

0.016

0.016–

0.063

0.063–

0.125

0.125–

0.250

0.250–

0.500

[0.500

BE1/

A

Uppermost 2 mm of the fine-grained

sediment

4.02 3.87 0.15 5.95 19.32 71.71 2.22 0.40 0.30 0.09

BE1/

B

Sediment section from 2 to 6 mm below

sediment surface, fine-grained, silt-

dominated, contains rusty layer

4.21 4.10 0.11 11.34 23.15 62.13 2.66 0.46 0.20 0.06

BE1/

C

Sediment section from 6 to 15 mm below

the sediment surface, fine-grained,

homogeneous silt-dominated material

4.25 4.15 0.10 10.14 23.44 58.28 5.75 1.37 0.80 0.22

BE1/

D

Sediment section from 15 to 30 mm

below the sediment surface, fine-

grained, homogeneous silt-dominated

material

4.33 4.24 0.09 12.47 16.88 59.74 8.39 1.09 0.95 0.47

404 Environ Geol (2008) 56:399–412

123

Table 4 Total, acid leachable and exchangeable concentrations of selected elements in sediments of the Berounka and Vltava Rivers. All data in

ppm

Sample Altot Fetot Ktot Catot Mgtot Titot Mntot Natot Ptot Zntot Pbtot Crtot Srtot Zrtot Nitot Cutot Litot Cotot Cdtot

BE1 78,074 45,899 18,997 10,400 9,160 \ 1,103 8,767 1,621 374 124 131 106 99.2 92.0 82.9 59.9 34.4 6.0

BE2 77,499 47,088 18,256 11,789 9,378 \ 1,375 8,694 1,462 340 111 107 109 38.2 89.8 83.0 60.7 33.7 5.8

BE3 75,905 45,249 18,879 10,604 8,692 4,390 1,213 8,529 1,583 436 134 128 108 51.3 90.5 78.8 64.0 35.7 6.3

BE4 76,049 45,091 18,852 10,772 8,808 3,532 1,418 8,630 1,249 442 147 128 107 13.5 91.3 80.3 60.2 32.4 6.5

BE5 73,844 43,262 16,575 8,581 8,640 3,830 1,114 9,829 1,405 326 100 125 107 18.7 80.7 78.1 66.8 33.0 5.3

BE6 74,401 43,930 16,418 9,828 8,794 3,163 1,295 9,157 1,120 330 98 128 106 4.6 81.0 81.9 60.7 32.3 5.2

VLM1 75,674 48,540 18,466 11,817 10,509 \ 1,807 8,521 1,741 412 127 121 128 24.2 93.0 74.7 59.8 30.5 6.2

VLM3 77,964 49,182 19,425 11,178 11,002 4,228 2,113 8,451 1,800 373 128 121 121 27.3 93.7 75.1 57.9 30.4 5.7

VLM4 78,273 47,553 17,720 11,090 10,939 3,091 1,372 8,524 1,010 371 126 123 118 2.3 92.4 76.8 57.5 88.1 5.5

VLM8 79,330 47,526 19,956 10,690 11,081 2,822 1,225 8,216 735 391 126 125 119 1.2 96.9 78.4 57.2 26.8 5.7

VLM13 66,214 38,824 18,860 15,062 8,836 3,267 1,143 11,208 1,241 339 93 94 154 25.5 73.0 56.5 46.3 27.3 4.8

VLM16 76,840 48,760 19,884 11,660 10,772 3,091 1,563 8,444 1,351 412 128 126 126 14.4 97.3 81.6 57.9 27.9 6.1

VLM20 75,768 46,866 20,663 12,655 11,102 3,308 1,354 10,499 1,449 404 124 122 129 14.7 96.6 78.8 58.3 28.7 5.9

VLM22 79,569 52,554 21,836 12,314 11,460 3,674 1,315 9,940 1,499 421 127 125 129 14.8 98.0 82.0 60.0 29.8 6.2

VLM27 77,454 48,524 20,000 11,301 10,898 3,311 1,304 8,639 1,303 436 125 127 127 13.8 96.3 100.6 62.3 29.2 6.4

VLM28 77,080 46,840 20,264 11,292 10,564 4,220 1,167 8,508 1,734 464 137 126 130 58.2 99.8 81.2 61.8 32.0 6.6

Sample Allea Felea Klea Calea Mglea Tilea Mnlea Nalea Plea Znlea Pblea Crlea Srlea Nilea Culea Lilea Cdlea Colea

BE1 7,848 14,695 1,432 7,005 3,246 47 925 303 1,083 282 113 31 30 39 64 28 5.5 18

BE2 7,776 14,859 1,364 7,884 3,325 49 1,167 283 1,081 253 100 32 53 39 64 28 5.2 18

BE3 7,502 13,848 1,341 7,026 2,906 42 1,015 195 1,020 305 121 29 42 38 60 29 5.7 17

BE4 7,632 14,384 1,371 7,210 3,050 43 1,201 252 1,011 340 138 30 47 40 62 28 6.4 18

BE5 6,602 12,460 1,527 4,584 2,676 53 885 175 1,053 220 93 27 39 32 59 25 4.3 17

BE6 7,172 12,812 1,802 5,772 2,762 53 1,052 189 1,092 231 90 28 44 36 62 28 4.5 18

VLM1 9,196 16,301 [ 5,593 3,765 197 1,478 234 1,295 301 112 35 47 54 61 24 5.5 14

VLM3 9,588 17,062 [ 5,396 4,084 205 1,735 268 1,258 294 110 35 49 57 64 24 5.1 14

VLM4 9,376 15,794 [ 5,334 3,842 205 1,022 257 1,178 293 108 35 44 55 63 23 5.2 13

VLM8 9,362 15,360 [ 5,216 3,828 172 902 312 1,116 288 109 33 46 54 64 22 5.0 13

VLM13 6,770 13,006 1,568 6,310 2,982 209 822 210 978 250 76 26 41 39 48 20 3.6 12

VLM16 9,082 16,538 [ 5,432 3,742 188 1,247 258 1,278 318 117 34 47 53 72 24 5.4 14

VLM20 9,338 15,808 3,410 5,998 4,036 204 1,043 2,434 1,290 300 107 35 48 59 64 24 5.1 13

VLM22 9,158 15,804 3,386 4,938 3,728 199 1,023 1,419 1,312 291 108 34 44 55 63 24 5.0 13

VLM27 9,224 15,778 [ 4,706 3,674 193 995 183 1,198 306 115 35 42 54 68 23 5.4 14

VLM28 8,882 15,362 [ 4,884 3,494 186 871 171 1,193 330 120 33 42 52 68 25 5.6 13

Sample Alex Feex Kex Caex Mgex Tiex Mnex Naex Pex Znex Pbex Crex Srex Niex Cuex Liex Cdex Coex

BE1 1.1 1.7 211 1,528 449 \ 1.6 377 11 0.6 \ \ 7.0 0.21 1.4 0.38 \ 0.05

BE2 4.3 2.4 189 2,803 708 \ 6.5 432 5 0.7 0.06 0.4 10.4 0.27 1.4 0.62 \ \BE3 6.8 2.2 166 1,061 326 \ 1.8 300 4 0.3 0.19 \ 4.7 0.19 1.2 0.38 \ 0.10

BE4 4.1 1.7 188 1,419 415 0.23 2.5 344 12 0.4 0.05 \ 5.9 0.22 1.0 0.31 0.02 0.05

BE5 1.2 2.8 320 820 302 0.31 \ 388 13 0.5 0.05 2.6 4.6 0.23 1.2 0.45 0.05 0.11

BE6 7.0 1.6 324 900 294 0.21 \ 256 13 0.3 0.06 \ 5.8 0.19 0.9 0.33 0.15 0.08

VLM1 5.6 5.1 183 436 313 \ 1.6 335 9 0.5 \ \ 5.4 0.21 0.8 0.29 \ \VLM3 6.8 4.8 235 925 323 \ 0.2 483 10 0.5 \ 3.2 5.1 0.24 1.1 0.34 0.04 0.03

VLM4 3.8 5.0 204 969 333 0.17 17.0 361 11 0.6 \ 0.5 5.6 0.24 1.5 0.35 0.03 0.04

VLM8 4.6 7.3 216 833 298 0.23 0.6 440 7 0.4 \ 1.2 4.9 0.19 1.2 0.40 \ 0.03

VLM13 14.1 20.9 281 925 255 \ 0.9 628 12 0.3 \ 0.8 4.6 0.19 0.9 0.50 0.02 \VLM16 6.0 7.5 198 859 280 0.19 1.7 267 9 0.5 \ 0.3 4.1 0.19 0.9 0.32 0.04 \

Environ Geol (2008) 56:399–412 405

123

clay minerals and organic matter was relatively small. All

studied sediments contained some biogenic and mineral

carbonates; therefore, the material would have been semi-

neutral or alkalic after deposition and drying. Since rock

(limestone) carbonates generally are not resistant during

transport in rivers like the Vltava and Berounka which drain

catchments composed of dominantly silicate rocks, the

observed carbonate content within the studied sediments

originated above all from two major processes. The first is

evaporation of the pore-water contained in the mud, which

occurs exclusively in the uppermost layer of the sediment.

Evaporation of water might favor the precipitation of sec-

ondary carbonates from increased-concentration solutions.

The second process results from the presence of biogenic

carbonates. Fragmented shells of freshwater mollusks are

quite abundant in floodplain sediments of some sections of

the studied rivers. Layers up to several cm thick composed

mostly of shells and fragments have been locally found after

the flood, especially in the Vltava floodplain above Prague.

These shell fragments were dominated by Sphaerium cor-

neum s. l. (Linnaeus, 1758), Viviparus viviparus (Linnaeus,

1758) and Unio pictorum (Linnaeus, 1758) (determination

by J. Hlavac). Small fragments (up to several mm in size) of

these shells were visible in some of the sampled sediments

from the Vltava River. The sediments will remain semi-

neutral or alkalic until the newly formed fine-grained car-

bonate is leached by rainwater, and dissolution of shell

fragments will be much slower.

The base cations Ca, K, Mg and Na were the elements

with the highest exchangeable fractions (rainwater

leachable). Significant amounts of base cations might be

weakly bound onto the sediment cation exchange complex

(CEC) and exchanged with H+ or NH4+ from the leaching

solution (e.g., rainwater). Exchangeable concentrations of

Ca and Mg correlated with the content of carbonate car-

bon, and thus dissolution of disintegrated carbonates

might represent another source apart from CEC. However,

the correlation of total Ca concentration with carbonate

CO2 content in the sediment indicates that the major

source of calcium is the carbonate bound Ca. Some

samples contained more Ca, bound perhaps in feldspar

(plagioclase).

Previous data on the chemical composition of the flood

deposited sediments are scarce for the area of study, but the

chemical composition of SPM and deposited sediments at

the Labe River were reported for the 2005 flood by

Baborowski et al. (2007). It is noteworthy that selected

chemical parameters of sediments from the 2005 flood in

Baborowski et al. (2007) were not much different from the

flood sediments deposited during the 2002 flood sampled

600 km upstream and discussed in this study (Table 5).

The increased Pb, Zn, Cu and Mn in the trapped sediments

of Baborowski et al. (2007) could be due to the increased

Corg content.

Major portions of the ecotoxicologically important ele-

ments (Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu, Co, Ni and Cr) were probably bound

to Al and Fe acid leachable compounds, and have also been

found for sediments or SPM in other studies (Brugmann

1995). Due to low solubility of these Al and Fe compounds in

rainwater (i.e., low exchangeable fractions) only negligible

proportions of Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu, Co, Ni and Cr were

exchangeable. According to this data, sediments of the 2002

flood sampled in this study (upstream from Prague) did not

present a high ecotoxicological risk in comparison to the

Table 4 continued

Sample Alex Feex Kex Caex Mgex Tiex Mnex Naex Pex Znex Pbex Crex Srex Niex Cuex Liex Cdex Coex

VLM20 8.6 3.5 897 1,992 633 0.29 32.2 2,095 22 2.1 \ 3.6 10.1 0.29 2.0 0.80 0.02 0.02

VLM22 7.8 8.1 717 684 254 0.49 6.1 1,131 45 1.0 0.07 0.7 5.3 0.22 2.0 0.62 \ \VLM27 2.4 3.3 189 801 263 \ 5.7 325 8 1.1 \ 1.4 5.3 0.22 0.7 0.55 0.07 \VLM28 5.7 4.0 241 629 221 \ 1.8 289 10 0.8 \ 0.1 5.2 0.20 0.9 0.42 0.02 \

\ Below detection limit; [ over calibration

Table 5 Comparison of the sediment chemical composition sampled in this study with the results of Baborowski et al. (2007) about 600 km

downstream

Flood Ctot Altot Fetot Titot Mntot Zntot Pbtot Crtot Nitot Cutot Cdtot References

2005 SPM Min 28,000 29,000 1,400 1,400 402 114 67 41.0 78.0 4.0 Baborowski et al. (2007)

2005 SPM Max 52,000 49,000 3,200 3,000 774 205 145 87.0 208.0 8.0 Baborowski et al. (2007)

2005 SS Min 71,000 41,000 31,000 3,000 500 700 141 83 42.0 96.0 5.0 Baborowski et al. (2007)

2005 SS Max 134,000 73,000 47,000 4,800 4,600 3,350 1,138 128 84.0 173.0 9.0 Baborowski et al. (2007)

2002 SS Min 39,700 66,214 38,824 2,822 1,103 326 93 94 73.0 56.5 4.8 This study

2002 SS Max 50,100 79,569 52,554 4,390 2,113 464 147 131 99.8 100.6 6.6 This study

SPM solid particulate matter; SS surface sediment

406 Environ Geol (2008) 56:399–412

123

limits for critical concentrations of toxic elements in soils

(Swartjes 1999).

The higher concentrations of Pb and Zn in samples BE1,

BE2, BE3 and BE4 in comparison to concentrations found

in samples BE5 and BE6 may indicate the influence of the

Litavka River on the chemical composition of flood sedi-

ments of the Berounka River. The Litavka River draining

the Prıbram ore region is known for its high contamination

by heavy metals (e.g., Ettler et al. 2005). Although the

differences between concentrations were small, it is

important to note that according to sine (2003a) the flow of

the Berounka at the confluence with the Litavka peaked on

13 August 2002 (11 p.m.) with a flow of 2,170 m3 s-1,

while the flow of the Litavka peaked much earlier, on 13

August 2002 (7 a.m.) with 210 m3 s-1. Thus, the dilution

factor of flux from the Litavka into the Berounka was

approximately 1:10 or more. Even with such a high dilu-

tion factor, concentrations of Pb and Zn were elevated in

sediments collected below the Litavka River inflow.

Furthermore, the mixing effect of water masses con-

taining the SPM in the turbulent river flow during the flood

was not very effective. Sample BE4, sampled 8 km

downstream from the Berounka and Litavka confluence,

but from the same bank as the Litavka inlet, still contained

higher Pb concentrations than samples BE1 and BE3 from

the opposite bank. Therefore, the ineffective mixing of the

water masses and SPM was still evident after transport

from the Litavka inflow over 8 km downstream to the sites

BE1, BE3 and BE4.

Vertical chemical zoning of the deposited mud

Development of the SPM quality during flood

With respect to SPM, the first significant event during a

flood is the mobilization of all non-consolidated fine-

grained organic matter-rich sediments at the riverbed,

deposited there prior to the flood. Such material is easily

re-suspended during the initial stage of a flood. Therefore,

the first water phase of a flood usually contains higher

concentrations of suspended matter (Lehman et al. 1999)

and pollutants (Baborowski et al. 2004). These re-sus-

pended fine sediments may not be deposited on the

riverbanks, since the river flow in this phase of the flood

remains restricted to the streambed channel. Due to this,

the first peak of suspended matter content in the river water

usually occurs prior to the flood crest.

With increasing river discharge approaching the flood

crest, the river overflows the stream channel and material

from the floodplains or fields (usually fluvial soils with a

cultivated layer on top) is eroded and carried downstream.

During the 2002 flood at the Vltava River and its

tributaries, numerous new river channels formed within the

floodplain, the cultivated layer from fields was removed in

places, and at some sites with high water turbulence ero-

sion, depressions within the floodplain formed, up to 3 m

deep and several tens or hundreds of meters long. A sig-

nificant portion of this SPM material was re-deposited,

especially in the area below the confluence of the Vltava

and Labe Rivers, where temporary lakes formed.

The particle size and mass of suspended material during

the flood relates primarily to the discharge, as the dry

weight and particle size of suspended material reaches

maximal values during the flood crest and afterwards

decreases (Baborowski et al. 2004).

Profiles through the fresh floodplain sediment

of the Berounka River

The spatial distribution and extent of contamination of

floodplain sediments has been studied at a number of

catchments (e.g., Martin 1997; Walling et al. 2003;

Baborowski et al. 2007, etc.), but information on the ver-

tical distribution of elements in a profile through a

deposited sediment is rather sparse (Taylor 1996; Martin

2000). This section discusses the vertical distribution in a

sediment profile from a single flood event deposit. The

position of site BE1 enabled a reconstruction of the period

of sedimentation according to the hydrograph (Fig. 2). The

relatively uniform 30 mm thick sediment layer was split

into four individual layers according to visual differences

in color properties and grain size (Table 3).

Vertical profiles through the deposited floodplain sedi-

ment may reflect (1) changes in SPM quality, quantity or

origin during a flood and (2) post-sedimentary processes

during the drying out of the sediment. From the position of

sampling site BE1 and the flow curve of the Berounka

River during the 2002 flood, it was possible to estimate the

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

6.8 8.8 10.8 12.8 14.8 16.8 18.8 20.8

date

m[ akn

uore

B egra

hcsid

3s

1-]

0

50

100

150

200

250m[ akv ati

L egr a

hcs id

3s

1-]

Berounka

Litavka

beginning of BE1 profile sedimentation

end of BE1 profile sedimentation

Fig. 2 River flow curves of the Berounka River at the Beroun gauge,

and of the Litavka River at its closing gauge at Beroun; data from sine

(2003a). Period of sedimentation of the sample BE1 is also shown

Environ Geol (2008) 56:399–412 407

123

beginning and end of sedimentation at this site. Sedimen-

tation started on 13 August 13 (12 a.m.) when the discharge

of the Berounka (approximately 1,400 m3 s-1) at the Be-

roun gauge was increasing (Fig. 2). Simultaneously, the

discharge from the Litavka River had already been

decreasing from its peak on 13 August (7 a.m.). Sedi-

mentation of the BE1 profile ceased on 14 August (6 p.m.)

(Fig. 2).

The contribution of discharge (and thus of SPM) from the

Litavka to the Berounka decreased from the beginning of the

sedimentation of profile BE1 until its end. Simultaneously,

the Berounka changed from increasing discharge while

approaching the flood crest to decreasing discharge (Fig. 2).

A basic description of the individual layers and appro-

priate forms of carbon in the 30 mm of sediment divided

into four layers is included in Table 3. Increased total

concentrations of Al at the bottom of both profiles might be

due to sedimentation and accumulation of heavier mineral

particles (alumosilicates) during the early stage of the

flood, when the carrying capacity of the currents is highest.

In this early stage of the flood, more contaminated sections

within the river channel or in the floodplain were eroded.

During the flood peak, erosion of older sediments, which

were deposited in the floodplain in the pre-industrial period

became more and more important. Similar patterns of

decreasing total and acid leachable concentrations toward

the top of the sediment profile occurred for Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb

and Zn (Fig. 3). Another possible reason was the

decreasing influence of SPM derived from the Litavka,

which had peaked several hours earlier.

Once deposited, the sedimentary profile started to develop

due to the physico-chemical processes such as compaction

and loss of pore water by evaporation from the top layer of

the profile. Therefore, selected elements such as Na occur-

ring in the pore-water solution might have been transported

and deposited in the top layers (Fig. 3). Gradually increasing

leachable and exchangeable Na concentrations from the

bottom to the top of the sedimentary profile are interpreted as

the result of such solute transport.

Increased exchangeable (rainwater extractable) concen-

trations of Ca, Mg, K and Na in the top layers are another

result of this process. These solutes are the main cations

occurring in relatively high dissolved concentrations in the

Berounka River water (Zak et al. 2004). Another reason for

increased concentrations of these elements could be

deposition of the finest material during decreasing flow in

the final part of the flood.

The concentration of organic carbon increased from the

top to bottom, while in contrast the concentration of car-

bonate bound carbon decreased from the top to bottom of

the sediment profile (Table 2). These opposite behaviors

are therefore the result of two independent processes: the

evolution of SPM composition during the flood, and

post-sedimentary enrichment of the uppermost layer in

carbonate due to water evaporation.

Considering the grain size distribution (granulometry) of

the studied flood sediments, it can be generally concluded

that samples are dominated by sedimentary material of

silt size (0.004–0.063 mm), with most material in the

category of coarse silt (0.016–0.063 mm). Clay particles

(\0.004 mm) and sand-sized grains (0.063–2.000 mm) are

less abundant. Precise granulometric analysis of the sedi-

ment is difficult for several reasons. The main problem

relates to the fact that the density of the sedimented par-

ticles has a bimodal distribution. There are present both

mineral grains (dominating), with densities corresponding

to mineralogical densities of the minerals involved, and

fragments of organic matter with densities close to 1 g

cm-3. In the size fractions where the grain size distribution

could not be obtained by sieving (i.e., usually\0.063 mm),

the separation of individual size categories of particles by

the usual sedimentation method (based on Stokes’ Law) is

thus strongly influenced. Moreover, the mineral grains of

the coarsest size present differ greatly from spherical in

shape (there are abundant mica flakes).

With respect to these difficulties, the granulometry of

the dominating particles of silt and clay size was performed

by separating them into three size classes only. Detailed

grain size distribution was performed only on individual

layers of the sample BE1. Granulometry of the other

geochemically studied samples is similar.

Leachability of individual elements from the sediments

The potential mobility of elements from the sediment to the

environment after deposition is important particularly from

an environmental point of view. Mobility of elements

depends above all on the binding of each element in sed-

iment. The two methods of sediment leaching used indicate

the ‘‘maximal’’ leachable concentration and exchangeable

concentration (‘‘the weakest bound’’ concentration).

The metals such as Pb, Mn, Cu and Zn had the highest

proportion (74–89%) of the acid leachable fraction from the

total concentration, but their exchangeable concentrations

were below 1%. Moreover, the total concentrations of these

metals in sediments were lower than ecotoxicological lim-

its. The results of leaching experiments indicate that their

immediate availability for release from sediments is low.

Phosphorus, calcium and magnesium were among the

elements with a high acid leachable proportion (Table 4).

In comparison to the toxic metals, their exchangeable and

thus readily available proportion was not negligible.

Though there is a potential danger from content of metals

in sediments from 2002 flood, the rainwater leaching

experiments indicate that nutritional elements would be

408 Environ Geol (2008) 56:399–412

123

released first. The lowest leachable and exchangeable

concentrations were typical for the main mineral constit-

uents such as Al, and for the constituents of resistant

minerals such as Ti.

At the sampling area VLM in Prague (see Fig. 1),

repeated sampling of the August 2002 flood sediment

washed ‘‘in situ’’ by rains in the period between December

2002 and June 2003 was performed. Analyses of this

sediment reflects the chemical changes occurring in situ

over time, since the sediment was subject to leaching by

rainwater and weathering for a period of 6 months at the

site of deposition. The only significantly modified proper-

ties were the decreased concentrations of exchangeable Ca

and Na, and the variability in the content of these elements

in sediments, which was higher than the changes produced

by rains during the course of almost 1 year.

Fig. 3 The concentrations of

elements in ppm through the

profile at site BE1 in sediment

of the Berounka River from the

single 2002 major flood event

Environ Geol (2008) 56:399–412 409

123

Conclusions

The August 2002 flood of the Vltava River and most of its

tributaries was the biggest flood recorded in this region

during at least the last 200 years, and one of largest floods

of the last millennium. The extreme discharge during the

2002 flood caused the rivers to overflow their stream

channels and induce changes to the floodplains.

Sediments were sampled at flooded sites with low

energy environments, typical for the lower reaches of the

Berounka and Vltava Rivers, where water flow velocity

below 1 m s-1 favors deposition of the finest particles,

Fig. 3 continued

410 Environ Geol (2008) 56:399–412

123

dominated by silt-size particles. These sediments domi-

nated by quartz silt were characterized by a relatively low

content of clay minerals and relatively low total carbon

content (Ctot ranging from 3.97 to 5.01%).

The chemical composition of the major basic elements

of the sediments corresponded closely to their mineralog-

ical composition and content of carbonate. The highest acid

leachable fraction of elements ([60%) in sediments was

found for Pb, Mn, Cu and Zn (P), but the largest

exchangeable fraction (4–12%) was typical for essential

elements such as Ca, Sr, Na and Mg.

Despite a high degree of dilution, the influence of the

small Litavka River, draining the historical Pb–Zn–Ag

Prıbram ore region, is well visible. The Litavka River is

one of important sources of Pb and Zn contamination for

the whole Berounka–Vltava river system.

The vertical profile through the 2002 flood sediments

deposited in the floodplain of the Berounka did not exhibit

significant chemical zoning, except for some components

(Ca, Mn, P, Sr, secondary carbonate) enriched in the top

layers due to precipitation from evaporated pore-water

contained in the mud.

Some of the sediments originating from this flood were

deposited onto floodplain areas used for agricultural or cul-

tivation purposes. These flood sediments and any associated

chemicals will be incorporated into the soils at these sites.

Acknowledgments This research was financed through the project

IAA300130505 of the Grant Agency of the Czech Academy of Sci-

ences and project No.AV0Z30130516 of the Institute of Geology,

ASCR. Radek Mikulas collected the sediment samples from flood-

plain of Vltava River. Lenka Lisa and Sergio Sanchez de la Nieta

Morote participated in sample sieving and homogenization. J. Hlavac

determined the shells of mollusks. P. Skrivan did the pilot leaching

experiment.

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