First Things First: Essays on the Buddhist Path · Honest to Goodness “Let an observant person come—one who is not fraudulent, not deceitful, one of an honest nature. I instruct

First

Things

First

Essays on the Buddhist Path

ṬhānissaroBhikkhu

(GeoffreyDeGraff)

2

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3

Acknowledgements

Manypeoplehavereadearlierversionsoftheseessaysandhavekindly

offeredsuggestionsforimprovements.Inparticular,Iwouldliketothank

themonkshereatthemonastery,aswellasAddieOnsanit,Nathaniel

Osgood,BalajiRamasubramanian,DaleSchultz,IsabellaTrauttmansdorff,

andBarbaraWright.Anymistakesthatremain,ofcourse,aremyown

responsibility.

Someoftheseessays,inearlierincarnations,haveappearedinTricycle,

Buddhadharma,andLion’sRoar.Iwouldliketothanktheeditorsofthese

journalsfortheirhelpinmakingthewritingclearerandmorecoherent.

Thefactthattheessayswereoriginallywrittenondifferentoccasionsfor

differentaudiencesexplainsthedifferenceinstyleamongthem,the

occasionaloverlapincontent,aswellastheinconsistentuseofSanskritand

Pāliterms:karma/kamma,dharma/dhamma,andnirvāṇa/nibbāna.Ihopethat

thisisnotaproblem.

Theseandotheressaysonbuddhistpracticeareavailableontheinternet

atwww.dhammatalks.org.

ṬhānissaroBhikkhu(GeoffreyDeGraff)

METTA FOREST MONASTERY

VALLEY CENTER, CA 92082-1409

DECEMBER, 2018

4

HonesttoGoodness

“Letanobservantpersoncome—onewhoisnotfraudulent,notdeceitful,

oneofanhonestnature.Iinstructhim.IteachhimtheDhamma.Practicing

asinstructed,heinnolongtimeknowsforhimself,seesforhimself:‘Sothisis

howthereistherightliberationfrombondage,i.e.,thebondageof

ignorance.’”—MN80

WhenIwasayoungmonkinThailand,Iknewawomanwhosefather

hadbeenthechiefmusicianfortheroyalThaicourtintheearlyyearsofthe

20thcentury.Thefamilywasneverwealthy,buttheylivedinthepalace

compound,andthatwaswhereshewasborn.Thatwasalsowhere,asa

child,shelearnedhowtocook.BythetimeIknewher,herpalaceyears

wereover,butshestillhadareputationasanexcellentcook.Manywomen

askedtostudycookingwithher,butasfarasIknew,shetaughtonlythree

orfour.Timeandagain,shetoldme,shehadtorejectpotentialstudentson

groundsofcharacter.Onewas“tooflighty.”Another,“tooproud.”

Partofherattitudereflectedthefactthatsherefusedtoacceptmoneyto

teach,soshewasfreetotakeononlythestudentsshefeltliketeaching.But

amoreimportantpartofherattitude,assheexplainedittome,wasrespect

fortheskillsshehadbeentaught:Theydeservedtobepassedononlyto

thosewhowerereliableenoughtomaintainthem,andobservantenoughto

pickuptheirsubtletiesandtoapplythemtothevagariesoftimeandplace

—whatkindoffoodwasavailable,whatkindofpeoplewouldbeeatingthe

food.

AsIbecamemorefamiliarwithtraditionalThaiculture,Ifoundthather

attitudesweresharedbymanypeoplewhohadmasteredtheoldskills.

Insteadofteachingstudentsatlarge,theywouldtakeonapprentices,

acceptingonlytheapprenticestheyfeltwereworthyoftheirskills.This

attitudeappliednotonlytotheskillsoflaylife,butalso—asIfoundinmy

relationshipwithmyteacher,AjaanFuang—tothoseofmonasticlife.Ajaan

Fuangwaspassingontheskillshehadlearnedfromhisteacher,AjaanLee,

andmypositionwasthatofanapprenticewhohadtomakehimselfworthy

ofthoseskills.Lookingintothetexts,Ifoundthatthisattitudestretchedall

thewaybacktothetimeoftheBuddha.TheDhammahetaughtwasaskill

5

(vijjā):theskillforendingsuffering.Anystudentwhowantedtolearn

neededclearly-definedcharactertraitstoqualifyasanapprenticeinthat

skill.

ThisperspectiveisrarelyappreciatedinWesternBuddhistcircles.That’s

becausemostofusintheWestgainourfirstexposuretoBuddhismina

denaturedsetting:inaclassroom,on-line,orinameditationretreat.We

learntheteachingsasabodyofconcepts,andmeditationasaseriesof

techniquesforseeingthetruthofthoseconcepts.Rarely,though,arewe

taughtthateithertheteachingsorthemeditationinvolvequalitiesofthe

character.Evenwhenwe’retaughtthesocialemotionsofgoodwillor

compassiononaretreat,they’reusuallypresentedasanexpressionofour

innategoodnature,withverylittlenotionthatstrengthsofcharacter—such

asself-honestyorrestraint—mightbeneededtoembodythem.

ThisisinsharpcontrasttothewaytheBuddhahimselfrecommended

thatpeopleencountertheteachings:inthecontextofarelationshipwitha

personwhoembodiedadmirablecharactertraits,andwhowantedyouto

developthosetraitsaswell.ThefactthattheBuddhadescribedthis

relationshipasanapprenticeshipmeantthattheteacherhadtolookfor

admirablepotentialsinaprospectivestudent,andthestudenthadtolook

forsimilartraitsinaprospectiveteacher,beforeeachsideagreedtotakethe

otheron.

Whilethissortofrelationshipwasmodeledontheapprenticeshipsof

otherskills—suchascarpentryorgoldsmithing—itwasn’tsimplyarelicof

ancientIndiantraditions.Instead,itgrewoutofthenatureoftheskillthat

theBuddhataughtandtrainedhisstudentstoteach.Traininginthisskill

requiredmorethanjustmemorizingabodyofconceptsormastering

meditationtechniques.Italsorequiredsuchqualitiesashonesty,

harmlessness,andrestraint—qualitiesthatwerebesttransmittedthrough

closepersonalcontact,fromonerealpersontoanother.

WecanseethisintheBuddha’sdescriptionsofhowapersonmightget

startedonthepathtomasteringtheskilltoendsuffering.Ashesaid,

everyone’sfirstreactiontosufferingistwofold:bewildermentastowhyit’s

happening,andasearchforsomeonewhomightknowhowtoendit.

Becauseofourbewilderment,oursearchforsomeonetoendthissuffering

canoftenleadusastray,aswelookforhelpfromallthewrongpeople.

That’sthenegativesideofthesearch.Butitspositivesideisthatitopens

6

ourmindtooutsidehelp.Thisway,whenwefindtherightpersonwho

reallyknowshowtoputanendtosuffering,wecanberesponsivetothat

person’spositiveinfluence.

OneofthemostdistinctivefeaturesoftheDhammaisthatitpointsto

thesourceofsufferinginside.Inotherwords,wesufferbecauseofourown

actions,andwe’llbeabletoendsufferingonlywhenwecanchangetheway

weact.Tobewillingtotakeonsuchateaching—ratherthanonethat

blamesoursufferingonthingsorpeopleoutside,orthatpromisesthat

someoneoutsidecanendoursufferingforus—weneedatleastaglimmer

oftwoqualitiesofthecharacter.Wehavetobe(1)observantenoughand(2)

honestenoughtoadmitthat,yes,wedosufferfromourownactions,and

thatwe’llhavetocleanupourownactifwewantthesufferingtostop.

Thesetwoqualities—beingobservantandhonest(or“nodeceiver,”inthe

Buddha’swords)—werepreciselythequalitiestheBuddhalookedforina

student.Buttheyweren’tmerelysignsthatthestudentwasreadyforthe

training.Theyalsoservedasthequalitiesthatthestudenthadtouse

reciprocally,inordertojudgewhetheraparticularpersonwasreliable

enoughtotakeonasateacher.Afterall,astheBuddhaalsosaid,youdon’t

wanttoassociatewithpeoplelackinginintegrity,andyoucan’tknow

whetheranotherpersonhasintegrityunlessyouhavesomeintegrity

yourself.

TheCanoncontainsmanylistsofqualitiesthatateachershouldembody,

buttwostandout.Inthefirstlist(MN95),youlookforhonestyand

harmlessness.Tocheckforhonesty,theBuddhahasyouobservewhether

theteachershowsanysignsofthegreed,aversion,ordelusionthatwould

causehimtoclaimknowledgeofthingshedidn’treallyknow.Tocheckfor

harmlessness,youobservewhethertheteacherevertriestogetotherpeople

todothingsthatwouldleadtotheirlong-termharmorsuffering.Only

whenateacherpassesbothtestsshouldyouplaceyourconfidenceinhim.

ThesecondlistcomesintheBuddha’sdescriptionofhowtodevelop

admirablefriendship—which,hesays,isthemostimportantexternalfactor

conducivetoawakening(AN8:54).Admirablefriendshipmeansboth

havinganadmirablefriend—areallywise,goodperson—andtryingto

emulatethatfriend’sgoodqualities.AndthequalitiestheBuddha

recommendslookingforarefour.

ThefirstgoodqualityisconvictionintheBuddha’sawakening—

7

believingthattheBuddhareallydidputanendtosuffering,thathedidit

throughhisownefforts,andthathediditthroughqualitiesthatwerenot

peculiartohim.They’requalitiesthatweallhave,atleastinpotentialform,

simplythathedevelopedthemtoaveryheighteneddegree.Butwecando

that,too.Whatthatmeansisthatanadmirablefriendisonewho’s

convincedinthepowerofhisorheractions,inthepowerofthemindto

changeitselfinawaythatcanleadtoareliablehappiness,justlikethe

happinesstheBuddhafoundinhisawakening.

Thesecondqualityisvirtue.Youwanttolookforsomeonewhosticksto

thepreceptsandencouragesotherpeopletosticktothem,too.Thissecond

qualityfollowsnaturallyonthefirst,becauseanyonewhoreallybelievesin

thepowerofactionwouldn’twanttoharmanybeingatall.Thismeansno

killing,stealing,illicitsex,lying,ortakingintoxicants.Inanysituations.At

all.AstheBuddhasays,ifyoucanholdtothesepreceptswithoutexception,

you’regivinguniversalprotectiontoallbeings.Ifyoumakeexceptions,that

protectionisonlypartial—andyou’reonlypartiallyprotectedaswell.

Thethirdgoodqualityisgenerosity.Admirablefriendsgivefreelynot

onlyoftheirmaterialbelongings,butalsooftheirtime,knowledge,energy,

andforgiveness.

Thefourthgoodqualityisdiscernment:insightintohowsufferingarises

andpassesaway,withtheprimaryfocusonhowsufferingiscausedby

mentalactionsthatcanbeabandonedbytrainingthemind.

Sowhenyou’relookingforateacher,youhavetoberesponsibletofind

someonewhoembodiesthesequalities.Thiswilltaketime,alongwithall

yourpowersofobservation.Andyouhavetobehonestinyourjudgment.

Youcan’tturnablindeyetoapotentialteacher’sbreachesofvirtue,

pretendingthattheydon’tmatter.Otherwise,you’lldeveloptheattitude

thatyourbreacheswon’tmatter,either.

Onceyou’reconvincedthatyou’vefoundtherightperson,youhaveto

beobservanttopickuphisorhergoodqualities.NoteveryDhammalesson

isinwords.AsAjaanFuangoncesaid,agoodstudenthastolearntothink

likeathief.Youcan’twaittobetoldwherethevaluablesare.Youhaveto

figureouthowtofindthemyourself.

Youalsohavetobringhonestytotherelationship,payingcareful

attentiontotheteachingsandthenweighingthemagainstyourownactions

toseewhereyouractionsdoanddon’tmeasureup.

8

Inthisway,yourhonestyandyourpowersofobservationgetturnedin

bothdirections—towardyourteacher’sactionstopickupgoodexamplesto

emulate,andtowardyourownactionsasyoutrytoimprovetheminline

withtheteacher’sexample.Asthesetwoqualitiesgetdevelopedinthisway,

theyturnintoaqualitythattheBuddhacalled“appropriateattention.”

Justasadmirablefriendshipisthemostimportantexternalfactorinthe

practice,appropriateattentionisthemostimportantinternalone.

“Attention,”intheBuddha’svocabulary,isamatterofwhichquestionsyou

taketoheart—theonesyoupayattentiontoandfocusontryingtoanswer.

Henevertaught“bare”attention,astherearenobarequestions.However,

thereareappropriatequestions—appropriateforhelpingtobringsuffering

toanend—andinappropriatequestions,whichfocusonissuesthatpullyou

offthepath.

Inappropriateattentionfocusesonquestionssuchas“Istheworld

eternal?Isitnot?WhoamI?WhatamI?DoIexist?DoInotexist?”These

questionsgetyoutiedupinwhattheBuddhacallsa“thicketofviews,”from

whichit’shardtodisentangleyourself.Toinsistonansweringthemislike

beingshotwithanarrowandrefusingtogetitremoveduntilyou’vefound

outwhoshotthearroworhowthearrowwasmade.You’ddie.

Withappropriateattention,though,thequestionscomedownto:“What

isskillfulandwhat’snotskillful?What,whenIdoit,willleadtolong-term

welfareandhappiness?What,whenIdoit,willleadtolong-termharmand

suffering?”Asyoupursuethesequestions,yourealizethattheanswersdon’t

stopwithwords.Theyleadtoactions.Andtheyforceyoutodevelopyour

powersofobservationandhonestyevenfurther.

TheBuddha’sinstructionstohisson,Rāhula,showhowtodothisinthe

contextofanadmirablefriendship.

AstheBuddhatoldRāhula,beforeyouact,askyourself,“Whatdoyou

expecttobetheresultsofyouractions?”Ifyouforeseethatanactionis

goingtocausesufferingorharm,don’tdoit.Ifyoudon’tforeseeanyharm,

youcangoaheadanddoit.Butlookatitalsowhileyou’redoingittoseeif

anyharmfulresultsarecomingupinspiteofyouroriginalintention.Ifyou

seeanyharmarising,juststop.Ifyoudon’tseeanyharm,youcancontinue.

Whenyou’redone,though,you’renotreallydone.Youhavetolookat

theaction’slong-termresults.Ifyourealizethatyoudidharmeventhough

youdidn’texpectto,yougooverandtalkwithyouradmirablefriend,both

9

todevelopyourhonestyinbeingwillingtoadmitmistakes,andtogain

advicefromyourfriendonhowtoapplyyourpowersofobservationtobe

moreharmlessthenexttimearound.

Hereiswhereallthesebasicqualitiesofcharactercometogether.You’re

payingappropriateattentiontoyouractions,tryingtobehonestand

observanttomakesurethatyou’renotcausinganyunnecessaryharm.And

you’redependingonthehelpofareliablepersontoforceyoutobeeven

morehonestandobservant—tothepointwhere,whenyoulookatyour

actionsanddon’tseeanyharmatall,youcantrustwhatyousee,because

you’vebeentrainedtobereliable.Youcantakejoyinthefactthatyou’re

makingprogress,andthatjoygivesyoutheenergytokeeppursuingthe

trainingtohigherandhigherlevels,ferretingoutmoreandmoresubtle

waysinwhichyouractionsneedtobefine-tuned.

Becausethisframeworkofappropriateattentionstartswithquestions

aboutintentions,itgraduallymovesitsfocusfromactionsingeneralto

somethingmorespecific:Whichintentionsleadtosuffering,andwhichto

theendofsuffering?Thesearethequestionsthatunderliethefournoble

truths:suffering,itscause,itscessation,andthepathtoitscessation.And

hereagain,thefocusofyourattentionisonwhatyou’redoing—andwhat

youneedtodobetter.Sufferingisn’tsimplysomethingyoupassively

endure.It’sanactivity,theactivityofclinging,inwhichthemindfeedsoff

thethingstowhichitclings.Itscauseisalsosomethingyou’redoing:You

craveeithertofantasizeaboutsensualpleasures,totakeonanidentityina

particularworldofexperience,ortoseeyouridentityinaworldof

experiencedestroyed.Thecessationofsufferingrequiresthatyoudevelop

dispassionbothforclingingandtheseformsofcraving.Thepathrequires

thatyoudevelopthequalitiesofmindthatleadtowardthatdispassion.

Thisisatallorder,becauseyou’llhavetoabandonmanyoftheactivities

you’vetakenasfoodforthemind,thinkingthatthepleasurestheygave

wereworthwhateverpaintheyinvolved.Now,however,honestyrequires

youtoadmitthatthey’renot,andsoyouhavetogivethemup.Andthisis

whereyourealizethattheprincipleofharmlessnessisnotjustinoffensive

meekness.Itrequiresstrength:thestrengthofrestraint,thestrengthof

consistency,thestrengthofdetermination,thestrengthofreallybeingtrue

toyourself,theabilitytosacrificeimmediatepleasureforlong-termgood.

Thisiswhythisskillcanbetaughtonlybypeopleofstrongcharacter,

10

andcanbemasteredonlybypeoplewhohavetheintegritytorealizethat

characterisaqualitytheyneedtodevelop.AndthisiswhytheBuddha

recommendedthattheDhammabetaughtinthecontextofan

apprenticeship,wherequalitiesofcharacterareemphasizedsothattheycan

prosperandgrowintosomethingsolidandtrue.Butthat’soneofthesigns

oftheDhamma’struegoodness.Itcanbemasteredonlybypeoplewhoare

trulygood.

Butwhatcanyoudoifyoucan’tfindanadmirablefriendtogainthis

sortoftraining?There’sonepassageintheCanonthat,atfirstglance,

soundsdiscouraging:theonewheretheBuddhasaysthatadmirable

friendshipisthewholeofthepractice,orthewholeofwhathecallstheholy

life(SN45:8).Bythathemeansthatwithouthimasouradmirablefriend,

we’dbenowhere.We’dhavenoideaofhowtoputoursufferingstoanend.

Butthere’sanotherpassage(Sn1:3)wherehesaysthatifyoucan’tfind

anadmirablefriend,it’sbettertogoalone.Ofcourse,atpresentwedon’t

totallylackanadmirablefriend.WehavetheexampleoftheBuddhaas

portrayedinthetexts,asasketchofwhatanadmirablefriendwouldsay

anddo.It’snotquitethesameashavingarealperson,becauseyoucan’t

confessyourmistakestoatext,andit’salltooeasytoreadyourown

standardsastowhatcountsascharacterintoatext.Butifallyoucanfind

aroundyouarepeoplewhoarelackinginconviction,lackinginvirtue,

lackingingenerosity,andlackingindiscernment,it’sbestnottoassociate

withthem.Youcertainlycan’ttakethemasaguideinthepath.

Whichmeansthatifthat’syouronlyoption,youhavetobeyourown

admirablefriend,especiallystringentwithyourselfindeveloping

conviction,virtue,generosity,anddiscernment,alongwithalltheother

qualitiesofcharacterneededforthepractice:honesty,harmlessness,and

powersofobservation.Thelackofanadmirablefriendislikeadeepholein

yourpaththat,witheffort,youmighteventuallygetacross.Butanylackin

characterisabottomlesspit.

11

IntheEyesoftheWiseThe Buddha’s Teachings on Honor & Shame

Severalyearsback,IledaretreatinSantaFeonthetopicofkarma.One

ofthereadingswasapassageinwhichtheBuddhateacheshisseven-year-

oldson,Rāhula,howtoexaminehisactions,ashewouldhisfaceina

mirror,tomakesurethatheharmsnoone—neitherhimselfnoranyone

else.Oneoftheretreatantswasatherapistwho,thedayaftertheretreat,

wasscheduledtoholdthefinalmeetingofatherapygroupshehad

organizedforsomeofherclients.ShedecidedtoXeroxtheBuddha’s

teachingstoRāhulaandsharethemwiththegroup,togettheiropinionon

theBuddha’sparentingskills.Theirunanimousverdict:“Ifourparentshad

taughtuslikethat,wewouldn’tbeneedingtherapygroupslikethis.”

Whatwasstrikingabouttheirverdictwasthattheyarrivedatiteven

thoughtheBuddha’steachingemphasizedtheneedforRāhulatodevelopa

senseofshamearoundhisactions:Ifhedidn’tfeelshameattellinga

deliberatelie,hewasasemptyofgoodnessasanoverturneddipperwas

emptyofwater.Ifherealizedthathehadengagedinthinkingthathad

harmedhimself—orcouldleadtoharmtoothers—hewastofeelashamed

ofthosethoughtsandtoresolvenottorepeatthem.

AndtheBuddhadidn’tteachshameonlytoRāhula.Inhismoregeneral

teachingstothepublic,hecalledshameabrightguardianoftheworld,in

thatitkeptpeoplefrombetrayingthetrustofothers.Healsocalledshamea

nobletreasure,somethingmorevaluablethangoldorsilverinthatitwould

protectyoufromdoingthingsyou’dlaterregret.

ThehighvaluethattheBuddhaplacedonshamecontrastssharplywith

thewayit’sregardedinmanysegmentsofourculturetoday.Inbusiness

andinpolitics,shameisalltoooftenviewedasweakness.Amongtherapists,

it’scommonlyseenaspathological—anunhealthylowopinionofyourself

thatpreventsyoufrombeingallthatyoucan.Bookafterbookgivescounsel

onhowtoovercomefeelingsofshameandtoaffirmfeelingsofself-worth

intheirplace.

It’seasytounderstandthisgeneralreactionagainstshame.Theemotion

ofshame—thesensethatyoudon’tlookgoodintheeyesofothers—isa

12

powerfulone.It’swhereweallowtheopinionofotherpeopleintoour

psyches,andalltoooftenunscrupulouspeopletakeadvantageofthat

openingtotrampleourhearts:tobullyusandforceonusstandardsof

judgmentthatarenotinourgenuinebestinterests.It’sbadenoughwhen

theytrytomakeusashamedofthingsoverwhichwehavelittleorno

control:race,appearance,age,gender,sexualorientation,levelof

intelligence,orfinancialstatus.It’sevenworsewhentheytrytoshameus

intodoingharm,likeavengingoldwrongs.

Buteffortstoavoidtheseproblemsbytotallyabolishingshamemissan

importantpoint:Therearetwokindsofshame—theunhealthyshamethat’s

theoppositeofself-esteem,andthehealthyshamethat’stheoppositeof

shamelessness.ThissecondkindofshameistheshamethattheBuddha

callsabrightguardianandatreasure.If,inourzealtogetridofthefirst

kindofshame,wealsogetridofthesecond,we’llcreateasocietyof

sociopathswhocarenothingforotherpeople’sopinionsofrightorwrong

—orwhofeelshameaboutallthewrongthings.Businessmenand

politicianswhoseenoshameinlying,forinstance,feelshameifthey’renot

atleastasruthlessastheirpeers.Andforallthegeneraldismissalofshame,

advertisersstillfindthatshameoveryourbodyorostensiblewealthisa

powerfultoolforsellingproducts.Whenallshamegetspathologized,it

goesundergroundinthemind,wherepeoplecan’tthinkclearlyaboutit,

andthensendsouttentaclesthatspreadharmallaroundus.

ThisiswheretheBuddha’steachingsonhealthyshamecanbeauseful

antidote,helpingtobringthetopicintotheopenandtoshowthat,with

propertraining,shamecanbeagreatforceforgood.

Tobeginwith,theBuddhacoupleshealthyshamewithahealthysenseof

honor:asensethatyoudeserverespectforholdingtoahighstandardof

conduct.Inthissense,shameisasignofhigh,ratherthanlow,selfesteem.

Honor,likeshame,beginswiththedesirenotonlytobegood,butalsoto

lookgoodintheeyesofothers,whichiswhyit,too,comesinbothhealthy

andunhealthyvarieties.Duels,feuds,gangwars,andhonorkillings—based

onthebeliefthatrespectisearnedbyyourabilitytodoviolence—have

givenhonorabadname.Buthonorcanberedefinedandmadehealthyso

thatit’searnedthroughintegrity.Asocietywithoutthissenseofhonor

wouldbeasbadasasocietywithouthealthyshame.

TheBuddha’sinsightsintohealthyhonorandshamecamefromhisown

13

experienceinsearchingfor,andfinallyfinding,awakening.Hisinitial

searchfortherightpathhadtaughthimthathonorandshamehadtobe

treatedwithdiscernment,inthathecouldn’talwaystrusttheopinionof

others.Ifhehadbeenswayedbythehonorshownhimbyhisearlyteachers,

hewouldhavestayedstuckinthepracticeofconcentrationwithout

developingdiscernment.Ifhehadbeenswayedbythedisdainshownbythe

fivebrethrenwhenheabandonedhisausterities,hewouldhavedied

withouteverfindingthegoal.

Butasherealizedafterhisawakening,theproblemwithshameand

honorisnotthatyouwanttolookgoodintheeyesofothers.It’sjustthat

youwanttolookgoodinthewrongpeople’seyes.Ifyoucanfocusonthe

rightpeople,shameandhonorcanbeanenormoushelpindevelopingwhat

theBuddhaidentifiedasthemostimportantexternalfactoringaining

awakening:admirablefriendship.Hewasnowinapositiontogiveothers

theguidancehehadlackedinhisownquest,andtoteachhisdisciplestobe

admirablefriendstoothers.ThisiswhytheBuddhasetupthemonastic

Saṅgha:tokeepthelineageofadmirablefriendsalive.

Butadmirablefriendshipinvolvesmorethanjustmakingfriendswith

admirablepeople.Youalsoneedtoemulatetheirgoodqualities.Thisis

whereasenseofshameandhonorcomeintotheequation.Yourdesirefor

youradmirablefriendstothinkwellofyouisacrucialincentivetofollow

theirgoodexample.

Thegoodqualitiesofadmirablefriendsarefour:

•convictionintheBuddha’sawakeningandintheprincipleof

karma;

•virtue,inthesenseofnotbreakingthepreceptsorencouraging

otherstobreakthem;

•generosity,and

•discernment.

Thediscernmentofadmirablefriendscanbeseenintwothings:the

standardsbywhichtheyjudgeyou,andtheirpurposeinjudgingyou.If

they’rereallydiscerning,they’lljudgeyoubyyouractions—notbyyour

appearance,wealth,oranythingelseoverwhichyouhavenocontrol.

They’lljudgeyouractionsbothbytheintentionsonwhichyouactandon

theresultsofyouractions.Inbothcases—andhere’swheretheBuddha’s

senseofhonorinvertsthemilitarysenseofhonorinwhichhewastrained

14

asayoungprince—thestandardofjudgmentisthatyoucanfindhappiness

insuchawaythatyourintentionsandactionsharmnoone:notyouor

anyoneelse.

Thepurposeforwhichadmirablefriendsjudgeyouisnotsimplyto

arriveatthejudgment.Theywanttohelpyourecognizewhyyourmistakes

aremistakes,sothatyoucanlearnnottorepeatthem.Inthisway,they’re

encouragingyoutodevelopthetruesourceforyourhappiness:yourability

toactwithmoreandmoreskill.

Iftheyjudgeyouintheseways,yourfriendsshowthatthey’vedeveloped

bothofthediscernmentfactorsofthepath:rightview—inseeingthe

importanceofaction—andrightresolve,inextendinggoodwilltoyou.If

youinternalizetheirstandards,you’reinternalizingthepathaswell.

ThisiswhytheBuddhataughtRāhulahowtointernalizethosestandards

byexamininghisownactions.Thatway,evenifthesocietyaroundhimwas

fallingapartandhewasseparatedfromhisadmirablefriends,hecouldstill

livebytheirvalues.Thatwouldbeforhislong-termwelfareandhappiness.

TheBuddhaprefacedhisinstructionswiththeimageofamirror:Justas

youuseamirrortoseehowyoulooktootherpeople,Rāhulawastolookat

hisactionstoseehowheappearedintheeyesofthewise.Andthewise

wouldhavehimjudgehisactionslikethis:

Whateverhedidinthought,word,anddeed,hewasfirsttoexaminehis

intentions:Ifheanticipatedthattheactheplannedwouldcauseanyharm

insideorout,hewasnottoactonthatintention.Ifhedidn’tanticipate

harm,hecouldgoaheadandact.Whileacting,hewastochecktheresultsof

hisaction.Ifhewascausingunanticipatedharm,heshouldstop.Ifnot,he

couldcontinuewiththeaction.Aftertheactionwasdone,heshouldlookat

thelong-termresultsoftheaction.Ifitturnedoutthathehadcausedharm

inwordordeed,heshouldtalkitoverwithatrustedfriendonthepathwho

wouldadvisehimonhowtoavoidcausingthatharmagain.Thenheshould

resolvenottorepeatthataction.Ifhisthoughtshadcausedharm,heshould

feelshamearoundthattypeofthinkingandresolvenottorepeatit.Ifhe

hadcausednoharm,though,heshouldtakejoyinhisprogressonthepath,

andkeepontraining.

Inthisway,theBuddhadidn’tsimplytellRāhulatocausenoharm.

Instead,hetoldhim,ineffect,“Trynottocauseharm,butifyoudocause

harm,thisishowyougoaboutlearningfromyourmistakes.”Thisshows

15

theelementofpracticalgoodwillthatpervadestheseteachings.

AsdoestheBuddha’srecommendationforjoy.Afterall,joyiswhat

healthyshameandhonorarefor:tohelpyouseeforyourselfthewell-being

thatcomesfrommasteringhigherlevelsofskillandharmlessnessinyour

actions.Whenthisbecomesyoursourceofhappiness,yougrowup,with

lessneedfortheapprovalandaffirmationsofothers.Inseeingthepowerof

youractionsandreallywantingtoactinharmlessways,youmakeright

viewandrightresolveyourown.

Oneofthedangersthatcancomefromshameandhonorinadmirable

friendshipisthat,outofadesiretolookgoodinyourfriends’eyes,you

mightwanttoshowoffyourgoodqualities.Tocounteractthistendency,

though,theBuddhawarnedthatifyoudo,yourgoodqualitiesimmediately

getruined.Oneofthesignsofintegrity,hesaid,ismodesty—tospeakas

littleaspossibleofyourowngoodqualities,andnevertoexaltyourselfover

otherswholackthem.

Theotherdangerofshameandhonoristhatyoumightwanttohide

yourmistakesfromyouradmirablefriends.ThisiswhytheBuddha

stressedthat,ifyou’vemademistakesinthepastbuthavenowlearnednot

torepeatthem,youbrightentheworldlikethemoonwhenreleasedfroma

cloud.Andit’salsowhytheBuddhaprefacedhisinstructionstoRāhulawith

ateachingontruthfulness,lettinghimknowthatmakingamistakeismuch

lessshamefulthanmakingamistakeandnotadmittingit.Ifyouhideyour

faults,younotonlylosethetrustofyourfriends,butyoualsoclosetheway

tomakingprogressonthepath.Orevenworse:IntheBuddha’swords,ifa

personfeelsnoshameintellingadeliberatelie,there’snoevilthatthat

personwon’tdo.

TheBuddhaillustratedthispointwiththeimageofelephantsinbattle.If

anelephantgoesintobattleanduseshisfeetandtusks,butholdsbackhis

trunk,theelephanttrainerknowsthattheelephanthasn’tgivenhislifeto

theking.Butifanelephantuseshisfeetandhistusksandhistrunk,the

elephanttrainerknowsthattheelephanthasgivenhislifetohisking.

There’snothingitwon’tdo.

ThisimageisagoodlessonintheBuddha’srevolutionarysenseof

honor.Atfirstglance,itwouldseemthattheelephantwhodoesn’thold

backwouldbetheherooftheimage—afterall,that’sthekindofelephanta

kingwouldwanttosendintobattle,anditrepresentsthekindofhonor

16

oftenextolledinwarriorcultures.ButtheBuddhaisactuallypresentingthe

imageinanegativelight:Theelephant’swillingnesstoriskitstrunkisa

signofitsservilitytotheking.Ineffect,theBuddha’stellingRāhulathatif,

liketheelephantwhoprotectshistrunk,he’sheedfultoprotecthis

truthfulness,it’sapointofgenuinehonor:asignthathe’saservanttono

one,neithertoanyoneoutsidenortohisowndefilementsinside.

Thisinversionoftheoldmilitarysenseofhonorisechoedinthe

Buddha’scommentthatbetterthanvictoryinbattleoverathousand-

thousandmenisvictoryoveroneperson:yourself.

TheBuddha’sinstructionsintrainingRāhulatodevelopahealthysense

ofhonorandshameeventuallyborefruit.Insteadoftakingprideinthefact

thathewastheBuddha’sson,Rāhulashowedawillingnesstolearnfromall

themonks.Andafterhegainedawakening,theBuddhaextolledhimfor

beingforemostamongthemonksinhisdesiretolearn.

Ofcourse,atthatpointRāhuladidn’tneedtheBuddha’spraise.Hehad

alreadyfoundadeathlesshappinessthatwasbeyondthereachofother

people’srespect.Actually,theBuddhawaspraisingRāhulaforoursake,to

letusknowthatshameandhonorcanbeusefultoolsonthepath.Ifyou’re

carefulinchoosingwhoseopinionsyouletintoyourpsyche,andinternalize

thequalitiesthatmakeshameandhonorhealthy,you’llnotonlylookgood

intheeyesofthewise.Youreyeswillbecomewiseaswell.

17

DidtheBuddhaTeachFreeWill?

Aswithsomanyotherissues,theBuddhatookamiddlepathbetween

thetwoextremesofdeterminismandtotalfreewill.Ifallyourexperience

werepredeterminedfromthepast—throughimpersonalfate,thedesignof

acreatorgod,oryourownpastactions—thewholeideaofapathofpractice

totheendofsufferingwouldbenonsense.Youwouldn’tbeabletochoose

tofollowsuchapath,andtherewouldn’tbesuchapathforyoutochoosein

thefirstplace:Everythingwouldhavealreadybeendetermined.However,if

yourchoicesinthepresentmomentweretotallyfree,withnoconstraints

fromthepast,thatwouldmeanthatyourpresentactionswould,inturn,

havenoimpactonthefuture.It’dbelikeflailingaroundinavacuum:You

couldmoveyourarmsinanywayyouwanted,butyou’dstillbeflailing.

TheBuddhatookthisissuesoseriouslythat,eventhoughherarely

soughtoutotherteacherstoarguewiththem,hewouldiftheytaught

determinismorthechaosoftotalfreedom.

Hisalternativetotheirteachingswastooutlineacausalprinciplein

whichpresentexperienceisacombinationofthreethings:theresultsof

pastintentions—youroldkarma;presentintentions;andtheresultsof

presentintentions.Yourpresentintentionsarethedeterminingfactorasto

whethertheminddoesordoesn’tsufferinanygivenmoment.They’realso

thefactorwherefreedomcancomeintothemixture.Pastkarmaisagiven,

providingtherawmaterialthatyourpresentkarmacanshapeintopresent

experience;theprincipleofcausalityisagiven,providingthegroundrules

astowhichpresentactionswillorwon’tgivegoodresults.Thesegivens

provide,sotospeak,thepointofcontactagainstwhichpresentactionscan

pushandpullandactuallypropelyouinaparticulardirection.Thewider

therangeofskillsyoubringtoyourpresentactions,themorefreedomyou

gaininknowinghowtopushandpullskillfully—andthemoreyou’llbe

ableandwillingtoactonthisknowledge.

SothewholepurposeofBuddhistpracticeistoexpandyourrangeof

skillsinthepresentmoment.Take,forinstance,thethreequalitiesthatthe

Buddharecommendedbebroughttothepracticeofmindfulnessleadingto

concentrationanddiscernment:alertness,theabilitytobeclearlyawareof

whatyou’redoingasyoudoit,alongwiththeresultsthatcomefromwhat

18

you’redoing;mindfulness,theabilitytokeepinmindlessonsyou’velearned

bothfromDhammainstructionsandfromyouownactions,astowhat’s

beneficialandwhat’sharmful;andardency,thewhole-hearteddesiretoact

asskillfullyasyoucanwitheverymoment.Asyoudeveloptheseskills,you

buildafundofknowledgeastowhatworksanddoesn’tworkinleadingto

truehappiness.Youalsobecomeamorediscerningjudgeastohowtorate

whatitmeansto“work”and“notwork.”Andasyoulearnhowtonotbe

overcomebypleasureorpain—bymaintainingyourfocusinthepracticeof

concentrationeveninthepresenceofintensepleasure,andby

comprehendingpaintothepointofnotsufferingfromit—youbecomelike

anexpertcook,abletomakegoodfoodoutofwhatever,goodorbad,isin

thekitchenpantry.

TheBuddhaneverexplainswhywehavethispotentialforfreedomof

choiceinthepresentmoment.Hejustteacheshowbesttotakeadvantageof

it.Ifyoufollowhisadviceinexploringhowfaritcango,itleadsyou

ultimatelytoafreedomofatotallydifferentsort:adimensionabsolutely

freefromconditions,thegreatestfreedomthereis.

Tofullyawakentothisdimensionreleasesyoufromalltherootsof

unskillfulbehavior:greed,aversion,anddelusion.You’vemasteredthe

skillsneedednottosufferfrompastkarmaandtonotcreateanynew

karmawithyourpresentintentions.Fromthatpointonuntildeath,you’re

freetowillonlywhatisskillful.Afterdeath,yourfreedomissototalthatit

can’tbedescribed.

It’sforthesakeofthisfreedomthat,insteadofsimplytakingaposition

onfreewill,theBuddhataughthowyoucanfreeyourwillfromthe

unskillfullimitationsthatkeepitbound.Evenifyoudon’tmakeitallthe

waytofullawakeninginthislifetime,youfindthatbydevelopingtheskills

herecommends,youbroadenthefreedomyoubringtotheculinaryartthat

isyourlife.

19

FirstThingsFirst

IfyouweretoaskpeoplefamiliarwithBuddhismtoidentifyitstwo

mostimportantwisdomteachings,they’dprobablysayemptinessandthe

fournobletruths.Ifyouweretoaskthemfurtherwhichofthetwo

teachingswasmorefundamental,theymighthesitate,butmostofthem

wouldprobablyputemptinessfirst,onthegroundsthatthefournoble

truthsdealwithamentalproblem,whileemptinessdescribesthewaythings

ingeneralare.

Itwasn’talwaysthisway.TheBuddhahimselfgavemoreimportanceto

thefournobletruths,andit’simportanttounderstandwhy.

Whenheboiledhisteachingdowntoitsshortestformulation,hesaid

thathetaughtjustdukkha—sufferingandstress—andthecessationof

dukkha(MN22;SN22:86).Thefournobletruthsexpandonthis

formulation,definingwhatsufferingis—clinging;howit’scaused—craving

andignorance;thefactthatitcanbebroughttoanendbyabandoningits

cause;andthepathofpracticethatleadstothatend.Becausepartofthe

pathofpracticecontainsdesire—thedesire,inrighteffort,toactskillfully

soastogobeyondsuffering—thefournobletruthsalsoexpandononeof

theBuddha’smainobservationsaboutthephenomenaofexperience:that

withtheexceptionofnibbāna,they’reallrootedindesire(AN10:58).

Peoplearen’tsimplypassiverecipientsoftheirexperience.Startingfrom

theirdesires,theyplayanactiveroleinshapingit.Thestrategyimpliedby

thefournobletruthsisthatdesireshouldberetrainedsothat,insteadof

causingsuffering,ithelpsacttowardsuffering’send.

Asforemptiness,theBuddhamentioneditonlyrarely,butoneofhis

definitionsforemptiness(SN35:85)closelyrelatesittoanotherteaching

thathementionedagreatdeal.That’stheteachingpopularlyknownasthe

threecharacteristics,andthattheBuddhahimselfcalled,not

“characteristics,”but“perceptions”:theperceptionofinconstancy,the

perceptionofsuffering/stress,andtheperceptionofnot-self.When

explainingtheseperceptions,hetaughtthatifyouperceivefabricatedthings

—allthingsconditionedbyactsofintention—asinconstant,you’llalsosee

thatthey’restressfulandthusnotworthyidentifyingasyouoryours.

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Hispurposeinteachingtheseperceptionswasforthemtobeappliedto

sufferinganditscauseasawayoffosteringdispassionfortheobjectsof

clingingandcraving,andfortheactsofclingingandcravingthemselves.In

thisway,theseperceptionswereaidsincarryingoutthedutiesappropriate

tothefournobletruths:tocomprehendsuffering,toabandonitscause,to

realizeitscessationbydevelopingthepath.Inotherwords,thefournoble

truthsandtheirdutiessuppliedthecontextforthethreeperceptionsand

determinedtheirroleinthepractice.

However,overthecenturies,asthethreeperceptionswererenamedthe

threecharacteristics,theymorphedintwootherwaysaswell.First,they

turnedintoametaphysicalteaching,asthecharacteristicsofwhatthings

are:Allaredevoidofessencebecausethey’reimpermanentand,since

nothinghasanyessence,thereisnoself.Second,becausethesethree

characteristicswerenowmetaphysicaltruths,theybecamethecontext

withinwhichthefournobletruthsweretrue.

Thisswitchinrolesmeantthatthefournobletruthsmorphedaswell.

WhereastheBuddhahadidentifiedsufferingwithalltypesofclinging—

eventheactofclingingtothephenomenonofthedeathless(amata-

dhamma),theunchangingdimensiontouchedatthefirsttasteofawakening

—therelationshipbetweenclingingandsufferingwasnowexplainedbythe

metaphysicalfactthatallpossibleobjectsofclingingwereimpermanent.To

clingtothemasiftheywerepermanentwouldthusbringsorrowand

disappointment.

Asfortheignorancethatunderliescraving:WhereastheBuddhahad

defineditasignoranceofthefournobletruths,itwasnowdefinedas

ignoranceofthethreecharacteristics.Peopleclingandcravebecausethey

don’trealizethatnothinghasanyessenceandthatthereisnoself.Ifthey

weretorealizethetruthoftheseteachingsthroughdirectexperience—this

becamethepurposeofmindfulnesspractice—theywouldn’tclinganymore,

andsowouldn’tsuffer.

Thisishowthisswitchincontext,givingprioritytothethree

characteristicsoverthefournobletruths,hascometodominatemodern

Buddhism.Thecommonpatternisthatwhenmodernauthorsexplainright

view,whichtheBuddhaequatedwithseeingthingsintermsofthefour

nobletruths,thediscussionquicklyswitchesfromthefournobletruthsto

thethreecharacteristicstoexplainwhyclingingleadstosuffering.Clinging

21

isnolongerdirectlyequatedwithsuffering;instead,itcausessuffering

becauseitassumespermanenceandessenceinimpermanentthings.

Eventeacherswhodenythetruthofthefournobletruths—onthe

groundsthattheprincipleofimpermanencemeansthatnostatementcanbe

trueeverywhereforeveryone—stillaccepttheprincipleofimpermanence

asametaphysicaltruthaccuratelydescribingthewaythingseverywhere

are.

Astheseexplanationshavepercolatedthroughmodernculture,both

amongpeoplewhoidentifythemselvesasBuddhistandamongthosewho

don’t,they’vegivenrisetofourwidespreadunderstandingsoftheBuddha’s

teachingsonclingingandhowit’sbestavoidedsoastostopsuffering:

1.Becausethereisnoself,thereisnoagent.Peopleareessentiallyonthe

receivingendofexperience,andtheysufferbecausetheyclingtotheideathat

theycanresistorcontrolchange.

2.Toclingmeanstoholdontosomethingwiththemisunderstandingthat

it’spermanent.Forthisreason,aslongasyouunderstandthatthingsare

impermanent,youcanembracethembrieflyastheyariseinthepresent

momentanditdoesn’tcountasclinging.Ifyouembraceexperiencesinfull

realizationthatyou’llhavetoletthemgosoastoembracewhatevercomes

next,youwon’tsuffer.Aslongasyou’refullyinthemomentwithno

expectationsaboutthefuture,you’refine.

3.Clingingcomesfromthemistakenviewthattherecanbesuchathing

aslong-termhappiness.Butbecauseallthingsarefleeting,thereisnosuch

thing.Pleasures,likepains,simplycomeandgo.Whenyoucanresign

yourselftothisfact,youcanopentothespaciouswisdomofnon-clinging,

equanimousandaccepting,asyouplacenovainexpectationsonthefleeting

showoflife.

Thesethreeunderstandingsareoftenillustratedwiththeimageofa

perfectlyfluiddancer,happilyresponsivetochangesinthemusicdecided

bythemusicians,switchingpartnerswithease.

ArecentbestsellerthatdevotedafewpagestotheplaceofBuddhismin

worldhistoryillustratedthesethreeunderstandingsoftheBuddhist

approachtosufferingwithanotherimage:You’resittingontheoceanshore,

watchingthewavescomein.Ifyou’restupidenoughtowanttoclingto

“good”wavestomakethempermanentandtopush“bad”wavesaway,

22

you’llsuffer.Butifyouacceptthefactthatwavesarejustwaves,fleeting

andincessant,andthatthere’snowayyoucaneitherstoporkeepthem,you

canbeatpeaceasyousimplywatch,withfullacceptance,astheydotheir

thing.

ThefourthwidespreadunderstandingabouttheBuddhiststanceon

clingingiscloselyrelatedtotheotherthree:

4.Clingingmeansholdingontofixedviews.Ifyouhavesetideasabout

what’srightorwrong,orabouthowthingsshouldbe—evenabouthowthe

Buddha’steachingsshouldbeinterpreted—you’llsuffer.Butifyoucanletgo

ofyourfixedviewsandsimplyacceptthefactthatrightandwrongkeep

changingalongwitheverythingelse,you’llbefine.

IrecentlysawavideoclipofaFrenchBuddhologistexplainingthis

principle:Whenaskedbyafemaleinterviewertoillustratethepractical

applicationsoftheteachingonimpermanenceindailylife,helookedherin

theeyeandsaid,“Itmeanslovershavetoacceptthattheirlovetodaywill

havetoexpressitselfdifferentlyfromtheirloveyesterday.”

It’sbeenarguedthatthesefourunderstandingsoftheBuddha’steachings

onclingingdon’tpromoteanattitudeofunhealthypassivity,onthe

groundsthatifyou’refullyattunedtothepresentmomentwithoutclinging,

youcanbemorefreelyactiveandcreativeinhowyourespondtochange.

Butstill,there’ssomethinginherentlydefeatistinthepicturetheyofferof

lifeandofthepossibilitiesofhappinessthatweashumanbeingscanfind.

Theyallowfornolong-termhappiness,nodimensionwherewecanbefree

fromtheunpredictabilityofwavesortheself-righteousinfidelityoflovers.

It’sonlywithinthisnarrowrangeofpossibilitiesthatournon-clinging

creativitycanekeoutalittlepeace.

AndwhenwecomparetheseunderstandingswiththeBuddha’sactual

teachingsonclingingandtheendofclinging—returningthethree

characteristicstotheiroriginalroleasthreeperceptions,andputtingthe

fournobletruthsbackintheirrightfulplaceasthecontextforthethree

perceptions—we’llseenotonlyhowfarthepopularunderstandingsofhis

teachingsdeviatefromwhatheactuallytaught,butalsowhatan

impoverishedviewofthepotentialsforhappinessthosepopular

understandingsprovide.

Tobeginwith,alotcanbelearnedfromlookingatthePāliwordfor

23

clinging,upādāna.Inadditiontoclinging,italsomeanssustenanceandthe

actoftakingsustenance:inotherwords,foodandtheactoffeeding.The

connectionbetweenfeedingandsufferingwasoneoftheBuddha’smost

radicalandvaluableinsights,becauseit’ssocounter-intuitiveandatthe

sametimesouseful.Ordinarily,wefindsomuchpleasureintheactof

feeding,emotionallyaswellasphysically,thatwedefineourselvesbythe

waywefeedofftheworldandthepeoplearoundus.Ittooksomeoneofthe

Buddha’sgeniustoseethesufferinginherentinfeeding,andthatall

sufferingisatypeoffeeding.Thefactthatwefeedoffthingsthatchange

simplyaddsanextralayerofstressontopofthestressintrinsicinthefelt

needalwaystofeed.

Andjustaswefeedoffphysicalfoodwithoutassumingthatit’sgoingto

bepermanent,clingingtothingsdoesn’tnecessarilymeanthatweassume

themtobepermanent.Weclingwheneverwesensethattheeffortof

clingingisrepaidbysomesortofsatisfaction,permanentornot.Wecling

becausethere’ssomepleasureinthethingstowhichwecling(SN22:60).

Whenwecan’tfindwhatwe’dliketoclingto,ourhungerforcesustotake

whatwecanget.Forthisreason,theactofembracingthingsinthepresent

momentstillcountsasclinging.Evenifwe’readeptatmovingfromone

changingthingtoanother,itsimplymeansthatwe’reserialclingers,taking

littlebitesoutofeverypassingthing.Westillsufferintheincessantdriveto

keepfindingthenextbitetoeat.

Thisiswhybeingconstantlymindfulofthetruthofimpermanenceisn’t

enoughtosolvetheproblemofsuffering.Toreallysolveit,weneedto

changeourfeedinghabits—radically—sothatwecanstrengthenthemind

tothepointwhereitnolongerneedstofeed.Thisrequiresatwo-pronged

strategy:(a)seeingthedrawbacksofourordinarywaysoffeeding,and(b)

providingthemindwithbetterfoodinthemeantimeuntilithasoutgrown

theneedtofeedonanythingatall.

Thefirstprongofthestrategyiswherethethreeperceptionscomein.

Firstyouapplythemtothingstowhichyoumightclingorcrave,toseethat

thebenefitsofholdingontothosethingsarefaroutweighedbythe

drawbacks.Youfocusontheextenttowhichthehappinesstheyprovideis

inconstant,andthatbecauseit’sinconstant,theefforttorestinitinvolves

stress.Whenyouseethatthehappinessisn’tworththeeffortoftheclinging,

yourealizethatit’snotworthytoclaimasyouoryours.It’snot-self:in

otherwords,notworthclaimingasself.Inthisway,theperceptionofnot-

24

selfisn’tametaphysicalassertion.It’savaluejudgment,thattheeffortto

defineyourselfaroundtheactoffeedingonthosethingssimplyisn’tworth

it.

Thisanalysisworks,however,onlyifyouhavesomethingbettertofeed

onintheinterim.Otherwise,you’llsimplygobacktoyouroldfeeding

habits.Nobodyeverstoppedeatingsimplythroughtherealizationthat

foodsandstomachsareimpermanent.

ThisiswherethesecondprongoftheBuddha’sstrategycomesin.You

developthepathasyourinterimnourishment,focusinginparticularonthe

pleasureandraptureofrightconcentrationasyouralternativesourceof

food(AN7:63).Whenthepathisfullydeveloped,itopenstoanother

dimensionentirely:thedeathless,ahappinessbeyondthereachofspace,

time,andallphenomenaofthesixsenses.

Butbecausethemindissuchahabitualfeeder,onitsfirstencounterwith

thedeathlessittriestofeedonit—whichturnstheexperienceintoa

phenomenon,anobjectofthemind.Ofcourse,thatactoffeedingstandsin

thewayoffullawakening.Thisiswheretheperceptionofnot-selfgetsput

touseoncemore,tocounteractthislastformofclinging:tothedeathless.

Eventhoughthedeathlessinitselfisneitherstressfulnorinconstant,any

actofclingingtoithastoinvolvestress.Sotheperceptionofnot-selfhasto

beappliedhereaswell,topeelawaythislastobstacletofullawakening

beyondallphenomena.Whenthisperceptionhasdoneitswork,“not-self”

getsputaside—justaseverythingelseisletgo—andthemind,freefrom

hunger,gainsfullrelease.

Atraditionalimageforthisreleaseisofapersonstandingonfirm

groundaftertakingtheraftofthenobleeightfoldpathoverariverinflood.

Safefromthewavesandcurrentsoftheriver,thepersonistotallyfree—

evenfreerthantheimagecanconvey.There’snothingintrinsicallyhunger-

freeaboutstandingonariverbank—it’smoreasymbolofrelief—but

everyonewhohasexperiencedwhattheimageispointingtoguarantees

that,totheextentthatyoucancallitaplace,it’saplaceofnohungerandso

noneedfordesire.

Ifwecomparethisimagewiththatofthepersonontheshoreofthe

oceanwatchingthewaves,wecangetasenseofhowlimitedthehappiness

that’sofferedbyunderstandingthefournobletruthsinthecontextofthe

threecharacteristicsis,asopposedtothehappinessofferedby

25

understandingthethreeperceptionsinthecontextofthefournobletruths.

Tobeginwith,theBuddha’simageofcrossingtheriverdoesn’tput

quotationmarksaroundconceptsofgoodandbadwavesinthewater.The

floodisgenuinelybad,andtheultimategoodnessinlifeiswhenyoucan

trulygetbeyondit.

Second,unliketheimageofsittingontheshore,watchinganocean

beyondyourcontrol,theBuddha’simageconveysthepointthatthere’s

somethingyoucandotogettosafety:Youhavewithinyouthepowerto

followthedutiesofthefournobletruthsanddevelopthepaththatwilltake

youtotheotherside.Ashesaid,wisdombeginswiththequestion,“What

whenIdoitwillleadtolong-termwelfareandhappiness?”(MN135)The

wisdomhereliesinseeingthatthereissuchathingaslong-termhappiness,

thatit’spreferabletoshort-term,andthatitdepends,notonconditions

beyondyourcontrol,butonactionsyoucantrainyourselftodo.This

versionofwisdomisafarcryfromthe“wisdom”thatendsinresigned

equanimityandreducedexpectations.Ithonorsyourdesireforlong-term

happiness,andshowshowitcanactuallybefound.

Third,tositwatchingtheoceanwavescomeashoreispeacefuland

desirableonlyaslongasyou’rewealthyenoughtobeataresort,with

someonetobringyoufood,drink,andshelteronaregularbasis.Otherwise,

youhavetokeepsearchingforthesethingsonyourown.Andevenatthe

resort,you’renotsafefrombeingsweptawaybytsunamisandstorms.

Theimageofcrossingtherivertosafetyonthefurthershorealsooffers

anenlighteningperspectiveontheviewthatallfixedviewsshouldbe

abandoned.IntheCanon’sowninterpretationoftheimage(SN35:197),

theriverstandsforthefourfoldfloodofsensuality,becoming,views,and

ignorance,whiletheraftofthenobleeightfoldpathincludesrightview.

Althoughit’struethattheraftisabandonedonreachingthefurthershore,

youstillhavetoholdontoitwhileyou’recrossingtheriver.Otherwise,

you’llbesweptdownstream.

What’srarelynoticedistheparadoxcontainedintheimage.Rightview,

seeingthingsintermsofthefournobletruths,ispartoftheraftneededto

crossoverthefloodofviews.AstheBuddhasaw,it’stheonlyviewthatcan

performthisfunction,takingyousafelyallthewayacrosstheriverand

deliveringyoutothefurthershore.

Itcantakeyouallthewayacrossbecauseit’salwaystrueandrelevant.

26

Culturalchangesmayaffectwhatwechoosetofeedon,butthefactof

feedingisaconstant,asistheconnectionbetweensufferingandtheneedto

feed.Inthatsense,rightviewcountsasfixed.Itcanneverbereplacedbya

moreeffectiveunderstandingofsuffering.Atthesametime,it’salways

relevantinthattheframeworkofthefournobletruthscanbebroughtto

bearoneverychoiceyoumakeateverystageofthepractice.Hereitdiffers

fromthethreeperceptions,forwhiletheBuddhanotedthatthey’realways

true(AN3:137),they’renotalwaysrelevant(MN136).If,forinstance,you

perceivetheresultsofallactions,skillfulornot,asimpermanent,stressful,

andnot-self,itcandissuadeyoufrommakingtheefforttobeskillfulin

whatyoudo,say,orthink.

Inadditiontobeingalwaystrueandrelevant,rightviewisresponsible.It

givesreliableguidanceonwhatshouldandshouldn’tbetakenasfoodfor

themind.AstheBuddhasaid,anyteachingthatcan’tgivetrustworthy

guidelinesfordeterminingwhat’sskillfulandunskillfultodoabdicatesa

teacher’sprimaryresponsibilitytohisorherstudents(AN3:62).The

Buddhologist’sanswertotheinterviewerexemplifieshowirresponsiblethe

teachingtoabandonfixedviewscanbe.Andthelookshegavehimshowed

thatshewantednothingofit.

Aftertakingyouresponsiblyallthewayacrosstheriver,rightviewcan

deliveryoutothefurthershorebecauseitcontainstheseedsforitsown

transcendence,which—asyoudevelopthem—deliveryoutoatranscendent

dimension(AN10:93).Rightviewdoesthisbyfocusingontheprocessesby

whichthemindcreatesstressforitself,atthesametimeencouragingyouto

abandonthoseprocesseswhenyousensethatthey’recausingstress.Inthe

beginning,thisinvolvesclingingtorightviewasatooltoprylooseyour

attachmentstogrosscausesofstress.Overtime,asyourtasteformental

foodbecomesmorerefinedthroughitsexposuretorightconcentration,

youbecomesensitivetocausesofstressthataremoreandmoresubtle.

Theseyouabandonasyoucometodetectthem,untileventuallythere’s

nothingelsetoabandonasidefromthepath.That’swhenrightview

encouragesyoutoturntheanalysisontheactofholdingontoandfeeding

onrightviewitself.Whenyoucanabandonthat,there’snothingleftforthe

mindtoclingto,andsoit’sfreed.

Theviewthatallfixedviewsshouldbeabandoned,however,doesn’t

containthisdynamic.Itprovidesnogroundsfordecidingwhatshouldand

shouldn’tbedone.Initself,itcanactasanobjectofcravingandclinging,

27

becomingasfixedasanyotherview.Ifyoudecidetodropit,forwhatever

reason,itdeliversyounowhere.Itoffersnoguidanceonhowtochoose

anythingbetter,andasaresult,youendupclingingtowhateverpassing

viewseemsattractive.You’restillstuckintheriver,graspingatpiecesof

flotsamandjetsamasthefloodcarriesyouaway.

Thisiswhyit’salwaysimportanttorememberthat,inthepracticeto

gainfreedomfromsuffering,thefournobletruthsmustalwayscomefirst.

Theygiveguidancetotherestofthepath,determiningtheroleand

functionofalltheBuddha’sotherteachings—includingemptinessandthe

threeperceptions—sothat,insteadoflullingyouintobeingsatisfiedwithan

exposedspotonthebeach,theycantakeyouallthewaytothesafetyoffull

release,beyondthereachofanypossiblewave.

28

TheKarmaofNowWhy the Present Moment Isn’t the Goal

HaveyoueverwonderedwhyBuddhistmeditationfocusessomuch

attentiononobservingthemindinthepresentmoment?It’sbecauseofthe

waytheBuddhataughtkamma,oraction.

Histeachingsonkammaweresocentraltoallofhisteachingsthatwhen

heclassifiedhimselfasateacher,heusedthelabel,kamma-vādin:someone

whoteachesaction.Thiswastodistinguishhimselffromthemany

contemporaryteachersinIndiawhotaughtthatactionwasunrealorthatit

hadnoconsequences.

Buthealsofounditnecessarytodistinguishhimselffromotherkamma-

vādins.Incaseslikethat,hedidn’tusealabeltoexplainthedifferences,

whichweretoocomplextofitintoaneasylabel.Buthedidemphasizetwo

mainpointswherehisteachingsdepartedfromtheirs:(1)theissueofhow

kammashapedthepresentmomentand(2)theissueofwhichkindof

action,physicalormental,wasmoreimportantinshapingexperience.

Withregardtothefirstquestion,akamma-vādingroupcalledthe

Nigaṇṭhastaughtthatthepresentmomentwasshapedentirelybyyourpast

actions.Thismeantthatyourpresentactionscouldhaveaninfluenceonthe

future,butnotonwhatyou’reexperiencingrightnow.TheNigaṇṭhasalso

believedthatallkammaresultedinsuffering,whichmeantthattheonly

waytoputanendtosufferingwouldbetostopacting.Sotheirpractice

consistedofausteritiesinwhichtheyenduredsharppainsinthepresent

momentwithoutreactingtothem.Thatway,theybelieved,theywould

burnoffpastkammawhilecreatingnonewkamma.Freedomfrom

sufferingwouldcomewhenallpastkammawasburnedaway.

IfyouenvisiontheBuddhaasutteringnothingbutsweetnessandlight,it

maycomeasashocktolearnhowthoroughlyheridiculedtheNigaṇṭhas

overthisbelief.Toparaphrasesomeofhisremarks(MN101),heonce

askedthemiftheycouldpossiblymeasurehowmuchkammatheyburned

offthroughtheirpractice,orhowmuchremainedtobeburned.Asfortheir

claimsthatsufferinginthepresentcameentirelyfrompastkamma,he

askedthemiftheyhadn’tnoticedthatthepaincausedwhentheywere

29

doingtheirausteritiesstoppedwhentheystoppeddoingtheausterities.

Inotherwords,hewaspointingtothefactthatwhatyoudointhe

presentmomentcanhaveaninfluencenotonlyonthefuture,butalsoon

whatyouexperiencerightnow.Pastactionsmayhavesomeroleinshaping

yourpresentexperienceofpleasureandpain,buttheydon’ttotally

determineit.Infact,presentactionscanmakeallthedifferencebetween

whetherapastbadactionleadstoalotofsufferingrightnoworonlyalittle

(AN3:101).Thismeansthatthepresentmomentdoesn’tarriveready-built.

We’reconstantlyconstructingitasit’shappening,withgreaterorlessskill,

outoftherawmaterialsprovidedbypastkamma.

Asforthesecondquestion,theNigaṇṭhastaughtthatphysicalactionwas

moreimportantthanmentalaction.Thisiswhytheymadenoattemptto

understandthepsychologyofaction.Alltheyhadtodowithpastkamma,

theythought,wastobelievethatitexistedandtoburnitoffthrough

austerities.TheBuddha,however,taughtthatmentalactionwasmore

importantthanphysicalaction.There’sonlyoneplaceinthePāliCanon

whereheexplicitlydefinesactionasintention(AN6:63),butinmany

discourses,suchasSN12:25,hetreatsintentionassynonymouswith

kamma;inothers,suchasMN56,hegivesextendedargumentsforwhy

mentalactionismoreimportantthanphysicalaction.

ThesetwofeaturesoftheBuddhistteachingonaction—theroleof

presentactioninshapingthepresentinadditiontothefuture,andthe

centralimportanceofmentalactions—explainwhyBuddhistmeditation

focusesonobservingandunderstandingthemindinthehereandnow.But

theyalsoexplainevenmore.Theytelluswhatwecanexpecttoseethere,

whatwetrytodowithit,and—becausethepresentmoment,likethepast

andfuture,isbydefinitionanon-goingconstructionsite—whywehaveto

gobeyonditifwewanttoputanendtoallsufferingandstress.Thepresent

momentisneversimplytobeacceptedasitis.Becausepartofitis

constructedinthepresent,itcanalwaysbeimproved;itcanevenbeturned

intothepathtotheendofsuffering.But,becauseit’salwaysunder

construction,it’satbestonlythepath,neverthegoal.Toborrowanimage

fromtheCanon,thepresentislikeahousethatconstantlyneedsrepair,not

justbecauseitkeepsdisintegratingrightbeforeyoureyes,nevertoreturn,

butalsobecauseit’sonfirewiththeflamesofsuffering.Thepathofpractice

isnotmeanttokeepyouinthehouse.Itsfunctionishelpyoufindtheway

out.

30

WHENTHEBUDDHAtalksabouttheimportanceofthepresentmoment,

heoftenportraysitasaplacewhereworkhastobedone:theworkof

improvingyourskillsinhowtoconstructit.Andthemotivationfordoing

theworkisprovidedbycontemplationofdeath—themessagebeingthatif

youdon’tdotheworkneededtogetyourmindundercontrol,youhaveno

ideawhereitwilltakeyouatdeath,andtheworkwon’tgetdoneunlessyou

doitrightnow.MN131,forinstance,containsafamouspassageonthe

importanceoffocusingonthepresentmoment:

Youshouldn’tchaseafterthepast

orplaceexpectationsonthefuture.

Whatispast

isleftbehind.

Thefuture

isasyetunreached.

Whateverqualityispresent

youclearlysee

rightthere,

rightthere.

Nottakenin,

unshaken,

that’showyoudeveloptheheart.

Butthenthereasonitoffersforfocusing“rightthere”isdeath:

Ardentlydoing

yourduty

today,

for—whoknows?

—tomorrow

death.

Thereisnobargaining

withMortality&hismightyhorde.

The“duty”referredtohereisthefourfolddutypertainingtothefour

nobletruths:tocomprehendsuffering,abandonitscause,realizeits

cessation,anddevelopthepathtoitscessation.Thisworkneedstobedone

inthepresentmomentbecausesufferingisexperienced,anditscausekeeps

31

gettingcreated,righthere.

Tofocusyourefforts,theBuddhasketches,inhisteachingondependent

co-arising,anoutlineofwhatsufferingisandthestepsbywhichthemind

createsit.Theoutlineappliestomanydifferenttimeframes,fromthespan

ofamomenttomanylifetimes,buthefounditbycontemplatingthe

presentmoment,andthat’swhereit’smosteffectivelyapplied.

Wemaythinkthatthepresentmomentbeginswithcontactatthesenses,

buttheBuddha’soutlinelistsseveralstepspriortosensorycontact,steps

determiningwhetherthatcontactwillbecomeaconditionforsuffering.

Oneofthemostimportantofthesestepsis“fabrication”(saṅkhāra),the

processthatfashionsoursenseofthebodyandallotheractivitiesofthe

mind:whattheBuddhacallsthefiveaggregatesofphysicalform,feeling,

perception(mentallabeling),fabrication,andconsciousness.Becausehe

defineseachoftheseaggregateswithaverb—evenyoursenseofyour

physicalform“deforms”—theyarebestregardedasactions,ratherthan

things(SN22:79).Thisiswhythepresentmomentisalwaysunder

construction:Ifyouwantanaggregatetopersistfromonemomenttothe

next,youhavetokeepdoingit.Otherwise,it’llcease.

Thefactthatthefabricationofalltheseaggregatescomespriorto

sensorycontactmeansthatthemindisnotsimplyapassiverecipientof

contact.Instead,it’sproactive,ontheprowl,outlookingforcontacttofeed

on.Evenbeforeyouseeasightorhearasound,yourmindhasalready

fashionedactsofconsciousness,intention,attention,andperceptionthat

shapewhatthemindwillperceiveinthesensorycontact,whatitwillpay

attentionto,andwhatitwilltrytogetoutofit.AsSN22:79notes,

fabricationisalways“forthesakeof”creatingtheaggregates,whichinturn

actforthepurposeofthedesiresthatdrivethem(SN22:5).

Apeculiarfeatureofdependentco-arisingisthatthesixsensemedia—

thefivephysicalsensesplusthemindasthesixth—areclassifiedasold

kamma,whereasintention,whichcountsasnewkamma,comesbefore

theminthelist.Ofcourse,thereareintentionsthatfollowonsensory

contact,butthefactthatintentionalsooccurspriortosensorycontact

meansthatwhenyou’refullyinthepresentmoment,youcansensethenew

kammacreatedinthatmomentbeforesensingtheresultsofoldkamma

cominginthroughthesenses.Thisiswhy,whentryingtoputanendto

suffering,theBuddhadoesn’ttellyoutoblamethesufferingontheworld

32

outside:painfulsights,sounds,ortactilesensations.Instead,youhaveto

lookatwhatyou’redoingrightnowthatcancreatesufferingoutofsensory

contactregardlessofwhetherit’spainfulorpleasant.

Atthesametime,becausethepresentmomentisfabricatedinthisway,

andbecausefabricationisalways“forthesakeof”something,thepresentis,

atbest,onlyatemporaryrestingspot.Evenwhenyoumanageto“bethe

knowing”inthepresent,thatknowingistheconsciousnessaggregate—

fabricatedcognizing—andtheunderlyingfabricationhasatime-arrow

embeddedinit,pointingtoapurposebeyonditself.Usually,thatpurposeis

happiness,eitherrightnoworinthefuture.

Thisiswhy,whensteppingfullyintothepresentmoment,youdon’t

reallystepoutoftime.Infact,thepresentiswheretheconditionsforfuture

timearebeingcreated.Evenwhentheprocessoffabricationaimssolelyat

pleasureinthepresentwithnothoughtforthefuture,it’salwayscreating

kammathathasbothpresentandfutureramifications.Thewayyoubuild

yourhomeinthepresentcreatestherawmaterialfromwhichyou’llfashion

presentmomentsinthefuture.Thehedonistsandmeditatorswhopride

themselvesonnotsacrificingthepresentmomentforthesakeofafuture

happinessaresimplyturningablindeyetoanimportantaspectofwhat

they’redoing:thelong-termkarmicconsequencesofhowtheysearchfor

pleasurenow.

Andtheblindnessofthateyedoesn’tshieldthemfromthose

consequences(SN12:25).Ifitdid,theBuddhawouldhavesimplytaught

youtofollowyourbliss,withoutfeelingobligedtoteachthepreceptsorto

warnyouagainstthedangersofgettingstuckonthecalmpleasuresofastill

mind.Hewouldn’thavetaughtthatwisdombeginsbylookingbothat

presentactionsandattheirlong-termresults(MN135).Actually,ablind

eyeisasynonymforignorance,whichistheunderlyingconditionforacts

offabricationleadingtosuffering.Sothosewhofocusonbeinginthe

presentforitsownsakearesimplysettingthemselvesuptosuffermore.

Butifwebringknowledgetotheprocessoffabrication,wecanturn

fabricationfromacauseofsufferingintothepathleadingtoitsend.The

beginningpartofthatknowledgecomesintheformofrightview—what

theBuddhataughtaboutthefabricationoftheaggregates—buttheeffective

partcomesfromgettinghands-onexperienceintryingtobuildsomething

reallyskillfulandpleasantoutofaggregatesinthepresentmoment.Thisis

33

theroleofthemoreactivefactorsofthepath:rightresolve,righteffort,

rightmindfulness,andrightconcentration.Rightresolvesetstheintention

tolookforahappinessthat’sharmlessandfreefromsensuality;righteffort

actuallycarriesthroughwiththatintention;rightmindfulness—which,in

theBuddha’sanalysis,isafunctionofmemory—remembershowtodevelop

skillfulstatesandabandonunskillfulones(MN117;AN4:245);andright

concentrationturnstheaggregatesintoapleasantandbrightdwelling:“an

easefulabidinginthehere-and-now”(AN4:41).

Theimportantpointtonoticehereisthat,justasfabricationingeneralis

proactive,theBuddha’sapproachtoreallycomprehendingfabrication—

withthepurposeofgoingbeyondit—isproactiveaswell.Youdon’tlearn

aboutfabricationssimplybywatchingthemcomeandgoontheirown,

becausetheydon’tcomeandgoontheirown.They’redrivenbypurposeful

desires.Andthebestwaytolearnaboutthosedesiresistocreateskillful

desirestothwartanyunskillfulpurposesthatmightunderliethem.Justas

theArmyCorpsofEngineershaslearnedalotabouttheMississippiRiver

byproactivelytryingtokeepitinitschannel,youlearnalotabout

fabricationbyproactivelytryingtoputitandkeepitinrightconcentration.

EventheseeminglypassiveandacceptingqualitiesthattheBuddha

recommendsaspartofthepath—suchasequanimity,patience,and

contentment—aretypesofkamma,andtheyhavetoplaytheirroleina

primarilyproactivecontext.Theyfocusacceptanceonlyontheresultsof

pastkamma,butnotontheprospectofcreatingmorenewunskillful

kammainthepresent.

Equanimity,forinstance,isnevertaughtasapositivevalueonitsown.

AstheBuddhanotes,itcanbeeitherskillfulorunskillful(DN21),andif

developedexclusivelyitcanleadtostagnationinthepath(AN3:103).This

iswhyheteachesequanimityinthecontextofotherqualitiestoensurethat

itplaysapositiverole.Forinstance,inthecontextofthesublimeattitudes

(brahmavihāra),heteachestheequanimityofadoctor:Theidealdoctoris

motivatedbygoodwillforhispatients,compassionatewhenthey’re

suffering,andjoyfulwiththeirrecovery,buthealsoneedsequanimityin

thefaceofdiseasesthat—becauseofhisorthepatient’spastkamma—he

can’tcure.Thisdoesn’tmeanthatheabandonshisefforts,simplythathe

learnstobeequanimousabouttheareaswherehecan’thelpsothathecan

focushiscompassiononareaswherehecan.

34

Similarly,theBuddhadistinguishesbetweenskillfulandunskillful

patience.Headvisesbeingpatientwithpainfulfeelingsandharsh,hurtful

words,butimpatientwithunskillfulqualitiesarisinginthemind(MN2).

Hispatienceisnotthepatienceofawaterbuffalowhosimplyenduresthe

workandpunishmentsimposedonit.Instead,it’sthepatienceofawarrior

who,despitewoundsandsetbacks,neverabandonsthedesiretocomeout

victorious(AN5:139–140).

Andasforcontentment,theBuddhateachescontentmentforsome

thingsanddiscontentforothers.Whenheliststhecustomsofthenoble

ones,forinstance,hestartswithcontentmentwithfood,clothing,and

shelter,butthenconcludesthelistwithamoreproactivecustom:delighting

inabandoningunskillfulqualitiesanddelightingindevelopingskillfulones

(AN4:28).Inotherwords,youdon’tpracticecontentmentwithunskillful

qualitiesinthemind,andyoudon’trestcontentwiththelevelof

skillfulnessyou’vealreadyattained.Infact,theBuddhaoncestatedthat

discontentevenwithskillfulqualitieswasoneofthecrucialfactorsleading

tohisawakening(AN2:5).

Thiselementofdiscontentiswhatdrivesthepath.Inthebeginning,it

inspiresyoutoconstructrightconcentrationasyourdwellingplacesothat

youcanusetheaccompanyingpleasureandstabilitytoprylooseyour

attachmenttobuildingunskillfulmentaldwellingsthatleadtoblatant

sufferingandstress.Youseethatthenormalpleasuresofthesensesare

aflame—thatsomuchofsensualpleasurelies,notintheactualcontactat

thesenses,butinallthementalfabricationsthatdressituptobemorethan

itis.Inthisway,youcometoappreciateallthemorethepleasureof

concentration.It’smuchcooler,moreeaseful,andrequireslesselaboration.

Butasyougetmoreproficientinthisskill,youbecomemoresensitiveto

subtlerlevelsofstressanddisturbanceinthemind,tothepointwhereyou

sensethateventheconcentration,becauseit’sconstructedofaggregates,is

notfullyaplaceofrest.Itrequiresconstantcareandmanagement(AN

9:36;MN52).

ThisiswhereyoucometoappreciatewhytheBuddhacallsright

concentrationjhāna.Thiswordmeans“absorption,”butitscorresponding

verb—jhāyati,todojhāna—alsomeanstoburnwithasteadyflame.Because

thepleasuresofthesensesarelikefiresthatburnwithaflickeringflame,

thepleasuresofjhānaseemmuchlessdisturbing.Andthey’reeasiertoread

by—inotherwords,dwellinginjhānamakesiteasiertoreadtheprocesses

35

offabricationasthey’rehappening.Butstill,yourjhāna-dwellingisahome

subtlyonfire.Whenthisrealizationgoesdeepintotheheart,you’re

inclinedtoabandonallfabricationofeverysort.Andbecausepresent-

momentfabricationunderliesyourexperienceofthepresent,thenwhen

fabricationstops,thepresentmomentfadesaway—asdoesspaceandtime

altogether—exposingafirsttasteofunbinding(nibbāna).

Becauseunbindingisunfabricated,itdoesn’texistforthesakeof

anything.Thisiswhyit’sfullyaplaceofrefugeandrest(SN44).The

Buddhadescribesitaspleasure,butit’snotapleasantfeeling,andsoit’snot

anaggregate(SN36:19).Similarly,hedescribesitasatypeof

consciousness,butonethat’snotknowninconjunctionwiththesixsenses

(MN49).Inotherwords,ithasnoobject(SN12:64).Becauseitdoesn’tfall

undertheconsciousness-aggregate,itliesoutsideofpast,present,and

future.Outsideofspace,ithas“neithercomingnorgoingnorstayingin

place.”It’saseparatedimensionentirely(Ud8:1).

Afterthemindwithdrawsfromthisdimension,itreturnstofabricating

thepresentmoment,butwithabigdifference.Itnowknowsthatit’s

experiencedsomethingthattimeandthepresentmomentcan’ttouch,and

thisrealizationinformsyourpracticefromthatpointonward.Youhaveno

moredoubtsabouttheBuddha,becauseyou’veseenthatwhathetaughtis

true:Therereallyisadeathlesshappiness.Younolongeridentifythe

aggregatesinanywayasyouoryours,becauseyou’veseenwhatliesbeyond

them.Andyouwouldneverengageintheminawaythatwouldbreakthe

precepts,becauseyou’veseenthatyourharmfulactionsinthepastwere

whatkeptyoufromrealizingthatdimensioninthefirstplace.

TheCanonsaysthatwhenyoufinallyreachfullawakening,yougo

beyondatasteofunbindingtofullimmersion.Andwhenyouemerge,your

experienceofthepresentmomentisevenmoreradicallyaltered.Youstill

engageinintentions,buttheyleavenoseedsforfuturerebirth(AN3:34).

Youengageinfabrication,butexperienceit“disjoined”fromit—notinthe

senseofapersonsufferingfromdissociation,butinthesenseofhavingno

moreneedtocommandeerfabricationstoconstructaplaceinwhichtolive

(MN140).Youdwellinsteadinadwellingofemptiness—nottheemptiness

ofthesixsensesortheaggregates,buttheemptinessofanawarenessfree

fromthedisturbancesofdefilement(MN121;Iti44).Atdeath,liberated

entirelyfromspaceandtime,youhavenoneedforanydwellingofanysort.

Thefiresaretotallyout,andyou’retotallyfreed.

36

Thisfreedommayseemveryfaraway,butit’sgoodtolearnaboutit

fromtheverybeginningofthepath.Thatway,youcancomeintothe

presentrightnowandknowwhattodowithit.Attheveryleast,youcan

developtheskillstomakeitlivable,eveninthefaceofnegativeinfluences

fromthepast.Andyoucancreategoodconditionsforpresentmomentsin

thefuture.ButyoualsoknowthattheBuddha’sfocusingyouonthepresent

moment,notforitsownsake,butforthesakeofsomethingthatlies

beyond.Youdon’thavetoresignyourselftoacceptingthepresentasthe

onlyrealitythereis,andyou’renotbeingaskedtodenytheflamesthat

consumeit.Instead,theBuddha’sadvisingyoutodampentheflamessothat

youcanfind,rightinthemidstofthepresent,thepassageleadingfromthe

burninghousetothesafetyofthenon-flammablefreedomoutside.

37

TheStreamsofEmotion

There’sapartofthemindthatdoesn’tliketheemotionstheBuddha

labelsasunskillful—thingslikelust,anger,anxiety,andgreed—butthere’s

alsoapartthatdoes.Withangerforinstance,it’seasytolikethepowerand

exhilarationthatcomewhenyouseesomethingwrongandfeelfreetodo

andsaywhateveryouwanttocorrectit.Withlust,youfeelattractednot

onlytotheobjectofyourlust,butalsotothelustitself—ortotheideathat

thelustmakesyouattractive.There’sevenapartofthemindthatlikes

anxiety—theparttellingyouthatifyouworryenoughaboutpotential

problems,youcanmakethemgoaway.

Butthenthere’sthedownside.Aftertheseemotionshavepassed,you

oftenregretwhatyoudidundertheirpower:actionsthatharmedyouor

otherpeople.Thesearethemomentswhenyou’dliketofindawaynotto

beovercomebythesethings.

Still,thepartofthemindthatlikeslustandangerdoesn’tgoawayeasily.

WhenitreadstheBuddha’stakeonunskillfulemotions—thatweshould

restrainthem,should“abandon,destroy,dispelthem,andwipethemoutof

existence”(MN2)—itcancomeupwithreasonsforrejectingthese

instructionsasshort-sightedandunsophisticated.Afterall,simply

suppressingoravoidinganemotionwon’tmakeitgoaway.It’lljustgo

underground,likeTheThing,onlytoshootuptentaclessomewheredown

theline.Thisiswhyweoftenprefertohearteachingsthattellusthatwe

canhaveourcakeandeatit,too—thatwecanallowtheemotiontoflow

andgrow,andyetuseourdiscernmenttopickoutthepoisonouspart,

savingourselvesfromwhatwouldotherwisebeitsbadconsequences.

ButnowhereintheearlyCanondoestheBuddhasaythatrestraintis

enoughtogetridofanunskillfulemotion.Referringtotheseemotionsas

“streams,”hesaysinstead:

Whateverstreams

thereareintheworld:

Theirblockingis

mindfulness.Mindfulness

istheirrestraint,Itellyou.

38

Withdiscernment

they’refinallystopped.—Sn5:1

Inotherwords,beingmindfultosayNotoanemotionisonlyafirststep

ingettingpastit.Togettotallybeyonditrequiresdiscernment:detecting

whyyougofortheemotion,howthere’sabetteralternative,andwhatthat

alternativeis.Onlythencanyoubefreedfromthepowertheemotionhas

hadoveryou.

Butstill,toseethesethingsclearlyrequiresthatyoufirstholdthe

emotionincheck.Onlythenwillthepartofthemindthatlikestheemotion

showitsstripes.It’sliketryingtoknowthecurrentsofariver:Eventhough

itssurfacemayseemplacidandcalm,youdon’treallyknowhowstrongits

bottomcurrentsareuntilyoutrytobuildadamacrossit.Inthesameway,

youdon’treallyknowthemind’srealreasonsforclingingtoanemotion

unlessyourefusetogoalongwithit.That’swhenthey’llstartshowing

themselves.AndyouhavetosayNoagainandagain,becausealltoooften

theywon’tfullyrevealthemselvesthefirsttimeyouthwartthem.Afterall,

someofthesereasonscanbechildishandembarrassing,sothemindis

cleverinfabricatingliestohidethemfromitself.Onlywhenyou’refirm

andwisetotheirtrickscanyoucanreallyseethem.Andonlywhenyousee

themcanyouusethetoolsofdiscernmentprovidedbytheBuddhatofree

yourselffromthewaysthemindactuallyafflictsitself.

Somindfulnessisjustapreliminarystepingettingpastanunskillful

emotion.And“mindfulness,”here,carriestheBuddha’soriginalmeaningof

theterm:tokeepsomethinginmind.Itdoesn’tjustacceptthewaythings

flow.It’slikeagatekeeperwhorememberswhotoletthroughthegateand

whonot(AN7:63).Inthecaseofanunskillfulemotion,itfirsthasto

remembertonoticewhensuchanemotionarisesandtorecognizeitfor

whatitis:ahindrance,blockingthepathtoawakening(DN22).Thisright

heregoesagainsttheflow.Forinstance,whenlustarises,wedon’tusually

noticeituntilit’sfairlystrong.Andwhenwedonoticeit,ourfirstthought

isn’t,“Oh,ahindrance.”It’susually,“Great!Here’smychanceforsome

entertainment!”Sowehavetoestablishmindfulnessinawaythat’s

constantlyalerttothesethingsandtothefactthat,ifwewanttoputanend

tosufferingandstress,wehavetoseethem,notasourfriends,butas

obstacles.Whenwerecognizethemasunskillful,wealsohavetoremember

thetoolsthatcanhelpusgetpastthem.

39

TheBuddha’sinstructionsforestablishingmindfulnessareactually

instructionsforhowtogetthemindintoastateofsolidandpleasant

concentrationsothatitcanbesteadilyalertatalltimes.Whenyourmind

canstaysolidlywithsomethingcomfortableinthepresentmoment—such

asthebreath—itcanseeitselfmoreclearlyandfeellessravenousforthe

foodofferedbyangerandlust.Atthesametime,asyoumasterthe

processesofgettingthemindintoconcentration,yougethands-on

experiencewiththefirstsetoftoolstheBuddhaofferstohelpyour

discernmentunderstandhowemotionsareformedandhowcravingturns

themintostreamsthatcansweepyouaway.

THATSETOFTOOLSistheanalysisofmind-statesintothreesortsof

fabrication,orsankhāra:bodily,verbal,andmental.

•Bodilyfabricationisthein-and-outbreath.

•Verbalfabricationisthewayyoutalktoyourself.Informal

terms,it’sdividedintotwoactivities:directedthought,whichchooses

atopictofocuson;andevaluation,whichasksquestionsandmakes

commentsonthetopic.

•Mentalfabricationconsistsofperceptions—thelabelsthemind

placesonthings,eitherasphrasesorimages—andfeelingsofeither

pleasure,pain,orneitherpleasurenorpain(MN44).

Allthreeofthesetypesoffabricationplayaroleindeveloping

concentration.Whenyou’remindfulofthebreath,forinstance,thebreath

itselfisbodilyfabrication.AndintheBuddha’sinstructionsformindfulness

ofbreathing,afteryougetacquaintedwiththebreathandcanbreathe

sensitivetotheentirebody,youtryto“calmbodilyfabrication”(MN118).

Inotherwords,youbreatheinawaythathasanincreasinglysoothingeffect

inside.Todothis,youneedtoengageinverbalfabrication,totalkto

yourselfabouthowbesttobreathesoastogiverisetoasenseofease,how

tomaintainit,andhowtoletitspreadthroughoutthebody.Theease,of

course,isapleasanttypeoffeeling,amentalfabricationthatwillhavea

positiveeffectonthemind.Atthesametime,youneedtoholdinminda

perceptionofthebreathanditsrelationtothebodyinordertostaywith

thebreathandtospreadtheeasethroughoutthebody.Asyouworkatthis

process,you’llfindthatdifferentwaysofpicturingthebreathandbodyto

yourselfwillhavedifferenteffectsonbothbodyandmind.Andasthe

40

Buddharecommends,youtrytofindfeelingsandperceptionsthatwillhelp

bringthemindtoastateofcalm.

Thisishowbreathmeditation,asyoumasterit,makesyoufamiliarwith

thesethreetypesoffabrication.Andwhenyou’refamiliarwiththem,you

begintoseeindailylifehowtheyfashionallyourmind-states,andin

particularafflictiveemotions.Whenyou’reangry,forinstance,aperception

—amentalimage—iswhatusuallysetsyouoff.Thisisfollowedbyan

internalverbalcommentary,inwhichyoufocusonwhataggravatesyour

angerandgeneratereasonsforwhytheangerisjustified.Allofthiswill

haveaneffectonthebreath,whichchangesitsrhythmandflow,creatinga

feelingoftightnessorconstriction,say,inyourstomachoryourchest.And

whenthethoughtgetsintothebodylikethis,itbecomesanemotionthat

youfeelyouhavetogetoutofyoursystem.

Thesameprocessesgointocreatingemotionsofgreed,anxiety,orlust.

Thepracticeofbreathmeditationnotonlyhelpstofamiliarizeyouwith

theseprocesses,butalsoteachesyoutwoimportantpracticallessonsabout

them.Thefirstisthattheydon’talwayshappenjustinreactiontoevents

outside.Youoftenbringthemtotheevents.Inotherwords,youprime

yourselftobeangry,lustful,orgreedyevenbeforeyoumakecontactwith

anythingthataggravatestheseemotions.Alltoooften,themindisout

lookingfortrouble:Thisiswhythere’shateradio,onlineshopping,and

Internetporn.Electronicdevicesdon’tturnthemselveson.Weturnthem

ontostoketheemotionswe’realreadyfabricating.Thismaybewhythe

Buddhadescribesemotionsnotonlyasstreams,butalsoaseffluents:They

goflowingout,spreadingtheirpollutionintotheworld.

Thesecondpracticallessonisthatalthoughtheseprocessesare

influencedbyyourpasthabits,youcanconsciouslychangethem.Asthe

Buddhasaid,ifitweren’tpossibletoabandonunskillfulhabitsanddevelop

skillfulonesintheirplace,hewouldn’thavebotheredtoteach.Infact,many

ofhisteachingsdealinexamplesofhowtodismantleunskillfulhabitsof

fabricationandtoreplacethemwithmoreskillfulones.Hisbreath

meditationinstructionsareshorthandtipsforhowtoskillfullyworkwith

bodilyfabricationevenwhenyou’renotsittingonacushionorunderatree.

Hisextendedteachingsareexamplesofskillfulverbalfabrication;hismany

imagesandsimiles,examplesofskillfulmentalfabricationsthatyoucanuse

toreplacetheunskillfulonesthatruleyourmind.Ultimately,ofcourse,his

41

instructionstakeyoutoadimensionofthemindthat’sfreefrom

fabrication,buttogetthere,youfirsthavetolearnhowtocreateskillful

bodily,verbal,andmentalfabricationstofreeyourselffromyourold

unskillfulhabits.

Intermsofmentalfabrication,forinstance,theBuddharecommends

waysofperceivingthedrawbacksofangerandlustsothatyoucanuse

thoseperceptionstocounteractanyperceptionsyoumighthavethatanger

andlustareattractive,ormakeyoustrongandbrave.Hislistofperceptions

toapplytolustincludestheperceptionthatapersonengagedinlustful

thoughtsislikeadogchewingonabone:Itgetsnonourishmentortaste,

asidefromthetasteofitsownsaliva.Gettinglustfullyinvolvedwithother

peopleislikeusingborrowedgoods:Iftheownerstakethemback,you

havenogroundsforcomplaint,becausethey’resimplytakingwhat’sreally

theirs(MN54).Learningtoperceivelustinthiswaygivesyouatoeholdin

theideathatyou’dbebetterofftryingtogobeyondit.

Asforanger,theBuddhadetailswaysinwhichallthreetypesof

fabricationcanbebroughttobeartodismantleboutsofangerandreplace

themwithsomethingmorewise.Sayyou’refeelingangryaboutsomething

yourbosshasdone.TheBuddhaprovidesagoodverbalfabricationto

interrupttheinnerchatterthat’sprovokingyouranger:Ifyouactonyour

anger,you’regoingtodoorsaysomethingstupid.Doyoureallywanttodo

that?Ifyourangerisreallyinsistent,andyouseethebossasyourenemy,

theBuddharecommendssomethingstrongertocounteractit,vergingon

spite:Doyouwanttogiveyourenemythesatisfactionofseeingyouact

stupidly?(AN7:60)IftheanswerineithercaseisNo,you’vegottogeta

handleonyourangersothatyoucanthinkclearlyenoughtocomeupwith

agenuinelyusefulresponsetothesituation.

Thenyoulookatyourbodilyfabrication:Howareyoubreathing?Can

youcalmthebreathsothat,attheveryleast,you’renotdevelopingatight

knotinyourchestthatstokestheanger?Whenthebreathcalmsdown,

you’vegotbothbodilyfabricationandapartofmentalfabrication—a

feelingofinnerease—onyourside.

Thenyoulookattheotherpartofmentalfabrication:Whatimagesof

thebossandofyourselfareyouholdinginmind?Doyouperceiveyourself

asbeingvictimizedandweakinthefaceoftheboss?Ifso,theBuddha

recommendsthatyouperceiveyourgoodwillasbeingassolidandlargeas

42

theEarth.PeoplecandigintheEarthorspitonitorurinateonit,butthey

can’tmakeitbewithoutearth.Perceiveyourgoodwillaslargeandcool,like

theriverGanges.Perceiveyourmindasbeinglikespace:Justasnoonecan

leaveamarkonspace,youwanttotapintoamind-statewherenoneof

yourboss’sactionsleaveamark(MN21).

Andhowabouttheboss?Howdoyouperceivehim?Asamonster?An

idiot?Ifyou’regoingtotrytospeakskillfullywithhim,you’vegotto

developsomesympathyforhim.Otherwise,you’llbelikethetwolady

poodlesintheoldNewYorkercarton.They’resittingatabar,drinking

Martinis,lookingbitterandmean,andoneofthemsays,“They’reallsonsof

bitches”—themessagebeingthatifyouseeeveryoneasbitchesorsonsof

bitches,that’showyou’lltreatthem.Andyou’llbecomeone,too.

Soyou’vegottochangeyourperception.Perceiveyourselfasaperson

goingacrossadesert—hot,tired,tremblingwiththirst—andyoucome

acrossasmallpuddleofwaterinthehoofprintofacow.Ifyoutriedto

scoopthewaterup,you’dmakeitmuddy.Todrinkit,youhavetogetdown

onallfoursandcarefullyslurpitup.That’stheimagetheBuddhagives.It’s

notverydignified—youwouldn’twantanyonetocomealongandsnapa

pictureofyouatthatmoment—butit’swhatyou’vegottodoifyouwantto

survive.

Whatthismeansisthateventhoughyourbossmaybeextremelyfoolish,

you’vegottolookcarefullyforthewaterofhisgoodpoints,evenifthey

seemtobesurroundedbymud.Youmayfeelthatit’sbeneathyourdignity,

thathedoesn’tdeserveyourgoodwill,buttheimageremindsyouthatyou

needyourgoodwillforyourgoodnesstosurvive.You’reinnopositionto

becarelessinyourjudgmentofpeople.Otherwise,you’lldoorsay

somethingthatyoumaylaterregretforalongtime.Soyoulookforthe

wateroftheboss’sgoodqualities,eventhoughitmaynotbemuch,tohelp

wateryourowndeterminationnottogiveintoyouranger.

If,onreflection,youcan’tthinkofanythinggoodthebosshaseversaid

ordone,theBuddharecommendsanotherperception:You’recoming

acrossadesertandyoufindsomeonesicklyingonthesideoftheroad,with

noonetohelphim.Nomatterwhothatpersonis,you’dhavetofeel

compassionforhim(AN5:162).Inthesameway,ifthebossistotally

unskillful,youhavetofeelpityforthebadkarmahe’screatingforhimself.

Withthatperceptioninmind,youcanbettertrustyourselftofind

43

somethingskillfulandeffectivetodoorsay.

THESEWAYSofrefabricatingyourexperience—deconstructingunskillful

emotionsandconstructingskillfulonesintheirplace—arenottheultimate

solutiontotheproblemofafflictiveemotions.Theydon’tputastoptothe

streams.Theysimplydamthemanddiverttheminabetterdirection.But

theygiveyouahandleonthem,sothatyoudon’thavetochoosesimply

betweengivingintothemorbottlingthemup.Andmoreimportantly,as

youdevelopskillinthisdirection,yourdamsgetcloserandclosertothe

sourceofthestreams,andcloserandclosertodiscerningwhatpushesthem

outinthefirstplace.AstheBuddhasays,onlydiscernmentcanstopthem,

andyoudon’treallydiscernamind-stateuntilyouseethreethings:its

allure,itsdrawbacks,andtheescapefromit(MN14).

Thisisinlinewithhisanalysisofwhyweclingtothingsinthefirst

place,andhowwecanlearnhownottocling.Ifthingsdidn’tofferpleasure,

they’dholdnoallureandwewouldn’tclingtothem.Ifthingsweren’talso

painful,wewouldn’tbeabletoseethattheyaren’tworthclingingto(SN

22:60).Thismeansthatweclingaslongasweseethatthepleasurethey

offeriswellworththepainofholdingon.Thisistruenomatterhowmuch

wetellourselvesthattheemotionsareimpermanentoremptyofinherent

existence.Afterall,weclingtofoodandsexknowingfullwellthatthey’re

notpermanentandhavenoinherentessence—infact,knowingtheir

impermanencemakesusclingallthemore.Onlywhenweseethatthe

pleasurethesethingsofferisn’tworththeeffortthatgoesintoclingingto

themwillwebewillingtoletgo.Andbecausethatpleasureisn’tabstract,

abstractsolutions—likecallingtomindtheultimatenatureofreality—

won’treallywork.Onlywhenweseetheparticularsofwhywefindour

afflictiveemotionsalluring,andcancomparethatallurewiththeparticulars

oftheirdrawbacks,willwebewillingtoletthemgo.

So,strategically,thebestwaytoseetheallureofanunskillfulemotion—

whatyouthinkyougetoutofgoingforit—istokeepthwartingit,andthen

tolookandlistenforanyleaksinthedamofmindfulnessyou’vesetup.The

emotionwilllookformomentsofweakness,toinsinuateitselfbackinto

favor,andwillcontinuetogiveyoureasonsforwhyyoushouldwantit

back.Butasyoukeeprejectingitsreasons,strengthenedbytheskillfulways

youcanrefabricateit,it’llhavetobecomemoreandmorefrankaboutwhy

itstillwantstobefreetoflowinthemind.

44

Andhereagain,theBuddha’sanalysisofmind-statesintothethreetypes

offabricationhelpsgiveyousomecluesforwheretolookfortheleaksin

yourdam.Ashenotes,ourcravingforanobjectoractivityisn’talways

focusedontheobjectoractivityitself.It’softenfocusedonourmentalor

verbalfabricationsaroundit(DN22).Ourcravingforapersonmaybe

focused,notontheperson,butontheperceptionsandthoughtswe

embroideraroundtheperson—oraroundourperceptionofourselvesin

relationtotheperson.Thesamegoesforourgreedforthings,whichiswhy

advertisersputsomucheffortintoselling,nottheirproducts,butthe

storiesandmoodstheywantyouassociatewiththeirproducts.Asforour

cravingforanger,itmaybefocusedontheverbalfabricationsthatjustify

theanger—wethinkwe’recleverinthewaywethink,sowe’llkeepon

thinkingthatwayregardlessofhowmuchharmitbringsinitswake.And

wecanevenhavecravingforcravingitself.

Soyoulooktoseepreciselywhereyourcravingisfocused,forthat’s

wheretheallureoftheemotionwillbefound.Andasyoustaydetermined

nottofallforit,therewillcomeamomentoftruth,wherethemindtotally

opensupaboutwhyitlikesitsunskillfulemotions.Whenyouseethereal

reason,you’llalsorealizethatit’sthoroughlystupid—innowayatallworth

thedrawbacksthatthoseemotionscancause.

Thismeansthatgenuineinsightisavaluejudgment.Andtheproofthat

it’sgenuineliesinthefactthat,unlikeyourearlier,lessskillfuljudgments,it

opensthemindtothetotalescapeofall-arounddispassion.

Dispassionmaysoundlikeaversionordullness,butit’snot.It’smore

likeamaturing,asoberingup.Youroldwaysseemchildish,andnowyou’re

readytogrowup.Andbecausepassioniswhat’sbeendrivingallprocesses

offabrication,bothgoodandbad,allalong,thisdispassioniswhat

eventuallyfreesyoufromeverythingflowinginthemind.

Thisiswhereyourealizethattruefreedomlies,notinallowingthemind

tostreamwhereveritwants,butinnolongerbeingpushedaroundbythose

streams.Andoneofthesidebenefitsofthisfreedomisthatthemindno

longerhastolietoitself.Itcanbefranktoitselfaboutitsactionsandtheir

results.

It’sthefreedomofcausingnoharm,andofhavingnothingtohide

inside.

45

Worlds&TheirCessationThe Buddha’s Strategic View of the Cosmos

Recently,whileteachingaretreatsponsoredbyavipassanāgroupin

Brazil,Ihappenedtomentiondevasandrebirth.Theresponsewasswift.

Thenextmorning,asIwaslookingthroughtheslipsofpaperleftinthe

questionbox,twoquestionsstoodout.Thefirstwasacomplaint:“Whydo

wehavetolistentothissupernaturalstuff?Idon’tbelieveinanything

exceptforthenaturalworldIcanseewithmyowneyes.”Thesecondwasa

complaintofadifferentsort:“WhyareWesternBuddhistteacherssoafraid

totalkaboutthesupernaturalsideoftheBuddhisttradition?”

Toanswerthesecondquestion,allIhadtodowaspointtothefirst.“It’s

becauseofquestionslikethese.Theyscareteachersawayfromthetopic.”I

mighthaveaddedthatthere’sanironyhere.Inanefforttobetolerant,the

earlygenerationofWesternBuddhistteachersadmitteddogmatic

materialistsintotheirranks,butthesematerialistshaveprovenvery

intolerantofthesupernaturalteachingsattributedtotheBuddha.Ifhewas

reallyawakened,theysay,hewouldn’thavetaughtsuchthings.

Toanswerthefirstquestion,though,Iaskedaquestioninreturn:“How

doyouknowthatthenaturalworldisreal?Maybewhatyouseewithyour

eyesisallanillusion.Whatwedoknow,though,isthatsufferingisreal.

Somepeoplehavethekammatoexperiencesupernaturalevents;others,the

kammatoexperienceonlynaturalevents.Butwhatevertherangeofthe

worldyouexperience,youcancreaterealsufferingaroundit,sothat’swhat

theBuddha’steachingfocuseson.He’sgotacureforsufferingregardless.”

HereIcouldhaveaddedevenmore.Theawakeningthatgoesbeyond

sufferingalsogoesbeyondallworldviews,butthepathleadingtothat

awakeningrequiresthatyouadoptaprovisionalsenseoftheworldin

whichhumanactionhasthepowertobringsufferingtoanend.Thisisthe

samepatterntheBuddhaadoptswithregardtoviewsabouttheself:

Awakeningliesbeyondallviewsoftheself,butitrequiresadopting,

provisionally,asenseofyourselfasresponsibleandcompetenttofollow

thepath.

TheparallelwaytheBuddhatreatsthesetwoissuescomesfromthefact

46

that“self”and“world”gotogether.Inhisanalysis,sufferingarisesinthe

processofbecoming(bhava),whichmeanstheactoftakingonasenseofself

inaparticularworldofexperience.Thisbecomingcomesfromcraving.

Whenweclingtoacraving,wecreateasenseofself,boththeself-as-

consumerwho,wehope,willenjoytheattainmentofwhatwecrave,and

theself-as-producerwhodoesordoesn’tpossesstheskillstoattainit.At

thesametime,theselfneedsaworldinwhichtofunctiontosatisfyits

cravings.Sowefashionaviewoftheworldasit’srelevanttothatparticular

desire:whatwillhelporhinderourselfinourquestforwhatwewant.

Theseworldscanbestrictlyimaginaryscenariosinthemind—inwhich

casethereareveryfewconstraintsontheshapestheycantake—butthey

alsoincludetheworld(s)inwhichwefunctionashumanbeings.Andin

caseslikethis,thereareconstraints:Thehumanworld,whenyoupushonit,

oftenpushesback.Itdoesn’talwaysrespondeasilytowhatyouwant,andis

sometimesfirminitsresistance.Aswelookforhappiness,wehavetofigure

outhowtoreaditspushback.Whenwegainasenseofwhatcanandcan’t

rightlybeexpectedoutofhowtheworldworks,wecanadjustourcravings

togetthemostoutofwhattheworldhastooffer.Atthesametime,we

adjustoursenseofself,developingskillstofitinwiththeworldsothatwe

canproducehappinessmoreeasily,andconsumeitmorefrequently.

Thisiswhyoursenseofselfissointimatelytiedtooursenseofthe

world—andwhypeoplecangetsoincensedaboutthedifferingworldviews

ofothers.Ifwefeelthatthey’retryingtogetawaywiththingsthatourown

worldviewdoesn’tallow,we’reoffendedbecausethey’renotplayingbythe

rulestowhichwe’vesubmitted.Someofthepeoplewhoareconvincedthat

theworldhasnosupernaturaldimensionfeelthatpeoplewhoseworldview

allowsforthesupernaturalaretryingtogetawaywithmagicalthinking.

Somewhoseworldviewdoeshaveroomforthesupernatural—andwhofind

inthatdimensionthesourceoftheirvalues—areupsetbypeoplewhose

materialist/naturalistviewsallowthemtooperateinaworldunrestrained

byanyobjectivemorallaw.

Thesebattleshavebeengoingonformillennia.ThePāliCanon—the

earliestextantrecordoftheBuddha’steachings—showsthattheywere

alreadyragingathistime.Severallongdiscoursesaredevotedtothewide

varietyofworldviewstheBuddha’scontemporariesadvocated,andif

anything,peopleinIndiaatthattimehadagreatervarietyofworldviews

thanwedonow.Somemaintainedthattheworldandtheselfwerepurely

47

material;others,thattherewasasoulthatremainedthesameforever;

others,thatthesoulandtheworldwereidentical;andstillothers,thatthe

soulperishedatdeath.Somearguedthatmorallawswerejustaconvention;

others,thatamorallawwasbuiltintothecosmos.Somebelievedthatthe

worldhadacreator;othersbelievedthatitarosebychance;others,thatit

hasexistedwithoutanybeginningpointatall.Somebelievedinother

realmsofbeing—heavensandhells—whileothersdidnot.Somebelievedin

rebirth,whileothersdidnot.Somebelievedinafinitecosmos,someinan

infinitecosmos,someinacosmosthatwasbothorneither.Thelistcould

goonandon.

TheBuddha’sresponsetothesecontroversieswasinteresting.Insteadof

jumpingintothefraytodebatetheseissues,hefocusedfirstonthekamma

ofbuildingaworldview:whatkindsofactionsledtoaparticularview,and

whatkindsofactionsthatworldviewwouldinspire.Hethenjudgedthese

actionsastowhethertheyresultedinmoresufferingorless.Onlythendid

hedecidewhichfeatureswererequiredbyaprovisionalworldviewthat

wouldleadtosuffering’send.

Hisapproachwasverywise.Argumentsoverworldviewsboildownto

questionsofinference:whatkindoffactscanbejudgedtobereal,andwhat

waysofinferringaworldfromthosefactscanbejudgedtobevalid.And

wheredowegetourfacts?Welearnabouttheworldbyactinginit.We

learnaboutwallsbybumpingintothem;aboutpeople,bytryingtogetwhat

wewantfromthem.Then,fromtheresultsofouractions,weinfermore

abouttheworldthanouractionsactuallytellus.There’salotmoretothe

worldthanthepartsthatrespondtoouractions,andourinferencesfillin

theblanks.SotheBuddha,insteadofgivingrealitytotheinferences,

decidedtofocusontheirsource:ouractions.Afterall,weknowthem—or

shouldknowthem,ifwe’repayingattention—muchmoredirectlythanthe

worldswe’veinferred.

Hisconclusionwasthatallpossibleworldviewswereinstancesof

clinging,andthatclinging,inturn,wassuffering.Justaswesufferinthe

activityofwhattheBuddhacalledI-makingandmy-making,wesufferin

theprocessofworld-making.Eventhoughwefeedofftheseactivities

—“feeding”beinganothermeaningforupādāna,thePāliwordforclinging—

weenduphavingtopaydearlyforwhatweeat.Thisistruewhetherour

senseoftheworldhasasupernaturalaspectornot.

48

Now,theseworldview-clingingshavetwodimensions.Ontheonehand,

theyfocusonfivethings,calledaggregates(khandha):

thebodyasitmovesaroundintheworld;

feelingsofpleasure,pain,orneitherpleasurenorpain;

perceptions,thelabelsweapplytothings;

fabrications,thewayweputourthoughtstogether;and

consciousness,ourawarenessatthesixsenses.

Ontheotherhand,theseclingingscantakefourforms:

viewclinging,theactofholdingtoaviewoftheworld;

doctrine-of-selfclinging,thesenseof“you”thatfunctionsinthat

worldviewalongwiththesenseof“you”asthepersonwhoisproud

toespousethatview;

habit-and-practiceclinging,asenseofhowthingshavetobedone,

bothinshapinganddefendingaworldviewandthen,onceit’sshaped,

howyouhavetoactinthecontextoftherulesofthatworldview;and

sensualityclinging,fascinationwiththesensualpleasuresthata

worldviewhastooffer.

It’seasytoseehowthisanalysisofclingingappliestoworldviewsthat

havenosupernaturalaspectaswellastothosethatdo.Forexample,in

termsoftheselfholdingtheview,“naturalists”canbeveryproudthat

they’rehard-headedrealists;“supernaturalists,”veryproudthatthey’ve

beensingledoutforprivilegedinformation.Intermsofhabitsand

practices,eachsidecanbeveryinsistentthatthewaytheydrawinferences

abouttheworldis“scientific”—astheydefinetheterm—andthattheyknow

forafactwhatwaysofbehaviorareactuallyvalidinthecontextoftheir

worlds.

FromtheBuddha’spointofview,though,allthesewaysofclingingare

suffering.Andthewisetaskwithregardtosufferingistocomprehendit—

whichmeanstoseehowit’scaused,howitpassesaway,whatitsallureis,

whatitsdrawbacksare,andfinallyhowtoescapefromitthroughthe

dispassionthatcomesfromseeingthatthedrawbacksfaroutweighthe

allure.

Mundane Right View

49

Tocomprehendclingingandsufferinginthiswayisnotsimplyan

intellectualexercise.Itrequiresdevelopingalleightfactorsofthenoble

path,anall-aroundskillthatgrowsinmanystages.Thispathrequiresa

strongsensethattherearesuchthingsasskillfulandunskillfulactions.It

alsorequiresaresilientsenseofmotivationthatcancarryyouthroughthe

setbacksandobstaclesindeveloping,amongotherskills,strong

mindfulnessandconcentration.Allofthis,especiallyasyou’regetting

startedonthepath,requiresacertainsenseoftheworldtoexplainthepath

andtoaffirmwhyit’sapossibleanddesirablecourseofaction.

WhichiswhytheBuddhadoesn’tsimplyrecommenddroppingallviews

abouttheworld.AshenotesinDN1,takingastanceofagnosticism

towardallissuesdeprivesyouofanygroundsfordecidingwhat’sskillful

andnot.Whenyou’redeprivedinthatway,you’reopentodoingunskillful

thingsthatwillyieldbadlong-termconsequences.So,insteadofdropping

viewsabouttheworld,herecommends—intheformofmundanerightview

(MN117)—aprovisionalsketchoftheworldthatservesthepurposesof

thepathtotheendofsuffering,oneinwhichthatpathisbothpossibleand

desirable.Inotherwords,he’sgivingyousomethingrelativelyskillfulto

clingtountilyoureachthelevelofskillwhereyounolongerneedtocling.

Atthesametime,herecommendsovercomingI-makingandmy-makingby

startingfirstwiththestepofdeveloping,provisionally,ahealthysenseof

selfcapableoffollowingthepath(AN4:159).Onlywhenthesesensesofthe

worldandoftheselfhaveservedtheirpurposedoyouputthemaside.

Note,inbothcases,thathe’srecommendingjustasenseofselfandasense

ofworld,notafull-blownviewabouteitherselforworld.Ashesaw,the

pathrequiresjustasmallbodyofassumptions,enoughtoactasworking

hypothesesthatpointyouintherightdirection.Intermsoftheself,the

Buddhadiscouragedhismonksfromtryingtoanswersuchquestionsas

“WhatamI?”“DoIexist?”“DoInotexist?”(MN2).Instead,it’senoughto

developanduseasenseofselfthat’sresponsibleandcompetentasa

producer(Dhp160),andwhofeelsenoughself-lovetowantonlythebest

happinessfortheselfasaconsumer(AN3:40).Intermsoftheworld,the

Buddharefusedtotakeapositiononwhetherornottheworldwaseternal

orinfinite(MN63).Healsodiscouragedhisfollowersfromengagingin

speculationabouttheworld,sayingthatitwouldleadto“madnessand

vexation”(AN4:77).Infact,henevergaveacompletepictureevenofa

“Buddhistcosmology.”ThemapsdetailingthemanylevelsoftheBuddhist

50

cosmoswerelaterextrapolationsfromcommentsscatteredintheearly

texts.Whathedidofferwasjustahandfulofleaves(SN56:31).

Aprominentleafinthathandfulwasaviewoftheworldinwhichthe

mind’sactsoffabricationplayanimportantrole.Ononelevel,thisis

eminentlysensible.Giventheeffortthatgoesintoconstructingworldviews,

whybotherfabricatingaworldview,assomepeopledo,inwhichthemind’s

activitiesplaynoeffectiverole—inwhichthey’reregardedasnothingmore

thanafter-effectsofphysicalevents,forexample,ordeniedanyrealityat

all?(DN2)It’dbeasenselesswasteoftime.

ButtheBuddha’spurposesweremorespecificthanjustcommonsense.

Thepathtotheendofsufferingrequiresaviewoftheworldinwhich:

sufferingisreal,

themind’sfabrications,underthepowerofignorance,arethecauseof

suffering,and

thosesamefabrications,whentreatedwithknowledge,havethepower

tobringsufferingtoanend.

Thismeans,asapreliminaryprinciple,thattheBuddha’sprovisional

worldviewcouldnotbepurelymaterialistic.Heestablishedthispointwith

thelinethathisfollowerspostedinthefirstlineoftheDhammapada:“The

heart/mindistheforerunnerofallphenomena.”Withthisline,theBuddha

rejectedtheworldviewinwhichthemindissimplythepassiverecipientof

sensedata,orinwhichitsfunctionsarenothingmorethantheafter-effects

ofphysicalprocesses.Inamaterialistuniverse,theproblemofsuffering

wouldn’trightlyberegardedasaproblem,becauseitcan’tbedetectedby

materialmechanisms.Andevenifamaterialistwereinconsistentenoughto

wanttodoawaywithsuffering,he’dexplainitasamaterialproblem,tobe

solvedthroughmaterialmeans,suchaschemicalsorelectricshock.The

principlethatthemindcomesfirst,however,allowsforsufferingtobe

regardedasagenuineproblem,andthatitmightpotentiallybesolvedby

trainingthemind’sfabrications.

ThisiswhythemainleafintheBuddha’sworldviewisthattheprocesses

offabricationarereal.UnlikesomelaterBuddhisttheorists,suchas

Nāgārjuna,theBuddhastatedclearlythatfabrications—eventhoughthey’re

conditioned,inconstant,andsubjecttochange—reallydoexist(SN22:94).

Iftheyweren’treal,thesufferingtheycreatealsowouldn’tbereal,andthere

wouldbenopointtoteachingapathtotheendofsuffering.

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Butfabricationsarenotsimplyreal.Theyarethedominantfactorin

shapingnotonlyourviewsabouttheworld,butalsothestructureofthe

world,theeventsweexperiencewithinthatstructure,andthewaywe

experiencethoseevents.

Ingivingfabricationssuchalargeroletoplayinshapingtheworld,the

Buddhaisalsoimplyingthattheworldsharesthelimitationsof

fabrications.Likethem,it’sinconstant,stressful,andsubjecttochange.No

permanenthappinesscanbefoundwithinitsconfines.Thisisthemain

motivationforwantingtogetoutofit.

ButwhenweexaminetheBuddha’spictureofhowfabrications

constructtheworld,wefindthathealsogivesthemaprominentrolein

providingthewayout.Totakeonthatrole,though,themindhastoaccept

certainassumptionstoguideitinfabricatingthepath.TheBuddhasetout

theseassumptionsintheprovisionalsketchoftheworldthathecalled

mundanerightview.Theassumptionsarethese:

thereisgenerosity—i.e.,theactofgenerosityisachoice(this

principledeniesstrictdeterminism);

actionsarereal;

therearetheresultsofgoodandbadactions;

therearebeings;

somebeings,suchasyourparents,deservegratitude;

thereisaworldafterdeath;

thereare,insomeofthoseworlds,spontaneouslyrebornbeings—

i.e.,beingsintheheavens,hells,andrealmofthehungryghosts,who,

basedontheirkamma,arisewithoutparents;and

therearecontemplativeswho,practicingrightly,havecometo

knowthesethingsasfacts.

Theseareallprinciplestobetakenonconviction.Somepeopleaskhow

onecanbeexpectedtoknowthesethingsbeforeacceptingthem,butthat’s

missingthepoint.Theseprinciplesareexplicitlylabeledasrightviews,

ratherthanrightknowledge.You’renotexpectedtoknowthematthe

beginningofthepath.They’reworkinghypotheses,“right”becausethey’re

rightforthejob:Theyleadyoutoactinawaythatwillleadtotheendof

suffering.Onlyatthemomentoffullawakeningaretheyreplacedwith

rightknowledge.

TheBuddharealizedthathecouldn’tprovetheseprinciplestoan

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unawakenedaudience,buthedidprovideapragmatictest:Byaccepting

theseprinciples,you’remorelikelytoengageinskillfulactionsthanifyou

acceptedtheiropposites.Thatmuchiseasytosee.Ofcourse,awillingness

toaccepttheprinciplethatviewscanbetestedbyputtingthemintoaction

requiresatleastsomeconfidencethatactionscanbechosenandhavethe

powertoyielddifferingresults.ButtheBuddhawasn’tinterestedin

teachingpeoplewhosemindsweren’topenenoughtoacceptatleastthis

much.

Thediscoursesaddsomedetailstotheworldviewsketchedoutin

mundanerightview.Intermsofaction,AN3:62rejectsanyworldviewsin

whichallexperienceofpleasureandpaincanbeattributedtoprevious

actions,tothewillofacreatorgod,ortopurechance.AstheBuddhapoints

out,suchviewsdon’tprovideanygroundsforclaimingthatthere’sa

differencebetweenskillfulandunskillfulactions,orthattherecouldbe

suchathingasapathofpractice.

TheBuddha’sprovisionalworldviewalsomakesreferencetoheavens,

hells,andrebirth.Thismeansthathisconceptofnaturecontainedwhatwe

wouldcallasupernaturaldimension.Butit’sworthnoting:

•thathissketchofthecosmos,asrevealedinthediscourses,wasnot

simplypickedupfromtheworldviewsofpreviousIndianreligions;and

•thathedeprivedthesupernaturaldimensionoftheauthorityitenjoyed

inotherreligionsofthetime.

Tobeginwith,hisviewofkamma,andoftheplaceswherebeingscango

afterdeath,wasdistinctivelyhisown.Comparedtopreviousthinkers,he

gaveamuchlargerroletokammainshapingboththeprocessofrebirth

andtheworldstowhichbeingsarereborn.Thoseworlds,especiallyinhis

sketchofthehigherheavens,correspondtowhathelearnedaboutthelevels

ofthemindthatheencounteredinthecourseofbringinghismindto

awakening.Althoughheaffirmedtheexistenceofsomeofthedevastaught

intheVedas,thestructureofhiscosmosputsthemintheirplace,inboth

sensesoftheterm.Inotherwords,theyaredemotedtothelowerheavens

andsharplydownsizedinimportance.EventheGreatBrahmā,thehighest

godinthebrahmanicalpantheon,isassignedtoamiddlinglevelofheaven,

reigningthereovertheignorant,notbecauseofanyinnategreatness,but

becauseheexhaustedthemeritthatwouldhaveallowedhimtostayona

higherlevel(DN1).ThismeansthattheBuddha’saudiencewouldhave

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foundhisworldviewjustasnovelandstrangeasWesternaudiencesdo

now.

It’salsoworthnotingtheseriousconstraintsheputonthevalueof

knowingthesupernatural.Eventhough,ashestated,fullknowledgeof

devaswasanecessarypartofhisownawakening(AN8:71),itwasn’t

necessaryforeveryone.Heneededitbecause,withoutthatknowledge,he

couldn’thavetaughtpeoplewhosekammaledthemtoexperiencedevasin

theirownmeditation.Butwhathelearnedaboutthedevaswasthatthey

canbeveryunreliable.Insteadofcominginjusttwovarieties—angelsand

demons—theycomeinallgradationsofgoodnessandpotency.Andthey’re

notalwaysemissariesfromahigherpower,eitherevilorgood.Knowing

thesefactshelpstoprotectapersonwhohasvisionsofsuchbeings,orwho

encountersthemthroughmediums,frombeingoverlyfearfulofthemor

givingthemtoomuchconfidence.

SomedevashaveagoodsenseoftheDhamma(MN134;SN9:14),some

don’t(SN1:20),andeventhosewhodocanbefickleinsharingtheir

knowledge(SN9:14).Some,likeMāra,arehungryforpower.Othersare

downrightcorrupt—seetheoriginstorytoPārājika3forachillingexample

ofadevawhogiveseviladvice.Devaswhoclaimtobecreatorsofthe

universeareespeciallyhypocriticalandignorant(DN1;DN11).

Whatallthismeansisthatthesupernaturalknowledgecomingfrom

devas—whattheytellyouaboutthecosmos,forexample,abouthowtoact,

oraboutthemeaningoflife—can’talwaysbetrusted.

Similarlywithpsychicpowers:TheBuddhamasteredawiderangeof

suchpowersonthewaytohisawakening,andhecontinuedtousethemin

thecourseofhisteachingcareer(MN86).Buthewarnedanymonkswho

hadsuchpowersnottodisplaythemtothelaity(Cv.V.8).Asheexplainedin

DN11,thedisplayofpsychicpowersisalwaysopentosuspicionsof

trickery,whereasaDhammathat,whenputintopractice,showsresultsis

theonlyproofofateacher’struthfulness.Severalstoriesofpsychicpowers

intheCanonshowthattheyattractthewrongkindofattentionfromothers

(seetheoriginstorytoNP23),andthecaseofDevadattashowshowa

monkwithpsychicpowerscanactuallyusethosepowerstocauseharm.

SoeventhoughtheBuddha’sprovisionalviewoftheworldhasa

supernaturaldimension,heplacessomeverysensiblerestrictionsonhow

muchthatdimensioncanbetrusted.Thisfactisreflectedintwoimportant

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points:

•EventhoughtheBuddha’sawakeningrequiredgainingpsychicpowers

andknowledgeofdevas,thefullawakeningofhisstudentsdoesnot(SN

12:70).

•Injudgingwhetherteachersaretobetrusted,theirlackorpossession

ofsuchpowersdoesn’tenterintotheequationatall.Instead,theyshouldbe

observedtoseeiftheypossesstwoverynaturalvirtues:Theywouldn’ttella

persontodosomethingthatwouldleadtothatperson’sharm;andthey

wouldn’tclaimknowledgethattheydon’tpossess(MN95).Inotherwords,

teachersaretobejudgedbytheiractions,toseeifthey’rereliableguideson

howtoact.

Afterall,thisisthemainthrustoftheBuddha’sprovisionalworldview:

theroleofactioninshapingtheworld.Ifteachersdon’tactwith

truthfulnessandcompassion,youcan’ttrustthemtoteachyouhowtoact

wiselyandskillfullywithregardtotheworld.Andskillispreciselywhat

youneedtolearnhowtomaster.Actionshavethepowertoleadtoawide

rangeofbecomings—fromthepurelypainfulonesinhelltothepurely

blissfulonesinthehigherheavens.Thisisbecausethecravingsthatdrive

themindtoactcanalsodriveittobeingreborn(SN44:9)—aprocessthat

comesfromaninconceivablebeginning(SN15:3),andcan,potentially,

recurwithoutend.

Andtheprocessdoesn’tgoeverupward.Afterreachingthehigherlevels,

beingseasilybecomecarelessandirresponsible,clingingtotheresultsof

theirpastgoodkamma,andsofall.Andbecausethecosmosisshapedbythe

actionsofmanybeings,there’snoonebeinginchargeoftheprocess.Ithas

nopurpose,and—inthewordsofMN82—it’s“withoutshelter,without

protector.”Thismeansthatthesufferingexperiencedinalltheseupsand

downsservesnohigherpurpose,either.It’spointless.

ButtheBuddha’sprovisionalworldviewdoeshaveapoint:todevelopa

senseofdismayattheideaofcontinuingtostayinthisworldof

fabrications,alongwithasenseofconfidencethat,ifactionhascausedthis

problem,actioncanfindthewayout.Andbecausethesourceofthe

problemisinthemind,thesolutionhastoliethereaswell.AstheBuddha

saystoaformer“sky-walker”inAN4:45,there’snowaythatanendtothe

cosmos,freefromsuffering,canbereachedbytraveling,butitcanbe

reachedbylookinginward,intothebodytogetherwithitsmind.Thisis

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wherethecosmos,theoriginationofthecosmos,thecessationofthe

cosmos,andthepathleadingtothecessationofthecosmoscanbefound.

Whenthemindshiftsitsframeofreferencetothisperspective,itmoves

itsrightviewsfromthemundaneleveltothetranscendent.

Transcendent Right View

Mundanerightviewandtranscendentrightviewbothfocusonthesame

topic—themind’sfabrications—buttheytreatthattopicfromdifferent

angles.Mundanerightviewtreatsitintermsofbeingsandworlds.

Transcendentrightviewdropsthosetermsentirelyandtreatstheprocesses

offabricationasprocesses,analyzedintermsofthefournobletruths:

suffering,itscause,itscessation,andthepathtoitscessation.Thislevelof

rightviewdoesn’tdenytheexistenceofbeingsorworlds.Instead,itsimply

changestoanotherframeofreference:fabricationswithinthemind,taken

ontheirownterms.Withregardtosuffering,thequestionisn’twhointhe

worldissuffering,whocausedthesuffering,orwho’sgoingtoputanendto

suffering.It’ssimply,whatactionsconstitutesuffering,whatactionscause

it,whatactionsbringittoanend.Fromthisperspective,adistinctiveduty

isappliedtoeventsfallingundereachtruth:sufferingistobe

comprehended,itscauseabandoned,itscessationrealized,andthepathto

itscessationdeveloped.

Byadoptingthisperspective,youcanseeevenyoursenseofselfand

yoursenseoftheworldsimplyasactions.Youthenaskwhichofthefour

categoriesofrightviewtheseactionsfallinto,andapplytheappropriate

duty.Whenyouregardsomethingas“yours”orasadutyimposedbythe

world,it’shardtoletitgo.Butwhenyouseeitsimplyasanactionunder

therubricofthefournobletruths,it’seasiertoapplytheappropriateduty.

Youseethatviewsareformsofclinging,soyoutrytocomprehendthem.

Youseethattheycomefromcraving,soyoutrytoletthatcravinggo.

Butbecausethemindissousedtothinkingintermsofbeingsand

worlds,thisnewperspectiveishardtoholdinmind.Itkeepsslippingback

toitsoldwaysofthinking.Thisiswhyrightmindfulness—theabilityto

remembertherightframeofreferenceandthedutiesimpliedbythatframe

—isanessentialpartofthepath.Thebasicformulaforrightmindfulness

startsbytellingyoutokeeptrackofthebody,feelings,mind,andmental

qualitiesinandofthemselves.Inotherwords,youviewtheserawmaterials

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forastateofbecomingontheirownterms,withoutputtingtheminthe

contextof“self”or“world”—how,forinstance,yourbodyisviewedbythe

worldorhowitfitsintoyourself-imagevis-à-vistheworld.

Theformulathennotesthatyoukeepsubduinganygreedordistress

withreferencetotheworld.Inotherwords,youdropanythoughtsthat

dealintermsof“world”thatwouldpullyououtofyourframeofreference.

Theformulaalsonotesthatyoudevelopthreequalitiestokeepwiththe

rightframeofreference:

•mindfulness,rememberingyourframeofreferencealongwith

thedutiesappropriatetothefournobletruths;

•alertness,theabilitytoseeclearlywhatyouaredoinginthe

present;and

•ardency,theefforttoapplytheappropriatedutytowhateveris

comingupinthecontextofyourframeofreference.

Maintainingthispracticeovertimewouldbecomeadry,tiringexercise

ifitweren’tforthefactthatthese“establishingsofmindfulness”

(satipaṭṭhāna)leadthemindtorightconcentration,whichissuffusedwith

pleasureandrapture.Aslongastheminddoesn’tgetdistractedbythe

worldoutside,itcanfindastrongsenseofwell-beingbydevelopingthis

newperspective.

Inthebeginningstagesofrightmindfulness,theworkofsubduinggreed

anddistresswithreferencetotheworldfocusesonthoughtsthatwouldpull

youtoengageintheworldoutside.Butwithtime,youcometoseethe

worldmoreandmoreintheBuddha’s“noble”definitionoftheterm:thesix

senses,theirobjects,consciousnessatthesenses,contactatthesenses,and

allthefeelingsthatarisebasedonthatcontact(SN35:82).Inotherwords,

yougetlessinterestedinextrapolatinganoutsideworldfromthese

processes,andmoreinterestedinsimplybringingknowledgetothese

processesinandofthemselves.Inthisway,youbringtheworldintothe

contextofthefourestablishingsofmindfulnessthemselves,andunderthe

frameworkofthefournobletruths.Themeditationisnownotsomething

thathappensinthecontextoftheworld;theworldhappensinthecontext

ofthemeditation.Thisdoesn’tmeanthattheworldoutsideisanillusion,

justthatyourealizethatit’snottheproblem.Theproblemliesinthe

processesofthemind.

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Release from Worlds

SN12:15showswherethispracticeleads:Asyouwatchtheorigination

ofthe“world”inthesenseofprocesses,youreachastateofmindinwhich

thethoughtof“existence”withregardtotheworldsimplydoesn’toccurto

you.Asyouwatchthecessationoftheworldofprocesses,thethoughtof

“non-existence”withregardtotheworlddoesn’toccurtoyou,either.You

seetheprocessesofarisingandpassingawayasmereinstancesofstress

arisingandpassingaway.Becausetheseprocesseshavenofurthervaluein

termsof“world”or“self,”“existence”ornot,youcanletthemallgo.Andin

lettingthemgo,themindletsgoofeverythingthat’sfabricatedandcaused,

thatarisesandpassesaway.That’showitgainsrelease.

MN49describesthestateofconsciousnessrevealedinthisreleaseas

“consciousnesswithoutsurface,”aconsciousnessthat—unlikethe

consciousness-aggregate—isnotexperiencedthroughthesixsensesatall.

Inotherwords,it’snotengagedinanyworldinanysenseoftheterm.DN

11addsthatit’sfreefromnameandform,whichmeansthat—unlike,say,

theinfinitudeofconsciousnessexperiencedinformlessstatesof

concentration—it’snotinvolvedinanysortoffabrication.Inbothofthese

discourses,thistypeofconsciousnessispresentedassomethingthateven

thedevasinthehighestheavenlyworldsdon’tknow.Afterall,they’restill

intheirworlds,whereas—inthewordsofDN11—thisconsciousnessis

wherenoworldfindsafooting.It’stheworld’scessation.

TheimageusedinSN12:64isofalightbeamthatdoesn’tlandonany

object.Itmaybebrightinandofitself,butbecauseitdoesn’tparticipatein

theworldinanyway,itcan’tbedetectedasexisting,notexisting,both,or

neither.Itsreleaseisthattotal.

ThisisthegoalwheretheBuddha’steachingsontheworldaim:toastate

ofmindfreedfromanyworldofanykind.Ingoingbeyondtheworld,you

findthattheBuddha’sprovisionalworldviewsweretrue,asfarasthey

went,butthattheirgenuineworthliesinthattheyallowthemindtogo

furtherthantheydo.AstheBuddha’slifestoryshows,peoplewhohave

gonebeyondworldsinthiswaycan—aslongasthebodycontinuestolive—

stillofferguidanceandhelptothosestilltrappedinworlds,whetherthose

worldsareofanaturalorsupernaturalsort.ThisiswhytheBuddhawasa

teacherofbeingsnotonlyhuman,butalsodivine.Butthere’ssomething

aboutanawakenedpersonthatnoworldorworldviewcancapture.And

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becausetheBuddha’sworldviewscanhelpthosewhoadoptthemtofind

that“something,”that’swhythey’rereallyworthtakingon.

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WisdomoverJustice

Afewyearsago,inoneofitsmoreinspiredmoments,TheOnion

reportedavideoreleasedbyaBuddhistfundamentalistsectinwhicha

spokesmanforthesectthreatenedthatheandhiscohortswouldunleash

wavesofpeaceandharmonyacrosstheworld,wavesthatnoonecouldstop

orresist.Thereportalsonotedthat,inresponsetothevideo,the

DepartmentofHomelandSecuritysworetodoeverythinginitspowerto

stopthosewavesfromreachingAmerica.

Aswithallgoodsatire,thereportmakesyoustopandthink.Whyare

peaceandharmonytheworst“threats”thatwouldcomefromthe

fundamentalsoftheBuddha’steachings?

Theanswer,Ithink,liesinthefactthattheBuddhanevertriedtoimpose

hisideasofjusticeontheworldatlarge.Andthiswasverywiseand

perceptiveonhispart.It’seasyenoughtoseehowimposedstandardsof

justicecanbeamenacetowell-beingwhenthosestandardsaresomebody

else’s.It’smuchhardertoseethemenacewhenthestandardsareyourown.

TheBuddhadidhaveclearstandardsforrightandwrong,ofskillfuland

unskillfulwaysofengagingwiththeworld,buthehardlyeverspokeof

justiceatall.Instead,hespokeofactionsthatwouldleadtoharmonyand

truehappinessintheworld.Andinsteadofexplaininghisideasfor

harmonyinthecontextofpursuingajustworld,hepresentedtheminthe

contextofmerit:actionsthatpursueahappinessblamelessbothinitselfand

inthewayit’spursued.

TheconceptofmeritiswidelymisunderstoodintheWest.It’softenseen

astheselfishquestforyourownwell-being.Actually,though,theactions

thatqualifyasmeritoriousaretheBuddha’spreliminaryanswertothesetof

questionsthathesayslieatthebasisofwisdom:“Whatisskillful?Whatis

blameless?What,whenIdoit,willleadtolong-termwelfareand

happiness?”Ifyousearchforhappinessbymeansofthethreetypesof

meritoriousaction—generosity,virtue,andthedevelopmentofuniversal

goodwill—it’shardtoseehowthathappinesscouldbebrandedasselfish.

Thesearetheactionsthat,throughtheirinherentgoodness,makehuman

societylivable.

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AndtheBuddhaneverimposedeventheseactionsonanyoneas

commandsorobligations.Whenaskedwhereagiftshouldbegiven,instead

ofsaying,“ToBuddhists,”hesaid,“Whereverthemindfeelsconfidence”

(SN3:24).Similarlywithvirtue:Dhammateachershavefrequentlynoted,

withapproval,thattheBuddha’spreceptsarenotcommandments.They’re

trainingrulesthatpeoplecanundertakevoluntarily.Asforthepracticeof

universalgoodwill,that’saprivatematterthatcan’tbeforcedonanyoneat

all.Tobegenuine,ithastocomevoluntarilyfromtheheart.Theonly

“should”lyingbehindtheBuddha’steachingsonmeritisaconditionalone:

Ifyouwanttruehappiness,thisiswhatyoushoulddo.Notbecausethe

Buddhasaidso,butsimplybecausethisishowcauseandeffectworkinthe

world.

Afterall,theBuddhadidn’tclaimtospeakforacreatorgodora

protectivedeity.Hewasn’tauniversallawgiver.Theonlylawsand

standardsforfairnessheformulatedweretherulesofconductforthose

whochosetobeordainedintheBhikkhuandBhikkhunīSaṅghas,where

thosewhocarryoutcommunaldutiesareenjoinedtoavoidanyformof

biascomingfromdesire,aversion,delusion,orfear.Apartfromthat,the

Buddhaspokesimplyasanexpertinhowtoendsuffering.Hisauthority

came,notfromaclaimtopower,butfromthehonestyandefficacyofhis

ownsearchforadeathlesshappiness.

Thismeantthathewasinnopositiontoimposehisideasonanyonewho

didn’tvoluntarilyacceptthem.Andhedidn’tseektoputhimselfinsucha

position.AsthePāliCanonnotes,therequestfortheBuddhatoassumea

positionofsovereigntysothathecouldrulejustlyoverotherscame,not

fromanyofhisfollowers,butfromMāra(SN4:20).Thereareseveral

reasonswhyherefusedMāra’srequest—andwhyheadvisedothersto

refusesuchrequestsaswell.

Tobeginwith,evenifyoutriedtorulejustly,therewouldalwaysbe

peopledissatisfiedwithyourrule.AstheBuddhacommentedtoMāra,even

twomountainsofsolidgoldbullionwouldn’tbeenoughtosatisfythewants

ofanyoneperson.Nomatterhowwellwealthandopportunitieswere

distributedunderyourrule,therewouldalwaysbethosedissatisfiedwith

theirportions.Asaresult,therewouldalwaysbethoseyou’dhavetofight

inordertomaintainyourpower.And,intryingtomaintainpower,you

inevitablydevelopanattitudewheretheendsjustifythemeans.Those

meanscaninvolveviolenceandpunishments,drivingyoufurtherand

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furtherawayfrombeingabletoadmitthetruth,orevenwantingtoknowit

(AN3:70).Eventhemerefactofbeinginapositionofpowermeansthat

you’resurroundedbysycophantsandschemers,peopledeterminedtopreventyoufromknowingthetruthaboutthem(MN90).Asfarasthe

Buddhawasconcerned,politicalpowerwassodangerousthatheadvised

hismonkstoavoid,ifpossible,associatingwitharuler—oneofthedangers

beingthatiftherulerformulatedadisastrouspolicy,thepolicymightbe

blamedonthemonk(Pc83).

AnotherreasonfortheBuddha’sreluctancetotrytoimposehisideasof

justiceonotherswashisperceptionthattheefforttoseekjusticeasan

absoluteendwouldruncountertothemaingoalofhisteachings:the

endingofsufferingandtheattainmentofatrueandblamelesshappiness.

Henevertriedtopreventrulersfromimposingjusticeintheirkingdoms,

buthealsoneverusedtheDhammatojustifyatheoryofjustice.Andhe

neverusedtheteachingonpastkammatojustifythemistreatmentofthe

weakordisadvantaged:Regardlessofwhatevertheirpastkammamayhave

been,ifyoumistreatthem,thekammaofmistreatmentbecomesyours.Just

becausepeoplearecurrentlyweakandpoordoesn’tmeanthattheirkamma

requiresthemtostayweakandpoor.There’snowayofknowing,fromthe

outside,whatotherkammicpotentialsarewaitingtosproutfromtheirpast.

Atthesametime,though,theBuddhaneverencouragedhisfollowersto

seekretribution,i.e.,punishmentforoldwrongs.Theconflictbetween

retributivejusticeandtruehappinessiswellillustratedbythefamousstory

ofAṅgulimāla(MN86).Aṅgulimālawasabanditwhohadkilledsomany

people—theCanoncountsatleast100;theCommentary,999—thathewore

agarland(māla)madeoftheirfingers(aṅguli).Yetafteranencounterwith

theBuddha,hehadsuchanextremechangeofheartthatheabandonedhis

violentways,awakenedasenseofcompassion,andeventuallybecamean

arahant.

Thestoryisapopularone,andmostofusliketoidentifywith

Aṅgulimāla:Ifapersonwithhishistorycouldgainawakening,there’shope

forusall.Butinidentifyingwithhim,weforgetthefeelingsofthosehehad

terrorizedandoftherelativesofthosehehadkilled.Afterall,hehad

literallygottenawaywithmurder.It’seasytounderstand,then,asthestory

tellsus,thatwhenAṅgulimālawasgoingforalmsafterhisawakening,

peoplewouldthrowstonesathim,andhe’dreturnfromhisalmsround,“his

headbrokenopenanddrippingwithblood,hisbowlbroken,andhisouter

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roberippedtoshreds.”AstheBuddhareassuredhim,hiswoundswere

nothingcomparedtothesufferingshewouldhaveundergoneifhehadn’t

reachedawakening.Andiftheoutragedpeoplehadfullysatisfiedtheir

thirstforjustice,metingoutthesufferingtheythoughthedeserved,he

wouldn’thavehadthechancetoreachawakeningatall.Sohiswasacasein

whichtheendofsufferingtookprecedenceoverjusticeinanycommon

senseoftheword.

Aṅgulimāla’scaseillustratesageneralprinciplestatedinAN3:101:If

theworkingsofkammarequiredstrict,tit-for-tatjustice—withyourhaving

toexperiencetheconsequencesofeachactjustasyouinflicteditonothers

—there’snowaythatanyonecouldreachtheendofsuffering.Thereason

wecanreachawakeningisbecauseeventhoughactionsofacertaintype

giveacorrespondingtypeofresult,theintensityofhowthatresultisfeltis

determined,notonlybytheoriginalaction,butalso—andmoreimportantly

—byourstateofmindwhentheresultsripen.Ifyou’vedevelopedunlimited

goodwillandequanimity,andhavetrainedwellinvirtue,discernment,and

theabilitytobeovercomeneitherbypleasurenorpain,thenwhenthe

resultsofpastbadactionsripen,you’llhardlyexperiencethematall.Ifyou

haven’ttrainedyourselfintheseways,theneventheresultsofatriflingbad

actcanconsignyoutohell.

TheBuddhaillustratesthisprinciplewiththreesimiles.Thefirstisthe

easiesttodigest:Theresultsofpastbadactionsarelikealargesaltcrystal.

Anuntrainedmindislikeasmallcupofwater;awell-trainedmind,likethe

waterinalarge,clearriver.Ifyouputthesaltintothewaterofthecup,you

can’tdrinkitbecauseit’stoosalty.Butifyouputthesaltintotheriver,you

canstilldrinkthewaterbecausethere’ssomuchmoreofitandit’ssoclean.

Allinall,anattractiveimage.

Theothertwosimiles,though,underscorethepointthattheprinciple

they’reillustratinggoesagainstsomeverybasicideasoffairness.Inone

simile,thebadactionislikethetheftofmoney;intheother,likethetheftof

agoat.Inbothsimiles,theuntrainedmindislikeapoorpersonwho,

becausehe’spoor,getsheavilypunishedforeitherofthesetwocrimes,

whereasthewell-trainedmindisliketherichpersonwho,becausehe’srich,

doesn’tgetpunishedforeithertheftatall.Inthesecases,theimagesare

muchlessattractive,buttheydrivehomethepointthat,forkammatowork

inawaythatrewardsthetrainingofthemindtoputanendtosuffering,it

can’tworkinsuchawayastoguaranteejustice.Ifweinsistedonasystem

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ofkammathatdidguaranteejustice,thepathtofreedomfromsuffering

wouldbeclosed.

Thissetofvalues,whichgivespreferencetohappinessoverjusticewhen

there’saconflictbetweenthetwo,doesn’tsitverywellwithmanyWestern

Buddhists.“Isn’tjusticealargerandnoblergoalthanhappiness?”wethink.

TheshortanswertothisquestionrelatestotheBuddha’scompassion:

Seeingthatwe’vealldonewronginthepast,hiscompassionextendedto

wrong-doersaswellastothosewho’vebeenwronged.Forthisreason,he

taughtthewaytotheendofsufferingregardlessofwhetherthatsuffering

was“deserved”ornot.

Forthelonganswer,though,wehavetoturnandlookatourselves.

ManyofusbornandeducatedintheWest,evenifwe’verejectedthe

monotheismthatshapedourculture,tendtoholdtotheideathatthereare

objectivestandardsofjusticetowhicheveryoneshouldconform.When

distressedovertheunfairstateofsociety,weoftenexpressourviewsfor

rightingwrongs,notassuggestionsofwisecoursesofaction,butas

objectivestandardsastohoweveryoneisduty-boundtoact.Wetendto

forget,though,thattheveryideathatthosestandardscouldbeobjectiveand

universallybindingmakessenseonlyinthecontextofamonotheistic

worldview:oneinwhichtheuniversewascreatedataspecificpointintime

—say,byAbraham’sGodorbyAristotle’sUnmovedMover—withaspecific

purpose.Inotherwords,wemaintaintheideaofobjectivejusticeeven

thoughwe’veabandonedtheworldviewthatunderpinstheideaandmakes

itvalid.

Forexample,retributivejustice—thejusticethatseekstorightold

wrongsbypunishingthefirstwrongdoerand/orthosewhoresponded

excessivelytothefirstwrong—demandsaspecificbeginningpointintime

sothatwecandeterminewhothrewthefirststoneandtallyupthescoreof

whodidwhatafterthatfirstprovocation.

Restorativejustice—thejusticethatseekstoreturnsituationstotheir

properstatebeforethefirststonewasthrown—requiresnotonlyaspecific

beginningpointintime,butalsothatthatbeginningpointbeagoodplace

towhichtoreturn.

Distributivejustice—thejusticethatseekstodeterminewhoshouldhave

what,andhowresourcesandopportunitiesshouldberedistributedfrom

thosewhohavethemtothosewhoshouldhavethem—requiresacommon

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source,aboveandbeyondindividuals,fromwhichallthingsflowandthat

setsthepurposesthosethingsshouldserve.

Onlywhentheirrespectiveconditionsaremetcantheseformsofjustice

beobjectiveandbindingonall.IntheBuddha’sworldview,though,noneof

theseconditionshold.PeoplehavetriedtoimportWesternideasof

objectivejusticeintotheBuddha’steachings—somehaveevensuggested

thatthiswillbeoneofthegreatWesterncontributionstoBuddhism,filling

inaseriouslack—butthereisnowaythatthoseideascanbeforcedonthe

DhammawithoutdoingseriousdamagetotheBuddhistworldview.This

fact,inandofitself,haspromptedmanypeopletoadvocatejettisoningthe

Buddhistworldviewandreplacingitwithsomethingclosertooneofour

own.Butacarefullookatthatworldview,andtheconsequencesthatthe

Buddhadrewfromit,showsthattheBuddha’steachingsonhowtofind

socialharmonywithoutrecoursetoobjectivestandardsofjusticehasmuch

torecommendit.

THEBUDDHADEVELOPEDHISWORLDVIEWfromthethreeknowledgeshe

gainedonthenightofhisawakening.

Inthefirstknowledge,hesawhisownpastlives,backforthousandsand

thousandsofeons,repeatedlyrisingandfallingthroughmanylevelsof

beingandthroughtheevolutionandcollapseofmanyuniverses.Ashelater

said,thebeginningpointoftheprocess—calledsaṁsāra,the“wandering-

on”—wasinconceivable.Notjustunknowable,inconceivable.

Inthesecondknowledge,hesawthattheprocessofdeathandrebirth

appliedtoallbeingsintheuniverse,andthat—becauseithadgoneonso

long—itwouldbehardtofindapersonwhohadneverbeenyourmother,

father,brother,sister,son,ordaughterinthecourseofthatlong,longtime.

Healsosawthattheprocesswaspoweredbyallthemanyactionsofallthe

manybeings,andthatitservesthedesignsofnoonebeinginparticular.As

oneDhammasummaryhasit,“Thereisnooneincharge”(MN82).This

meansthattheuniverseservesnoclearorsingularpurpose.What’smore,it

hasthepotentialtocontinuewithoutend.Unlikeamonotheisticuniverse,

withitscreatorpassingfinaljudgment,saṁsāraoffersnoprospectofafair

orjustclosure—oreven,apartfromnibbāna,anyclosureatall.

Inthecontextoftheseknowledges,it’shardtoregardthepursuitof

justiceasanabsolutegood,forthreemainreasons.

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•Tobeginwith,giventhelessonofthesaltcrystal—thatpeople

suffermorefromtheirmind-stateinthepresentthantheydofrom

theresultsofpastbadactionsplayingoutintheexternalworld—no

matterhowmuchjusticeyoutrytobringintotheworld,peopleare

stillgoingtosufferandbedissatisfiedaslongastheirmindsare

untrainedinthequalitiesthatmakethemimpervioustosuffering.

ThiswaswhytheBuddha,inrejectingMāra’srequest,madethe

commentaboutthetwomountainsofsolidgold.Notonlydopeople

sufferwhentheirmindsareuntrained,thequalitiesofanuntrained

mindalsoleadthemtodestroyanysystemofjusticethatmightbe

establishedintheworld.Aslongaspeople’smindsareuntrained,

justicewouldnotsolvetheproblemoftheirsuffering,norwoulditbe

abletolast.Thisfactholdsregardlessofwhetheryouadoptthe

Buddha’sviewoftheworldoramoremodernviewofacosmoswith

vastdimensionsoftimeandnoendinsight.

•Second,asnotedabove,theideaofajustresolutionofaconflict

requiresastorywithaclearbeginningpoint—andaclearendpoint.

ButinthelongtimeframeoftheBuddha’suniverse,thestorieshave

noclearbeginningand—potentially—noend.There’snowayto

determinewhodidwhatfirst,throughallourmanylifetimes,and

there’snowaythatafinaltallywouldeverstayfinal.Everythingis

sweptaway,onlytoregroup,againandagain.Thismeansthatjustice

cannotbeviewedasanend,forinthisuniversetherearenoends,

asidefromnibbāna.Youcan’tusejusticeasanendtojustifymeans,

forit—likeeverythingelseintheuniverse—isnothingbutmeans.

Harmonycanbefoundonlybymakingsurethatthemeansare

clearlygood.

•Third,forpeopletoagreeonastandardofjustice,theyhaveto

agreeonthestoriesthatjustifytheuseofforcetorightwrongs.Butin

auniversewheretheboundariesofstoriesareimpossibletoestablish,

there’snostorythateveryonewillagreeon.Thismeansthatthe

storieshavetobeimposed—afactthatholdsevenifyoudon’taccept

thepremisesofkammaandrebirth.Theresultisthatthestories,

insteadofunitingus,tendtodivideus:Thinkofallthereligiousand

politicalwars,therevolutionsandcounter-revolutions,thathave

startedoverconflictingstoriesofwhodidwhattowhomandwhy.

Theargumentsoverwhosestoriestobelievecanleadtopassions,

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conflicts,andstrifethat,fromtheperspectiveoftheBuddha’s

awakening,keepusboundtothesufferinginsaṁsāralongintothe

future.

Thesearesomeofthereasonswhy,aftergaininghisfirsttwo

knowledgesonthenightofawakening,theBuddhadecidedthatthebest

useofwhathehadlearnedwastoturninwardtofindthecausesofsaṁsāra

inhisownheartandmind,andtoescapefromkammaentirelybytraining

hismind.Thesearealsothereasonswhy,whenhetaughtothershowto

solvetheproblemofsuffering,hefocusedprimarilyontheinternalcauses

ofsuffering,andonlysecondarilyontheexternalones.

THISDOESN’TMEAN,though,thatthere’snoroomintheBuddha’s

teachingsforeffortstoaddressissuesofsocialinjustice.Afterall,the

Buddhahimselfwould,onoccasion,describetheconditionsforsocialpeace

andharmony,alongwiththerewardsthatcomefromhelpingthe

disadvantaged.However,healwayssubsumedhissocialteachingsunderthe

largerframeworkofhisteachingsonthewisepursuitofhappiness.When

notingthatawisekingshareshiswealthtoensurethathispeopleallhave

enoughtomakealiving,hepresenteditnotasanissueofjustice,butasa

wiseformofgenerositythatpromotesastablesociety.

Soifyouwanttopromoteaprogramofsocialchangethatwouldbetrue

toBuddhistprinciples,itwouldbewisetoheedtheBuddha’sframework

forunderstandingsocialwell-being,beginningwithhisteachingsonmerit.

Inotherwords,thepursuitofjustice,tobeinlinewiththeDhamma,hasto

beregardedaspartofapracticeofgenerosity,virtue,andthedevelopment

ofuniversalgoodwill.

Whatwouldthisentail?Tobeginwith,itwouldrequirefocusing

primarilyonthemeansbywhichchangewouldbepursued.Thechoiceofa

goal,aslongasyoufounditinspiring,wouldbeentirelyfree,butitwould

havetobeapproachedthroughmeritoriousmeans.

Thiswouldentailplacingthesameconditionsonthepursuitofjustice

thattheBuddhaplacedonthepracticeofmerit:

1)Peopleshouldbeencouragedtojoinintheeffortonlyoftheir

ownfreewill.Nodemands,noattemptstoimposesocialchangeasa

duty,andnoattemptstomakethemfeelguiltyfornotjoiningyour

cause.Instead,socialchangeshouldbepresentedasajoyous

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opportunityforexpressinggoodqualitiesoftheheart.Toborrowan

expressionfromtheCanon,thosequalitiesarebestpromotedby

embodyingthemyourself,andbyspeakinginpraiseofhowthose

practiceswillworkforthelong-termbenefitofanyoneelsewho

adoptsthem,too.

2)Effortsforchangeshouldnotinvolveharmingyourselfor

harmingothers.“Notharmingyourself,”inthecontextofgenerosity,

meansnotover-extendingyourself,andasimilarprinciplewould

applytonotharmingothers:Don’taskthemtomakesacrificesthat

wouldleadtotheirharm.“Notharmingyourself”inthecontextof

virtuewouldmeannotbreakingtheprecepts—e.g.,nokillingorlying

underanycircumstances—whereasnotharmingotherswouldmean

notgettingthemtobreaktheprecepts(AN4:99).Afterall,an

underlyingprincipleofkammaisthatpeopleareagentswhowill

receiveresultsinlinewiththetypeofactionstheyperform.Ifyoutry

topersuadethemtobreaktheprecepts,you’retryingtoincreasetheir

sufferingdowntheline.

3)Thegoodwillmotivatingtheseeffortswouldhavetobe

universal,withnoexceptions.IntheBuddha’sexpression,youwould

havetoprotectyourgoodwillatalltimes,willingtoriskyourlifefor

it,thesamewayamotherwouldriskherlifeforheronlychild(Sn

1:8).Thismeansmaintaininggoodwillforeveryone,regardlessof

whetherthey“deserve”it:goodwillforthosewhoyouseeasguiltyas

muchasforthoseyouseeasinnocent,andforthosewhodisapprove

ofyourprogramandstandinyourway,nomatterhowviolentor

unfairtheirresistancebecomes.Foryourprogramtoembody

universalgoodwill,youhavetomakesurethatitworksforthelong-

termbenefitevenofthosewhoinitiallyopposeit.

THEREARETWOMAINADVANTAGEStoviewingtheefforttobringabout

socialjusticeundertheframeworkofmerit.Thefirstisthat,by

encouraginggenerosity,virtue,andthedevelopmentofuniversalgoodwill,

you’readdressingtheinternalstatesofmindthatwouldleadtoinjusticeno

matterhowwellasocietymightbestructured.Generosityhelpsto

overcomethegreedthatleadspeopletotakeunfairadvantageofone

another.Virtuehelpstopreventthelies,thefts,andothercallousactions

thatdrivepeopleapart.Anduniversalgoodwillhelpstoovercomethe

variousformsoftribalismthatencouragefavoritismandotherformsof

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unfairness.

Second,generosity,virtue,anduniversalgoodwillare,inandof

themselves,goodactivities.Eventhoughyoumaybeinspiredbythestory

oftheBuddha’sawakeningtoengageinthem,they’resoclearlygoodthat

theyneednostorytojustifythem—andsotheywouldn’trequirethesortof

storiesthatwouldservesimplytodivideus.

Regardingattemptsatsocialchangeundertheprincipleofkamma

wouldalsoentailhavingtoaccepttheprinciplethatanyformsofinjustice

thatdonotrespondtotheactivitiesofmerithavetobetreatedwith

equanimity.Afterall,theresultsofsomepastbadactionsaresostrongthat

nothingcanbedonetostopthem.Andiftheycouldbealleviatednowonly

byunskillfulactions—suchaslies,killing,theft,orviolence—thetrade-off

intermsoflong-termconsequenceswouldn’tbeworthit.Anysuch

attemptswouldnot,intheBuddha’sanalysis,bewise.

Inareaslikethis,wehavetoreturntotheBuddha’smainfocus:the

causesofsufferinginside.Andthegoodnewshereisthatwedon’thaveto

waitforaperfectsocietytofindtruehappiness.It’spossibletoputanendto

ourownsufferings—tostop“saṁsāra-ing”—nomatterhowbadtheworldis

outside.Andthisshouldnotbeseenasaselfishpursuit.Itwouldactuallybe

moreselfishtomakepeopleashamedoftheirdesiretobefreesothatthey

willcomebacktohelpyouandyourfriendsestablishyourideasofjustice,

butwithnotrueendinsight.Afinal,establishedstateofjusticeisan

impossibility.Anunconditionedhappiness,availabletoallregardlessof

theirkarmicbackground,isnot.

Andtheroadtothathappinessisfarfromselfish.Itrequiresthe

activitiesofmerit—generosity,virtue,anduniversalgoodwill—which

alwaysspreadlong-termhappinessintheworld:ahappinessthathealsold

divisionsandcreatesnonewonesintheirplace.Inthisway,thosewho

attainthishappinessarelikethestarsthataresuckedoutofspaceandtime

toenterblackholesthatareactuallydensewithbrightness:Astheyleave,

theyunleashwavesofdazzlinglight.

69

AllWinners,NoLosersThe Buddha’s Teachings on Animosity & Forgiveness

Whenyouforgivesomeonewho’swrongedyou,itdoesn’terasethat

person’skarmainhavingdonewrong.Thisiswhysomepeoplethinkthat

forgivenesshasnoplaceinthekarmicuniverseoftheBuddha’steachings,

andthatit’sincompatiblewiththepracticeofwhathetaught.Butthat’snot

so.Forgivenessmaynotbeabletoundooldbadkamma,butitcanprevent

newbadkarmafrombeingdone.Thisisespeciallytruewiththebad

kammathatinPāliiscalledvera.Veraisoftentranslatedas“hostility,”

“animosity,”or“antagonism,”butit’saparticularinstanceoftheseattitudes:

thevengefulanimositythatwantstogetbackatsomeoneforperceived

wrongs.ThisattitudeiswhathasnoplaceinBuddhistpractice.Patience

canweakenit,butforgivenessiswhatclearsitoutoftheway.

TheDhammapada,apopularcollectionofearlyBuddhistpoems,speaks

ofveraintwocontexts.Thefirstiswhensomeonehasinjuredyou,and

you’dliketoinflictsomeinjuryback.Thesecondiswhenyou’velosta

contest—intheBuddha’stime,thisreferredprimarilytomilitarybattles,but

nowitcouldbeextendedtoanycompetitionwherelossentailsharm,

whetherrealoronlyperceived—andyouwanttogeteven.

Inbothcases,forgivenessiswhatputsanendtovera.Youresolvenotto

settlethescore,evenifsocietygrantsyoutherighttodoso,becauseyou

realizethat,fromthepointofviewofkarma,theonlyrealscoreincontests

likethisconsistsofmorebadkarmapointsforbothsides.So,inforgiving

theotherside,you’rebasicallypromisingyourselftoforegoany

opportunitytoaddtothescore.Youhavenoideahowmanylifetimesthis

particularkarmicmudfighthasbeengoingbackandforth,butyoudo

knowthattheonlywaytoenditistostopthevera,andiftheenddoesn’t

firststartwithyou,itmayneverarrive.

“He

insultedme,

hitme,

beatme,

robbedme”

70

—forthosewhobroodonthis,

veraisn’tstilled.

“Heinsultedme,

hitme,

beatme,

robbedme”—

forthosewhodon’tbroodonthis,

veraisstilled.

Verasaren’tstilled

throughvera,

regardless.

Verasarestilled

throughnon-vera:

this,anunendingtruth.—Dhp3–5

Forgivenessisastanceyoumayhavetomakeunilaterally,within

yourself,butthereisthepossibilitythattheothersidewillbeinspiredby

yourexampletostopslingingmudaswell.Thatway,bothsideswillbenefit.

Yeteveniftheothersidedoesn’timmediatelyjoininthecease-fire,there

willcomeatimewhentheyloseinterest,andthatparticularback-and-forth

willdie.

TheBuddharecommendsthreetacticstohelpyoudealwithany

lingeringfeelingsthatthisstrategymightleaveyouonthelosingside,

victimizedwithoutrecourse.

•Thefirstistorememberthatwe’reallintheprocessofdying,and

youdon’twantthoughtsofveratogetinthewayofaskillfuldeath.

Thenarrativethat“Hewrongedme,andIwon’tfeelatpeaceuntilI

getbackathim”isnotoneyouwanttofocusonasdeathapproaches

—somethingit’sdoingallthetime.Otherwise,youmayfindyourself

rebornwithaveramission,whichisamiserablewaytolivealife.

You’vegotother,betterthingstodowithyourtime.

•Thesecondtacticistodevelopthoughtsofinfinitegoodwill,“free

fromvera,freefromillwill.”Thesethoughtsliftyourmindtothe

levelofaBrahmā,averyhighlevelofheavenlybeing,andfromthat

heightenedperspectivetheideaoftryingtofindsatisfactionin

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settlingoldscoresseems—asitactuallyis—pettyandmean.

•Thethirdtacticistotakeonthefiveprecepts:nokilling,no

stealing,noillicitsex,nolying,andnotakingintoxicants.Ever.Atall.

AstheBuddhanotes,whenyouholdtothesepreceptsinallyour

encounterswithothers,regardlessofwhotheyareorwhatthey’ve

done,yougiveuniversalsafetyfromdangerandvera—atleastfrom

yourquarter—toallbeings.Andbecausethatsafetyisuniversal,you

enjoyashareofthatsafetyyourself.

Asforthecasewhenyou’velostoutinacompetition,theBuddhasays

thatyoucanfindpeaceandendveraonlybyputtingwinningandlosing

aside.Todothis,youstartbytakingagoodlookatwhereyoutrytofind

happiness.Ifyoulookforitintermsofpowerormaterialpossessions,there

willalwaysbewinningandlosing.Ifyougainpower,forinstance,others

willhavetolose.Ifotherswin,youlose.AndastheBuddhasays,

Winninggivesbirthtovera.

Losing,oneliesdowninpain.—Dhp201

Butifyoudefinehappinessintermsofthepracticeofmerit—giving,

virtue,andmeditation—there’snoneedtocreatelosers.Everyonewins.

Whenyougive,otherpeoplenaturallygainwhatyou’vesharedwiththem;

yougainaspacioussenseofwealthwithinandtheloveandrespectof

otherswithout.Whenyou’revirtuous,abstainingfromharminganyone,

yougainfreedomfromremorseoveryouractions,whileothersgainsafety.

Whenyoumeditate,yougivelessreintoyourgreed,aversion,anddelusion,

sothatyousufferlessfromtheirdepredations,andotherpeopleareless

victimizedbytheirprowlingaroundaswell.

Thenyoufurtherreflect:

Greaterinbattle

thanthemanwhowouldconquer

athousand-thousandmen,

ishewhowouldconquer

justone—

himself.

Bettertoconqueryourself

thanothers.

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Whenyou’vetrainedyourself,

livinginconstantself-control,

neitheradevanorgandhabba,

noraMārabandedwithBrahmās,

couldturnthattriumph

backintodefeat.—Dhp103–105

Othervictoriescanbeundone—“settled”scores,inthelightofkarma

andrebirth,areneverreallysettled—butvictoryoveryourowngreed,

aversion,anddelusionissomethingthatlasts.It’stheonlyvictorythat

createsnovera,soit’stheonlyvictorythat’sreallysafeandsecure.

Butthisisn’tavictoryyoucanhopetoattainifyou’restillharboring

thoughtsofvera.Soinaworldwherewe’veallbeenharmedinonewayor

another,andwherewecouldalwaysfindoldscorestoavengeifwewanted

to,theonlywaytofindatrulysafevictoryinlifeistostartwiththoughtsof

forgiveness:thatyouwanttoposenodangertoanyoneatall,regardlessof

thewrongthey’vedone.Thisiswhyforgivenessisnotonlycompatiblewith

thepracticeoftheBuddha’steachings.It’sanecessaryfirststep.

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HowPointyisOne-pointedness?

APālisutta,MN44,definesconcentrationascittass’ek’aggatā,whichis

oftentranslatedas“one-pointednessofmind”:cittassa=“ofthemind”or“of

theheart,”eka=one,agga=point,-tā=-ness.MN117definesnobleright

concentrationasanyone-pointednessofmindsupportedbythefirstseven

factorsofthenoblepath,fromrightviewthroughrightmindfulness.MN

43statesfurtherthatone-pointednessisafactorofthefirstjhāna,the

beginninglevelofrightconcentration.

Fromthesepassages,ithasbeenarguedthatifone’sawarenessin

concentrationorjhānaistrulyone-pointed,itshouldbenolargerthana

point,whichmeansthatitwouldbeincapableofthinking,ofhearing

sounds,orevenofbeingawareofthephysicalbody.However,this

interpretationimposestoonarrowameaningonthewordek’aggatā,one

thatisforeigntothelinguisticusageofthePāliCanon.

A.Tobeginwith,aggahasmanyothermeaningsbesides“point.”Infact,

ithastwoprimaryclustersofmeanings,inneitherofwhichis“point”the

centralfocus.

Thefirstclustercentersonthefactthatasummitofamountainiscalled

itsagga.Clusteredaroundthismeaningareideasofaggaasthetopmostpart

ofsomething(suchastheridgeofaroof),thetipofsomething(suchasthe

tipofabladeofgrass),andthebestorsupremeexampleofsomething(such

astheBuddhaastheaggaofallbeings).AN5:80playswiththesemeanings

ofaggawhenitcriticizesmonksofthefuturewhowill“searchforthetiptop

flavors(ras’agga)withthetipofthetongue(jivh’agga).”

Thesecondclusterofmeaningsforaggacentersontheideaof“meeting

place.”Ahallwheremonksgatherfortheuposatha,forexample,iscalledan

uposath’agga.Thespotwheretheygatherfortheirmealsiscalledabhatt’agga.

Giventhattheobjectofconcentrationissaidtobeadwelling(vihāra),

andthatapersonentersanddwells(viharati)inthelevelsofjhāna,this

secondclusterofmeaningsmaybethemorerelevantonehere.Amindwith

asingleagga,inthiscase,wouldsimplybeamindgatheredaroundone

object,andneednotbereducedtoasinglepoint.

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B.Anevenmoretellingwaytodeterminethemeaningsofek’aggaand

ek’aggatāis,insteadofdividingthesewordsintotheirroots,tolookatthe

waysinwhichtheCanonusesthemtodescribeminds.

1.Twopassages,onefromtheVinayaandonefromasutta,showwhat

ek’aggameansintheeverydaycontextoflisteningtotheDhamma.

InMv.II.3.4,thephrase,“wepayattention,”intheinstructionsforhow

tolistentothePāṭimokkha,isdefinedas:“Welistenwithanek’aggamind,

anunscatteredmind,anundistractedmind.”Evenifek’aggaweretranslated

as“one-pointed”here,the“point”isobviouslynotsorestrictedastomake

theearsfallsilent.Otherwise,wewouldnotbeabletohearthePāṭimokkha

atall.Andthefactthatthemindisek’aggadoesn’tmeanthatwecan’talso

hearothersoundsasidefromthePāṭimokkha.It’sjustthatthosesounds

don’tmakethemindloseitsfocusonasingletheme.

InAN5:151,theBuddhalistsfivequalitiesthatenableone,when

listeningtothetrueDhamma,to“alightonassuredness,ontherightnessof

skillfulqualities.”Thefivequalitiesare:

“Onedoesn’tholdthetalkincontempt.

“Onedoesn’tholdthespeakerincontempt.

“Onedoesn’tholdoneselfincontempt.

“OnelistenstotheDhammawithanunscatteredmind,anek’agga

mind.

“Oneattendsappropriately.”

Becauseappropriateattentionmeanstocontemplateexperiencesin

termsofthefournobletruths(seeMN2),thispassageshowsthatwhenthe

mindisek’agga,it’snotonlyabletohear.Itcanalsothinkatthesametime.

Ifitcouldn’thearorthink,itcouldn’tmakesenseoftheDhammatalk.So

again,evenifwetranslateek’aggaas“one-pointed,”theone-pointedmindis

notsopointythatitcannotthinkorhearsounds.Thiswoulddefeatthe

purposeoflisteningtotheDhammaandwouldgetinthewayof“alighting

onassuredness.”

2.Asforthewayinwhichek’aggaisusedindescribingthemindin

concentration,apassageinMN43definesthefactorsofthefirstjhānaas

these:“directedthought,evaluation,rapture,pleasure,andone-pointedness

ofmind.”Ithasbeenarguedthatthisstatementcontainsacontradiction,in

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thatthecompilersofMN43didnotrealizethatone-pointednessprecludedthoughtandevaluation.Butperhapstheyknewtheirown

languagewellenoughtorealizethatek’aggatā—beinggatheredintooneness

—didnotprecludethepowersofthought.

3.Thestandardsimilesforrightconcentration(DN2;AN5:28;MN

119)allemphasizethatthemindinrightconcentrationisawareofthe

entirebody.Forexample,hereisthesimileforthehighestlevelofjhāna,the

fourth:

“Then,withtheabandoningofpleasure&pain—aswiththeearlier

disappearanceofjoys&distresses—heenters&remainsinthefourth

jhāna:purityofequanimity&mindfulness,neither-pleasure-nor-

pain.Hesits,permeatingthebodywithapure,brightawareness.Just

asifamanweresittingcoveredfromheadtofootwithawhitecloth

sothattherewouldbenopartofhisbodytowhichthewhitecloth

didnotextend;evenso,themonksits,permeatingthebodywitha

pure,brightawareness.Thereisnothingofhisentirebody

unpervadedbypure,brightawareness.”

Togetaroundthereferenceto“entirebody”inthesesimiles,thosewho

proposethataone-pointedmindcanbeawareofonlyonepointinterpret

“body”inthiscontextasmeaningapurelymentalbody,suchasthebodyof

one’sthoughts.Butthatwouldmean(a)thatthesimiles’emphasison

pervadingtheentirebodywouldbemeaninglessifthementalbodyis

reducedtoasmallpointand(b)thattheBuddhawasextremelysloppyand

misleadinginhischoiceofsimilestodescribeconcentration.Ifthepurpose

ofjhānaisblotoutawarenessofthebody,whywouldhechooseasimilefor

thefourthjhānainwhichtheentirebodyispervadedwithawareness?

4.MN52,MN111,andAN9:36showthattheabilitytouse

appropriateattentiontoanalyzeanyofthefourjhānaswhilestillinthe

stateofek’aggatāisanimportantskillinreachingawakening.Ineachcase,

thisanalysisentailsapplyingappropriateattention:seeingtheexperienceof

thejhānaintermsofthefournobletruths,andapplyingtheappropriate

dutytoeachtruth:comprehendingstress,abandoningitscause,realizingits

cessation,anddevelopingthepathtoitscessation.Forinstance,AN9:36

describeshow,aftermasteringthefirstjhāna,onemightanalyzeitinaway

thatleadstorelease:

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“Supposethatanarcherorarcher’sapprenticeweretopracticeon

astrawmanormoundofclay,sothatafterawhilehewouldbecome

abletoshootlongdistances,tofireaccurateshotsinrapidsuccession,

andtopiercegreatmasses.Inthesameway,thereisthecasewherea

monk,quitesecludedfromsensuality,secludedfromunskillful

qualities,enters&remainsinthefirstjhāna:rapture&pleasureborn

ofseclusion,accompaniedbydirectedthought&evaluation.He

regardswhateverphenomenatherethatareconnectedwithform,

feeling,perception,fabrications,&consciousness,asinconstant,

stressful,adisease,acancer,anarrow,painful,anaffliction,alien,a

disintegration,anemptiness,not-self.Heturnshismindawayfrom

thosephenomena,andhavingdoneso,inclineshismindtothe

propertyofdeathlessness:‘Thisispeace,thisisexquisite—the

resolutionofallfabrications;therelinquishmentofallacquisitions;

theendingofcraving;dispassion;cessation;unbinding.’

“Stayingrightthere,hereachestheendingoftheeffluents.Or,if

not,then—throughthisveryDhamma-passion,thisDhamma-delight,

andfromthetotalendingofthefivelowerfetters[self-identification

views,graspingathabits&practices,uncertainty,sensualpassion,and

irritation]—heisduetoarisespontaneously(inthePureAbodes),

theretobetotallyunbound,neveragaintoreturnfromthatworld.”

AsMN111makesespeciallyclear,thissortofanalysiscanbe

accomplishedwhileoneisstillinthestateofjhāna.Toviewthephenomena

experiencedinthefirstjhānaintermsofform,feeling,perception,

fabrication,andconsciousnessistoregardthemasinstancesofthefive

clinging-aggregates,whichisthedefinitionofthefirstnobletruth.To

regardthemasinconstant,etc.,istoapplythedutyappropriatetothefirst

nobletruth,whichistocomprehendthattruthtothepointofdispassion

(SN22:23).

Inthisway,theBuddha’srecommendationsforalightingonthe

DhammawhileinjhānaparallelthoseforalightingontheDhammawhile

listeningtoaDhammatalk:Don’tholdtheBuddhaincontempt,i.e.,givehis

teachingsafairhearingandafairtest.Showyourlackofcontemptforyour

meditationobjectbygivingityourfullattentionandmastering

concentration.Showyourlackofcontemptforyourselfbyconvincing

yourselfthatyoucandothis.Gatherthemindarounditsoneobject.And

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analyzethecomponentfactorsofthemind’sone-pointednesswith

appropriateattention.

Thisabilitytoanalyzeastateofconcentrationinthiswaywhilethe

mindisstillgatheredarounditssingleobjectisacrucialskillinattaining

release.Forthisreason,thetermthatdefinesconcentration—

cittass’ek’aggatā—shouldn’tbedefinedinsonarrowasensethatitwould

obstructanyeffortstomasterthatskillandgainitsbenefits.

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TheLimitsofDescriptionNot-self Revisited

TheBuddhaoncedividedhisteachingsintotwocategories:thosewhose

meaninghasbeenfullydrawnout,andthosewhosemeaningshouldbe

inferred(AN2:24).Whendealingwithateachinginthefirstcategory,he

said,tryingtodrawfurtherimplicationsfromitwouldactuallybeanactof

slanderinghim.Whendealingwithateachinginthesecondcategory,not

drawingoutitsfurtherimplicationswouldbeanactofslanderinghim.

Unfortunately,theBuddhadidn’tgiveexamplesofwhichteachings

belongedtowhichcategory.Still,thesimplefactthathedistinguished

betweenthesetwocategoriesmakesanimportantstatementabouthis

teachingsasawhole:Hewasn’ttryingtosetoutasystematicallyconsistent

descriptionofreality.Ifhehadbeen,theexistenceofthefirstcategory—

teachingsthatshouldn’thaveinferencesdrawnfromthem—wouldhave

beenanadmissionoffailure:Totrytopreventhislistenersfromexploring

theimplicationsofsomeofhisstatementswouldbeanattempttokeep

thoselistenersfromseeingthattheywereinconsistentwiththerestofthe

system.

ButastheBuddhasaidonseveraloccasions,theessenceofallhis

teachingswastoleadtorelease(MN29–30).Inotherwords,hiswords

werenevermeanttobejustdescriptive.Theywereprimarilyperformative:

meanttobeputtousetohaveaneffectonthemind.Insomecases,the

propereffectwastobeachievedbytakinghiswordsjustastheywere.In

others,itwasbestachievedbyexploringtheimplicationsofthewords.But

innocasewerethewordsendsinthemselves.

ThispointrelatestotheBuddha’sobservationsabouttheusesand

limitationsoflanguage.OneofthestandardCanonicaldescriptionsofhow

toaskaboutthemeaningofanexpressionis“towhatextentisthisso?”In

otherwords,“howfaristhismeanttobetrue?”Thiscouldbetakensimply

asanidiomaticexpressionwithnodeepermeaning,exceptthatthe

realizationsleadingtoreleaseinclude“havingdirectlyknowntheextentof

designationandtheextentoftheobjectsofdesignation,theextentof

expressionandtheextentoftheobjectsofexpression,theextentof

descriptionandtheextentoftheobjectsofdescription,theextentof

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discernmentandtheextentoftheobjectsofdiscernment”(DN15).Tosee

theextentofthesethingsmeanstoseeboththelimitationsoflanguage,

descriptions,anddefinitions,andwhatliesbeyondthem:theunfabricated

dimensionofunbinding(nibbāna).

Evenastream-enterer—onewhohashadhis/herfirsttasteofawakening

—issaidtohaveseenthedrawbacksofthefacultyofdiscernment,whichis

equivalenttorightview,andalsotheescapefromit(SN48:3).Ontheway

toawakening,apersonwhoappliesthehighestlevelofrightviewtothe

arisingandpassingawayofcontactatthesensesissaidtoenteramental

statewhereeventhoughtsof“existence”and“non-existence”withreference

totheworldofthesixsensesdon’toccurtothemind(SN12:15).Having

beenthroughsuchanexperience—andtheresultingrelease—it’shardto

imaginethatsuchapersonwouldthengivetotal,unlimitedapprovalto

statementsabouttheexistenceornon-existenceofanythingintheworld.

Truths,evenwhentrue,havetheirlimits.Thisiswhythetextssooften

speakderisivelyofsectarianswhodefendaviewsaying,“Onlythisistrue;

anythingotherwiseisworthless”(AN10:93).

Theneedultimatelytogobeyondwordsanddiscernmentcomesfrom

thefactthattheyaremadeofperceptionsandthought-fabrications,which

areaggregatescomingundertheterm“name”in“name-and-form.”Aswith

allaggregates,eventhestatementsofrightview,aftertheyhavedonetheir

work,havetobeabandonedforthemindtogainrelease.Butmorethan

that:Aperceptionmaybetrueasfarasitgoes,buttherearelimitationsto

howfaritcango,andasDN15indicates,there’saneedtoseethose

limitations.Inonepassage,theBuddhagoestotheextentofidentifying

onlyonethingasreallytrue:unbinding.

“Seetheworld,togetherwithitsdevas,

supposingnot-selftobeself.

Entrenchedinname-and-form,

theysupposethat‘Thisistrue.’

Inwhatevertermstheysupposeit,

itturnsintosomethingotherthanthat,

andthat’swhat’sfalseaboutit:

Changing,

it’sdeceptivebynature.

Undeceptivebynature

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isunbinding:

Thatthenobleonesknow

astrue.

They,throughbreakingthrough

tothetruth,

hunger-free,

aretotallyunbound.”—Sn3:12

This,however,doesn’tmeanthattheBuddhameantforhiswordsonly

tobeperformativewithouttryingtomakethemaccurateasdescriptions.

Heneverdealtin“usefulfictions.”AshesaidinMN58,hiswordswere

alwaystrue,beneficial,andtimely.Inhisanalysisofwhatthatmeant,he

gavenoroomtothepossibilitythatanystatementcouldbeeitherbeneficial

ortimelyifitwerefalse.Buthavingseenwhatliesbeyondlanguage,and

makingthedimensionbeyondlanguagethegoalofhisteaching,hemust

havebeenverysensitivetothelimitsofhowfarastatementcouldbetrue.

Thisiswhy,asateacher,hismainconcernwastousetruestatementsin

suchawaythattheywouldleadthelistenertoactinsuchawayastoleadto

release.Andthisiswhyhewouldavoidansweringquestionsontopics

wherestatementsofanykindwouldnotleadinthatdirection.It’spossible

tofindatleast60questionsinthesuttasthattheBuddhaorhisarahant

disciplesputasideonthegroundsthatanyattempttoanswerthemwould

actuallygetinthewayofawakening(seeSkillinQuestions,chaptereight).

SowheninterpretingtheBuddha’steachings,it’simportantnottofall

intothescholarlybiasthattriestocapturetheviewsofanawakenedperson

inthenetofitslanguage.Thisappliesbothtoattemptstodrawimplications

fromhiswordstoanswerquestionsthatheputaside—which,asAN2:24

notes,wouldbeakintoslanderinghim—andtoattemptstodepictthe

practiceasaprocessofleadingthemeditatorsimplytogivefullassentto

theaccuracyoftheBuddha’steachingsasadescriptionofreality.To

capturethepracticeinanetofwordsinthesewaysistomissthemeaning

andpurposeoftheBuddha’steachingsentirely.

* * *

Thesereflectionsweresparkedrecentlybyreadingacritiqueofan

articleIwrotein1993,called“TheNot-selfStrategy.”Thethesisofthat

article—whichIrevisedin2013bothtotightenandtoexpandthe

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presentation—wasthattheBuddhaintendedhisteachingonnot-self

(anattā),notasananswertothemetaphysical/ontologicalquestion,“Isthere

aself?”butasastrategyforcuttingthroughclingingtothefiveaggregates

andsotoputanendtosuffering.ThemainargumentIpresentedinsupport

ofthisthesisinbothversionsofthearticlewasthattheonetimethe

Buddhawasaskedpoint-blank,“Isthereaself?”…“Istherenoself?”he

remainedsilent(SN44:10).Similarly,inMN2,hestatedthatsuch

questionsas“DoIexist?”“DoInotexist?”and“WhatamI?”arenotworthy

ofattentionbecausetheyleadtoconclusionsthatfetterapersonina

“thicketofviews”anda“fetterofviews,”includingtheviewsthat“Ihavea

self”and“Ihavenoself.”Inotherwords,anyattempttoanswerthese

questionsconstitutedasideroadawayfromthepathofrightpractice.

Thecritique—“AnattāasStrategyandOntology,”writtenbyVen.

BhikkhuBodhi—wasbroughttomyattentionjustoveramonthago,even

thoughithasapparentlybeenaroundforsometime.Ittakesissuebothwith

thethesisandwiththeargumentofmyarticle,butindoingsoitdisplays

thescholarlybiasmentionedabove:thatthepracticeoftheBuddha’s

teachingsisprimarilyaprocessofleadingthemeditatortogivefullassent

totheaccuracyofthoseteachingsasadescriptionofreality,andthatthis

assentiswhatfreesthemindfromsuffering.Becausethisbiasisnotonly

thebiasofthecritique,butofsomuchthoughtintheBuddhistworld,I

thoughtitmightbeusefultoexplorehowboththethesisofthecritiqueand

theargumentsusedinsupportofthatthesisdisplaythisbias,sothatitcan

berecognizedforwhatitisnotonlyinthiscasebutalsoinotherBuddhist

writings.

Foreaseofreference,Iwillstatethecritique’smainpointsina

numberedformat.Intheresponsetothosepoints,Iwillavoid—except

wherenecessary—repeatingargumentsalreadymadein“TheNot-self

Strategy.”Ifyouareinterestedinthefullargumentpresentedinthatarticle,

Irecommendthatyoureadthe2013version,availableintheessay

collection,Noble&True.

Thebasicthesisofthecritiqueisactuallyanancientone,withalong

historyintheBuddhistphilosophicaltradition.Itcanbesummarizedinthe

formofasyllogism:

1.FortheBuddha,theterm“self”hastomeanasubstantial,

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permanent,unchangingessence.

2.Personalidentity—whatyoureallyare—iscomposedof

conditionedelementsthatareconstantlychanging.

Therefore:3.Thereisnoself.

ThecritiqueadmitsthattheBuddhaneverassentedtothestatement

“Thereisnoself,”butmaintainsthathehadtwopragmaticreasonsfornot

directlystatingthistruththatisimplicitinhisteachings.

4.Thefirstisthat,becausetheviewofanunderlyingsubstantial

selfissodeeplyingrainedintheunawakenedmind,thesimple,direct

statementthatthereisnoselfwouldnotuprootit.Instead,the

meditatorwouldcometothatconclusiononlythroughtheindirect

meansofexaminingeachelementofhis/herpersonalidentitytosee

thatnoneofthoseelementswerepermanentinthemselvesorhadan

essentialrelationshiptoanythingpermanent.

5.Thesecondreasonisthattheannihilationists—sectarianswho

arguedthatdeathwastheendofconsciousnessandpersonalidentity

—alsotaughtthatthereisnoself,sotosimplystatethistruthmight

misleadpeopleintothinkingthattheBuddhawassidingwiththe

annihilationists.

Despitethepotentialdrawbackcitedinpointfive,thecritiqueargues

that,withproperexplanation,itcanbeavoided,andthatthereisstill

practicalvalueinstatingtheabstractprinciplelyingimplicitlybehindthe

Buddha’sindirectapproachforthreereasons:

6.Thefactthatthereisnoselfiswhatmakestheteachingonnot-

selfworkasastrategy.

7.Theattainmentofstream-entryiswhatfreesthemeditatorfrom

themistakenbeliefthatthereisanunchangingcoretopersonal

identity.

8.Therefore,tohelpapersonaimingatstream-entry,itis

importanttostatethatthenot-selfteachingisnotonlyastrategybut

alsoastatementofanontologicaltruth:Thereisnoself.

9.Finally,theauthorassertsthatthenot-selfteachingcannotbe

saidtohaveonlyastrategicpurposebecausetherightviewthatthere

isnopermanentselfisnotjustafactorofthepathforthosein

training,butisalsoaninalienableendowmentforthearahant.

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ThecritiquecitesseveralpassagesfromthePāliCanontosupportthese

points.However,whenweexaminethesepointsbothontheirownmerits

andinrelationshiptothepassagesmeanttosupportthem,wefindthatthe

scholarlybiasbehindthemturnstheBuddha’steachingsintothethicketof

viewsthattheBuddhaexpresslywarnedagainstentering.

By Definition

1.Thefirstpointinthecritique’sthesismakesitscasethrougha

definition:One’sidentityhastobepermanenttocountasa“self.”The

Buddha,however,neverdefined“self”inthisway.Beforelookingatthe

critique’stextualargumentforinferringthisdefinitionfromapassagein

theCanon,it’sworthlookingatthehistoricalandpracticalreasonsfor

callingtheinferenceintoquestion.

a.Historical.Thereisapopularbelief,promotedbymanyscholars,that

theBuddhaformulatedhisnot-selfteachingprimarilyinresponsetothe

Upaniṣadicdoctrineofapermanent,unchangingself,identicalwiththe

groundofbeingforthecosmos.Thusitisonlynaturalthat“self,”inthe

timeoftheBuddha,meantapermanentunchangingessencelyingatthe

coreofone’sidentity.

However,thisbeliefmissestwoimportantfacts.

ThefirstisthatthePāliCanoncitesawidevarietyofbeliefsaboutthe

selfcurrentintheBuddha’stime,andmanyofthemproposedaselfthat

wasfinite—i.e.,itcomestoanend—andsubjecttochange.DN15provides

aframeworkforclassifyingthedifferentpossibleviewsaboutself,starting

withfourtypesofself:possessedofformandfinite,possessedofformand

infinite,formlessandfinite,andformlessandinfinite.Further,beliefsabout

eachofthesefourtypesstatethattheselfiseitheralreadythatway,orthat

itnaturallybecomesthatway(forinstance,atdeathorwhenfallingasleep),

orthatitcanbemadetobecomethatway(throughpracticeofonesortor

another).Combiningthesetwolistsgivesaltogether12typesofself-

doctrines,onlytwoofwhichteachanunchangingself:theselfalready

possessedofformandinfinite,andtheselfalreadyformlessandinfinite.In

addition,DN1citessevenannihilationistviewsabouttheself—three

definingtheselfaspossessedofform,fourdefiningitasformless—that

perishedatdeath.

Moreover,therearetwoinstanceswheretheBuddha,whenmentioning

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theviewofapermanent,unchangingself,identicalwiththecosmos(MN2;

SN22:81),mentionsitalongsideotherviewsoftheself,implyingthatitis

simplyaparticularinstanceofself-view,andnottheonlyoneheistryingto

refute.InMN2,hementionsitasaspecialcaseoftheview,“Ihaveaself.”

InSN22:81,hementionsitasanadditionalcaseafterdiscussingtwenty

waysinwhichaself-viewcanbeconstructedaroundthefiveaggregates.

Soit’sclearthatthepermanent,unchangingselfmentionedinsomeof

theUpaniṣads(suchasBṛhad-āraṇyakaI.4.7–10andChāndogyaIII.14.2–3)

wasnottheonlyself-viewtheBuddhawasaddressingwithhisnot-self

teaching.

Thesecondfactmissedbythepopularbeliefabouttheprimacyofthe

UpaniṣadicviewoftheselfattheBuddha’stimeisthatthemajorUpaniṣads

arenotunanimousinthewaystheydefinetheself.It’simpossibletoknow

whetheralloftheseUpaniṣadsexistedatthetimeoftheBuddha,butit’s

enlighteningtonotethatthemajoronesofferavarietyofdoctrinesofthe

selfthatfallintoatleasteight,andperhapsnine,ofthecategorieslistedin

DN15,includingdoctrinesthatdescribetheselfasalreadypossessedof

formandfinite(Bṛhad-āraṇyakaII.5.1;MaitrīVI.11)andnaturally

becomingpossessedofformandfinite(Bṛhad-āraṇyakaIV.3.19–21).In

otherwords,evensomeoftheUpaniṣadstaughttheselfwasimpermanent.

SoitmighthavebeenthecasethattheBuddhaderivedmanyofthe

categoriesofhisframeworkinDN15atleastpartlyfromthewidevariety

ofself-viewsintheUpaniṣads.

Sotheideaofapermanentselfdidnothaveamonopolyinthetimeof

theBuddha.Thismeansthatifheweregoingtoinsistarbitrarily,asa

crucialassumption,thataselfhadtobepermanenttoqualifyasaself,he

wouldhavehadtopresentacasetodefendthatdefinition.Butheneverdid.

Soit’sunlikelythatthisassumptionshouldbeinferredfromhisteachings.

b.Practical.Oneofthefettersabandonedatstream-entryisthefetterof

identityviews.TheCanonshowsthattheseviewsrelatetovariouswaysof

conceivingtheselfinrelationtothefiveaggregates.However,torestrict

thedefinitionof“self”inthiscasetoapermanent,unchangingessence

raisesmanypracticalquestions:Whywouldabeliefinapermanentselfbe

anymoreofafetterthanabeliefinanimpermanentself?Andifthe

annihilationists,asDN1shows,believeinanimpermanentself,doesthat

meanthattheyhavealreadydroppedthefetterofidentityviews?Ifso,why

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doestheBuddhasinglethemoutasholdingtoaviewthatisparticularlyevil

(pāpaka)?Practicalexperienceshowsthatpeoplewhodefinetheirbodyas

theirself,knowingthatitwillperishatdeath,areevenmoreattachedtoit,

andwilldoworsethingstoensureitssurvival,thandopeoplewhobelieve

thattheselfsurvivesdeath.Andtherecentembraceofgenderfluidityhas

shownthatpeoplewillclingjustasfirmlytothefluidityofanidentitythey

knowtobefluidastheywilltoanidentitythattheythinkispermanent.

Sotoinsistthataself-viewhastopositapermanentselfinordertobea

fettermakesnopracticalsense.

c.Textual.ThepassagethecritiqueusestoinferthattheBuddhaassumed

implicitlythattheterm“self”hadtomeanapermanent,unchangingessence

comesfromMN148.Inthispassage,theBuddhaarguesthatit’snot

tenabletoviewthesenses,theirobjects—alongwithconsciousness,contact,

feeling,andcravingbasedonthesensesandtheirobjects—asself.The

reasoningineachcasefollowsthesamepattern,andcanbeillustratedwith

theBuddha’sargumentfocusedonthefirstsense,theeye:

“Ifanyoneweretosay,‘Theeyeistheself,’thatwouldn’tbe

tenable.Thearisingandfallingawayoftheeyearediscerned.And

whenitsarisingandfallingawayarediscerned,itwouldfollowthat

‘Myselfarisesandfallsaway.’That’swhyitwouldn’tbetenableif

anyoneweretosay,‘Theeyeistheself.’Sotheeyeisnot-self.”

AlthoughitmightbepossibletoinferfromthispassagethattheBuddha

assumesthatselfmustbedefinedassomethingpermanent—notsubjectto

arisingandfallingaway—theabove-mentioneddifficultiesthatwould

followfromthisinferencesuggestthattheremustbeabetterwayto

construetheBuddha’sreasoninghere.Andthereis,oneinherentinanyidea

ofself:Theself,whetherpermanentornot,can’twatchitselfariseandpass

away.Todiscernitsarising,itwouldhavetobetherebeforeitsarising;to

discernitspassingway,itwouldhavetosurviveitspassingaway.This

meansthatwhateverit’sdiscerningasarisingandpassingawaycan’tbethe

samethingthatitis.Whichmeansthatthat“whatever”isn’titsself.

Thisinterpretationavoidstheabovedifficultiesofinsistingthat“self”

hastomeanapermanent,unchangingessencebecauseitfocusesonafact

inherentineveryideaofself,andisnotanarbitraryassumptionwithlittle

practicalvalue.Italsoallowsforthefactthatclingingtotheideaofan

impermanentselfcanbeafetter.Soit’sapreferablewayofinterpretingthis

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passage.

Atthesametime,thisinterpretationisinlinewiththemeaningofthe

term,anicca,whichtheBuddhafrequentlyusedinconnectionwiththe

teachingonnot-self,andwhichisalltoooftentranslatedas“impermanent.”

Actually,thetermisthenegativeformofnicca,or“constant.”Tosaythatthe

aggregatesareaniccaisnottosaythattheydon’tlastforever,butthat

they’reinconstant:unreliableandfluctuating.Theirarisingandpassing

awayisdiscernibleinthepresentmoment.Thisobservablefactiswhatcan

leadtothevaluejudgmentthattheyarenotworthyofregardingasself.

Sothere’snobasisintheCanonforsupportingthefirstpointofthe

critique,thattheword“self”intheBuddha’steachingshastomeana

permanentunchangingessence.

A Distinction without a Difference

2.Giventhat“self”intheBuddha’steachingsdoesn’thavetomeana

permanentessence,it’samistaketodistinguish—asthecritique’ssecond

premisedoes—between“self”and“constituentsofpersonalidentity”—i.e.,

whatyouare.“Whatyouare”isthesamethingasyourself,regardlessof

whetherthatidentityispermanentornot.

Thefactthat,fortheBuddha,thiswouldcountasadistinctionwithouta

differenceisshownbythequestionnairehefrequentlyusedtoleadhis

listenerstotheconclusionthattheaggregatesarenot-self.Witheach

aggregate,hewouldask,“Isitconstantorinconstant?”Theanswer:

“Inconstant.”Thequestionnairewouldthenproceedasfollows:

“Andisthatwhichisinconstanteasefulorstressful?”

“Stressful,lord.”

“Andisitfittingtoregardwhatisinconstant,stressful,subjectto

changeas:‘Thisismine.Thisismyself.ThisiswhatIam’?[or:‘Iam

this’?]”

“No,lord.”

Hewouldthenconclude,takingformasanexample:

“Everyformistobeseenwithrightdiscernmentasithascometo

be:‘Thisisnotmine.Thisisnotmyself.ThisisnotwhatIam.’[or:‘I

amnotthis.’]”—SN22:59

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NoticethattheBuddhaheretreatsthesetwosentences—‘Thisismyself’

and‘ThisiswhatIam’[or:‘Iamthis’]—asequivalent.Inotherwords,the

fiveaggregatesarenotyourself,noraretheywhatyouare.Thecritique,

however,wantstomakeadistinctionhere,sayingthatthefiveaggregates

arewhatyouare,eventhoughtheydon’tqualifyasaself,forcinga

distinctionwheretheBuddhadoesn’tseeone.Fromhispointofview,tosay

thatthefiveaggregatescompriseyouridentity—i.e.,what-you-are—even

thoughyourealizethattheyareimpermanent,isthesamethingassaying

thatthey’reyourself.This,ofcourse,wouldgodirectlyagainstthepointhe

istryingtomakewiththisquestionnaire,thattheaggregatesarenotworth

identifyingwithinanywayatall.

ThefactthattheCanontreats“thisismyself”asequivalentto“Iamthis”

or“Iamthat”isalsoshownbythewayitdefinesthefetterofidentityview,

oneofthethreefettersabandonedonthefirstlevelofawakening.MN44

definesidentityviewasanyoneof20waysofassumingaselfaroundthe

aggregates.SN22:89equatestheassumptionofaselfaroundanyofthe

aggregateswiththeassumptionof“Iamthis”withregardthoseaggregates.

(Thisiswhytheannihilationistswhosaythattheselfperishesatdeath(DN

1)arestillfetteredwithidentityview.)So,asfarastheCanonisconcerned,

thecritique’sdistinctionbetween“self”and“whatyouare”indicatesno

differenceatall.

Wefindthatthisfalsedistinctionrunsintoevenmoreseriousproblems

whenweconsiderwhatitwouldmeanforthepost-mortemfateofthe

arahant.Becausetheaggregatesendwiththeattainingoftotalunbindingat

thedeathofthearahant,tosaythatthechangingaggregatesthatconstitute

yourpersonalidentitythroughmanylifetimeswouldendatdeathifyou

haveattainedunbindingwouldbeaself-viewfallingunderoneofthe

twelvecategoriessetoutinDN15:theselfpossessedofformthatisnot

alreadyfinite,anddoesnotnaturallybecomethatwayonitsown,butcan

bemadetobecomethatwaythroughpractice.Althoughthisviewisnot

identicalwiththeannihilationistviewthateveryselfperishesatdeath,it

doesconstituteatypeofannihilationismwhenitcomestothedeathofan

arahant:Anarahant,whoseidentityconsistedofthefiveaggregatespriorto

death,wouldnolongerexistafterdeath.

TheBuddha,however,wasalwaysextremelycarefultoavoidthe

positionthatanarahantdoesnotexistafterdeath.Infact,SN22:85goesso

farastolabelitan“evil(pāpaka)viewpoint.”Whenpresentedwiththe

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fourfoldquestionastowhetheranawakenedone—calledaTathāgata,

meaningaBuddhaoranarahantdisciple—existed,didn’texist,bothexisted

anddidn’texist,orneitherexistednordidn’texistafterdeath—herefused

toagreetoanyofthealternatives.Ifheheldtheunspokenassumptionthat

therereallyisnoself,thenhewouldn’thavehadtotakesuchpainstoavoid

takingastandontheissue:Thearahant,beingcomposedofthefive

aggregates,simplywouldnotexistafterdeath.ButbecausetheBuddhawas

socarefulnottotakethatposition,andtoevenregarditasevil,showsthat

hedidnotviewthefiveaggregatesasconstitutingone’sidentity,anddid

notholdtotheunspokenassumptionthatthereisnoself.

Sothesearesomeofthetextualinconsistenciesthatcomefrom

identifyingtheaggregatesastheconstituentsofpersonalidentity.Theycan

allbeavoided,however,byfollowingtheBuddha’sexample:

a)byregardingtheaggregatesnotastheconstituentsofyour

personalidentity,butastherawmaterialfromwhich,throughthe

activitiesofahaṅkāraandmamaṅkāra,“I-making”and“my-making,”

youconstructyouridentity;and

b)byatthesametimepayingnoattentiontothequestionof

whetherornotthereisaselflyingbehindthatactivity.

InfollowingtheBuddha’sstrategyhere,weavoidnotonlythetextual

inconsistenciescitedabove,butalsosomeverypracticalproblemsthat

wouldcomefromassumingeithertheexistenceorthenon-existenceofa

selflyingbehindtheactivityofI-makingandmy-making.AstheBuddha

notesinSN44:10,toassumethatthereisaselflyingbehindthatactivity

wouldgetinthewayofapplyingtheperceptionofnot-selftoall

phenomena.You’dbecontinuallylookingforthatself,andwouldprotectit

whenyouthoughtyouhadfoundit.Thatway,therewouldstillbeanarea

ofexperiencesubjecttoclinging—andsubtlesuffering—thatwouldnever

getabandoned.

Ontheotherhand,ifyouassumedthattherewasnoselflyingbehind

yourI-makingandmy-making,you’dfallintoeitherofthetwoextremes

listedinIti49:Eitheryouwouldfearthat,withtheendingofI-makingand

my-making,therewouldnolongerbeanyyou,andsoyou’dbeafraidtoput

anendtoyourcreationofasenseofself;orelse,eagerforthedestructionof

yourI-madeself,you’dfallintotheextremeofcravingfornon-becoming.

AstheBuddhanotedinMN49andSN56:11,cravingfornon-becoming

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paradoxicallyleadstomorebecominganditsattendantsuffering.Soin

eithercase,yourassumptionsabouttheexistenceornon-existenceofaself

wouldgetinthewayofrelease.

Iti49describesbrieflythewayoutofthisdilemma:seeingwhathas

cometobeascometobe—inotherwords,seeingwhatisactuallyoccurring

simplyasactuallyoccurring—anddevelopingdispassionforit.SN12:15,

notedabove,helpstoexplainhowthisworks:Byfocusingonthe

originationandpassingawayofeventsatthesixsenses,themindentersa

statewherethoughtsof“existence”and“non-existence”don’toccurtoit.In

thatstate,questionsoftheexistenceornon-existenceoftheselfalsodon’t

arise,asyou’refocusedpurelyonthesufferinginherentinwhatever

phenomenaareoriginatedandpassaway.Thismakesiteasiertoletgoof

thedesirefuelingthosephenomenawithnoconcernforwhatthis

contemplationwoulddototheexistenceofa“self,”andinthatwaythe

mindcangainrelease.

Asforthequestionofthestatusofthearahantafterdeath,theBuddha

notesinSN23:2thata“being”isdefinedbyattachmenttotheaggregates.

Wherethereisnoattachment,nobeingcanbelocated.Andwhennobeing

canbelocatedtodefinewhatitis,nothingcanproperlybesaidaboutit.

ThisiswhySN22:85–86makethepointthat,whenyoucan’tevendefinea

fullyawakenedpersoninthepresentlife,howcanyoupredicateanything

aboutawakenedpeopleaftertheydie?

Further Implications

3.Becausethetwopremisesofthesyllogismlyingattheheartofthe

criticismof“TheNot-selfStrategy”arefalse,theconclusionbasedonthem

isunfounded.Inotherwords,it’samistaketoattributetotheBuddhaan

unspokenassumptionthatthereisnoself.Thismeansthattheremaining

pointsdependentonthesyllogismalsodon’tfollow.However,some

importantpracticalandinterpretivelessonscanbedrawnfromconsidering

exactlywheresomeofthosepointsgoastray.HereIwillfocusonlyonthe

pointsthatareusefultoconsiderinthisway:5,6,and9.

5.PointfiveclaimsthattheBuddhaavoidedsayingthatthereisnoself

becauseitwouldhaveconfusedsomeofhislistenersintothinkingthathe

wassidingwiththeannihilationistviewthatdeathisautomatically

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annihilation.

Onanimmediatelevel,it’shardnottobeamazedatmoderninterpreters

whothinkthat,althoughtheBuddharefusedtostatethatthereisnoselffor

fearthatthisstatementwouldcauseconfusionamonghislisteners,theycan

makethisstatementatpresentonhisbehalfwithoutcausingconfusion

amongtheirs.

However,thatpointaside,thecritiquebolstersitsclaimherewithan

assertionthathastobeaddressed.Theassertionisthis:When,inSN44:10

andMN2,theBuddharefusestoacceptthestatementthatthereisnoself,

hisrefusalcanbeexplainedbecause“thereisnoself”isanannihilationist

thesisandhecan’tconsenttotheconsequencesthattheannihilationists

drawfromthatthesis,thatthereisnoconscioussurvivalbeyondthe

presentlife.

Thisinterpretationismistakenontwopoints.

•AlthoughSN44:10doesstatethattosaythereisnoselfwouldbeto

conformwiththeannihilationists,MN2makesnomentionof

annihilationistsorannihilationismatall.Sothereisnoreasontoassertthat

inthatsuttaheisrejectingthestatement“Ihavenoself”onlybecausehe

wantedtoavoidsoundinglikeanannihilationist.Ashesaysthere,simply

theview,“Ihavenoself”getsoneinvolvedinathicketofviews.Andthe

tangledhistoryofBuddhistphilosophy—eversinceinterpretersofthe

Dhammabeganinterpretingthenot-selfteachingasbasedonthe

assumptionthatthereisnoself—hasbornethisstatementout.

•TheBuddhahadasystematicstrategyforclassifyingquestionsinto

fourtypes,astowhethertheydeservedacategoricalanswer,ananalytical

answer,whethertheymightfirstrequirecross-questioningthelistener

beforeanswering,orwhethertheyshouldbeputasideandleftunanswered.

InbothSN44:10andMN2,heleavesthequestionoftheexistenceofaself

unanswered.Ifhehadananalyticalviewofthenon-existenceoftheself—

that,forexample,thereisnopermanentself,butthatthereisacontinuum

ofpersonalidentitythatdoesnotautomaticallyendwithdeath—hecould

haveeasilystatedit.Buthedidn’t.Hehadittotallywithinhispowertohave

said,“Thereisnocategoricalanswertothatquestion,”histypicalwayof

beginningaresponsetoaquestiondeservingananalyticalanswer.Buthe

didn’t.If,inSN44:10hehadwantedtostatesuchananalyticalpositionto

Ven.Ānanda,whowaspresentattheconversationandwhosurelywould

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haveunderstoodhim,hewouldhave.Buthedidn’t.And,asnotedabove,in

MN2hestatesinnouncertaintermsthatquestionsrelatedtotheexistence

ornon-existenceoftheselfaren’tworthpayingattentiontoatall.

Asnotedintheintroductiontothisessay,todrawinferencesfromthe

Buddha’steachingsthatwouldprovideanswerstoquestionshedeliberately

putaside—eveniftheyareanalyticalanswers—hastocountasaformof

slanderasmentionedinAN2:24.

Why Does the Not-self Strategy Work?

6.Pointsixraisesavaluablequestion:Whydoesthenot-selfstrategy

workinliberatingthemindfromclinging?Ratherthanfollowingthe

critique’sstrategyoftryingtofindtheanswertothisquestionbyinferring

fromthesuttasapositionthattheBuddharefusedtoendorse—thatthereis

noself—it’smorefruitfultolookfortheanswerintheBuddha’sexpress

statementsabouthowandwhyclingingtoaself-viewhappensinthefirst

place.Whenweunderstandhowself-viewisfabricated,howclingingis

fabricatedaroundthat,andwhythatclingingconstitutessuffering,wecan

understandtheBuddha’sstrategyforbringingthesefabricationstoanend.

MN44notesthatallself-identityviewsrevolvearoundoneormoreof

thefiveaggregates:form,feeling,perception,fabrication,and

consciousness.Ineachcase,theselfcanbedefinedasbeingidenticalwith

theaggregate,aspossessingtheaggregate,asbeinginsidetheaggregate,or

ascontainingtheaggregatewithinit.Thisgivestwentytypesofidentity-

viewinall.

Actsoffabrication,i.e.,intentionalchoices,playamany-layeredrolein

shapingtheaggregatesandanyoftheidentityviewsthatclusteraround

them.AsSN22:79notes,fabricationplaysaroleinfabricatingeach

aggregateforapurpose.AndasSN22:81furthernotes,theactofassuming

aselfaroundanyoftheaggregatesisalsoafabrication,basedoncraving,

whichinturnisbasedonignorance.SN22:60identifiesthepurpose

underlyingbothlayersoffabrication:It’sbecauseofthepleasuretobe

obtainedfromtheaggregatesthatbeingsareinfatuatedwiththem.We

fabricateboththeaggregatesandthesenseofselfaroundtheminorderto

obtainthatpleasure.Inotherwords,thepleasuretobefoundinthe

aggregatesistherootcauseofwhywedesirethemandclingtothem,

buildingasenseofselfaroundthem.Evenwithouthavingtothinkthatthe

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aggregatesarepermanent,ifwethinkthatthepleasuresthatcanbederived

fromthemareworththeeffortthatgoesintoclingingtothem,we’llchoose

tocling.

AllofthisisinlinewithtwoobservationsfromAN10:58:Thatall

phenomenaarerootedindesire,andarebroughtintobeingthrough

attention.Inthiscase,thedesireisforpleasure,andtheactofattentionis

thatofattendinginappropriatelytoquestionsaboutthepast,present,and

futureexistenceoftheself(MN2)inhopesthattheanswerwillhelprealize

ourdesireandmaximizethepleasure.

Theproblemisthatclingingtoaself-viewcountsasaformofsuffering

asdefinedinthefirstnobletruth(SN56:11).Soinourignorantpursuitof

pleasure,weendupconstructingsufferinginstead.Inmostcases,this

clingingentailssufferingbecauseittriestolatchontothingsthatwill

change(SN22:1).Butit’salsopossibleforthemind,onitsfirstencounters

withthedeathless,toclingtothatexperience(MN52;AN9:36).Even

thoughthedeathlessisnotfabricated,andsoisnotsubjecttochange,the

actofclingingtoitisfabricated,andsoentailssufferingnevertheless.

Becauseallofthisclingingandfabricationisdrivenbydesire,sparkedby

anignorantvaluejudgment—seeingthatit’sworththeefforttofabricate

aggregatesandself-viewsforthesakeofthepleasure—thestrategyto

undercutithastoreplaceitwithamoreaccuratevaluejudgment:Thatthe

pleasureisnotreallyworththeeffortatall.

Thisiswherethenot-selfstrategycomesin:tofocusattentiononhow

mucheffortactuallygoesintofabricatingtheaggregatesandtheself-views

basedaroundthem,andonhowtheresultsdon’treallyrepaytheeffortthat

goesintothem.Inotherwords,itspurposeistoaccentuatethefactofthe

effortrequiredbyfabricationandtoraisethequestionofitsvalue:whether

it’sworththeefforttokeepfabricating.

SN22:57outlinesthegeneralapproachofthisstrategyinseveninter-

relatedsteps.Thefirstfourstepsfollowthepatternofthefournobletruths:

directlyknowingeachaggregate,directlyknowingtheoriginationofthe

aggregate,i.e.,whatgivesrisetoit;directlyknowingthecessationofthat

aggregate;anddirectlyknowingthepathofpracticeleadingtothecessation

ofthataggregate,i.e.,thenobleeightfoldpath.

Thefirsttwoofthesesteps—inwhichtheaggregatesareobservedas

theyactuallyoccur(yathābhūtaṁ)—ismeanttodrawattentiontohowthe

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aggregatesdonotsimplyhappenandmaintainthemselvesontheirown.A

lotofdesireandeffortgointoshapingthemandtryingtokeepthemgoing.

Thisiswhy,inthefirststep,theterm“origination”(samudaya)isimportant.

Itdoesn’tdenotejusttheactofarising;itdenotestheprocessofcausation:

whatmakestheaggregatearise.Toseethisrequiresmorethanbare

awarenessofevents.Youlearnaboutcausationnotbysimplywatching

thingscomeandgo,butbytryingtomakethemcomeandmakethemgo.

That’swhenyoulearnwhat’sacausalfactorandwhat’snot.SN22:5,taken

togetherwithAN9:36,statesthattheidealwaytolearnaboutthe

originationoftheaggregatesistoturnthemintoastateofconcentration.

AndSN45:8notesthatdesireisanessentialpartoftherighteffortleading

torightconcentration.Thus,theactoffocusingyourdesireongivingrise

torightconcentration—whichispartofthenobleeightfoldpath,thefourth

step—isthetestcaseinwhichtheaggregatesarefabricatedinawaythat

allowsyoutoseeclearlyhowtheyoriginateinstepone.

Thefifthandsixthstepsexpandontheroleofrightviewand

appropriateattentioninthefourthstep:directlyknowingtheallureofthe

aggregate,i.e.,thepleasurethatcanbefoundintheaggregate;anddirectly

knowingthedrawbacksoftheaggregate,i.e.,thepainandsuffering

involvedinclingingtotheaggregate.

ThissixthstepiswheretheBuddha’snot-selfstrategyisapplied.The

perceptionofnot-selfisactuallyoneofseveralperceptionsthathesayscan

beappliedtotheaggregatestodrivehomethepointthatthedrawbacksof

fabricatingtheaggregatesfaroutweightheallureofcontinuingtofabricate

them.AN9:36listselevenperceptionsthatcanperformthisfunction:

perceivingtheaggregatesasinconstant,stressful,adisease,acancer,an

arrow,painful,anaffliction,alien,adisintegration,anemptiness,not-self.

Thesefallunderthreemainperceptions:inconstancy,stress/suffering,and

not-self.AndaswehaveseenfromtheBuddha’snot-selfquestionnaire,

thesethreeareintimatelyrelated.Ifsomethingisinconstant,it’sstressful.If

it’sstressful,it’snotworthidentifyingas“mine,”“myself,”or“whatIam.”

Asnotedabove,SN12:15saysthatthiscontemplation,whenappliedto

eventsatthesensesastheyarehappening,leadstoastatewherethereare

nothoughtsof“existence”or“non-existence,”sothere’snoconcernfor

whatthiscontemplationwilldototheexistenceornon-existenceofthe

self.Inthisway,theBuddha’squestionnaire,andtheresultingvalue

judgment,canbeappliedwithoutfeartoeveryaggregateasit’sexperienced.

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Whenthisvaluejudgmenthitshomeasitcatchesthemindintheactof

fabricatingeventhemostdesirablefabricationpossible—right

concentration—itleadstotheseventhstep,theescapefromtheaggregates,

whichisdispassion.Thisseventhstepisactuallyidenticalwiththethird:the

cessationoftheaggregates.Becausefabricationisdrivenbypassionand

desire,dispassionputsanendtothedrive,andfabricationceases.When

fabricationceases,theaggregatesandeverythingconstructedaroundthem

ceaseaswell,andthemind,relinquishingeverything,attainsthe

unfabricated:release.

Thenatureofthevaluejudgmentleadingtothisreleaseisreflectedin

thewordstheBuddhausestodescribeclingingontheonehand,and

disenchantment—thestepjustpriortodispassion(SN56:11)—ontheother.

Upādāna,thewordforclinging,alsodenotessustenanceandtheactof

takingsustenance.Inotherwords,tofeedistoclingistosuffer:Thisisthe

importoftheBuddha’sfirstnobletruth.Nibbidā,disenchantment,isaword

usedtodescribethesenseofhavinghadenoughofaparticularfood,and

notwantingtoeatitanymore.So:Toclingtosomethingasselfisawayof

feedingonit;perceptionsofnot-self—alongwiththeotherperceptions

focusingonthedrawbacksofthemind’ssustenanceandtakingsustenance

—aremeanttoturnanavideaterintoonewithnomoreappetite.Thegood

newsoftheBuddha’steachingsisthatinlosingyourdesiretofeedinthis

way,youdon’tstarve.Instead,you’rebroughttoadimensionwherethere’s

noneedtofeed.AsSn3:12andmanyothertextsaffirm,thefreedomof

unbindingishunger-free.

Thedynamicunderlyingthischangeofheartdependsonmorethan

simplyagreeingtoarbitrarydefinitionsofterms.Ithastocomefroma

valuejudgment,asyoucatchthemindintheprocessofshapingthefoodon

whichitwantstofeed,andseethattheanticipatedrewardsaresimplynot

worthit.Onlyajudgmentofthissort,focusedonthemind’sactivitiesas

theyareinthecourseofactuallyhappening(yathābhūtaṁ)canbreakthe

mindofitsignorant,unskillfulhabits.

Becausethemind’shabitsarethemainfactorshapingitsexperience—

thisisthepointofthefamousfirstlineoftheDhammapada,thatthemind

precedesallphenomena—gettingittochangeitshabitswillchangeits

experience.Togetittostopfabricatingentirelywillallowittoexperience

theunfabricated.Andit’spreciselyinthepoweroftheBuddha’steachings

tosteerthemind,thechiefinstigator,inthisdirectionthattheir

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performativefunctionlies.

Theexactnatureofthedifferencebetweentheapproachoutlinedhere

andtheoneofferedinthecritiquecanbehighlightedbyexploringa

seeminglysmallissueoftranslation.Aspartofhiscritique,Ven.Bodhicites

apassagefromSN22:126totheeffectthatignorancecanbeendedby

observingthattheaggregatesaresubjecttoarisingandceasing.However,

thetermhetranslatesas“arising”isthesametermusedaboveinSN22:57:

samudaya,ororigination.Totranslateitas“arising”givestheimpression

thatignorancecanbeendedbywitnessing,throughbareawareness,the

arisingandceasingoftheaggregatesandconcurringwiththegeneral

principlethat,yes,theydoariseandcease.

Butthismissesanimportantdynamicinthepractice,whichliesin

seeingtheextenttowhichyourowndesiresandeffortsplayacomplicit

causalroleinthatarisingandthat,infosteringapassionforfabricating,

you’vebeenfoolingyourselfallalong.It’sonlywhenyoustopfabricating—

onrealizingthattheallureoftheaggregatesisnotworththeeffortof

fabricating—thattheunfabricatedcanappear.Theperceptionofnot-selfis

oneoftheBuddha’sstrategic,performativeteachingsforinducingthevalue

judgmentthatcanbringthisnecessarychangeofheartabout.

It’susefultonoteherethatbecausetheperceptionofnot-selfisavalue

judgment,itallowsfordifferentjudgmentsatdifferentstagesofthepath.

Thisisimportant,foronthebeginningstagesofthepath,askillful

perceptionofselfisactuallyworthcultivating.Ifusedappropriately,itcan

getyoutostartonthepathandtostickwithit(AN4:159;AN3:40).You

startonthepathbecauseyouseethatyou’llbenefitfromitandthatyou

havewithinyoutheabilitytofollowit;youstickwithitoutofacontinuing

concernforyourownwell-being.Onthesestages,theperceptionof“not-

self”isappliedtothingsthatwouldpullyouawayfromthepracticeof

virtue,concentration,ordiscernment.Onlywhenthesepracticeshavebeen

mastered(AN9:36)cantheperceptionofnot-selfbeappliedtoall

phenomena,foratthatpointthestrategyofthinkingintermsofaselfisno

longerneeded.Theultimatehappiness(MN13)hasbeenattained.

That’swhatwecangatherfromtheCanon’sexpressstatementsasto

howandwhythenot-selfstrategyworks.

The Right View of One Beyond Training

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9.Inadditiontotheargumentsbasedonthesyllogismgiveninpoints1–

3,thecritiqueof“TheNot-selfStrategy”bolstersitspositionbymaking

threeobservationstotheeffectthatarahantsareendowedwithrightview.

This,theargumentgoes,meansthatrightviewdoesnotmerelyservea

strategicfunctiononthepath.Itstatesatruthaboutthenon-existenceof

theselfthatarahantscontinuetoseeastrue.

•ThefirstpointisthatMN65andMN78statethatanarahantis

endowedwiththe“rightviewofonebeyondtraining.”Thecritiqueclaims

thatbecausethistermisnowheredefined,itsmeaningmustbeidentical

withtherightviewofoneonthepath:thatallphenomenaarenot-self.

•ThesecondpointisthatinSN22:122Ven.Sāriputtastatesthat

arahantsshouldattendtothefiveaggregatesasnot-self:

“Anarahantshouldattendinanappropriatewaytothesefive

clinging-aggregatesasinconstant,stressful,adisease,acancer,an

arrow,painful,anaffliction,alien,adissolution,anemptiness,not-

self.Although,foranarahant,thereisnothingfurthertodo,and

nothingtoaddtowhathasbeendone,stillthesethings—when

developedandpursued—leadbothtoapleasantabidinginthehere

andnow,andtomindfulnessandalertness.”

This,thecritiqueconcludes,meansthattheperceptionofnot-selfserves

purposesbeyondthepath,andthateventhoughanarahantnolongerhasto

developrightview,therightviewwithwhichhe/sheisinalienablyendowed

isthatallphenomenaarenot-self.

•Thethirdpointisinresponsetothefactthat“TheNot-selfStrategy”

quotedpassagesfromtheCanonstatingthatarahantsarebeyondviews,

andarenotattachedtoideasof“true”and“false.”Inresponse,thecritique

notesthatthosepassagescomefrompoemsintheCanon:passagesfromthe

SuttaNipātaandtheconcludingpoemofAN4:24.Beingpoems,itsays,

thesepassagesareonlysuggestiveratherthanlucid,andsoarenotas

reliableaguidetotheDhammaastheprosepassages.Becausetheabove

prosepassagesshowthatarahantsinnowaydiscardrightvieweventhough

theydon’tclingtoit,thosepassagesshouldbetakenasmoreauthoritative.

Torespondtothesethreeobservations:

•First,therearemanystagesofrightviewevenpriortoawakening.As

notedthreetimesabove,everyarahanthasgonethroughanadvancedstage

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ofrightviewwherenotionsof“existence”and“non-existence”don’toccur

tothemind:

“Byandlarge,Kaccāna,thisworldissupportedby[takesasits

object]apolarity,thatofexistenceandnon-existence.Butwhenone

seestheoriginationoftheworld[i.e.,thesixsensemedia]asithas

cometobewithrightdiscernment,‘non-existence’withreferenceto

theworlddoesnotoccurtoone.Whenoneseesthecessationofthe

worldasithascometobewithrightdiscernment,‘existence’with

referencetotheworlddoesnotoccurtoone.

“Byandlarge,Kaccāna,thisworldisinbondagetoattachments,

clingings[sustenances],andbiases.Butonesuchasthisdoesnotget

involvedwithorclingtotheseattachments,clingings,fixationsof

awareness,biases,orobsessions;norisheresolvedon‘myself.’He

hasnouncertaintyordoubtthatmerestress,whenarising,isarising;

stress,whenpassingaway,ispassingaway.Inthis,hisknowledgeis

independentofothers.It’stothisextent,Kaccāna,thatthereisright

view.”—SN12:15

SN22:94showsthattheBuddha,afterawakening,woulduseconcepts

ofexistenceandnon-existencetotalkabouttheworld.Butyouhaveto

wonder:Afterhavingdevelopedtherightviewdescribedabove,andseen

thereleasethatcomesfromit,towhatextentwouldheholdtoconceptsof

“existence”and“non-existence”withinhisownmind?There’snowayof

knowingapartfromattainingfullawakeningyourself.EvenAnāthapiṇḍika,

astream-enterer,whenaskedabouttheBuddha’sviews,replied,“Idon’t

knowalloftheBlessedOne’sview”(AN10:93).Andalthough,foran

awakenedone,statementsofrightviewmaybetrueasfarastheygo,only

onewho,likeanarahant,hasknownthelimitsofdescriptionandwhatlies

beyondthoselimitsofdescription(DN15)wouldbeinapositiontoknow

howfarthat“true”actuallygoes.

AsSN47:4states,arahantsstilldeveloptheestablishingsofmindfulness

aftertheirawakening,buttheydoitinawaythattheyaredisjoinedfrom

theframesofreferenceonwhichthoseestablishingsarebased.This

includestheframeworkofdhammas:

“Monks,eventhosewhoarearahants—whoseeffluentsareended,

whohavereachedfulfillment,donethetask,laiddowntheburden,

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attainedthetruegoal,totallydestroyedthefetterofbecoming,and

whoarereleasedthroughrightgnosis—eventheyremainfocusedon

dhammasinandofthemselves—beingardent,alert,unified,clear-

minded,concentrated,andsingle-minded,disjoinedfromdhammas.”

Because“dhammas”hereincludesnotonlythefiveclinging-aggregates,

butalsothefournobletruths—andthusthefourthtruth,thepath,andthe

factorofrightviewwithinthepath—arahantsexperiencerightview

disjoinedfromit,justastheyaredisjoinedfromallofthesixsensemedia

andtheirobjects(MN140).

TheprosesectionofAN4:24containsthisinterestingpassage:

“Whateverinthisworld—withitsdevas,MārasandBrahmās,its

generationswiththeircontemplativesandbrahmans,rulersand

commonpeople—isseen,heard,sensed,cognized,attained,sought

after,ponderedbytheintellect:ThatIdirectlyknow.Thathasbeen

realizedbytheTathāgata,butintheTathāgataithasnotbeen

established.”

So,apartfromanactualexperienceoffullawakening,it’shardtoknow

whattheexperienceofbeingdisjoined—orofatruth’snotbeingestablished

inone’smind—isactuallylike.Butit’scertainlynotidenticaltothewaya

persononthepathrelatestorightview,asAN4:24makesclear:

“Whateverisseenorheardorsensed

andfastenedontoastruebyothers,

OnewhoisSuch—amongtheself-fettered—

wouldnotfurtherclaimtobetrueorevenfalse.”

Evenifweweretoregardthispassageasonlybeasuggestion,itstill

suggestssomeimportantthings.Oneofthemisthatitwouldbefoolhardy

tosaythat,fromtheCanon,wecanconfidentlyinferthenatureofan

arahant’srelationshiptoarightviewaboutthingstrueandfalse.

•Inresponsetothesecondobservation:AlthoughitistruethatSN

22:122describesastrategicusefortheperceptionofnot-selfbeyondthe

path,it’sstilljustastrategicuse:forthepurposeofapleasantabidinginthe

here-and-nowandformindfulnessandalertness.Andasthepassageclearly

states,thearahanthasnoneedforthiscontemplation.It’ssimplyapleasant

wayforanawakenedpersontospendthetime,mindfulandalert.Thereis

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nothinginSN22:122toindicatethatthiscontemplationperformsany

functionforanarahantbeyondservingthatstrategicpurpose.Andgiven

whatwehavenotedunderthefirstpoint,itwouldbehardtosayhowfar

thetruthofthatperceptiongoesintheeyesofsomeonewhohasseenthe

limitationsofperceptionandwhatliesbeyondperception.

•Asforthethirdobservation:NotalltheCanon’sstatementsaboutthe

limitationsoflanguageindescribingthearahant’srelationshiptowardright

viewarecontainedinthepoems.Someprosepassagesspeakofthese

limitationsaswell.Forinstance,aprosediscourse,SN48:4,clearlystates

thatthearahanthasrealizedtheescapefromdiscernment,whichis

equivalenttorightview.ThepassagesinSN12:15,DN15,andAN10:93,

citedabovetosupportthispoint,areinprose,asisthefirsthalfofAN4:24,

citedintheoriginalarticle.

Secondly,theprosepassagesoftheCanonneversuggestthatthepoems

recordedintheCanonaretobedismissedas“onlysuggestive.”Onthe

contrary,severalprosepassagesaredevotedtoferretingoutthemeaningof

versesthattheytreatasparticularlyprofound.(See,forexample,SN22:3,

AN3:32,AN3:33,AN4:41,andAN6:61.)InAN4:231,theBuddha

distinguishesamongfourkindsofpoets,oneofthembeingthemeaning-

poet.Althoughhedoesn’tdefineanyofthefour,theimplicationisthathe

himselfwasameaning-poet,onewhoseverseshadmeaningandwerenot

tobedismissed,inthewordsofAN2:46,asbeingmerely“elegantinsound

andelegantinrhetoric.”GiventhattheBuddhaandthecompilersofthe

Canontooktheirpoetryseriously,it’sanactofscholarlyarrogancefor

moderninterpreterstodismissthatpoetrysimplybecauseitsmessagelies

outsidethecategoriesofourownthoughtandlanguage.Thisisespecially

trueinthecaseofateaching,liketheBuddha’s,whosewholepointlies

beyondtheboundariesofdescription.

OneoftheimportantlessonsoftheAṭṭhakaVagga,achapterintheSutta

Nipātadevotedtothethemeofnot-clinging,isthatlanguageisslippery.

Eventhoughithasastrategicpurpose—intheBuddha’scase,toconvey

lessonsoftheDhamma—itfallsshortofthehighestdhammas,andeven

furthershortoftheendingofdhammas,unbinding(AN10:58).

Thisiswhy—whendealingwithalllessonsoftheDhamma,includingthe

lessonsofnot-self—it’simportanttoviewthelanguageofperceptionsand

thought-fabricationsasperformativeandtouseitstrategically:togetthe

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mindtowhatliesbeyondperceptionsandthought-fabrications,andnotto

developascholarlyfixationonperceptionsandthought-fabricationsas

expressionsoftruthinandofthemselves.Otherwise,weriskwastingour

timetryingtocatchinthenetoflanguagesomethingthatnowordscan

catch.

Effluentsended,

independentofnutriment,

theirpasture—emptiness

&freedomwithoutsign:

theirtrail,

likethatofbirdsthroughspace,

can’tbetraced.—Dhp93

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TheNamesforNibbāna

Asayoungman,theBuddhahadavisionoftheworld:Allbeingswere

likefishinadwindlingstream,fightingoneanotherforalastgulpofwater

beforetheyalldied.Everywherehelookedforhappiness,hefoundnothing

towhichsomeoneelsehadn’talreadylaidclaim.Theimplicationsofthis

visionstruckterrorinhisheart:Lifesurvivedbyfeedingonotherlife,

physicallyandmentally;tobeinterdependentisto“inter-eat”;thesuffering

thatresultsservesnolargerpurpose,andsoistotallypointless.Thiswasthe

realizationthatdrovehimfromhomeintothewilderness,toseeifthere

mightbeahappinessthatwasn’tdependentonconditions,thatdidn’tdie,

didn’tneedtofeed.

Hisawakeningwasthediscoverythatsuchahappinessdidexist:a

dimension,touchedbytheheartandmind,thatwastotallyfreefrom

conditions.Itwasn’ttheresultofanything,anddidn’tcauseanythingelse.

Thepathleadingtothatdiscoverywaswhathetaughtfortherestofhislife.

Nosinglenamedidfulljusticetothatdimension,sohenameditlargely

withsimilesandanalogies.Theprimarynamewasnibbāna,unbinding.This

wasananalogybasedonthewayfirewasviewedatthetime:Fireburns,

agitated,trapped,andhot,becausethefireelementclingstoitsfuel.Whenit

letsgoofthefuel,itgoesout,coolandunbound.

ButtheBuddhagavehisdiscoverymorethan30othernamesaswell,to

indicatewaysinwhichit’sreallyworthdesiring,reallyworthalltheeffort

thatgoesintoattainingit.Thenamesfallintofivemaingroups,conveying

fivedifferentfacetsofthatdimension:

Thefirstisthatit’snotablank-out.Instead,it’satypeofconsciousness.

Butunlikeordinaryconsciousness,it’snotknownthroughthesixsenses,

anditdoesn’tengageinfabricatinganyexperienceatall—unlike,for

example,thenon-dualconsciousnessfoundinformlesslevelsof

concentration.TheBuddhadescribedthisconsciousnessas“without

surface”and“unestablished.”Hisimageforitisabeamoflightthatlands

nowhere.Althoughbrightinandofitself,itdoesn’tengageinanything,and

socan’tbedetectedbyanyoneelse.

Thesecondfacetofthisdimensionistruth:Becauseit’soutsideoftime,

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itdoesn’tchange,doesn’tdeceiveyou,doesn’tturnintoanythingelse.This

iswhytheBuddhacalleditundeceptive,unwavering,permanence,ageless,

undecaying,anddeathless.

Thethirdisfreedom:freefromhunger,freefromsufferingandthe

causesofsuffering,freefromlocation,freefromrestrictionsofanykind.In

additionto“unbinding,”thenamesindicatingthisfreedominclude:release,

theeffluent-free,attachment-free,freefromlonging,non-objectification,

theendingofcraving,dispassion,purity

Thefourthisbliss:ahappinessunadulteratedandharmless.Thenames

followingfromthisfacetare:peace,rest,thesecure,security,island,shelter,

harbor,refuge.

Thefifthfacetisexcellence,higherthananythingknownineventhe

highestheavens.IntheBuddha’swords,it’samazing,astounding,ultimate,

beyond.

Eventhoughthisdimensionisuncaused,apathofpracticeleadstoit—in

thesamewaythataroadtoamountaindoesn’tcausethemountain,but

followingtheroadcangetyouthere.Theroadisonething;themountain,

somethingelse.Followingtheroadinvolvesfostering,amongotherthings,

generosity,virtue,mindfulness,concentration,anddiscernment.Through

thesequalities,wedevelopthewisdomandcompassiontoseethatnirvana

reallyisthewisestandmostcompassionategoalwecansetforourselves:

wiseinthat,unlikeothergoals,it’smorethanworththeeffortrequired,and

willneverdisappoint;compassionateinthatwenotonlyremoveourmouth

fromthefeedingfrenzyofinterdependence,butwealsoshowotherswho

aredisheartenedbythepointlessnessofsufferingthatthereisawayout.

It’sforthesakeofthisgoalthatwemeditate.

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Glossary

Ajaan(Thai):Teacher;mentor.Pāliform:Ācariya.

Arahant:A“worthyone”or“pureone;”apersonwhosemindisfreeof

defilementandthusisnotdestinedforfurtherrebirth.Atitleforthe

Buddhaandthehighestlevelofhisnobledisciples.Sanskritform:Arhat.

Bhikkhu:Monk.

Bhikkhunī:Nun.

Brahmā:Adevainhabitingtherealmsofformorformlessness.

Brahman:Amemberofthepriestlycaste,whichclaimedtobethehighest

casteinIndia,basedonbirth.InaspecificallyBuddhistusage,“brahman”

canalsomeananarahant,conveyingthepointthatexcellenceisbasednot

onbirthorrace,butonthequalitiesattainedinthemind.

Deva:Literally,“shiningone.”Aninhabitantoftheterrestrialand

celestialrealmshigherthanthehuman.

Dhamma:(1)Event;action;(2)aphenomenoninandofitself;(3)mental

quality;(4)doctrine,teaching;(5)nibbāna(althoughtherearepassages

describingnibbānaastheabandoningofalldhammas).Whencapitalizedin

thisbook,Dhammameansteaching.Sanskritform:Dharma.

Gandhabba:Adevaononeofthelowercelestiallevels,oftenportrayedas

atrickster.

Jhāna:Mentalabsorption.Astateofstrongconcentration,devoidof

sensualityorunskillfulthoughts,focusedonasinglephysicalsensationor

mentalnotionwhichisthenexpandedtofillthewholerangeofone’s

awareness.Jhānaissynonymouswithrightconcentration,theeighthfactor

inthenobleeightfoldpath.Sanskritform:Dhyāna.

Kamma:Intentionalact.Sanskritform:Karma.

Māra:Thepersonificationoftemptationandallforces,withinand

without,thatcreateobstaclestoreleasefromsaṁsāra.

Nibbāna:Literally,the“unbinding”ofthemindfrompassion,aversion,

anddelusion,andfromtheentireroundofdeathandrebirth.Asthisterm

alsodenotestheextinguishingofafire,itcarriesconnotationsofstilling,

cooling,andpeace.“Totalnibbāna”insomecontextsdenotestheexperience

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ofAwakening;inothers,thefinalpassingawayofanarahant.Sanskrit

form:Nirvāṇa.

Pāli:ThelanguageoftheoldestextantcompleteCanonoftheBuddha’s

teachings.

Pāṭimokkha:Thebasiccodeofrulesformonksandnuns.Themonks’

codecontains227rules;thenuns’,311.

Saṁsāra:Transmigration;theprocessofwanderingthroughrepeated

statesofbecoming,entailingrepeatedbirthanddeath.

Saṁvega:Asenseofoverwhelmingterrorordismayoverthe

pointlessnessoflifeasitisnormallylived.

Saṅgha:Ontheconventional(sammati)level,thistermdenotesthe

communitiesofBuddhistmonksandnuns.Onthenobleorideal(ariya)

level,itdenotesthosefollowersoftheBuddha,layorordained,whohave

attainedatleaststream-entry.

Satipaṭṭhāna:Establishingofmindfulness;foundationofmindfulness.

Themeditativepracticeoffocusingonaparticularframeofreference—the

bodyinandofitself,feelingsinandofthemselves,mindstatesinanof

themselves,ormentalqualitiesinanofthemselves—ardent,alert,and

mindfulness,puttingasidegreedanddistressinreferencetotheworld.This

practicethenformsthebasisforjhāna.

Sutta:Discourse.Sanskritform:Sūtra.

Tathāgata:Literally,“onewhohasbecomeauthentic(tatha-āgata),”or

“onewhoisreallygone(tatha-gata),”anepithetusedinancientIndiafora

personwhohasattainedthehighestreligiousgoal.InthePaliCanon,this

usuallydenotestheBuddha,althoughoccasionallyitalsodenotesanyofhis

arahantdisciples.

Uposatha:Observanceday,coincidingwiththefullmoon,newmoon,and

halfmoons.LayBuddhistsoftenobservetheeightpreceptsonthisday.

“Uposatha”alsoreferstotheceremonyinwhichmonksmeettolistentothe

recitationofthePāṭimokkhaonthefullmoonandnewmoonuposathas.

Vinaya:Themonasticdiscipline,whoserulesandtraditionscomprisesix

volumesinprintedtext.

Vipassanā:Insight.InthePāliCanon,thisdenotesaqualityofthemind.

InmodernBuddhism,italsodenotesatypeofmeditationpractice

specificallyaimedatdevelopinginsight.

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Abbreviations

AN AṅguttaraNikāya

Cv Cullavagga

Dhp Dhammapada

DN DīghaNikāya

Iti Itivuttaka

MN MajjhimaNikāya

Mv Mahāvagga

SN SaṁyuttaNikāya

Sn SuttaNipāta

Ud Udāna

ReferencestoDN,Iti,andMNaretodiscourse(sutta);

referencestoDhp,toverse.ReferencestoMvandCvareto

chapter,section,andsub-section.Referencestoothertextsareto

section(nipāta,saṁyutta,orvagga)anddiscourse.

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TableofContents

Titlepage 2Copyright 3Acknowledgements 4HonesttoGoodness 5IntheEyesoftheWise 12DidtheBuddhaTeachFreeWill? 18FirstThingsFirst 20TheKarmaofNow 29TheStreamsofEmotion 38Worlds&TheirCessation 46MundaneRightView 49TranscendentRightView 56ReleasefromWorlds 58

WisdomoverJustice 60AllWinners,NoLosers 70HowPointyisOne-pointedness? 74TheLimitsofDescription 79ByDefinition 84ADistinctionwithoutaDifference 87FurtherImplications 90WhyDoestheNot-selfStrategyWork? 92TheRightViewofOneBeyondTraining 96

TheNamesforNibbāna 102Glossary 104Abbreviations 106

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