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Landscape Restoration:
Insights and Design Principles Gained From 25 Years Of Co-Evolution Of Science, Industry, and
Regulation, Related to Florida’s Phosphate Mining
Mark T. Brown
Center for WetlandsDepartment of Environmental Engineering Sciences
University of Florida
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OR:
The ecological engineering of
adaptive self-organization
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Description of phosphate mining
Emergy evaluation of mining and reclamation
Quick photographic overview
25 years of Research
Organization of the lecture...
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I. Phosphate Mining and Reclamation
Description, historical perspective, phosphate facts...
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Overburden
Reclaimed Land
Clay Slime Pond
Superphosphate
OriginalEcosystem
Chemical Plant
BeneficiationPlant
Gypsum StackGranular CalciumPhosphate
Phosphates & Clays Clay Slimes
Overburden
Reclaimed Land
Clay Slime Pond
Superphosphate
OriginalEcosystem
Chemical Plant
BeneficiationPlant
Gypsum StackGranular CalciumPhosphate
Phosphates & Clays Clay Slimes
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Main phosphate formation…the “bone valley”(1.3 million acres)
Secondary area of mining(50,000 acres)
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Mining began in late 1800’s
Mined Peace River bottom
Until late 1930’s small scale - wide spread
Large scale mining began in 1950’s
Currently about 5000 acres /year are mined
Historical Perspective
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Mined area to date………………….320,000 acres
Mining rate…………………...5 - 6,000 acres/yr
Total to be mined…….….700,000 acres
Investment in facilities………...$10 billion
Yearly wages…………………………….$300 million/yr
Taxes paid………………………………..$800 million/yr
Operating expenses (2001)
Equip and supplies……….$990 million
Electricity…………………….$100 million
Services………………………..$178 million
Phosphate mining facts...
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Phosphate Mining vs Everglades Restoration
Phosphate Reclamation
Everglades Restoration
Total Area 0.7 million Acres 1.5 million acres
Total cost $3.6 billion $7.8 billion
Yearly Op. Costs $0.0 $182 million
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II. Quick Photographic Overview
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Emergy Evaluation of Phosphate Mining and
Reclamation
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AcidH2O
PVegetationO. M.
gd.H2O
P
Rain P
PO5
CalciumCarbonate
Sun
Mining
3.8 E19 sej
6,000 Mt/ac
1.3 E22 sej
Transpiration
160 acres
AcidH2O
PVegetationO. M.
gd.H2O
P
Rain P
PO5
CalciumCarbonate
Sun
Mining
3.8 E19 sej
6,000 Mt/ac
1.3 E22 sej
Transpiration
160 acres
Systems View and Emergy of Mining
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PlantMaterial
EarthMoving
Infor.Services
Spoil Structure
Soils
EcosystemsSun
(assumes 100 years) E 18 sej
160 acres
12.0
1.53.0 1.2
EcosystemServices
PlantMaterial
EarthMoving
Infor.Services
Spoil Structure
Soils
EcosystemsSun
(assumes 100 years) E 18 sej
160 acres
12.0
1.53.0 1.2
EcosystemServices
Emergy in Restoration...
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.
AcidH2OPVegetation O. M.
gd.H2OP
RainP
PO5CalciumCarbonate
SunMining
3.8 E19 sej
6,000 Mt/ac1.3 E22 sej
Transpiration
160 acres
0 100 200 300 400 500
Years
Mining Occurs 3.0 E14 sej/ac/yr
3.0
1.5
0
Production withoutReclamationProduction with
Reclamation
.
AcidH2OPVegetation O. M.
gd.H2OP
RainP
PO5CalciumCarbonate
SunMining
3.8 E19 sej
6,000 Mt/ac1.3 E22 sej
Transpiration
160 acres
0 100 200 300 400 500
Years
Mining Occurs 3.0 E14 sej/ac/yr
3.0
1.5
0
Production withoutReclamationProduction with
Reclamation
Benefits of Restoration...
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0 100 200 300 400 500Years
Mining Occurs 3.0 E14 sej/ac/yr3.0
1.5
0
Production withoutReclamationProduction withReclamation
Net Benefit of Reclamation:
Loss without Reclamation = 3.0 E14 sej/ ac/ yr * 160 ac * 500 yr * 0.5
= 12.0 E18 sej
Loss with Reclamation = 3.0 E14 sej/ ac/ yr * 160 ac * 100 yr * 0.5
= 2.4 E18 sej
Net benefit reclamation = 12.0 E18 sej - 2.4 E18 sej
= 9.6 E18 sej
PlantMaterial EarthMoving Infor.Services
Spoil StructureSoils
EcosystemsSun
(assumes 100 years) E 18 sej160 acres
12.0
1.53.0 1.2
EcosystemServices
0 100 200 300 400 500Years
Mining Occurs 3.0 E14 sej/ac/yr3.0
1.5
0
Production withoutReclamationProduction withReclamation
Net Benefit of Reclamation:
Loss without Reclamation = 3.0 E14 sej/ ac/ yr * 160 ac * 500 yr * 0.5
= 12.0 E18 sej
Loss with Reclamation = 3.0 E14 sej/ ac/ yr * 160 ac * 100 yr * 0.5
= 2.4 E18 sej
Net benefit reclamation = 12.0 E18 sej - 2.4 E18 sej
= 9.6 E18 sej
PlantMaterial EarthMoving Infor.Services
Spoil StructureSoils
EcosystemsSun
(assumes 100 years) E 18 sej160 acres
12.0
1.53.0 1.2
EcosystemServices
Benefits of Restoration...
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0 100 200 300 400 500Years
Mining Occurs 3.0 E14 sej/ac/yr3.0
1.5
0
Production withoutReclamationProduction withReclamation
Net Benefit of Reclamation:
Reclamation costs = 1.5 + 3.0 + 1.2 = 5.7E18 sej
Reclamation benefits = 9.6 E18 sej
Net benefit ratio = 9.6 / 5.7 = 1.68/ 1
PlantMaterial EarthMoving Infor.Services
Spoil StructureSoils
EcosystemsSun
(assumes 100 years) E 18 sej160 acres
12.0
1.53.0 1.2
EcosystemServices
0 100 200 300 400 500Years
Mining Occurs 3.0 E14 sej/ac/yr3.0
1.5
0
Production withoutReclamationProduction withReclamation
Net Benefit of Reclamation:
Reclamation costs = 1.5 + 3.0 + 1.2 = 5.7E18 sej
Reclamation benefits = 9.6 E18 sej
Net benefit ratio = 9.6 / 5.7 = 1.68/ 1
PlantMaterial EarthMoving Infor.Services
Spoil StructureSoils
EcosystemsSun
(assumes 100 years) E 18 sej160 acres
12.0
1.53.0 1.2
EcosystemServices
Net Benefits Ratio...
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III. Phosphate Mine Restoration Research
25 years of studying self organization at one level and contributing to it at
another...
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No reclamation until 1975
1975 - 1980... “pushed dirt around”, planted 10% of area in trees, made lakes
Success criteria = “ hide evidence of mining”
1980 - 1985…required to reclaim wetlandsSuccess criteria = 400 trees/acre, 80% cover by desirable species, no visible erosion
1985-1995…wetland reclamation, type for typeSuccess criteria = more descriptive, but still counting.
1995- present…Success criteria = more prescriptive..with some numerical criteria
Historical Perspective…Reclamation
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Studies of the Interaction of Phosphate Mining and
Wetlands
1979-1981
Cataloged wetland responses to mining
Evaluated wetland succession on clay settling areas
Studied wetland succession
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Seed rain is significantly affected by distance...
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Studies of succession on clay settling areas
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Dry
Wet
Dry
Tree ring analysis suggested that growth rates taper off in about the 20th year, and that variable growth rates result from wet and dry years
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Studies of a Method of Wetlands Reclamation Following Phosphate
Mining.
1981-1982
Study of the use of muck from “donor” wetlands as a innoculum for
constructed wetlands.
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The first studies of “mucking”... ca 1981
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Vegetation growth with differing amounts of applied muck
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Wetland vegetation on mucked plots….
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Relation of plant diversity to landscape diversity (standard deviation of 30 measures of elevation within each plot) .
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Development of Techniques and Guidelines for the Reclamation of
Phosphate Mined Lands1982-1987
Studied the physical and biological characteristics of native Florida ecosystems….
Developed a handbook of restoration/construction
techniques...
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Studies of Florida ecosystems lead to development of guidelines for constructing ecosystems on mined lands….
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Studies of drainage basin morphology lead to a “cookbook” for creating functional watersheds….
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0 1 2
kilometers
0 2 4
kilometers
High Relief Landscape….small area of wetlands
Low Relief Landscape….larger area of wetlands
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Biogeomorphology of stream channels...
Headwaters - no defined stream channel, broad flow-way, large accumulations of organic soils.
Mid-reaches - more defined channel with moderate floodplain moderate accumulations of organic soils
Lower reaches - defined channel, large floodplain with natural levies, mineral soils with little or no organic matter.
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Geomorphology of Florida ecosystems….
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COMMUNITIES
UPLAND WETLAND
Xeric pine
Mesic hardwood
Flatwoods Lake fringe
Marsh Cypress dome
Bayhead Hardwood swamp
Number of transects 1 5 29 1 8 4 3 4 Hydrologic regime: Average distance from ground surface (cm): -80.4 -136.4 -75.8 - 44.5 6.8 -6.6 3.4 Range of fluctuation (maximum water level – minimum water level in cm): 46.0 195.8 149.0 - 171.6 169.3 84.0 89.2 Hydroperiod: Average depth of inundation (cm): 76.9 69.5 30.4 13.0 36.2 Percent time of inundation: 100 94.7 77.1 65.9 93.6
COMMUNITIES
UPLAND WETLAND
Xeric pine
Mesic hardwood
Flatwoods Lake fringe
Marsh Cypress dome
Bayhead Hardwood swamp
Number of transects 1 5 29 1 8 4 3 4 Hydrologic regime: Average distance from ground surface (cm): -80.4 -136.4 -75.8 - 44.5 6.8 -6.6 3.4 Range of fluctuation (maximum water level – minimum water level in cm): 46.0 195.8 149.0 - 171.6 169.3 84.0 89.2 Hydroperiod: Average depth of inundation (cm): 76.9 69.5 30.4 13.0 36.2 Percent time of inundation: 100 94.7 77.1 65.9 93.6
Hydrologic regime and hydroperiod of Florida ecosystems
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COMMUNITIES UPLAND WETLAND
Xeric
pine Mesic
hardwood Flatwoods Lake
fringe Marsh Cypress dome Bayhead Hardwood
swamp Number
of transects
9 11 30 2 7 6 4 11
Overall Basal Area (m2/ha):
15.73 21.96 13.97 65.72 6.27 35.66 27.68 38.89
Overall Density (stems > 5 cm DBH/ha): 589.7 471.7 553.2 1239.4 308.8 1809.2 1183.2 1290.3
Species Richness (number of tree species/transect): 2.8 5.1 3.0 8.5 5.4 7.2 6.8 13.5
Species Diversity (Shannon-Weaver Index): 0.36 1.33 0.71 2.30 0.94 1.08 1.92 2.07
COMMUNITIES UPLAND WETLAND
Xeric
pine Mesic
hardwood Flatwoods Lake
fringe Marsh Cypress dome Bayhead Hardwood
swamp Number
of transects
9 11 30 2 7 6 4 11
Overall Basal Area (m2/ha):
15.73 21.96 13.97 65.72 6.27 35.66 27.68 38.89
Overall Density (stems > 5 cm DBH/ha): 589.7 471.7 553.2 1239.4 308.8 1809.2 1183.2 1290.3
Species Richness (number of tree species/transect): 2.8 5.1 3.0 8.5 5.4 7.2 6.8 13.5
Species Diversity (Shannon-Weaver Index): 0.36 1.33 0.71 2.30 0.94 1.08 1.92 2.07
Vegetative characteristics of Florida ecosystems...
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Range of hydrologic variation in Florida ecosystems...
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Study sites used to compare naturally “reclaimed” ecosystems
Naturally Reclaimed Ecosystems
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Ecosystems that develop on mined lands are SOMEWHAT SIMILAR (about 60%) to ecosystems that develop on abandoned agricultural lands..
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Integrated landscape approach to reclamation design….
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Snags provide bird perches…. The seed rain below perches was from 50 to 100 times that found in areas without perches.
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Successional Trajectories and Nuisance Species in
Wetlands1994-2000
Studied the role of “nuisance species”
Evaluated the function of micro-topographic relief
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Classical Succession… beginning w/ annuals… ending w/ long lived, climax species...
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Nuisance Species
&
Nutrient storage…
PHOSPHORUS
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Nuisance Species
&
Nutrient storage…
NITROGEN
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Soils develop with age but depend on:
vegetative cover…
hydrologic regime
Soils….
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Simulation model of Pioneer Species…
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Simulation Results w/ Early Successional Species
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1 25 49 73 97 121 145 169
Years
% of Maximum
Climax Species
Organic Matter
Soil Nutrients
Pioneer Species
Simulation Results w/ Early Successional Species
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1 25 49 73 97 121 145 169
Years
% of Maximum
Climax Species
Organic Matter
Soil Nutrients
Pioneer Species
Simulation Results w/out Early Successional Species
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1 25 49 73 97 121 145 169
Years
% of Maximum
Climax Species
Organic Matter
Soil Nutrients
Simulation Results w/out Early Successional Species
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1 25 49 73 97 121 145 169
Years
% of Maximum
Climax Species
Organic Matter
Soil Nutrients
Simulation results…
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Thank You…Questions?