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PROJECT
CLASSICAL HARMONIC
OSCILLATOR
Group Members
SADAF SHAFIQ HIRA KHAN
( ROLL NO 2) ( ROLL NO 21)
LARAIB SALEEM SYEDA FAIZA RUBAB SHERAZI
( ROLL NO 4) (ROLL NO 34)
SUPERVISED BY:
SIR ASSAD ABBAS MALIK
I
S H
P
Y
CS
YEAR
2010
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
UNIVERSITY OF SARGODHA
2010
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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
UNIVERSITY OF SARGODHA
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DEDICATED TO,
Our respected teacher
SIR ASSAD ABBAS MALIK
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Acknowledgements
First of all we thank Allah Almighty who provided us opportunity and gave the strength to
undertake this work of great importance.
Several persons helped us directly or indirectly in our work. Laraib and Faiza have done the
calculations sensibly. While Sadaf and Sabeen not only typed and edited the manuscript with
admirable competence but always went through the innumerable revision with patience, care
and understanding. The responsibility for any remaining errors or shortcomings is, of course,
ours.
At the end, we would like to thank our respected teacher, Sir Assad Abbas Malik,
University of Sargodha for his valuable criticism, suggestions comments and he most
willingly, come forward to review our work and gave very valuable suggestions. Also we
especially wish to thank Professor Khalid Naseer, University of Sargodha for helping us in
using mathematica while making graphs.
Laraib, Faiza, Sabeen and Sadaf.
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CONTENTS
Chapter-1 Classical Simple Harmonic Motion (7-28)
1-1 Introduction β¦β¦β¦.β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦.. 7
1-2 Horizontal Oscillation β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦......β¦. 9
1-2-1 Comparison b/w displacement, velocity and acceleration β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦ .. 15
1-3 Vertical Oscillation β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦..β¦ 15
1-4 SHM In Two Dimensions β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦..β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦.. 17
1-5 SHM In Three Dimensions β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦..β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦ 20
1-6 Simple Pendulum β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦...β¦. 21
1-7 Physical Pendulum β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦..β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦ 23
1-8 Spring In Series and Parallel β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦...β¦ 23
1-8-1-1 Parallel Configuration ................................................................................... 24
1-8-1-2 Variation In Parallel configuration β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦.. 25
1-8-2 Series Configuration β¦.β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦.............................β¦.. 26
1-9 Floating Objects β¦β¦β¦..β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦....β¦β¦β¦β¦.β¦β¦.β¦β¦β¦....β¦β¦... 27
1-10 Tunnel In Earth β¦β¦β¦β¦...β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦...β¦β¦ 28
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Chapter-2 Simple Harmonic Motion In Lagrangian (28-36)
2-1 Introduction β¦..β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦...β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦ 30
2-2 Horizontal Oscillationβ¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦...β¦β¦β¦... 30
2-3 Vertical Oscillation β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦.β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦. 31
2-4 Simple Harmonic Motion in 2- Dβ¦β¦β¦β¦β¦.β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦.β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦... 31
2-5 Simple Harmonic Motion In 3- D β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦... 31
2-6 Simple Pendulum β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦.... 32
2-7 Physical Pendulum β¦β¦..β¦β¦..β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦. 33
2-8-1 Parallel configuration β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦..β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦.β¦ 34
2-8-2 Series Configuration β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦.β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦.. 35
2-9 Floating Objects β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦...β¦β¦β¦.. 36
2-10 Tunnel in Earth β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦...β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦...β¦ 36
References β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦β¦...β¦ 37
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CLASSICAL SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
1-1 Introduction
Our study of physics started with the discussion of bodies at rest. We then consider the
simple case of motion along a straight line. Motion can take any path. Linear motion is the
easiest motion to discuss and we know how equations of motion and Newton's laws of
motion can help us to determine velocities, displacements, accelerations, force, inertia, etc.
Oscillatory motion is periodic in nature. That is after a regular time interval, the motion
repeats itself. The object returns to the given position after a fixed time interval unlike linear
or circular motion, the force responsible for the motion of a body undergoing Simple
Harmonic Motion, varies in magnitude and direction, the variation is also periodic in nature
and hence the simple harmonic is also periodic in nature. Let us now try and understand
how SHM occurs and what conditions are necessary for an SHM in real life.
We heard the one about the opera singer breaking glass of water with their voice or it can
be the specs worn by the audience too. Later we will discuss the breaking of the glass with a
loud speaker but first we will try to work out some rules for the things which vibrate, or
1
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oscillate. There are many forms of oscillations in the real world- oscillations determine the
sound of the musical instrument, the color of rainbow, the ticking the clock, needle of a
sewing machine goes up and down at a certain regular frequency, a child on a swing in a
park goes back and forth repeatedly and even the temperature of the cup of tea. A classic
example of SHM is the motion of a leaf in a pond. If waves are generated in the pond, the
leaf will bob up and down in a repeated manner. When a bat hits a baseball, the bat may
oscillate enough to stings the batterβs hands or even to break a part. When wind blows past a
power line, the line may oscillate so severely that it rips apart, shutting off the power supply
to a community. When a train travel around a curve, its wheel oscillate horizontally as they
are forced to turn in new direction (you can hear the oscillation). A similar example of SHM
is a cork bobbing up and down, when placed in a beaker containing water. A mechanical
oscillation is a repeating movement βan electrical oscillation is a repeating change in voltage
and current.
Mechanical oscillations are probably easiest to think about, so it is better to start from there.
Let us think about the movement of an object which is moving back and forth over a fixed
range of positions, such as the motion of the swing in the park, or the bouncing up and down
of the weight on the end of the spring.
When initially the body is in equilibrium position then forces on it balance. Now let us
displace it from equilibrium by applying force on it to a distance x, when it is released a
restoring force comes into play and returns it to its original position which is zero. Inertia on
the other hand tries to oppose any change in its velocity. The elasticity returns body to its
original position imparting to it an appropriate negative velocity π
π
π
π , when body reaches its
equilibrium position again at that point the negative velocity is maximum, which produces
negative displacement. The body overshoots its equilibrium position. The restoring force now
becomes positive (helps increase x) and it must now overcome inertia of negative velocity.
Consequently velocity keeps on decreasing until it is zero by that time displacement has
become large and negative and has become large and negative and process is reversed. This
process of restoring force trying to bring x to zero by imparting a velocity and inertia
preserving the velocity and making x, to overshoot, repeats itself and that is the way body
oscillate.
As when we displace a system work has to be done on it .The restoring force F obviously
depends on work done to give a displacement x. Thus F is some general function of x. For
systems oscillating violently (large x) the dependence of F on x is very complex. We will
discuss only those systems in which moving part always stays close to its mean position
(small x).Now we'll define Hook's Law which states that:
Restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement and opposes its increase.
F = β k x (1.1)
Negative sign indicates that F is opposite to increase in x .The constant of proportionality k
is called the force constant .The SI unit of k is Nmβ2
and its magnitude depends upon the
elastic properties of the system under study. Equation (1.1) is statement of Hook's Law for
elastic forces.
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1-2 Horizontal Oscillations
The motion in which the restoring force is proportional to displacement from mean
position and opposes its increase is called the simple harmonic motion. This happens when
the force acting on the body is elastic restoring force or simply we can say return force. We
can define linear oscillator or an oscillator for which the restoring force is proportional to
displacement.
A body of mass m attached to a spring of spring constant k and is free to move over a
frictionless horizontal surface as shown
m
m
m
mg
mg
mg
Figure1-1: Model for the horizontal periodic motion.
Case 1: When spring is stretched the net force acting on the body will be given below
ππππ= ππ+ ππ + ππ΅ , (1.2)
where ππππ is net force and is given by πΉπ₯π +πΉπ¦ π , ππ is restoring force is acting along
negative x-axis an its magnitude is πΉπ , gravitational force ππ is equal to weight ππ and its
direction is along negative y-axis similarly ππ΅ is given by πΉπ (π ). By substituting the values
we get
πΉπ₯π +πΉπ¦ π = βππ₯π + (π βππ) π , (1.3)
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By comparing the components of force and magnitude of components of normal and
gravitational force balanced each other so y-component is zero. And force will be only along
x- axis that is πΉπ₯ equal to βππ₯ and then substituting πΉπ₯ may be written equal to ππ2π₯
ππ‘2 . The
final result will be
π2π₯
ππ‘2 + π2π₯ = 0. (1.4)
Here, π is angular frequency given by π2 = π
π .
Case 2: When the spring is compressed then the expression of net force is given by equation
(1.2). Here the difference will be that the restoring force will act towards the positive x-axis
and will tend to take the body towards the mean position substituting the values an then
comparing the components of the force and substituting the values πΉ = βππ and π2 = π
π
we get
π2π₯
ππ‘2 + π2π₯ = 0. (1.5)
For a linear oscillator πΉ β βπ₯, after resolving the proportionality sign we get the constant
of proportionality k which is spring constant or stiffness factor. It value depends upon the
nature of the spring. It is large for the hard spring and small for soft spring. so using πΉ =
βππ₯, and then substituting πΉ = ππ₯ , we get the equation of simple harmonic oscillator
π₯ + π2π₯ = 0. (1.6)
Here, π is the angular velocity given by π
π.
The Physical Statement corresponding to this equation is: The acceleration of the body in
simple harmonic motion is proportional (and opposite in sign) to displacement. In order to
determine that what type of motion is represented by above equation, we need to solve this
differential equation i.e. obtain an expression of displacement x as function of time t. The
equation of motion is homogenous second order ordinary differential equation. We can solve
this second order differential equation using trigonometric solution, power series solution and
exponential solution. We will discuss only one of them here (differential solution).
Multiply by π₯ on both sides of equation (1.5) and by substituting the values π₯ π₯ = π
ππ‘(
1
2π₯2 )
and π₯π₯ =π
ππ‘π₯2, we get
π
ππ‘(
1
2π₯ 2 +
1
2π₯2π2) = 0, (1.7)
Integrating on both sides and twice and using B and C as constant of integration and then
simplifying we will get
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π ππβ1 π₯
2π΅
π2
= ππ‘ + πΆ, (1.8)
where C is constant of integration, π is the angular velocity and π₯ is the displacement. By
applying the boundary conditions: π‘ = 0 , π₯ = π₯0, and simplifying we get
π₯ = π₯π sin(ππ‘ + β
). (1.9)
Above equation can also be written as
π₯ = π₯π cos(ππ‘ + β
). (1.10)
The smallest time period during which oscillation repeats itself is called time period or
simply period, is given by
π = 2πβπ
π. (1.11)
From this note that time period does not depend upon amplitude or displacement. If we
change time by 2π
π then value of π₯ remains unchanged .In other words displacement repeats
itself in a time interval of 2π
π .
The maximum displacement from the mean position is called amplitude. Since maximum
and minimum values of x are respectively +1 and β1 so the maximum and minimum values
are respectively βπ₯π and +π₯π .
π₯π = 2π΅
π2. (1.12)
This is possible if sin(ππ‘ + β
) = 1 or cos(ππ‘ + β
) =1. The number of vibrations completed
in one second is called frequency given by
π = 1
2π π
π. (1.13)
We can get the Velocity of the harmonic oscillator by differentiating the displacement,π£ =dx
dt substituting value of π₯ and then differentiating we get the equation for velocity given by
π£ = βπ₯π π sin(ππ‘ + β
). (1.14)
Substituting the value of sin(ππ‘ + β
) we can get a more precise result for the velocity of
harmonic oscillator
π£ = Β± π₯π π 1 βπ₯2
π₯π 2. (1.15)
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For the relation of acceleration we differentiate the displacement twice and then putting the
value of cos(ππ‘ + β
) =π₯
π₯π we can get more prΓ©cised result for the acceleration of the
harmonic oscillator
π₯ = βπ2π₯. (1.16)
The argument ππ‘ + β
of cosine function is called the phase of the motion. The constant
β
is called the Initial phase. The knowledge of phase constant enables us to find out how far
from mean position the system was at time t=0 e.g. If β
= 0 then
π₯ π‘ = π₯ππππ ππ‘. (1.17)
Figure1-2: Graph of displacement versus time period for SHM.
0 4 8 12 16 20 241
0
1
time
dis
pla
cem
ent
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Figure 1-3: Graph of velocity versus time period for SHM.
Figure 1-4: Graph of acceleration versus time period for SHM.
During simple harmonic motion the total energy of oscillator remains conserved.
As the total energy is the sum of its kinetic energy and the potential energy. But at mean
position the potential energy is equal to zero so we are left only with the kinetic energy and
so the total energy at the mean position is only the kinetic energy. While at the extreme position the kinetic energy of the oscillator is equal to zero so the total energy will be only its
potential energy.
The total mechanical energy of the harmonic oscillator at any instant other then the mean
and the extreme position is partly kinetic and partly potential.
0 4 8 12 16 20 241
0
1
time
vel
oci
ty
0 4 8 12 16 20 241
0
1
time
acce
lera
tion
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Potential energy at any instant is given by U which is given by πΉππ₯π
π. Integrating and then
substituting the value of the displacement π₯ we get the relation for the energy of the harmonic
oscillator at any instant
U=1
2π[π₯π
2 πππ 2 (ππ‘ + β
)]. (1.18)
The maximum value of the potential energy varies with time and as cos(ππ‘ + β
) = 1
So has maximum value of potential energy will be
U=1
2ππ₯π
2. (1.19)
The kinetic energy at any instant is given by K.E=1
2ππ₯ 2, substituting the value of "π₯" and
then simplifying the above equation we can get the precised value for the maximum value of
the kinetic energy at any instant
K.Emax = 1
2π π₯π
2. (1.20)
The total mechanical energy at any instant will be given by adding the maximum value of
kinetic and potential energy at any instant
T.E= 1
2ππ₯π
2 . (1.21)
From equations (1.19) ,(1.20) and (1.21) we find that
P.Emax = K.Emax =T.E.
Figure 1-5: Graph of energy for SHM. The bold curve represents P.E while the dotted
represents the K.E, where K.E and P.E. are the functions of position for SHM.
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1-2-1 Comparison Between Displacement, Velocity And Acceleration
1) When displacement is maximum (βπ₯π πππ + π₯π ) , the velocity π£ =0, because the
oscillator has to return and velocity changes its direction.
2) If displacement is maximum acceleration is also maximum (β π2π₯π ππ + π2π₯π) and is
directed opposite to displacement.
3) When x =0, i.e. when cos(ππ‘ + β
) = 0 the velocity is maximum (ππ₯ ππ β ππ₯) and
acceleration is zero.
Figure 1-6: Comparison b/w graph of displacement, velocity and acceleration versus time
period.
1-3 Vertical Oscillations
Suppose we have a spring with force constant k and suspended from it a body with a mass m.
Case 1: The body hangs at rest in equilibrium. In this position the spring is stretched to an
amount ππ just great enough that the spring's upward vertical force πππ on the body balances
its weight mg,
πππ = ππ (1.22)
Case 2: When the body is displaced below the equilibrium position, and then stretched to an
amount π¦ then the total extension in the spring will be ππ + π¦ and the net force will be:
ππππ = ππ + ππ, (1.23)
0 4 8 12 161
0
1
time
dis
pla
cem
ent
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m
m
m
Figure 1-7: Model for the vertical periodic motion.
Here, ππππ is the net force which is only along π¦-axis and is equal toπΉπ¦π , ππ is the
restoring force of the spring its magnitude will be equal to π ππ + π¦ π and ππ is
gravitational force of the earth equal to the weight of the body ππ(βπ ), by substituting the
values in the above equation and then solving we will get
π¦ +π2π¦ = 0, (1.23)
Here, π = π
π.
Case 3: When the spring is compressed and moved upwards then the extension in the string
is (π¦ β ππ) . ππ is the restoring force of the spring it is equal to π π¦ β ππ (βπ ) and ππ is
gravitational force of the earth equal to the weight of the body ππ(βπ ), by substituting the
values in equation(1.23) then solving we will get ππππ = π (-π ) which then yields
ππ¦ + ππ¦ = 0. (1.24)
1-4 Harmonic Oscillator In 2 Dimensions
Consider the motion of the particle of mass m at any point P as shown in the figure moving
in accordance with the following equation of motion. Net force can be written as
ππππ = ππ, (1.25)
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Here, ππππ is equal to πΉπ₯π +πΉπ¦ π and similarly ππ can be written as πΉππππ ππ + πΉππ ππππ and
then we may also write πΉππππ π equal to ππ₯ππππ ππ similarly πΉππ πππ equal to ππ¦ππ ππππ , then
after comparing coefficients of π and π on both sides we get two equations
P(x,y)
Figure 1-8: Motion in 2-D.
π₯ + ππ₯2π₯ = 0, (1.26)
π¦ + ππ¦2π¦ = 0, (1.27)
We know that ππ₯ has the value equal to ππ₯
π and ππ¦ has the value
ππ¦
π. Then the solutions
of equations (1.26) and (1.27) are respectively given by
π₯ = π₯πcos(ππ₯ π‘ + β
π₯). (1.28)
π¦ = π¦πcos(ππ¦ π‘ + β
π¦). (1.29)
1-5 Harmonic Oscillator In 3 Dimensions
Consider a motion of particle of mass m in space. The net force is given by equation (1.25)
but here, ππππ is equal to πΉπ₯π +πΉπ¦ π + πΉπ§ π and similarly ππ can be written as πΉππππ ππ +
πΉππ ππππ +πΉππ and then we may also write πΉππππ π equal to ππ₯ππππ ππ similarly πΉππ πππ equal
to ππ¦ππ ππππ and πΉππ equal toππ§π§π then after comparing coefficients of π and π on both sides
we get three equations
π₯ + ππ₯2π₯ = 0, (1.30)
π¦ + ππ¦2π₯ = 0, (1.31)
π§ + ππ§2π§ = 0, (1.32)
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We know that ππ₯ has the value equal to ππ₯
π and ππ¦ has the value
ππ¦
π and in the same way
ππ§ has the value ππ§
π after solving the above equations the solutions are given by the
following equations respectively
π₯ = π₯πcos(ππ₯ π‘ + β
π₯). (1.33)
π¦ = π¦πcos(ππ¦ π‘ + β
π¦). (1.34)
π§ = π§πcos(ππ§ π‘ + β
π§). (1.35)
As ππ₯ = ππ¦ = ππ§ then the period of motion is written by
π =2πππ₯
ππ₯=
2πππ¦
ππ¦=
2πππ§
ππ§. (1.36)
If angular frequencies are such that for some set of integers ππ₯ ,ππ¦ πππ ππ§ the angular
frequencies are given by
ππ₯
ππ₯ =
ππ¦
ππ¦=
ππ§
ππ§. (1.37)
The graphs relating the displacement, velocity and acceleration are given below, one point
which we had noticed while plotting these graphs is that one can get confused with the
characteristics of the equations as graphs are made using the equations (1.30), (1.31), (1.32),
(1.33), (1.34) and (1.35) and the thing which is common in these equations is that all of them
are the equations with one variable only but still we can plot and represent them in 3
dimensions. It means one variable equations can be represented in 3 dimensions
Figure 1-9: The displacement of the simple harmonic oscillator represented in 3 Dimensions.
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The above graphic is representing equations (1.33), (1.34) and (1.35) and it shows the
displacement of the simple harmonic oscillator in 3 dimensions. The difference between the
fig (1-2) and fig (1-9) is that the graphic in two dimensions can show us only the two sides of
any graphic, the front or the back while a graphic in 3 dimensions can illustrate us the shape
as well as the area under the curve.
Figure 1-10: The velocity of the simple harmonic oscillator represented in 3 Dimensions.
The above graphic shows the velocity of the simple harmonic oscillator in 3 dimensions
which is given by the equation, βπ₯cos(π π‘ + β
). The difference between the fig (1-3) and
fig (1-10) is that the graphic in two dimensions can show us only the two sides of any
graphic, the front or the back while a graphic in 3 dimensions can illustrate us the shape as
well as the area under the curve.
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Figure 1-11: The acceleration of the simple harmonic oscillator represented in 3 Dimensions.
The above graphic is representing equations (1.30), (1.31) and (1.32) and it shows the
acceleration of the simple harmonic oscillator in 3 dimensions. The difference between the
fig (1-4) and fig (1-11) is that the graphic in two dimensions can show us only the two sides
of any graphic, the front or the back while a graphic in 3 dimensions can illustrate us the
shape as well as the area under the curve.
Figure 1-12: The energy of the simple harmonic oscillator represented in 3 Dimensions.
1-6 Simple Pendulum
A simple pendulum has a point mass suspended from a frictionless support by a light and
inextensible string.When we pull the simple pendulum to one side of equilibrium position and
release it, the pendulum swing in vertical plane under the influence of gravity. The motion is
periodic and oscillatory.
Now let us consider a pendulum of length l and mass m. When pendulum is displaced from
mean to extreme position, let x and π be the linear and angular displacements then the forces
acting on mass m are weight mg and tension in the string. The motion will be along the arc of
the circle with radius l. In equation (1.23) we may write ππ equal to
πππππ π(βπ )+πππ πππ(βπ ) and the tension in the string ππ» equal to π(π ), also we know
that the net force is equal to πΉπ₯π +πΉπ¦ π . Substituting the values and comparing the
coefficients we get
ππ2π₯
ππ‘2 = βπππ πππ, (1.38)
π = πππππ π. (1.39)
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Since along y-axis there is no motion so acceleration is zero. The two components of
restoring force πΉπ are πΉπ1= mg cosΞΈ and πΉπ2=mgsinπ, the component πΉπ1 is balanced by the
tension T in the string so the tangential component of the net force is πΉπ
=βmg sinΞΈ, here
negative sign indicate fo noitcerid ot etisoppo si F taht π, rof simple harmonic motion π
should be very small. So the tangential component of restoring force πΉπ will become equal to
βππΞΈ. Also we have knowledge that for small displacements, the restoring force is
proportional to the displacement and is oppositely directed. Substituting ππ
π= π(ππππ π‘. )
we reach at the final relation for the time period of the simple pendulum
T = 2π π
π. (1.40)
Or
T = 2π π
π . (1.41)
From this expression we might expect that a larger mass would lead a longer period.
However increasing the mass also increases the forces that act on the pendulum: gravity an
tension in the string. This increases k as well as m so the time period of the pendulum is
independent of m.
l
-
O
mgsin
mgcos
T
Figure 1-13: The force on the bob of simple pendulum.
1-7 Physical Pendulum
A rigid body mounted so that it can swings in a vertical plane about some axis passing
through it is called physical pendulum.
A body of irregular shape is pivoted about a frictionless horizontal axis through P the
position is that in which centre of mass C of the body lies vertically below P. The distance
from the pivot to centre of mass is d. The rotational inertia of the body about an axis through
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22
the pivot is I and mass of the body is m. In the displaced position weight mg acts vertically
downward at an angle π with π = (ππrce)Γ (ππππππ‘ πππ) written as
π = πΉ Γ π. (1.42)
Here, F is along y-axis and its magnitude is πππ πππ while the displacement is along x-axis
having magnitude π so π will be along z-axis and is written as ππ§ and is equal to βππππ πππ.
As the restoring torque is proportional to the π πππ. So motion is simple harmonic motion.
Hence, π πππ β π and then we get π = βππππ, negative sign indicates that restoring force is
clockwise when the displacement is counterclockwise and vice versa. The equation of motion
is
ππ§ = πΌπΌπ . (1.43)
dcos
dsin
d
O z
mgsin
mgcos
mg
Figure 1-14: Dynamics of physical pendulum.
Here, πΌπ is the angular acceleration along the ππ§ and is given by π2π
ππ‘2, π is the angular
displacement substituting these values and then by simplifying we get
π = πππ
πΌπ, (1.44)
where π is the angular frequency, d is the distance, π is the angular displacement and πΌ is
the moment of inertia.Also we get the values of the frequency and time period of the physical
pendulum respectively given by
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π =1
2π πππ
πΌ. (1.45)
T= 2π πΌ
πππ. (1.46)
1-8 Springs In Parallel Or Series
When springs are organized in a parallel configuration as shown in figure (1.11) or in
series as shown in figure (1.12) then the springs act as a single spring with an effective spring
constant.
m
Figure 1.11: Springs in parallel.
m
Figure 1-15: Springs in series.
1-8-1-1 Parallel Configuration
When the spring m in fig (1.16) is displaced by amount x, each spring is displaced by
corresponding amounts π₯1 = π₯2 = π₯, the net restoring force applied by the spring is
ππππ = ππ + ππ + ππ΅, (1.47)
ππππ is net force an is equal toπΉπ₯π +πΉπ¦ π , ππ is the restoring force here it is equal to kx and
for parallel configuration k is equal to π1 + π2, ππ is the gravitational force equal to πππ ,
ππ΅ is the normal force equal to ππ . Substituting the values in equation (1.47) and then
putting the value of πΉπ¦ = 0 and πΉπ₯ = βππππ π₯ we get equation (1.6). This equation leads us
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24
to the result that the two springs act as a single spring having ππππ = π1 + π2, where ππππ is
the effective spring constant for parallel configuration of the springs.
m
m
m
Relaxed
Stretched
Compressed
Figure 1-16: Spring in parallel.
1-8-1-2 Variation Of The Parallel Configuration
If π₯ is positive then first spring is stretched and the second is compressed by the same
amount of π₯, then the net force is given by equation (1.47) where, πΉπ is equal to πππ + πππ
and πππ is given by π1π₯1(βπ ) and while πππ is equal to π2π₯2(βπ ), ππis the gravitational
force and is equal to the weight of the body so is given by mg(-π ) and ππ΅ is the normal
force which is given by N(π ) so we can write after simplification
ππ = βππππ π₯. (1.48)
And finally we get equation of motion that is equation (1.6), where, π2 is the angular velocity
and here its value is ππππ
π.
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25
When π₯ is negative then first spring is compressed and the second is stretched by the same
amount π₯ . Thus in such case the net force on the mass is πΉπ₯π +πΉπ¦ π , , ππ is the restoring
force here it is equal to kx and for parallel configuration k is equal to π1 + π2, ππ is the
gravitational force equal to ππ(βπ ), ππ΅ is the normal force equal to ππ also from figure it
is clear that there is no force along the y-axis so it will be equal to zero and we are left with
the net force acting only along the x-axis, after substituting the values and solving we get
π₯ +ππππ
π= 0, (1.49)
It is clear from here that we get the same result that is equation (1.6) with the value of angular
velocity equal to
π = ππππ
π (1.50)
m
m
m
Figure 1-17: A variation of a parallel spring mass-system.
1-8-2 Series Configuration
For this case the springs are arranged in series as shown. If a force F is applied so as to
displace a mass m by an amount x then the first spring is displaced by an amount π₯1 and the
second spring by an amount π₯2 but the total displacement will be, π₯ = π₯1 + π₯2,
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Relaxed
Stretched
Compressed
m
m
m
Figure 1-18: Spring in series.
As we know that for the series configuration
1
ππππ=
1
π1+
1
π2. (1.51)
From here we find the value of ππππ equal to π1 π2
π1+π2 , with the understanding that the hook's
law still applies we can surely write equqtion (1.1) as πΉ = βππππ π₯, Force can be written
equal to ππ₯ , and after solving the equation after substitution we get equaton (1.6) with
π = ππππ
π (1.52)
1-9 Floating Objects (A Bottle In A Bucket)
Case 1: We considered a bottle floating upright in a large bucket of water as shown. In
equilibrium it is submerged to a depth ππ below the surface of water.
The two forces on the bottle are its weight acting downward mg and the upward buoyant
force πππ΄π where π is the density of water and A is the cross sectional area of the bottle and
by archidemes principle we know that the buoyant force is ππ times the volume submerged
which is just Ad.The equilibrium depth ππ is determined by the condition ππ = πππ΄π. The
net force on the bottle in equilibrium condition is given by
ππππ= ππ + ππ , (1.53)
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Figure 1-19: (a) Bottle in equilibrium position. (b) Bottle lying below the equilibrium
position. (c) Bottle lying above the equilibrium position.
Here, ππππ is the net force and is equal to πΉπ₯π +πΉπ¦ π and ππ is the buoyant force and it acts
along y-axis and its magnitude is equal to πππ΄ ππ + π¦ also ππ that is gravitational force
which is equal to the weight of the body is acting in the downward direction given
by ππ(βπ ). After substituting the values and then comparing the coefficients of x and y on
both sides we arrive at the result that as there is no force along x-axis so it will become equal
to zero while comparing the forces along y-axis we get
ππ = πππ΄ππ . (1.54)
Case 2: When the bottle is more dipped in the water up to the depth ππ + π¦ so that it lies
below the equilibrium position, in this case the net force will be given by equation (1.52)
Here, is the net force acting on the bottle in the compressed position and is equal to the πΉπ₯π
+πΉπ¦ π , while ππ is the buoyant's force and is equal to πππ΄ π¦ β ππ (π ) and ππ is the
gravitational force which will be equal to the weight of the bottle and is given by ππ(β π )
put these values in equation (1.52). As there is no force acting along x-axis so it is equal to
zero and we are left only with the y-component of the force given by
πΉπ¦ = πππ΄π¦.
Substituting the value of πΉπ¦ = βππ¦ and then putting ππ =ππ
ππ΄ we get the more prΓ©cised
result
π¦ + π2π¦ = 0, (1.55)
π = π
ππ . (1.56)
F
mg
F
mg(a) (b) (c)
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Case 3:
In this case the large portion of the bottle is outside or above the surface of water as shown
Or we can say this is similar to the compression case, So we have the net force acting on the
bottle in the compressed position and is equal to πΉπ₯π +πΉπ¦ π , while ππ is the buoyant's force
and is equal to πππ΄ π¦ β ππ (π ) and ππ is the gravitational force which will be equal to the
weight of the bottle and is given by ππ(β π ) putting these values in the above
equation.Here there is no force acting along x-axis so it is equal to zero and we are left only
with the y-component of the force given by
πΉπ¦ π = βπππ΄π¦(π ) (1.57)
Substituting the value of πΉπ¦ = ππ¦ and then putting ππ =ππ
ππ΄ we get equation (1.54) with
value of the angular velocity equal to
π = π
ππ . (1.58)
1-10 Tunnel In Earth
We drill a hole through the earth having the radius R and mass M along a diameter and
drop a small ball of mass m down the hole. Here, earth assumed to be a uniform sphere (a
poor assumption).
O
m
R
M
Figure 1-20: A hole through the centre of the earth (assume to be uniform). When an object
is at varying distance y from the centre.
When y> 0 then the net force is ππππ acting on the ball which is along x-axis as well as y-
axis and is given by πΉπ₯π +πΉπ¦ π and ππis the gravitational force and its value is given
byππ(βπ ), so from above relation
ππππ = ππ. (1.59)
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Comparing the x and y components on both sides we get πΉπ¦ = βπΉπ but as there is no force
along the x-axis so it is equal to zero. Also,
Fraction of mass = 4
3ππ¦3
4
3ππ
3
. (1.60)
So we get the fraction of the mass equal to π¦3
π
3 , gravitational force becomes πΉπ = β
πΊπππ¦
π
3.
Putting the value of πΉπ in the above equation and then substituting the value of πΉπ¦ equal to
ππ2π¦
ππ‘2 and simplifying we can get the prΓ©cised result,that is given by
π2π¦
ππ‘2+ π2π¦ = 0, (1.61)
Here,
π = πΊπ
π
2 . (1.62)
The equation (1.61) shows that the motion of the bob in tunnel of earth is an example of
simple harmonic motion.
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REFORMULATIONS OF PROBLEMS USING
LAGRANGIAN TECHNIQUES
2-1 Introduction
Lagrangian mechanics is used as the first alternative to the newtonian mechanics. Using
lagrangian mechanics is sometimes useful instead of newtonian mechanics in the problems
where the equations of newtonian mechanics becomes difficult to solve. In lagrangian
mechanics we begin by defining a quantity called the LAGRANGIAN (L) which is defined
as: The difference between kinetic energy kinetic energy T and potential energy V.
2-2 Horizontal Oscillations
As we know that kinetic energy of the system is
π =1
2 ππ₯ 2. (2.1)
The potential energy is
π =1
2 ππ₯2. (2.2)
The lagrangian L of the system is given by
πΏ = π β π. (2.3)
Substituting the values from equqtions (2.1) and (2.2) in equqtion (2.3) we can get the value
of lagrangian L. Now since the lagrangian equation of the dynamical system is
π
ππ‘ ππΏ
ππ₯ β
ππΏ
ππ₯= 0. (2.4)
2
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31
By substituting the values from equation (2.1) and (2.2) in (2.4) we can get the equation of
motion of simple harmonic oscillator (1.6).
2-3 Vertical Oscillations
To solve the vertical oscillations using lagrangian , first of all we consider the kinetic
energy of the system which can be written as
π =1
2 mπ¦ 2. (2.5)
According to the law of conservation of energy the potential energy is
π =1
2π(π¦ + ππ)2 βπππ¦. (2.6)
We can get the lagrangian L by usimg equations (2.5) and (2.6) in equation (2.3), the
lagrange's equation for the vertical oscillations will be
π
ππ‘ ππΏ
ππ¦ β
ππΏ
ππ¦= 0. (2.7)
After putting the values and then solving we get
π¦ +π2π¦ = 0. (2.8)
2-4 Simple Harmonic Motion In 2 Dimensions
Kinetic energy of system in 2-Dimensions is given by
T=1
2π π 2 + π2π 2 (2.9)
Here, π cosπ-r sinπ is equal to π₯ similarly π sinπ+ r cosπ is equal to π¦ , Potential energy is
given by the relation V = 1
2ππ₯2 +
1
2ππ¦2 and then we can write it as V =
1
2ππ2. The
lagrangian formula after substitution of the values is given by
L=1
2π(π 2+π2π 2) β
1
2ππ2. (2.10)
The lagrangian equation is given by the equation (2.7).After substitution of the values the
final result of the equation of motion in 2-Dimensions
ππ + π2π = 0. (2.11)
2-5 Simple Harmonic Motion In 3 Dimensions
T = 1
2π π₯ 2 + π¦ 2 + π§ 2 . (2.12)
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32
V = 1
2π(π₯2 + π¦2+π§2). (2.13)
Along x-axis the lagrangian equation is given by equation (2.4), after substitution it will
become
ππ₯ + ππ₯=0. (2.14)
Along y-axis the lagrangian equation is given by equation (2.7), after substitution it will
become
ππ¦ + ππ¦=0. (2.15)
Along z-axis the lagrangian equation is written as π
ππ‘(ππΏ
ππ§ )β
ππΏ
ππ§= 0, after substitution it will
become
ππ§ + ππ§=0. (2.16)
2-6 Simple Pendulum
m
O
x
A
CB
l
Figure 2-1: Simple Pendulum.
We choose the angle π made by string of the pendulum with the vertical axis as generalized
coordinates. The kinetic energy of the pendulum bob is
T= 1
2π(ππ) 2, (2.17)
where m is the mass of the bob and l is the length of the pendulum. The potential energy of
the mass is
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33
π = πππ(1βcosπ). (2.18)
Where we take a horizontal plane as the reference level which is passing through the lowest
point of the bob, the lagrangian is given equation by (2.3) and after substituting the values we
get
πΏ =1
2mπ2π 2 β πππ(1 βcosπ). (2.19)
The equation of motion of the mass is given by the lagrang's equation
π
ππ‘ ππΏ
ππ β
ππΏ
ππ= 0, (2.20)
By substituting the values an then differentiating and solving the above equation
π +π2π = 0, (2.21)
Where
π = π
π. (2.22)
2-7 Physical Pendulum
The rotational inertia of the body about an axis through the pivot is I and mass of the body
is M.The kinetic energy of physical pendulum is given by
π =1
2πΌπ 2. (2.23)
dcos
dsin
d
O z
mgsin
mgcos
mg
Figure 2-2: Physical pendulum.
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34
The potential energy of physical pendulum is given by
π = πππ(1β πππ π). (2.24)
The lagrangian L is given by equation (2.3) and after substituting the values we get
πΏ =1
2πΌπ 2 β πππ(1β πππ π) (2.25)
Since lagrangian equation of motion is given by equation (2.20) so after substituting the
values and then solving we get the equation of motion of physical pendulum.
π +π2π = 0, (2.26)
where
π = πππ
πΌ. (2.27)
2-8-1 Parallel Configuration
m
m
m
Relaxed
Stretched
Compressed
Figure 2.3: Springs in parallel.
When the spring m in fig (2.3) is displaced by amount x, each spring is displaced by
corresponding amounts π₯1 = π₯2 = π₯ , the kinetic energy of the spring is
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35
And because we have π₯1 = π₯2 = π₯ so kinetic energy of the system is given by the equqtion
(2.1). The potential energy is given by π =1
2π1π₯1
2 +1
2π2π₯2
2, after simplification we get
π =1
2ππππ π₯
2 (2.28)
The lagrange's equation is given by equqtion (2.3) and then after putting the values we get
πΏ =1
2mπ₯2 β
1
2ππππ π₯
2. (2.29)
The lagrange's equation is given by equation (2.7) after solving we get
ππ₯ + ππππ π₯ = 0. (2.30)
2-8-2 Series Configuration
Relaxed
Stretched
Compressed
m
m
m
Figure 2.4: Springs in series.
For this case the springs are arranged in series as shown. If a force F is applied so as to
displace a mass m by an amount x then the first spring is displaced by an amount π₯1 and the
second spring by an amount π₯2 but the displacement will be π₯ = π₯1 + π₯2 Where π₯1 =πΉ
π1
andπ₯2 =πΉ
π2 the kinetic energy will be
π =1
2ππ₯ 2. (2.31)
While the potential energy is given by
V= πΉ2
2 ππππ =
π₯2ππππ2
2 ππππ=
1
2ππππ π₯
2 (2.32)
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36
As the lagrangian is given by the equation (2.3) and the lagrange's equation is given by
equation (2.7). If π is the angular velocity given by ππππ
π then finally we will get the
equqtion of motion of simple harmonic oscillator that is equation (1.6).
2-9 Floating Object
In order to find the lagrangian for the floating object we have to find the kinetic as well as
the potential energy of the object. The kinetic energy of the floating object is given by
π =1
2ππ¦ 2. (2.33)
According to the law of conservation of energy
V=1
2ππ΄π π¦ + ππ
2 βπππ¦. (2.34)
We can substitute these values in the formula of lagrangian and will get
πΏ =1
2ππ¦ 2 β
1
2ππ΄π π¦ + ππ
2 +πππ¦. (2.35)
The lagrangian equation is given by the equation (2.7). By substituting all the above values
and then simplifying we can get equation of motion of the floating object
π¦ +π
πππ¦ = 0. (2.36)
2-10 Tunnel In Earth
In order to find the lagrangian for the earth, we must know the kinetic and potential energy
of the earth. The kinetic energy of the earth is given by equation (2.5). The potential energy
of the earth can be given by
π =πΊπ (
π¦3
π
3π)
2π¦. (2.37)
And then after simplification we can get πΊππ
2π
3 π¦2.We get after substitution of the values in the
formula of lagrangian we can get
L=1
2ππ¦ 2 β
1
2
πΊππ
π
3 π¦2. (2.38)
The lagrangian equation is given by the equation (2.7).After substituting the values and then
after simplification we can equation (2.8) that is the equation of motion.
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37
REFERANCES:
[1] Javier E. Hasbun, Classical Mechanics, by Jones and Bartlett publishers, USA, 2009.
[2] Hugh D. Young & Roger A. Freedman, University physics with modern physics (12th
edition), Sears And Zemanskyβs edition, by Addison-Wesley publishing company, USA,
2007.
[3] Raymond A. Serway & John W. Jewett, Physics for scientists and engineers (6th
edition),
By Thomson-Brooks/Cole Custom Publishing company, 2003.
[4] Francis W. Sears, University physics (3rd
edition), by Addison - Wesley Press Inc, USA,
2000.
[5] John R. Taylor, Classical Mechanics, by university science books, B. Jane Ellis
South Orange, New Jersey, 2005.
[6] Tai L. Chows, Classical Mechanics, by john wiley & sons Inc. USA, 1995.
[7] Murray R. Spiegel, Schaum's outline of theoretical mechanics with lagrange's equation,
by Hill Education, 1977.
[8] Herbert G. , Charles P. Poole & John L. Safco, Classical Mechanics (3rd
Edition) ,
Addison Wisley, USA, 2002.
[9] David M. , Introduction to classical mechanics edition, Cambridge University Press ,
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[10]Charles K. & Walter D. Knight, Mechanics (2nd
edition), by Tata Mgraw Hill, 1973.
[11] Vernon B. & Marton O. , Classical Mechanics a modern perspective (2nd
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McGraw-Hill College, 1995.
[12] Ronald L. Reese, 1st
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