Truba Group of Institutes, BhopalINDEX1S.NO CONTENTS Page No1
Academic Calender 22 Scheme 33 EX-601 Communication Engineering
(CE) 4-173.1 Syllabus 43.2 Lesson Plan 5-73.3 Points To Ponder
8-123.4 University Question Papers 13-174 EX-602 Control System
(CS)18-384.1 Syllabus 184.2 Lesson Plan 19-214.3 List Of Experiment
224.4 Points To Ponder 23-264.5 Important Questions For
Interviews/Viva 27-284.6 University Question Papers 29-385 EX-603
Switchgear And Protection (S&P) 39-625.1 Syllabus 395.2 Lesson
Plan 40-425.3 List Of Experiment 435.4 Points To Ponder 44-535.5
Important Questions For Interviews/Viva 54-565.6 University
Question Papers 57-626 EX-604 Electronics Instrumentation (EI)
63-796.1 Syllabus 636.2 Lesson Plan 64-676.3 List Of Experiment
686.4 Points To Ponder 69-726.5 Important Questions For
Interviews/Viva 73-746.6 University Question Papers 75-797 EX-605
Energy Conservation And Management (ECM) 80-987.1 Syllabus 807.2
Lesson Plan 81-837.3 Points To Ponder 84-927.4 Important Questions
For Interviews/Viva 93-947.5 University Question Papers 95-98Truba
Group of Institutes, BhopalAcademic Calender1 Registration,
deposition of tution fee 11/1/132 Commencement of classes 15/1/133
Issue of I set of assignment 18/1/134 Submission of I set of
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& submit of result analysis 28/3/1315Intimation to parents for
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attendance of student upto 30 April 2013 1/5/1329 University
Practical,Viva Voice Exam 4/5/1330 University Semester Exam10/5/13
to 31/5/132Truba Group of Institutes, Bhopal3Truba Group of
Institutes, BhopalSyllabus: EX601 COMMUNICATION ENGINEERINGUnit-1.
Fourier series, Fourier Transform and its properties, Probability,
random variables &their moments, their significance,
convolution, autocorrelation, cross Correlation&power spectral
density, Gaussian & Rayleigh probability density Function,
mean, variance & standard deviation, central limit theorem,
voltage & Power decibel scales. Signal Processing : Types of
signal, deterministic &random,periodic & non Periodic,
analog & discrete,energy & power signals, Representation of
sinusoid in different forms & their conversionUnit-2Need of
modulation in a communication system, block schematic of a typical
Communication system.AM modulation system, modulation index,
generation & detection of AMwave, sidebands &power content
inanAMwave, DSB-SC, SSB, their methods of generation
&detection, vestigial side Band modulation, AMtransmitter block
diagram, comparison of various AM system, modulation &
demodulation circuits. Relationship between phase & freq.
modulation, FM wave & its spectrum, phasor diagram of a narrow
band FM signal, wide band FM, methods of generation & detection
of FM, discriminators, pre-emphasis & de-emphasis, Stereophonic
FM broadcasting, FM transmitters.Unit-3 TRF receiver & its
limitations, necessity of heterodyning, super heterodyning
Receivers, IFamplifiers, selectionofintermediatefrequency.
RFamplifiers, detectors, AGC, AVC, FM receivers, AFC.Unit-4Nyquist
sampling theorem, TDM, pulse modulations &PCM, quantization
error, necessity of non linear quantizer, A-law, -law, FSK &
PSK, QPSK, QAM. Source of noise, noise figure, noise bandwidth,
effective noise temperature, performance of AM, FM & digital
system in presence of noise.Unit-5 Satellite system block diagram,
satellite freq. bands, satellite multiple access Format like TDMA,
FDMA, transponders, earth station & satellite eclipses, Link
calculation 4Truba Group of Institutes, BhopalLECTURE
PLANDepartment: Electrical And ElectronicsSession:Jan-Jun 2013Name
of Faculty: Ms Shraddha Sharma Semester: VISubject: Communication
EngineeringSub Code: EX-601Time Schedule : Total expected period
50Extra Periods (if required)- Day Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Max.
AvailableNo. of PeriodLect. No.Contents Date of CompletionReference
(page no.)1.Fourier seriesR2(1)2., Fourier TransformR2(19)3. Its
propertiesR2(35)4. Probability, random variables & their
mometstheir sigificaceR1 (57)R1(60)5. convolution, , auto
correlation R1(30),R2(59)6. , cross Correlation power spectral
density R1 (29),R1(99)7. Gaussian probability density Function
Rayleigh probability density FunctionR1(76,81)8. mean,variance
& standard deviationR1 82()9.central limit theorem, voltage
& Power decibel scales.R1 (87)10. Signal Processing : Types of
signal, deterministic & random, periodic & non
Periodic,R5(3-9)11. analog & discrete, energy & power
signals Representation forms & their conversionof sinusoid in
different form.R 5(3-9)12.Unit Test113. Need of modulation in a
communication system, block schematic of a typicalCommunication
systemR4(3-1_3-6)14. , AM modulation system, modulation
indexR2(245-297)15. ,generation & detection of AM wave, side
bands & R2(245-297)5Truba Group of Institutes, Bhopalpower
content in an AM wave16.DSB-SC, their methods of generation &
detection SSBR2(209) R2(223)17.Vestigial side band
modulationR2(239)18.AM transmitter block diagramR2(275)19.
Comparision of various AM system, Modulation & Demodulation
circuitR2(297)20. Relationship between phase & freq
modulation,FM wave & its spectrumR2(306)21. Phasor diagram of
narrow band FM signal,wideband FM.R2(308)22.Method of generation
and detection of FMR2(337,339)23.discriminators, pre-emphasis &
de-emphasisR2(339,365)24.Stereophonic FM broadcasting, FM
transmitter.R2(325)25.Unit test 226.,. TRF receiver & its
limitationsR2(279)27. necessity of heterodyning, super
heterodyningReceivers, R2(280)28.IF amplifiers, selection of
intermediate frequencyR2(285-287)29.RF amplifiers,
R4(5-23_5-28),30. RF detectors R4(5-23_5-28)31. AGC, AVC
R2(286)32.FM receiversR2(345)33. AFC. R4(6-5_6-6)34.Unit
test335.Nyquist sampling theoremR2 172()36.TDM, , pulse
modulationsR2(207)6Truba Group of Institutes, Bhopal37.&
PCMR2(407)38. quantization error, necessity of non linear quantizer
R2 (409)39.A-law, -law R4(7-47_7-49)40.FSK,R2(430)41.& PSKR2
(432)42.QPSK, QAM. R4(8-23_8-34,8-51_8-55)43. Source of noise,
noise figure, noise bandwidth, effective noise temperature.
R2(166,188,179,183)44. performance of AM,FM & digital system in
presence of noise.R4(10-1_10-34)45.Test 446. Unit-5 Satellite
system block diagram, satellite freq. bandsR4 (529-530)47.satellite
multiple access Format like TDMA,FDMA, ,. R3 (233-243),(223-232)48.
Transponders, earth station & satellite eclipses, R3
(75-79)(107-110)(51-53)49. Link calculation R3 (124-129)50.Unit
test57reference Title Author PublicationR1 Communication System
Taub & Shilling TMHR2 Communication system Singh & Sapre
TMHR3 Satellite Communication T.pratt Wiley India EditionR4
Communication Engineering J.S Katre Tech.Max PublicationR5 Digital
Signal Processing Salivahanan TMHTruba Group of Institutes,
BhopalPoints To PonderUnit-1 Representation of a function f(t) by
the linear combination of element of a closed set of infinite
mutually orthogonal function is known as fourier series. Fourier
Transform is a mathematical tool which enable one to do
frequencydomain analysis of non-periodic signal. Main properties of
fourier transform are-Linearity; Time scaling, Duality, Time
shifting, Frequency Shifting, Area under g(t), Area underX (f),
Differenciation in Time Domain, Integration in Time Domain,
Convolution in Time domain. Convolution in Frequency domain.
Probabilityisdefinedasnumber of possiblefavorableoutcomes bytotal
number of possible equally likely outcomes. P(A)=limNA\N.
Randomvariableisusedtosignify a rule by which a real by which a
real number is assigned to each possible outcome of an experiment
Convolutionisapowerful wayofcharacterizingtheinput-output
relationshipoftime invariant linear system.there are two
convolution theorems one for time domain and one for frequency
domain. Correlation gives a measure of similarity betweentwo data
sequence. In this process two signal sequences are compared and the
degree to which the signal are similar is computed. For two
sequence x(n).and y(n) cross-correlation function rxy(l) is defined
as- rxy(l) = When x(n)=y(n) the cross correlation function becomes
the auto correlation function. Gaussian probability density
function is defined as-f(x)=1/22 e-(x-m)2/22. Rayleigh probability
density function is defined as- f(r)=0r. Central limit theorem
indicates that the probability density of a sum of N independent
random variable tends to approach a Gaussian density as the number
N increases. Signal processing is an area of applied mathematics
that deals with the operation or on
analysisofsignalineitherdiscrete or continuous time to perform
useful operation on those signals.8Truba Group of Institutes,
Bhopal Signalscanbeclassifiedas
ContinuoustimeandDiscretetimesignals, Periodicand Non-periodic
signals, Analog and Digital signals, Real and Complex signals,
Deterministic andRandomsignals, EvenandOddsignals, EnergyandPower
signals.Unit-2 The process by which some characteristics of a
signal called carrier is varied in accordance with instantaneous
value of another signal called modulating signal .signals
containinginformationtobetransmittedarereferredtoas
modulatingsignals. This informationbearingsignal
isalsocalledasbasebandsignal.Thecarrier frequencyis greater than
the modulating frequencies. The signal resulting fromthe process of
modulation is called as modulated signal. Modulation is of two type
Amplitude modulation and Angle modulation. Amplitude modulation is
defined as a system of modulation in which the amplitude of the
carrier is made proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal. There are two device for the generation of AM
wave-Square law modulator ,Switching modulator. Demodulation or
detection is the reverse process of modulation .Which provide a
mean ofrecoveringfromanincomingmodulatedwave an output thatis
proportionaltothe original modulating wave. Two methods are used
for the demodulation of AM signal namely Square law detector and
Envelope detector By multiplying the modulating signal m(t) with a
sinusoidal carrier signal cos ct, we obtain a method for achieving
frequency translation ,which is known as DSB-SC.(Double side band
suppressed carrier)..The modulated signal has c+m and c-m frequency
terms. The two terms mentioned above are known as sidebands,lower
sideband and upper sideband respectively Two methodsof generation
of DSB-SC is balance modulator andswitching modulator and for
detectionsynchronous detection. Transmission bandwidth of standard
AM as well as DSB-SC modulated wave is2W Hz or 2 fm i.e, twice the
bandwidth W. Informationcontained in the USB is exactly identical
to that carried by LSB ,So by transmitting both the sideband we are
transmitting the same information twice. Hence when only one
sideband istransmitted it is referred to as single sideband
suppressed carrier(SSB). Two methods for the generation of SSB
are-Selective filtering method and Phase shift method and for
detection synchronous detection method is used. Vestigial side band
transmission(VSB)-The stringent frequency-response requirements on
the sideband filter in SSB-SC can be relaxed by allowing a part of
theunwantedsidebandtoappear intheoutput of themodulator. Inthis
modulationschemeonesidebandispassedalmost completelywhereasjust a
trace or vestige of the other sideband is retained.9Truba Group of
Institutes, Bhopal Methods for the generation of VSB are Filter
method and Phase discriminator method. Adevice that is capable of
transmitting amplitude modulated wave is in general ,known as
AMtransmitter. AMtransmitter not only performs the
modulationprocess, but alsoraises thepower level of
amodulatedsignal to desired extent for effective radiation. Angle
modulation is the process of varying the total phase angle of a
carrier wave
inaccordancewiththeinstantaneousvalueofthemodulatingsignals,
keeping amplitude of the carrier constant. Angle modulation is of
two type Phase modulation and Frequency modulation.
Modulationindexisthe ratio of the frequency deviation to the
modulation frequencym. Dependingonthevalueof modulationindex,
thefrequency modulation is of two type-Narrow band FM and Wideband
FM. Two methods for the generation of FM are Indirect method and
Direct method. And for demodulation the two methods are Slope
Detector and phase difference detector. Stereo multiplexing is a
type of FDM which is specially designed to transmit two separate
signals via same carrier.Unit-3 TRF stands for tuned radio
frequency. Its the simplest radio receiver which perform the
following function- Interception, Selection, RF amplification,
Detection, Audio Amplification, Reproduction. Theperformance of
receiver is improvedbyaprocess knownas heterodyning. A receiver
based on this process is known as superheterodyne receiver.
Performance of receiver is examined by following
features-Selectivity,Sensitivity,and Fidelity. A
superheterodynereceiverblock diagram consist up of Antenna, RF
amplifier, Local oscillator, Mixer or Detector, IFamplifier,
SecondDetector, AFvoltageandpower amplifier. And Speaker.
Intermediate frequency are tuned voltage amplifier. most of the
receiver gain is provided by IF amplifier. R.F amplifier is a small
signal tuned amplifier with tuned circuit both in the input side
and the output side. A radio receiver alwayshas an RF section which
is a tunable circuit connected to the antenna terminals. Main
advantage of RF amplifier are as follows-1)Greater gain i.e, better
sensitivity.2)Improved signal/noise ratio.3)Improved image
frequency rejection.4)Improved coupling of the receiver to the
antenna.5)Better sensitivity. Automatic gain control or automatic
volume control is an adaptive system found in many electronics
devices. In this the average output signal level is feedback to
adjust the gain to an appropriate level for a range of input signal
level. AGC effectively reduce the volume if the signal is strong
and raises it when it is weaker. It is also called as compressor
expander.10Truba Group of Institutes, Bhopal FM receiver is also
known as superheterodyne receiver. Its operating frequency is
higher than AM receiver, there is need of limiting and de-emphasis
in FM. AFCstands for automatic frequency controller. AFCis a method
toautomatically maintain a tuning of electromagnetic radiation
signal to desired frequency. Unit-4 Nyquist sampling theorem-A
signal whose spectrum is bandlimited to B Hz[G()=0 for || >2B]
can be reconstructed exactly from its samples taken uniformly at a
rate R>2B Hz(samples per second). In other words ,the minimum
sampling frequency is fs=2B Hz . There are four ways to generate
sampled signal these are-Instantaneous sampling, Ideal sampling,
Natural sampling, Flat-top sampling.
AliasingEffect-Whenabandlimited signal is sampled at rate lower
than nyquist rate fo1/2 fm), then periodically repeating F() in the
spectrum of sampled signal overlap with neighbouring ones. The
technique of separating the signal in time is called time division
multiplexing(TDM). The amplitude of aconstant width, constant
positionvariedinproportionwiththe instantaneous magnitude of the
modulating signal is called as pulse amplitude modulation(PAM).
When we represent each quantized level by a code number and
transmit the code number rather thanthe sample valueitself. The
digits of the binary representation of the code
numberaretransmittedaspulses.
ThusthesystemoftransmissionisknownasPulse Code Modulation(PCM).
Quantizationistheprocessofconvertingadiscrete-timecontinuousamplitudesignal
such as sampled version of a analog signal in to discrete-amplitude
discrete-time signal. This is accomplished by approximating the
amplitude of each sample value to the nearest value from a set of
predetermined discrete amplitude levels known as quantization
level. Companding is the process of compressing and then expanding
,to keep signal to noise ratio high. There are two methods of
analog companding In theA-law companding the compressor
characteristic is piecewise ,made up of a linear segment for low
level inputs and a logarithmic segment for high level input.11Truba
Group of Institutes, Bhopal In the -law companding, the compressor
characteristic is continuous. It is approximately linear for
smaller values of input levels and logarithmic for high input
level. ASK(amplitude shift keying) is a form of digital modulation.
FSK(frequency shift keying) is a form of constant-amplitude angle
modulation similar to standardfrequency modulation(FM) expect the
modulating signal is a binary signal that
variesbetweentwodiscretevoltage levels rather than a continuously
changing analog waveform. FSK is also known as BPSK. (PSK)Phase
shift keying is an M- ary digital modulation, with PSK the input is
a binary digital signal and there are a limited number of output
phases possible .Before modulating the carrier ,the input binary
information is encoded into groups of bits . In a group ,the number
of bits ranges from 1 to 12 or more.The number of output phases is
definedbyManddeterminedbythenumber of bitsinthegroup(n).. HereM=2N.
N=Number of bits necessary.M=Number of conditionpossible with N
bits. QPSK(quadrature PSK) is an M-ary encoding scheme where N=2
and M=4.In QPSK , four output phases are possible for a single
carrier frequency. QAMstands forquadrature amplitude modulation .It
is both i.e, an analog and digital modulation scheme. It is a
combination of amplitude modulation and phase shift keying .QAM is
a method of combining two amplitude-modulated signals into a single
channel,thereby doubling the effective bandwidth.
Theundesiredelectrical signalsthat areintroducedwithamessagesignal,
duringthe transmission or reception or processing of the signal is
commonly known as Noise. There are two sources of noise- External
Noise and Internal Noise. Noisefigureisdefinedasthe ratio of the
signal to noise power supplied to theinput terminal of the receiver
or amplifier to the signal to noise power applied to the output
load resistor.Unit-5 Asatellitecommunication is basically an
electronic communication package placed in orbit around theearth.
Theprimeobjectiveof thesatellite is toaidcommunication transmission
from one point on or near earth to another. Basic structure of
satellite communication system consist up ofuser, Terrestrial
system, Earth station and Satellite. Basic block diagramof earth
station consist up of input baseband signal, encoder modulator,
upconverter andhighpower amplifier these all combine andmake the
transmitter side then signal is send to a polarized diplexer and
then to the antenna from whereissendbacktolownoiseamplifier,
downconverter, demodulator anddecoder which is combinely called as
the receiver side and finally we get the output base band signal.
Allocating frequencies to satellite services is a complicated
process .Frequency bands are allocated to various satellite
services. Multiple access is defined as the ability of services to
be accessible by different users. In satellite there are four
domain that can be considered by the user to access the
satellite.12Truba Group of Institutes, Bhopal 1)FDMA-Frequency
division multiple access. where n number of stations on n different
frequency bands can access the satellite.
2).TDMA-Timedivisionmultiple access whereeachstationis
allocatedspecifictime slots to access the satellite may be in same
frequency band. 3)SDMA-Space division multiple access where
different antenna beams or polarization can be used to access the
satellite, resulting in frequency re-use. 4)CDMA-Code division
multiple access, where each station transmits on specific random
codes and access the satellites, resources without interference.
Ina communicationsatellite,atransponder
istheseriesofinterconnectedunitswhich forms a single communication
channel between the receive and transmit antenna.A
transponderconsistupofabandpassfiltertoselect theparticular
channels band of frequencies ,a down converter to change the
frequency from 6ghz input to 4ghz output and an output amplifier.
Transponders are of three types-Single conversion transponder,
Double conversion transponder and Onboard processing transponder.
Inanysatellitesystemcommunication link, earth station is an
essential element which receives and transmit the information to
the satellite network. When the earth comes between the sun and the
satellite. This is called as eclipse of the satellite.
13Truba Group of Institutes, Bhopal
14Truba Group of Institutes, Bhopal15Truba Group of Institutes,
Bhopal16Truba Group of Institutes, Bhopal17Truba Group of
Institutes, Bhopal18Truba Group of Institutes, BhopalSyllabus:
EX602 Control SystemUnit-IModeling of dynamic systems: Electrical,
Mechanical and hydraulic systems, Concept of transfer function,
Simulation of differential equations in analog computer, State
space description of dynamic systems: Open and closed loop systems,
Signal flow graph, Masons formula, Components of control systems:
Error detectors (Synchros & Potentiometer), Servomotors (AC
& DC), techo generators, power amplifier, steeper
motorsUnit-IITime domain analysis of closed loop systems: Test
signals, time response of first and second order systems, Time
domain performance specifications, Steady state error & error
constants Feedback control actions: Proportional, derivative and
integral control. Solution of state quation: Eigen values &
eigenvectors digitalization state transitive matrix, stability
Routh-Hurwit stability analysis.Unit-IICharacteristics equation of
closed loop system root loci, construction of loci, Effect of
adding, poles and Zeros on the loci, Stability by root
loci.Unit-IVFrequency, Domain analysis, Bode plots, Effect of
adding, poles and Zeros, Polar plot, Nyquist stability analysis,
Relative stability : Gain and phase margins.Unit-VFrequency- Domain
compensation : lead lag, Lag-lead compensation, Design of
compensating networks19Truba Group of Institutes, BhopalLECTURE
PLANDepartment: EX Session:JAN-JULY 2013Name of Faculty: R.S.MEENA
Semester: VISubject: CONTROL SYTEMSub Code: EX-602Time Schedule :
Total expected period Extra Periods (if required)-50 Day Mon Tue
Wed Thu Fri Sat Max. Available No. of Period 1 1 1 1 1
-S.NO.Lecture no.ContentsDate of Completion ReferencesUNIT I11.1)
Introduction to the Control SystemBasic control
system,terminology,open loop, closed loop system, feed forward
& feed backward control, digital control, multivariable control
system, Non- linear controlsystem, Laplace transformation,
Practical Examples.R2:-1-9R4:-1-16, 20-21;30-3822-3.Modeling
Technique for Physical System-Different modeling technique for
physical system like Electrical, Mechanical etc.
R1:-22-34R2:-71-7734.Linear approximations ofphysical system, the
transfer function of linear system,R4:- 41-5945-7 Block diagram
algebra , unsolved & solved examplesR2:- 31-53 NG 57-6958-9
Singleflow graph solved & unsolved examples R2:-
31-53,54-70610-11Control System Components & their Mathematical
Modeling- Servo motor ac/dc, synchros, R1:- 52-61,124-131,138-144
R2:-85-106 R4:-118-20Truba Group of Institutes, BhopalA/D
converters, pneumatic devices for control, hydraulic devices for
controls , Seminar on this topics125, 190-198, 209-122UNIT
II712-16Time Response Studies-Test I /P signals, Time Response of
I, II & higher order systems,R1: 184-201 R2:- 132-155R4:- 251
270817-18Performance specifications of II order system.R1:- 184-201
R2:- 132-155R4:- 251-270919-20Need for compensation for II order
system, control action PI, PD, PID, solved / unsolved examplesR1:-
208-213R2:- 178-193 R4:- 183-1881021-22Relation between state space
& transfer function, solution of state equationsR2:-
393-423R4:- 651123stabilityRouth-Hurwit stability analysis. R2:-
227-232UNIT- III1223Time Domain Stability AnalysisConcept of
stability,stability range, Relative stability. R1:- 251-270R2:-
227-232 R3:- 334-343 R4:- 367-374, 385-3871324-25Characteristics
equation of closed loop system root lociR9:- 392-3931426-29
construction of loci R9:393-3961530Effect of adding, poles and
Zeros on the loci, Stability by root loci.R9:397-398UNIT-
IV1631-32Frequency Domain Analysis &Stability Analysis
Correlation between time response & Frequency response,
performance specifications.R1:- 327-333R2:- 317-3191733-34Polar
plot, Stability analysis using Polar plot. R1:- 334-338R4:-432
-44621Truba Group of Institutes, Bhopal1835-38Bode plot,
determination of system having function from
plotR2:-287-317R3:-557-5691938-42Fundamentals of Nyquist plot,
complete plot aspectsSolved / unsolved examplesR1:-
361-373;375-382UNIT- V2041-42 Compensation definition & types
R2:- 370-3902144-46Derivation for Lag, lead, lag-Lead
CompensatorR9:630-6402246-50 Design of Feedback Control System
Approaches to system design. Design of compensation in frequency
domain.R4:-536- 539 ;555-561 ;570-574; 589-592References Book
:ReferencesTitle Author PublicationR1 Control system
EngineeringI.J. Nagrath and M. Gopal,New Age InternationalR2 Modern
Control EngineeringK. Ogata PHI.R3 Automatic Control systems B.C.
Kuo PHIR4 Control System Gopal M., TMH.R5 Design of feed back
control SystemsStefani, Shahian Oxford.R6 System Design through
MATLAB control tool & SimulinkStringer Verlag, U.KU.K.R7
Getting Started with MATLABRudraPratap, Oxford.R8 Modern Control
Systems Roy Chaudhary PHIR9 Control System Norman S. NiseJohn Wiley
& Sons22Truba Group of Institutes, BhopalList of Experiments
State space model for classical transfer function using MATLAB.
Simulation of transfer function using operational amplifier. Design
problem: Compensating Networks of lead and lag. Temperature
controller using PID. Transfer function of a DC generator.
Characteristics of AC servomotor. Use of MATLAB for root loci and
Bode plots of type-1, type-2 systems. Study of analog computer and
simulation of 1st order and 2nd order dynamic equations.
Formulation of proportional control on 1st order and 2nd order
dynamic systems. Feed back control of 3rd order dynamic Systems
Study of lead and lag compensating networks. Effect of adding poles
& zeros on root loci and bode plots of type-1, type-2 systems
through MATLAB. Time response of second order system.
Characteristics of Synchros. Effect of feedback on servomotors.
Determination of transfer function of A-C servomotor Determination
of transfer function of D-C motor. Formulation of PI & PD
controller and study of closed loop responses of 1st and 2nd order
dynamic systems.23Truba Group of Institutes, BhopalPOINTS TO
PONDERUNIT -IIntroduction of Control System:Control systems are an
integral part of modern society. Numerous applications are all
around us: Therocketsfire, andthespaceshuttleliftsoff toearthorbit;
insplashingcoolingwater, a metallic part is automatically machined;
a self-guided vehicle delivering material to workstations in an
aerospace assembly plant glides along the floor seeking its
destination. These are just a few examples of theautomatically
controlled systems that we can create. We are not the only creators
of automatically controlled systems; these systems.Control System
Definitions:Control System:A control system consists of subsystems
and processes (or plants) assembled for the purpose of obtaining a
desired output with desired performance, given a specified
input.Open loop System: a system in which the control action is
totally independent of the output of the system s called as open
loop system.Closed loop system:a system in which the control action
is somehow dependent of the output ofthe system s called as closed
loop system.Transfer Function: The ratio of the Laplace transform
of the output response to the Laplace transform input
response.BlockDiagram:Block diagramis the pictorial representation
of the cause and effect relationship between input and output of
the control system.Signalflowgraph:itisadiagramthat representsaset
ofsimultaneouslinear algebraic equations. It consists of network in
which nodes are an nested by directed branches. Each node
representsasystemvariableandeachbranchconnectedbetweentwonodesactsasasignal
multiplier. Signal flow in analysis direction. 24L1KTruba Group of
Institutes, BhopalMixed node: When branch has incoming &
outdoing direction is called mixed node To determine the input
output relationship up use masons formula Kk pk1Mathematical
Modeling of Physical System:1. Mass (m) :F= md2x(t)/d2t x(t) f(t)
friction=02. Linear springF= Kx(t) F(t) x3. Friction
F=bdx(t)/dtF(t) UNIT 2 Time Response AnalysisTime Response Analysis
of control system: DefinitionThe Response given by the system which
is function of the time to the applied excitation is called time
response of a control system.Transient Response:- The output
variation during the time it takes to achieve its final value is
called as transient response. Steady state response:- It is
response of the system as time approaches from the time at which
transient response completely dies out.25Truba Group of Institutes,
BhopalStandard input signals:. 1. Unit step function also called
displacement function.1) Unit ramp function also called velocity
function2) Unit parabolic function also called acceleration
function3) Unit impulse function.Time response of first order
control system Subjected to unit step input function:Output c(t) =
1-( )11]1
,_
+ 21 221tan 1 sin1t nentState space analysis:Moderncontrol
theoryiscontrastedwith conventional controltheory inthatthe from
applicable to multi input multi output system which may be linear
or nonlinear time invariant or time varying, while the letter is
applicable only to linear time invariant single input single output
sosystem. Moderncontrol theoryisessentiallyatimedomainapproach,
whileconventional control theory is a complex frequency domain
approach.State:stateofthesystemi.edynamicbehaviorofthesystem.
Initial conditionsdescribethe status or state of the system at t=
to.State variable: The smallest set of the variables which
determine the state of the dynamic system are called state
variables,State vectors: The a state vector is a vector that
determines uniquely the system state x(t) for any time tto once the
state at t= to is given & the input u(t) for tto is specified.
State space: The n- dimensional state variables are elements of n-
dimensional space called state space. Any state can be represented
by a point in the state space.Sate space representationX = AX+BU -
state space equationY = CX +DU - output equation TransferMatrix :
The matrix relating Laplace transform of output to Laplace
transform of input of state space representation of a control
system is known as transfer matrix. Y(s) / X(s) = G (s)= C (SI-A)-1
B + DEigen values(I -A)=0Solution of I-A=0 gives roots of
characteristics equation & called eigen values of given system.
UNIT 3 Stability analysisStability Control system:The concept of
Stability is very important to analyze and design the system. A
system is said to be stable if its response cannot be made to
increase indefinitely by the application of a bounded input
excitation. If the output approaches towards infinite value for
sufficiently large time, the system said to be Unstable.
RouthHorwitzs criterion for stability analysis of control
system:26Truba Group of Institutes, BhopalFor the stability of the
system it is necessary & sufficient that each term of first
column of Routh Array of the characteristic equation be positiveif
a0> 0 , if this condition is not met the system is unstable
& no of sign changes of the terms of the first column of the
Routh Arraycorresponds to the no of roots of the characteristics
equation in the right half of s plane. Root Locus:It is a technique
for finding the roots of the characteristics equation provides a
graphical method of plotting the locus of the roots in the s-plane
as a given system parameter is varied over the complete range of
values.The root locus also provides a measure of sensitivity of
roots to the variation in the parameter being considered. This
technique is applicable for single as well as multiple loop
system.UNIT 4FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSISBodePlot:ABodeplot consistsof
twographs: oneis aplot of thelogarithmof the magnitude of a
sinusoidal transfer function; the other is a plot of the phase
angle; both are plotted against thefrequencyinlogarithmicscale.
ByusingBodePlotdeterminetheGainMargin, Phase Margin, Gain crossover
frequency, Phase Crossover frequency and Stability of the
system.Nyquist Stability Criteria:The Nyquist stability is a
graphical procedure for determining absolute and relative stability
of closed loop system based on the frequency response
method.TheNyquist procedureisbasedatheoryof Complexvariables
duetoCaochy, Commonly known as principle of arguments. UNIT
5COMPENSATIONCompensation:If the performance of a control system is
not good as per desired specification then some changes in the
control system must be made in order to get the desired
performance. The performance of a control system may be described
in terms if the frequency or in term of the time domain.This can be
obtained by applying compensation technique.Types of compensation
technique:1. Cascade or SeriesCompensation 2. Feedbackor
ParallelCompensation 3. Series and Parallel Compensation
Compensating Networks: There are three types of Compensating
Networks.1. Lag Network2. Lead Network 3. Lag-Lead NetworkMATLAB
has a rich collection of functions which are useful to control
engineers. The control system toolbox is built on the MATLAB
platform. The toolbox is generally written as M files 27Truba Group
of Institutes, Bhopalwhich implements control system design,
analysis & modeling techniques. A control system can be modeled
as a transfer function pole zero gain, or state space form.
Continuous time & discrete time systems can be modeled. Time
response, frequency response and root locus can be
graphed.INTERVIEW QUESTIONUNIT IQ, 1.Definethe control system and
control action.Q. 2.Define open loop and closed loop system. Q.3.
Give the example of open loop and closed loop system.Q.4. What are
the advantages and disadvantages ofopen loop system?Q.5. Give the
advantages and disadvantages ofclosed loop system.Q,6. Define the
transfer function,Q.7. Define the poles and zeros of the transfer
function.Q.8 What is understand by Block Diagram in control
system?Q,9 Define the signal flow graph in the control system.Q.10
Explain the mechanical modeling of the system.Q.11. Name the two
types of electrical analogies for the mechanical system with
explanation.Q. 12 compare the translational motion androtational
motion.Q, 13. What is Masons Gain Formula ?Q,14 Define the
characteristic equation for transfer function.Q.15 What is the
effect of feedback on stability in the control system?UNIT IIQ.1
Define the Time Response.Q.2 Explain the transient and steady state
time response, Q.3.Give the test input signals for transient
response,Q.4 Define damping ratio andd damping frequency for time
response.Q.5 Define the order and type of the system.Q.6 Define the
delay time, rise time and peak time for time response.Q.7What is
time domain specification?Q.8 What do mean by time constant? What
is the Effect of feedback on time constant?Q.9 What do mean by
steady state error in the time response?Q. 10 DefineError
Coefficients.Q. 11 Define the sensitivity of the control
system.Q.12 Explain the PI,PD. PID controller for the control
system.Q, 13 Define the state space analysis of control system.Q.14
What are advantagesState Space Analysis technique?Q. 15Explain the
controllability and observability for the control system.28Truba
Group of Institutes, BhopalUNIT IIIQ.1 Define the Stability for the
control system. Q.2 Explain the absolute and relative stability of
the system.Q.3.State Routh Hurwitz Criterion.Q.4 Define the
marginal stable system.Q,5 Define the Root locus.Q,6 Define the
Break away point and centroid of the root loci.Q.7 What do mean by
Angle of Asymptotes?Q.8 Explain the angle of departure and angle of
arrival for root loci.Q.9 Explain the effect of adding poles and
zeros on root locus,Q. 10 Give the limitation of Routh Hurwitz
Criterion.UNIT IVQ.1 Define the frequency domain analysis.Q.2 What
are the advantages of frequency domain analysis?Q.3. What is Polar
Plot? Q.4 Define the Nyquist Plot?Q, 5 What is Bode Plot?Q6 Define
the resonant peak, resonant frequency and bandwidth for bode
plot.Q.7 Define Gain Margin and Phase Margin for Polar Plot /
Nyquist Plot.Q 8.Define Gain Margin and Phase Margin for Bode
Plot.Q.9 Define the phase crossover and Gain crossover Frequency
for Polar plot.Q.10 Define the phase crossover and Gain crossover
Frequency for Bode plot. .UNIT VQ. 1. What do mean by Compensation
in the control system?Q. 2 Whatare the type of Compensation.Q. 3.
Describe the lag, lead and lag-lead Compensating Networks.Q. 4
Describe the effect of Phase lag Network on the control
system.Q,5.Describe the effect of Phase lead Network on the control
system.Q.6 Describe the effect of Phase lag-lead Network on the
control system.29Truba Group of Institutes, Bhopal30Truba Group of
Institutes, Bhopal31Truba Group of Institutes, Bhopal32Truba Group
of Institutes, Bhopal33Truba Group of Institutes, Bhopal34Truba
Group of Institutes, Bhopal35Truba Group of Institutes,
Bhopal36Truba Group of Institutes, Bhopal37Truba Group of
Institutes, Bhopal38Truba Group of Institutes, Bhopal39Truba Group
of Institutes, Bhopal40Truba Group of Institutes, BhopalEX- 603
Switchgear & ProtectionUNIT-I Fault AnalysisFault Analysis per
unit, representation and its advantages, faults in power systems
(Symmetrical &Unsymmetrical), Singlelineandequivalent
impendencediagramrepresentationof power systemcomponents.
Symmetrical components and its application to power systems, fault
analysis, Sequence networks and their interconnection for different
types of faults, Effect of fault impedance, Current limiting
reactors, its location and application, Short circuit
calculation.Unit-II Protective RelaysRequirement of relays, Primary
& backup protection, Desirable qualities of relays, Concept of
Pickup, reset &drop-off, Dropoff/ Pickupratio,
inversetime&definitetimecharterstics, Attracted armature,
Balanced Beam, Induction disc, Induction cup, Moving coil &
moving Iron, Rectifier , Thermal, Bimetal directional relay,
Frequency, DC, all ornothingrelays. Pilot & negative sequence,
Over current, Over Voltage, Directional, Differential and Distance
relays, R-Xdiagram,
Impedancemho&reactancerelay.Introductionofstaticanalog&digital
relays, Classification of static relays.Unit-III Circuit
BreakersElementary principle of arc quenching, recovery &
re-striking voltage, arc quenching devices, description and
operation of Bulk oil, Minimum oil, Air break, Air blast, SF6,
Vacuum circuit breakers and DC circuit breakers, their comparative
merits, LT Switch gear, HRC fuses, current
limitingreactor.&theirdesignfeatures,influence of reactors in
CB ratings Testing of circuit breaker, Description of a simple
testing station, direct & indirect testing.Unit-IV System
ProtectionProtection of Generators - Earth Fault, percentage,
differential, Loss of excitation, Prime mover failure, Over
current, Turntoturnfault, Negativephasesequence, heating,
Reversepower protection schemesProtection of TransformersInternal
&external fault protection, Differential, Earth fault, Over
Current, Overheating, Protection schemes, Protection of
transmission lines, Over current, Distance and carrier current
protection schemes.Unit-VSurge Protection & insulation
co-ordinationSwitchingsurges, PhenomenaofLightning,
overvoltageduetolightning, Protectionagainst lightning, Lightning
arrestors, selection of lightning arrestors, Surge absorbers and
diverters, Rod gap, Horn gap expulsion type& valve type
lightning arrestors, solid resistance and reactance earthing, Arc
suppression coil, Earthing transformers, Earthwires, Earthing of
appliances, insulation co-ordination, Definitions determination of
line insulation, insulation level of substation equipment,
co-ordination amongst items of substation equipment.41Truba Group
of Institutes, BhopalLesson PlanDepartment: Electrical &
ElectronicsSession:Jan-2013Name of Faculty: Priyank Nema Semester:
SixSubject: Switchgear and protectionSub Code: EX-603Time Schedule
: Total expected period 50 Extra Periods (if required)- Day Mon Tue
Wed Thu Fri Sat Max. AvailableNo. of PeriodLect. Lecture to be
Covered Reference book with page no. Date of completionUNIT I1
Fault Analysis per unit R1 (9-11)2 Per unit representation and its
advantages R1 (9-11)3 Faults in power systems(Symmetrical &
unsymmetrical)R1 (308-325)4Single line and equivalent impendence
diagram Representation of power system componentsR1 (332-333)5
Symmetrical components and its application to power systemsR1
(298-305)6 Fault analysis R1 (308-325)8 Sequence networks and their
interconnection for different types of faultsR1 (310-312)9, Effect
of fault impedance R1 (325-329)10 Current limiting reactors, its
location and applicationR1 (338-340)11 Short circuit calculation R1
(340)12 Numerical problems and queries R1 (342-353)Unit II13
Requirement of relays R1 (358)42Truba Group of Institutes, Bhopal14
Primary & backup protection, Desirable qualities of relaysR1
(359-361)15 Concept of Pickup, reset & drop-off, Drop off/
Pickup ratio, inverse time & definite time charters ticsR1
(359-361)16 Attracted armature, Balanced Beam, Induction disc,
Induction cup,R1 (361-364)17 Moving coil & moving Iron R1
(361-364)18 Rectifier , Thermal, Bimetal directional relay R1
(366-369)19 Frequency, DC, all or nothing relays R1 (366-369)20
Pilot & negative sequence, Over current, Over VoltageR1
(364-366)21 Directional, Differential and Distance relays R1
(366-374,377-381)22 R-X diagram, Impedance mho & reactance
relay R1 (370-374)23 Introduction of static analog & digital
relays R1 (428,453)24 Classification of static relays R1
(439-450)UNIT III25 Elementary principle of arc quenching R1
(480)26 Recovery & re-striking voltage, arc quenching DevicesR1
(482-485)27 Description and operation of Bulk oil, Minimum oil R1
(488-492)28 Air break, Air blast, R1 (494-496)29 SF6, Vacuum
circuit breakers and DC circuit breakers, their comparative
merits,R1 (496-502)30 LT Switch gear, HRC fuses, R1 (461) 31
Current limiting reactor & influence of reactors in CB
ratingsR1 (338-340)32 Testing of circuit breaker R1 (505-507)UNIT
IV33 Protection of Generators - Earth Fault, percentage,
differentialR1 (392,397-398)34 Loss of excitation, Prime mover
failure R1 39543Truba Group of Institutes, Bhopal35 Over current,
Turn to turn fault, R1 (394-397)36 Negative phase sequence,
Heating, Reverse power protection schemesR1 (393)37 Internal &
external fault protection R1 (407-408)38 Differential, Earth fault,
Over Current R1 (401-403)39 Over Heating, Protection schemes,
Protection of transmission linesR2 (543-544)40 Over current,
Distance And carrier current protection schemes.R1
(410-413)References Title Author PublicationR1 Electrical power
system CL Wadhwa, ,. New age internationalR2 principles of power
system V.K. Mehta and Rohit MehtaS.ChandList of Experiments:44Truba
Group of Institutes, Bhopal1. Determination of drop out factor of
an instantaneous over current relay.2. Determination of operating
characteristic of IDMT relay.3. Determination of operating
characteristic of differential relay.4. Study and operation of gas
actuated protective relay.5. Study and operation of static over
current relay.6. Determination of transmission line parameters
using MATLAB.7. Analysis of power system faults (Symmetrical &
Asymmetrical) using MATLAB.8. Study of SF6 circuit breaker9.
Protectional simulation study of generator, Transformer, Feeder
& Motor protection.POINTS OF PONDERSUnit-IFault Analysis45Truba
Group of Institutes, BhopalSymmetrical component: method of
symmetrical coordinates applied to solution of poly phase network
showed thatunbalanced system of n related phases can be represented
in terms of n systems of balance phases called symmetrical
component. 1. Positive sequence 2. Negative sequence3. Zero
sequenceSequenceimpedance:positivesequenceimpedanceofacircuit
isimpedanceofferedbythe circuit to the flow of positive sequence
current only. Negative sequence impedance of a circuit is a
impedance offered by the circuit to the flow of negative sequence
currents only .zero sequence impedance of a circuit is impedance
offered by the circuit to the flow of zero sequence current
only.
Sequence network: single phase equivalent circuit composed of
the impendences to current of
anyonesequenceonlyiscalledthesequencenetworkfortheparticular
sequence. Sequence networkincludes anygeneratedemf of
thelikesequence. Sequencenetworks carryingthe currents ia1,ia2,ia0
are interconnected to represent various unbalanced condition .Fault
calculation:generally fault can be classified as 1. Shunt fault
(short circuit):these faults are characterised by increase in
current and fall in voltage in the faulted phases and also
frequency fall. shunt type faults are classified asA. Line to
ground faultB.Line to line fault C.Double line to line faultThese
are unsymmetrical faults46Truba Group of Institutes, Bhopal2.
Series faults(open conductor):A. One open conductorB. Two open
conductor series faultsLinetogroundfault :ashort circuit
betweenonelineandground, veryoftencausedby physical contact, for
example due to lightning or other storm damage.
Line to Line fault: a short circuit between lines, caused by
ionization of air, or when lines come into physical contact, for
example due to a broken insulator.
47Truba Group of Institutes, Bhopal Double Line to ground fault:
two lines come into contact with the ground (and each other), also
commonly due to storm damage.
Current limiting reactors: fault current is limited by the
system reactance , which includes the impedance of the generators ,
transformer , lines ,and other components of the system .Location
of reactor: current limiting reactors may be connected 1. in series
with each generator 2. in series with each feeder 3. between bus
bar sections Unit IIProtective RelaysRequirement of relay: the
detection of a fault and disconnection of a faulty section or
apparatus can be achieved by using relaying conjunction with
circuit breaker.Primary protection: Is the protection in which the
fault occurring in a line will be cleared by its own relay and
circuit breaker. It serves as the first line of defense.Back up
protection: Is the second line of defense, which operates if the
primary protection fails to activate within a definite time
delayDesirable quantity of relay:1. Selectivity2. Speed 48Truba
Group of Institutes, Bhopal3. Sensitivity4. Reliability5.
Simplicity6. economyPickup level: the value of the actuating
quantity (current or voltage) which is on the threshold (border)
above which relay operates.Reset level:the value of current or
voltage below which a relay opens its contacts and comes to
original position.Operating time:the time which elapses between the
instant when the actuating quantity exceed the pickup value to the
instant when the relay contacts closed.Plug setting multiplier: it
is the ratio of fault current in relay coil to the pickup
current.Timesettingmultiplier:arelayisgenerallyprovidedwithcontrolledtoadjust
thetimeof operation this adjustment is known as time setting
multiplier.Inverse time & definite time charters tics: is one
in which the operating time is approximately
inverselyproportionallytothe fault current near pickupvalue
andbecome substantially constant slightly above the pickup value of
the relay.Electromagnetic attraction relays:electromagnetic
attraction relay operates by virtueof an armature being attracted
to the poles of an electromagnet such relays may be actuated by dc
or ac quantity. These are two types:1. Attracted armature type
relay2. Balanced beam typeInduction relay:electromagnetic induction
relays operate on the principle of induction motor and are widely
used for protective relaying purpose involving ac quantities these
are generally two types.1. Induction disc 2. Induction cupOver
current relay:this relay operates when the value of current exceed
pre specified value. these are five types.1. Instantaneous over
current relay2. Inverse time current relay3. IDMT over current
relay4. Very inverse relay5. Extremely inverse relayOver voltage
relay:this relay operate when the value of voltage exceed pre
specified value.49Truba Group of Institutes, BhopalDirectional
overcurrent relay:it operates ontheassumptionthat onoccurrenceof
fault direction of the current gets reversed and due to these
directional unit classes contacts of over current relay and circuit
breaker is tripped.Distance relay: there is another group of relays
in which the operation is governed by the ratio of the applied
voltage to current in protected circuit such relay is called
distance relay .these are three types1. Impedance relay2. Reactance
relay3. Mho relayDifferential relay: the differential relay is one
that operates when the vector difference of two or more similar
electrical quantities exceeds a predetermined value.Static
relay:the term static relay refers to a relay which incorporates
solid states components like transistors, diodes, etc .for the
measurements or comparison of electrical quantities.
Unit IIICircuit BreakersArc phenomena:when electron generated ,
due to field emission or due to thermal emission, collide with
other gasmolecule more electrons are generated and this sustainsthe
arc increase in mean free path facilitates ionization so if density
of gas is less is less , more electrons will be liberated . When
temperature of gas reaches a very high value it increases chances
of ionization and at this stage thermal ionization becomes main
source to maintain arc.Recovery voltage: the power frequency r.m.s
voltage that appears across the breaker contacts after transient
oscillations die out and final extinction of arc has resulted in
all poles is called the recovery voltage.Restriking voltage:the
resultant transient voltage which appears across the breaker
contacts at the instant of arc extinction is known as the
restriking voltage.Types of circuit breaker:1. Oil circuit
breakersA. Bulk oil circuit breakersB. Minimum oil circuit
breakers2. Air blast circuit breaker3. Sulphur hexa fluoride
circuit breaker4. Vacuum circuit breakerOil circuit breaker: oil is
an excellent quenching medium its dielectric strength is much
higher thanair.Arc when producedin oil, decomposes the oil and
loose its energy so oil is a good coolingmedium. Gas
formedduetodecompositionof oil frombreaker spaceandnewoil replaces
it .in this way dielectric strength of breaker gap is easily
restored oil is a good insulator also.50Truba Group of Institutes,
BhopalMinimum oil circuit breaker:the quantity of oil required to
quench on arc is small (10%) as compared to total oil in bulk oil
circuit breaker.Air blast circuit breaker:arc quenching in oil
circuit breakers take place due to formation of hydrogen, in place
of hydrogen if air is used then it becomes air blast circuit
breaker. Air is used at high pressure. Types of air blast circuit
breaker:1. Cross blast circuit breaker2. Axial blast circuit
breakerVacuum circuit breaker: mean free path of electrons and
particles is order of few meters in a vacuum of the order of 10-4
to 10-6 torr. in vacuum arc the natural atom, ions and electrons do
not
comefromthemediuminwhichthearcisdrawnbuttheyareobtainedfromtheelectrodes
themselves by evaporating its surface material dielectric strength
of vacuum is a thousand time more than when ges is used as
interrupting medium.Sulphurhexafluoride(SF6), circuit
breaker:SF6has highelectronaffinitywhenafree electron collides with
SF6 molecule it gets attached to it. When an electron gets attached
to SF6 moleculeheavynegative ionsareformed which cannot move with
speed required to produce ionization in the gas. In this way SF6
absorbs electrons which may forms electron avalanche. SF6 also has
low gaseous viscosity which combined with high molecular Wight
enable it to transfer heat by convection more effectively. In this
way SF6 is very effective arc quenching medium.DC circuit breaker:
with the latest developments in HVDC transmission there would
naturally be the necessity of the HVDC circuit breaker. These are
two types.1. Light duty DC air break circuit breakers2. High speed
DC air break circuit breakerHRCfuses:fuse is a simplest current
interrupting device for protection fromexcessive currents .as such,
it is used for overload and short circuit protection in medium
voltage (up to 33KV) and low voltage (up to 400V) installations.
Modern high rupturing capacity fuses (HRC) provide a reliable
discriminations and accurate characteristics. In some respects HRC
fuses are superior to circuit breaker.Testing of circuit breaker:1.
Short circuit tests:A. Making capacity testB. Breaking capacity
testC. Short time current teatD. Operating duty test2. Dielectric
test:A. Power frequency test:I. One minute dry withstand
test51Truba Group of Institutes, BhopalII. One minute wet withstand
testB. Impulse voltage dry withstand test3. Thermal test4.
Mechanical testUnit IVSystem Protection Protection of alternator:
some of the important faults which may occur on an alternator1.
Failure of prime mover2. Failure of field3. Over current4. Over
speed5. Over voltage6. Unbalanced loading7. Stator winding faults1.
Failure of prime mover: when input to the prime mover fails the
alternator runs as a synchronous motor and draws some current from
the supply system.2. Failure of field: the chances of field failure
of alternator are undoubtedly very rare. Even if it does occurs, no
immediate damage will be caused by permitting the alternator to run
without a field for a short period.3. Over current: it occurs
mainly due to partial breakdown of winding insulation or due to
over load on the supply system. 4. Over speed: the chief cause of
over speedis the sudden loss ofall or the major part of load on the
alternator.5. Over voltage:the field excitation system of modern
alternators is so designed that over voltage conditions at normal
running speeds can not occur.52Truba Group of Institutes, Bhopal6.
Unbalanced loading: unbalanced loading means that there are
different phase currents in the alternator.7. Stator winding
faults: these faults occur mainly due to the insulation failure of
the stator winding. these faults are three types:A. Fault between
phase and groundB. Fault between phasesC. Inter turn fault
involving turns of the same phase windingDifferential
protectionofalternators:themost commonsystemusedfortheprotectionof
stator winding faults employs circulating current principle. In
this scheme of protection, currents at the two ends of the
protected section are compared. Under normal operating conditions,
these currents are equal but may become unequal on the occurrence
of a fault in the protected section. The difference of the currents
under fault condition is arranged to pass through the operating
coil of the relay. The relay then closes its contacts to isolate
protected section from the system. This form of protection is also
known as merz price circulating current scheme.Balanced earth fault
protection: it consists of three line current transformer s, one
mounted in each phase, having their secondarys connected in
parallel with that of a single current
transformerintheconductorjoiningthestarpoint
oftheofthealternatortoearth. relayis connected acrss the
transformer secondarys. The protection against earth fault is
limited to the region between the neutral and the line current
transformers.Stators inter turn protection:merz price circulating
current system protects against phase to ground and phase to phase
fault. It does not protect against turn to turn fault on the same
phase winding of the stator. For it we use stator inter turn
protection. Protection of transformer: transformer is need to
protected against short circuit and overheating. For transformer
havinglowKVAratingover current relays are usedbut for transformer
with large MVA ratings differential protection is used.Common
transformer faults: 1. Open circuit2. Overheating3. Winding short
circuit i.e. earth faults, phase to phase faults inter turn faults.
Buchholz relay:providing protection against all kinds of incipient
faults i.e. slow developing faults such as insulation failure of
windings, core heating, fall of oil level due to leaky joints
etc.Earth fault relay: providing protection against earth fault
only.Over current relays: providing protection mainly against phase
to phase faults and overloading.Differential system: providing
protection against both earth and phase faults. 53Truba Group of
Institutes, BhopalUnit-VSurge protection and insulation
co-ordinationSwitching surges: the over voltage produced on the
power system due to switching operations are known as switching
surges.Lightning:anelectricdischarge between cloud and earth,
between clouds or between charge centres of the same cloud is known
as lightning.Protection against lightning: the most commonly used
devices for protection against lightning surges are.A. Earthing
screenB. Overhead ground wireC. Lightning arresters or surge
divertersLightning arrester: it is a protective device which
conducts the high voltage surge on the power system to the
groundTypes of lightning arresters.A. Rod gap arresterB. Horn gap
arresterC. Multi gap arresterD. Expulsion type arresterE. Valve
type lightning arresterSurge absorber: it is a protective device
which reduces the steepness of wave front of a surge by absorbing
surge energy.Methods of neutral grounding: the methods commonly
used for grounding the neutral point of a 3-phase system are:A.
Solid grounding: when the neutral point of a 3-phase system is
directly connected to earth through a wire of negligible resistance
and reactance ,it is called solid groundingB. Resistance grounding:
when the neutral point of a 3-phase system is connected to earth
through a resister, it is called resistance grounding. C.
Reactancegrounding: inthissystem,
areactanceisinsertedbetweentheneutral and ground, the purpose of
reactance is to limit the earth fault current. D. Petertion-coil
grounding: when the value of L of arc suppression coil (petertion
coil) is suchthat thefault current
exactlybalancethecapacitivecurrent,it iscalledresonant
grounding.Earthing transformer:we sometimes have to create a
neutral point on a 3-phase,3-wire(e.g.deltaconnectionetc.)
tochangeit into3-phase4-wiresystemthiscanbedoneby means of a
earthing transformer.54Truba Group of Institutes, BhopalEarth wire:
the conductor running parallel to the power conductors of the
transmission line and isplacedat thetopof thetower
structuresupporting. thegroundwireservesthefollowing purpose-A. It
shields the power conductor from direct lightning strokeB. Whenever
a lightningstroke falls on the tower, the ground wires on both
sides of the tower provide parallel paths for the stroke therefore
the effective impedance is reduced and the tower top potential is
relatively less.C. There is electric coupling between the ground
wire and the power conductors, thereby the chances of insulation
failure are reduced.Insulation coordination: it means the
correlation of the insulation of the various equipments in apower
systemtotheinsulationof theprotectivedevicesusedfor theprotectionof
those equipments against
overvoltage.Insulationcoordinationbetweenlines
andsubstationequipment:either the line or the substation is over
insulated with normal insulation for the other thus there are two
cases-A. Lines normally insulated ,substation over insulatedB.Lines
over insulated, substation normally insulated55Truba Group of
Institutes, BhopalInterview /Viva Questions1. What are the
functions of protective relays?2. Give the consequences of short
circuit.3.Define protected zone.4. What are unit system and non
unit system?5. What is primary protection?6. What is back up
protection?7. Name the different kinds of over current relays.8.
Define energizing quantity.9. Define operating time of a relay.10.
Define resetting time of a relay.11. What are over and under
current relays?12. Mention any two applications of differential
relay.13. What is biased differential bus zone reduction?14. What
is the need of relay coordination?15. Mention the short comings of
Merz Price scheme of protection applied to a power transformer.16.
What are the various faults to which a turbo alternator is likely
to be subjected? What is an under frequency relay?17. Define the
term pilot with reference to power line protection.18. Mention any
two disadvantage of carrier current scheme for transmission line
only.19. What are the features of directional relay?20. What are
the causes of over speed and how alternators are protected from
it?21. What are the main types of stator winding faults?22. Give
the limitations of Merz Price protection.23. What are the uses of
Buchholzs relay?24. What are the types of graded used in line of
radial relay feeder?25.What are the various faults that would
affect an alternator?26. Why neutral resistor is added between
neutral and earth of an alternator?27. What is the backup
protection available for an alternator?28. What are faults
associated with an alternator?29. What are the main safety devices
available with transformer?30. What are the problems arising in
differential protection in power transformer and how are they
overcome?31.What is REF relay?32.What is over fluxing protection in
transformer?33. Why busbar protection is needed?34. What are the
merits of carrier current protection?35. What are the errors in
CT?36.What is field suppression?37. What are the causes of bus zone
faults?38. What are the problems in bus zone differential
protection?56Truba Group of Institutes, Bhopal39.What is static
relay?40.What is power swing?41. What is a programmable relay?42.
What is CPMC?43. What are the advantages of static relay over
electromagnetic relay?44. What is resistance switching?45. What do
you mean by current chopping?46. What are the methods of capacitive
switching?47. What is an arc?48.Give the two methods of arc
interruption?49. What is restriking voltage?50. What is meant by
recovery voltage?51.What is RRRV?52. What is circuit breaker?53.
Write the classification of circuit breakers based on the medium
used for arc extinction?54. What is the main problem of the circuit
breaker?55.What are demerits of MOCB?56. What are the advantages of
oil as arc quenching medium?57. What are the hazards imposed by oil
when it is used as an arc quenching medium?58. What are the
advantages of MOCB over a bulk oil circuit breaker?59. What are the
disadvantages of MOCB over a bulk oil circuit breaker?60.What are
the types of air blast circuit breaker?61. What are the advantages
of air blast circuit breaker over oil circuit breaker?62. What are
the demerits of using oil as an arc quenching medium?63.What is
meant by electro negativity of SF6 gas?64.What are the
characteristic of SF6 gas?65.Write the classifications of test
conducted on circuit breakers.66. What are the indirect methods of
circuit breaker testing?67.What are the advantages of synthetic
testing methods?68. How does the over voltage surge affect the
power system?69. What is pick up value?70. Define target.71. Define
reach.72. Define blocking.73. Define a over current relay.74.Define
an under current relay?75.Mention any 2 applications of
differential relays.76.Mention the various tests carried out in a
circuit breaker at HV labs.77.Mention the advantages of field
tests.78. State the disadvantages of field tests.79. Define
composite testing of a circuit breaker.80. State the various types
of earthing.81. What are arcing grounds?57Truba Group of
Institutes, Bhopal82. What is arc suppression coil?83. State the
significance of single line to ground fault.84. What are
symmetrical components?85.State the three sequence components.86.
Define positive sequence component.87. Define zero sequence
components.88. State the significance of double line fault.89.
State the various types of unsymmetrical faults.90. Mention the
withstanding current in our human body.91.Define per unit value.92.
Mention the inductance value of the petersons coil.93.
Differentiate between a fuse and a circuit breaker.94. How direct
tests are conducted in circuit breakers?95. What is dielectric test
of a circuit breaker?96. Define single line diagram.58Truba Group
of Institutes, Bhopal59Truba Group of Institutes, Bhopal60Truba
Group of Institutes, Bhopal61Truba Group of Institutes,
Bhopal62Truba Group of Institutes, Bhopal63Truba Group of
Institutes, Bhopal64Truba Group of Institutes, BhopalSyllabus:
EX604 Electronics InstrumentationUnit-IIntroductiontoCRO, Different
partsofCRO, ItsBlockdiagram, Electrostaticfocusing, Electrostatic
deflection, post deflectionacceleration, ScreenforCRTs, Graticule,
Vertical &Horizontal deflection system, Time basecircuit,
Oscilloscopeprobes andtransducers, Attenuators, Applicationof CROs,
Lissajous patterns, Special purpose CROs- Multi input, Dual trace,
Dual beam, Sampling, Storage (Analog & Digital)
Oscilloscopes.Unit-II A.C. Bridge MeasurementSources and detectors,
Use of Bridges for measurement of inductance, Capacitance & Q
factor Maxwells bridge, Maxwellsinductancecapacitancebridge,
Haysbridge, Andersonsbridge, Owen'sBridge, De-sauty'sBridge,
ScheringBridge, HighVoltageScheringbridge, Measurement
ofrelativepermittivity, Heaviside cambell's bridge, Weins bridge,
Universal bridge, Sources of errors in Bridge circuit, Wagner's
Earthing device, Q meter and its applications and measurement
methods.Unit-III TransducersTransducers
definitionandclassification, mechanical devices as
primarydetectors, Characteristic& choiceofTransducers,
Resistiveinductiveandcapacitivetransducers,
straingaugeandgaugefactor, Thermistor, Thermocouples, LVDT, RVDT,
Synchros, Piezo-Electrictransducers, Magnetelasticand
magnetostrictive Hall effect transducers, Opto-electronic
transducers such as photo voltaic, Photo conductive, photo diode
and photo conductive cells, Photo transistors, Photo optic
transducers. Introductiontoanalog&Digital
dataacquisitionsystems-Instrumentationsystems used, Interfacing
transducers to electronic control & measuring systems
Multiplexing - D/A multiplexing A-D Multiplexing, Special encoders.
Digital control descriptionUnit-IVSignal GeneratorsFixed &
variable frequency AF oscillators, Sine wave generators, Standard
signal generator, AF Sine and Square wave generator Function
generator, Square and pulse generator, Random noise generator,
Sweep generator, TVSweepgenerator, Marker generator, Sweep- Marker
generator, Wobblyscope, Video pattern generator Vectroscope, Beat
frequency oscillatorWave analyserBasic wave analyzer, Frequency
selective wave analyzer, Heterodyne wave analyzer, Harmonic
distortion, analyzer, spectrum analyzer digital Fourier
analyzer.Unit-V Digital InstrumentsAdvantages of Digital
instruments over analog instruments, resolution and sensitivity of
Digital meters., Digital Voltmeter - Ramp type, Dual slope
integration type, Integrating type, Successive approximation type,
Continuous balance DVMor Servo balancing potentiometer typeVM. ,
compression of Electronic & Digital Volt meter, Digital
Multimeter, Digital frequency meter, Time period measurement,
Highfrequencymeasurement, Electroniccounter, Digital tachometer,
Digital PHmeter, Digital phase meter, Digitalcapacitancemeter.
DigitaldisplaysystemandindicatorslikeCRT, LED, LCD, Nixies, Electro
luminescent, Incandescent, Electrophoretic image display, Liquid
vapour display dotmatrix display, Analogrecorders, X-Yrecorders.
InstrumentsusedincomputercontrolledinstrumentationRS 232C and IEEE
488, GPIB electric interface.Lesson Plan65Truba Group of
Institutes, BhopalDepartment: Eletrical And
ElectronicsSession:Jan-Jun2013Name of Faculty: Ms Swati Khatri
Semester: VISubject: Electronics InstrumentationSub Code:
EX-604Time Schedule : Total expected period Extra Periods (if
required)- Day Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Max. AvailableNo. of
PeriodLect. No.Contents Reference (page no.)Date of Completion1.
Electronic voltmeter and their advantages, VTVMs Differential
amplifier typeelectronic voltmeter,R2(4.1-4.6)2. D.C. voltmeter
using direct coupled amplifier, chopper amplifier type of
voltmeterR2(4.16-4.22)3.Electronic voltmeters using rectifiers,
True RMS responding voltmeterR2(4.22-4.27)4.Electronic multimeters,
Differentialvoltmeter,R2(4.27-4.29) (4.33-4.36)5.Vector voltmeter,
Vector impedance meter R2(4.36-4.40)measurement of power at radio
frequency,calorimeter, BolometerR1(724,719)6.Different parts of
CRO, Its Block diagram R3(201-203)7.Electrostatic focusing,
Electrostatic deflection R2(5.6-5.8)8. postdeflection acceleration,
Screen for CRTs,R2(5.10-5.12)9.Graticule, Vertical & Horizontal
deflection systemR2(5.15),R3(217,227)10.Time basecircuit,
Oscilloscope probes and transducersR2(5.18)R3(232)11.Attenuators,
Application of CROs, Lissajous patterns R2(5.27,5.37)12.Special
purpose CROs- Multi input, Dual trace R2(5.43-5.44)13. Dual beam,
Sampling Oscilloscopes.R2(5.44,5.45)14. Storage (Analog &
Digital)Oscilloscopes. R2(5.51,5.57)15.CLASS TEST16.Unit-II66Truba
Group of Institutes, Bhopal17. Sources and detectors, Use of
Bridges for measurement of inductance,Capacitance & Q
factorR2(6.2-6.3)18. Maxwells bridge, Maxwells inductance
capacitance bridge, Hays bridge,R2(6.8-6.10)19.Andersons bridge,
Owen's BridgeR2(6.12-6.13)20.De-sauty's Bridge, Schering
BridgeR2(6.17-6.19)21. High Voltage Schering bridge,Measurement of
relative permittivityR2(6.20-6.21)22.Heaviside cambell's bridge,
Weins bridgeR2(6.25,6.28)23. Universal bridge, Sourcesof errors in
Bridge circuitR2(6.29-6.30)24.Wagner's Earthing device
R2(6.32-6.33)25. Q meter and its applications and
measurementmethods. R2(4.46-4.47)26.Transducers definition and
classification R2(7.1,7.3-7.9)27. mechanical devices as primary
detectors,Characteristic & choice of
TransducersR2(7.17-7.19)28.Resistive inductive and capacitive
transducersR1(408,428,446)29. strain gauge andgauge
factorR2(7.36-7.37)30.Thermistor, Thermo couples
R2(7.54,7.64)31.LVDT, RVDT,R2(7.83,7.92)32.Synchros, Piezo-Electric
transducers,R2(7.92,7.118)33. Magnet elastic and magnetostrictive
Hall effect transducersR2(7.132,7.139)34. Opto-electronic
transducers such as photo voltaic,Photo
conductive,R2(7.141,7.144)35. photo diode and photo conductive
cells R2(7.148-7.149)36. Photo transistors, Photo optic transducers
R2(7.151,7.172)37.CLASS TEST38.Unit-III39. Fixed & variable
frequency AF oscillators, Sine wave generators,R1(234-235)
R3(260-261)40. Standard signal generator, AF Sine and Square wave
generatorR1(235-238)67Truba Group of Institutes, Bhopal41.Function
generator, Square and pulse generator R1(239-241)42. Random noise
generator, Sweep generatorR1(242-2432)43. TV Sweep generator,
Marker generator,R1(244-246)44. Sweep- Marker generator,
Wobblyscope,R1(247)45.Video pattern generator Vectroscope
R1(247,253)46. Beat frequency oscillatorBasic wave
analyzerR1(255,261)47. Frequency selective wave analyzer,
Heterodyne wave analyzer,R1(262-264)48. Harmonic distortion,
analyzer, spectrum analyzer digital Fourier
analyzerR1(265-270)49.CLASS TEST50.Unit-IV51. Advantages of Digital
instruments over analog instruments, resolution and sensitivityof
Digital metersR2(8.17-8.18)(8.38-8.39)52.Ramp type, Dual slope
integration type R2(9.14,9.19)53. Integrating type,
Successiveapproximation typeR2(9.15-9.18)54. Continuous balance DVM
or Servo balancing potentiometer type VMR2(8.56-8.57)55.Digital
Multimeter, Digital frequency meter R2(9.22-9.25)56.Time period
measurement, High frequency measurement R2(9.28-9.30)57.Electronic
counter, Digital tachometerR2(9.25)R1(165)58. Digital PH meter,
Digital phase meter, Digital capacitance meterR1(171-173)59.
Digital display system and indicators like CRT, LED, LCD,
Nixies,R2(5.4,8.26-8.29)60. Electro luminescent,
Incandescent,Electrophoretic image displayR5(530-531)61.Liquid
vapour display dot-matrix displayR5(531-532) R2(8.25-8.26)62.
Analog recorders, Graphicrecorders, Strip chart
recorders,R4(1309-1310)63. Galvanometer type recorders, Null
recorders, single point & multipoint recorders,R4(1311-1315)64.
X-Y records, Ultraviolet recorders, Magnetic tape
recordersR4(1315-1317)65. Basic components of tape recorders,
Methods ofR4(1318-1320)68Truba Group of Institutes,
Bhopalrecording, Direct recording66. Frequency modulated recording,
Pulse duration modulationrecording, Digital tape
recorders.R41321-1325)67.CLASS TEST68.Unit-V69. Instruments used in
computer-controlled instrumentation RS 232C and IEEE 488, GPIB
electric interfaceR4(1515-1517)70. Introduction to analog &
Digital data acquisition systems-Instrumentation systems used,
Interfacing transducers to electronic control & measuring
systemsR3(393-396)71.Multiplexing - D/A multiplexing A-D
Multiplexing R3(405-407)72.Special encoders. Digital control
description R3(408-409,429-430)73. Microwave instruments Scattering
parameters, Transmissionand reflection parameters,R6(6.23-6.25)74.
Network analyzer, Measurement uncertainty measurement with scalar
& vectornetwork,R6(6.30-6.35)75. Microwave power measurement-
Sources & detectors, Fiber optic
powermeasurementR3(432-433,439-441)76. Stabilized calibrated light
sources end to end measurement of fiber losses, Optical timedomain
reflectometry.R3(442-444)77.CLASS TESTReferences Title Author
PublicationR1 Electronics Instrumentation H. S. Kalsi Mc GramhillR2
Electronic Instrumentation A.K. Sawhney Dhanpat Rai and CoR3 Modern
Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement TechniquesAlbert
D.Helfric and CooperPearsonR4 Electronic and Electrical measurement
and instrumentationA.K. Sawhney Dhanpat Rai and Co69Truba Group of
Institutes, BhopalR5- Electronic measurement and
instrumentationR.K.Rajput S.Chand and coR6 Electronic
Instrumentation, Vaibhavi A sonetha:Tech max publicationList Of
Experiments1. Study of CRO.2. Observing different waveform through
function generator using CRO.3. Measurement of capacitance using
Schering Bridge.4. Measurement of Inductance using Maxwells
Bridge.5. Measurement of Inductance of coil using Andersons
Bridge.6. Measurement of Pressure using Pressure gauge.7.
Measurement of Displacement by using LVDT8. Measurement of
Temperature by using Thermistor, RTD and Thermocouple.9. Study of 4
bit analog to digital converter.70Truba Group of Institutes,
BhopalPoints To PonderUnit-1 Chopper type voltmeter is an amplifier
and voltmeter first,it amplifies D.C. signal and then measure it.
Electronic multimeter is an instrument capable of measuring A.C and
D.C. currents and voltages. Bolometer is used for measurement of
low and medium power ranging from a few watt to fraction of a watt.
Calorimeter is used for measurement of large amount of R.F. power.
CRO is a device that allows the amplitudes of electrical signals
whether they be voltage, current, power etc, to be displayed
primarily as a function of time. Cathode ray tube consist
of:a)electron gun assembly b) Deflection plates assembly
c)Fluorescent scrren d)Glass envelope e)Base Graticule is ascale on
transparent material that is fitted to the face of CRT for the
purpose of measurement. Aquadag -graphite used to coat the interior
surface of CRT to prevent secondary emission electron. To minimize
loading, attenuator probes (e.g., 10X probes) are used. Lissajous
patterns are formed when two sine waves are applied simultaneously
to the vertical and horizontal deflecting plates of CRO. Dual trace
CRO is a special purpose CRO which is capable to display two
waveform at a time.It has two separate vertical input channels
suitable for high frequency.Dual beam CRO is a special purpose CRO
which is capable to display two waveform at a time.It has two
separate vertical deflection plates suitable for low frequency.
Sampling oscilloscope is used to trace very fast signals.71Truba
Group of Institutes, Bhopal Storage oscilloscope is capable of
retaining the image on the screen for longer timeUnit-2 AC bridges
are circuits which are often used to measure unknown impedances
(resistances, capacitances and inductances) Maxwells bridge uses
the principle that the positive phase angle of an inductive
impedance can be compensated by the negative phase angle of a
capacitive impedance when put in the opposite arm and the circuit
is at resonance Maxwells inductance capacitance bridge is preferred
for coils with medium Q.R1=R2R3/R4 L1=R2R3C4 Q=L1/R1 Where
L1=unknown inductance R1=effective resistance of inductor L1
R2,R3,R4=known non inductance resistance C4=variable standard
capacitor Q=quality factor Anderson bribge is used to measure coil
with low Q. hay's bridge is preferred for coils with a high Q,
Schering Bridge is used to measure capacitance and its power factor
Wagner's Earthing device is used to eliminate the effect of earth
capacitance Wien Bridge is used to measure either the equivalent
series component or parallel component and frequency of signals.
Q-meter It is used to measure electrical properties of coils and
capacitors. Transducer It is a device which convert the energy from
one form to another. The transducers may be classified as:-
Electrical Transducers, Displacement Transducers, Optoelectronic
Transducers Strain Guage It converts a mechanical displacement into
change of resistance. Active transducer do not need any external
source of power supply for their operation. Passive transducer need
external source of power supply for their operation. LVDT translate
linear motion into electrical signals. RVDT is used to sense
angular displacement . RTD is used to measure electrical resistance
in terms of temperature. It has positive temperature coefficient.
Thermistor means thermally sensitive resistor. It has negative
temperature coefficient. Thermo-couple is a temperature transducer
which develops an emf which is function of temoerature between two
junctions. Piezo electric tranducer uses piezo electric material
which exhibit reversible effect that is convert electrical to
non-electrical energy or non-electrical energy to electrical
energy. Photo conductive device it operate on the principle that
whenever a material is illuminated its resistance changes.72Truba
Group of Institutes, Bhopal A Hall Effect transducer is based on
the effect of magnetic fields on moving charges.Unit-3 Signal
generator provides a variety of waveforms or signals for testing
electronic circuits at low powers. Audio signal generator produce
sine and square waves over the range of20 Hzto 20 KHz. Sinewave
generator covers frequency range from few Hz to many GHz. Standard
signal generator is a radio frequency signal generator and produces
known and controllable voltages. Function Generator has the
capability of producing different types of waveforms as its output
signal ranging from 0.1Hz to 11 MHz. The difference between pulse
and square wave generator relates to the duty cycle.Sweep
generators are commonly used to test the frequency response of
electronic filter circuits. A vectorscope is a special type of
oscilloscope used in both audio and video applications The
reference signal used for the vectorscope's display is the color
burst that is transmitted before each line of video A beat
frequency oscillator or BFO , is a dedicated oscillator used to
create an audio frequency signal from Morse codetransmissions to
make them audible By varying the BFO frequency around 44000 Hz, the
listener can vary the output audio frequency; this is useful to
correct for small differences between the tuning of the transmitter
and the receiver, Wave Analyser is used to measure the amplitude of
each harmonic or fundamental signals individually. Frequency
selective Wave Analyser is used for measurement in audio frequency
range. Hetrodyne Wave Analyser is used for measurement in radio
frequency range. Harmonic Distortion Analyser measure total
harmonic power present in test wave.Unit-473Truba Group of
Institutes, Bhopal The digital instruments are more accurate, error
free, have more resolution draws negligible power as compared to
analog instruments. D/A conversion involves translating digital
information into analog information. A/D convertor is used for
changing analog signal to binary signals. Resolution is the
smallest change in the input signal (quantity under measurement),
which can be detected by the instrument The sensitivity is the
ratio of output signal (or response of the instrument) to a change
of input signal (or the quantity under measurement.) A digital
voltmeter comprises of a clock generator, a circuit that converts
the voltage to he measured into a pulse and a digital frequency
counter A multimeter can measure currents (amperes), voltage
(volts) and resistance (ohms) and is therefore also called an AVO
(amperes-volts-ohms) meter. An Electronic counter can measure Time
interval, Time period, Frequency Ratio of two frequencies etc. A
recorder records electrical and non electrical quantities as a
function of time. X-Y recorder gives a graphic record of the
relationship between two variables. An x-y recorder may have the
sensitivity of 10 V/mm, slewing speed 1.5 m/s, a frequency response
of about 6 Hz in both the X and Y directions, and an accuracy of +
0.2 per cent of full-scale.Unit-5 RS-232 is used to interface
between the micro-computer and serial pheripherals. This describe
the function of 25 signal and hand-shake pins for serial data
transfer. IEEE 488 standard is based on the transmission of 8 bit
data bus. It is short distance system for test equipment mounted in
a rack within a room and not intended for transmission over long
distance or via telephone or other communication means. Network
Analyzer is an instrument to analyze the properties of electrical
networks specially those properties associated with the
transmission and reflection of the electrical signals known as S-
parameters. Scalar Network Analyzer is capable of measuring the
magnitude of the response. Vector Network Analyzer is capable of
measuring the magnitude and phase of response.74Truba Group of
Institutes, Bhopal Reflection co-efficient parameter is indicator
of the line and load match. Transmission co-efficient parameter
determines the variation in phase or amplitude of current or
voltage along transmission line. Scattering Paramerters- These are
defined in terms of he signal which is applied to the port and
reflected back to the port. The system used for data processing ,
data conversion , data transmission and data storage us called Data
Acquisition. Optical Time Domain is used for measurement of fibre
losses. In OTDR a laser diode is used as a transmitter and it
provides a narrow pulses of light which is coupled to the fibre.
Optical light sources are 1) Wide band continuous spectra sources
(Incandescent lamp).2) Monochromatic in-coherent sources (LEDs) 3)
Monochromatic coherent sources (LASER)Interview/viva questions1.
Define accuracy, precision, sensitivity, linearity, resolution.2.
What is Hysteresis?3. What are the different types of errors?4.
What are the type of D.C. voltmeters and A.C. voltmeters?5. Which
device is used for measurement of low and medium power?6. Which
device is used for measurement of high power?7. What do you mean by
measurement and measurement system and Instruments?8. What is the
function of measurement system?9. What is electronic multimeter?
What are the main elements of multimeter.10. What are the different
parts of CRO?11. What is CRT?12. What are the different parts of
CRT?13. How electron beam is produced.14. Which method is used for
focusing an electron beam?75Truba Group of Institutes, Bhopal15.
What is deflection sensitivity of a CRT?16. Define deflection
factor of CRT.17. What is graticule? What are the types of
graticule?18. What is aquadag.19 Which material is coated on the
CRT screen?20 What is the function of time base generator in
CRO?21. What is oscilloscope probe? What are the different types of
probes?22. What is difference between Dual trace and Dual beam
CRO?23. What are the advantages of sampling, analog and digital
storage oscilloscope?24. Which bridge is used for measurement of
inductance?25. Which bridge is used for measurement of
capacitance?26. Which bridge is used for measurement of
frequency?27. What are the disadvantages of Maxwells bridge?28.
Define Quality factor of coil.29. For which type of coil Maxwells
bridge is used.30 . What range of inductance can be measured by
Maxwells bridge?31. What range of inductance can be measured by
Hays bridge?32. What range of capacitance can be measured by
Schering Bridge?33. What range of Frequency can be measured by Wien
Bridge?34 What is the use of Wagner Earth detector?35. What is
Transducer? What are the different types of Transducers?36. What do
you mean by Strain Gauge? What is gauge factor? 37 What do you mean
by displacement transducer?38. Which material is used for photo
voltaic cell?39. What is the difference between RTD and
Thermocouple and Thermister?40. What is the principle of
thermocouple?41. Define wave analyzer? What are the types of wave
analyzer?42. Which range of frequency is measured by frequency
selective wave analyzer?43. What are the applications of wave
analyzer?44. What is harmonic distortion?45. Define Spectrum
analyzer. What are the types of Spectrum analyzer?46. What is
network analyzer? 47. What is signal generator? 48. What is
function generator?49. Define Duty cycle.50. What is the function
of sweep frequency generator?51 What is the function of beat
frequency oscillator?52. What are the difference between wave
analyzer and harmonic distortion analyzer?53. What are the
difference between wave analyzer and spectrum analyzer?54. What are
the difference between signal analyzer and function generator?55.
What are the difference between frequency selective analyzer and
heterodyne wave analyzer?56. What is analog Instrument?57. What is
digital Instrument?58. Which methods are used for analog to digital
conversion?59.Define quantization.60 What are the different types
of D/A converter?61. What is digital voltmeter?76Truba Group of
Institutes, Bhopal62. What is the use of digital voltmeter?77Truba
Group of Institutes, Bhopal78Truba Group of Institutes,
Bhopal79Truba Group of Institutes, Bhopal80Truba Group of
Institutes, Bhopal81Truba Group of Institutes, Bhopal82Truba Group
of Institutes, BhopalEX- 605 Energy Conservation & Management
UNIT-IGeneral energy problem: Energy use patterns and scope for
conservation.Energyaudit: Energymonitoring, Energyaccounting
andanalysis, Auditing andtargeting. Energy conservation policy,
Energy management & audit, Energy audit, Types of energy audit,
energy management (audit), qualities and function of energy
managers, language of an energy manager, Questionnaire, Check list
for top management, Loss of energy in material flow,
energyperformance, Maximizing system efficiency, Optimizing, input
energy requirements, Energyauditing instruments, Material load
energy balance diagram.Unit-IIThermodynamics of Energy
Conservation. Basic principle. Irreversibility and second
lawefficiency analysis of systems. Primary energy sources, optimum
use of prime-movers, energyefficient house keeping, energy recovery
in thermal systems, waste heat recovery techniques,thermal
insulation. Thermal energy audit in heating, ventilation and air
conditioning. MaintenanceandEnergyaudit friction,
lubricationandtribo-logical innovations. Predictive and preventive
maintenance.Unit-IIILoad curve analysis & load management DSM,
Energy storage for power systems (Mechanical,Thermal, Electrical
& Magnetic) Restructuring of electric tariff from energy
conservationconsideration, Economic analysis depreciation method,
time value of money, Evaluation methodof projects, replacement
analysis, special problems inflation risk analysis. Pay back
period,Energy economics, Cost Benefit Risk analysis, Pay back
period.UNIT-IVEnergyefficientelectricdrives, Energyefficientmotors
V.S.D.power factor improvementin powersystem. Energy Conservation
in transportation systemespecially in electric vehicle. Energy
flownetworks, Simulation &modeling, formulation &Objective
&constraints, alternative option, Matrix chart.Unit-VEnergy
conservation task before