final report final endangerment assessment new castle steel ...

FINAL REPORTFINAL ENDANGERMENT ASSESSMENT

NEW CASTLE STEEL SITENEW CASTLE, DELAWARE

\rf^f

Prepared for

U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCYOffice of Waste Programs Enforcement

Washington, D.C. 20460

Work Assignment No.EPA RegionFacility I.D. No.Contract No.CDM Federal ProgramsCorporation Document No.Prepared ByWork Assignment Project ManagerTelephone NumberPrimary ContactTelephone NumberDate Prepared

i 69: III: 3B66

68-01-7331

T0069-C03-DR-BMC-4Versar Inc.Don Peterson(703) 750-3000Leonard Nash(215) 597-0978May 4, 1988

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF TABLES ..,...,,....,...,,...,,.,.........,..,,.,.,.,..,., Iv

LIST OF FIGURES .,,,.,,.,..,,..,..,......,.......,,.....,,....,.. vi

LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ..,.,.,.,.,.,,,,.,....,...,,,, vlii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ,,.,.,,,.,,..,,.,..,.,.,.....,.,......,...,..,, x

1,0 INTRODUCTION .,,,.,,..,...,..,..,.....,................,..,, 1-11.1 Sice Description and History ,,,....,,..,..,,,,,,,,,.., 1-11.2 Contaminants Found Onsite ,,.,,,,,,,,,.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 1-5

J.O ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND TRANSPORT PROPERTIES OF SITECONTAMINANTS ,,.,..,,..,..,,..,,,.,,....,....,...,....,..,,. 2-12.1 Sice Characteristics ,,,,,.,..,,.,,..,,.,,,,.,,,.,,..., 2-1

2.1.1 Geology ..,,..,...,...,....,.....,.,..'.,,.....,. 2-12.1.2 Hydrology ,,,.,,,,,..,....,....,..,,..,,,,,,..,. 2-62.1.3 Hydrogeology ,,..,..,...,..,,.,.,,.,...,.,.,,.,, 2-102.1.4 Climatology ,.,.,,,......,.,.,,,.,....,.,.,,.,,. 2-11

2.2 Sice Contaminants .,,,,,,,.,,,.,,.,,,,,,,,,.,,,,,,...., 2-122.2.1 Lead ,,,.,..,,..,,,..,.,,.,,...,.....,..,....... 2-122.2.2 Ocher'Mecals ,,...,.,...,.',,.,...,,,,..,.,....., 2-17

3,0 EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT .,.,..,....,....,..,.,,....,...,.,...... 3-13.1 Routes of Exposure ,,,.,,..,,,.,,.,,..,..,,.,.,,,,,..,. 3-13.2 Populations Exposed ,,,.,,,,...,,.,.,,,.,,,,.,,.,,,,,,, 3-63.3 Extent of Exposure ,,,,,,,..,,;,,,,.,,,,.,,.,,,,.,,,,,, 3-1B

4.0 TOX1CITY ASSESSMENT .,,,,...,,,..,,..,.,......,.,..,,.,..... 4-14.1 Toxicological Evaluation ...,..,..,.,...,,,.,.,.,....,. 4-1

4.1.1 Lead ,,..,,,....,,...,..,....,..,.........,.,... 4-14.1.2 Arsenic ,,..,,.,........,..,,,.,..,...,..,,...., 4-54.1.3 Cadmium ..,.....,,..,..,.,.,.,...............,.. 4-64.1.4 Chromium ,.,..,,,..,,..,,,...,.,,.....,,.,,.,,.. 4-94.1.5 Nickel ..,,..,.........,.....,......,,.,.,...,,. 4-12

4.2 Dose-Response Assessment .,,,.,,,,,.,,,.,,,,,,,,,,.,,,. 4-144.2.1 Lead ,,,.,,.,,,.,,.,...,.,.,,...,..,,....,,..,,. 4-174.2.2 Arsenic .,.,.,.....,.,..,.,..,.,...,,,,....,..,, 4-174.2.3 Cadmium .,,,.,..,,.,,..,....,...,.,,,.,,.,,,,... 4-244.2.4 Nickel ..,,,.,.,,..,.,.,.,,,..,,,,..,.,.......,,, 4-26

11

TABLE OF CONTENTS(Continued)

5.0 RISK AND IMPACT EVALUATION ...5.1 Human Health ,,,,.,.,.,,.5.2 Environmental.,,,.,.,,,,,5.3 Public Welfare ,,.,...,,,

REFERENCES

Attachment 1

Attachment 2

Page

5-15-15-75-9

6,0 CONCLUSIONS ,,..,..,,,,,,,.,,......,..,.,....,..,,,...,.,.., 64

Analytical Results and Sample Data Summary Sheets,New Castle Steel SiteSupporting Computations and References for the RapidAssessment of Exposure to Particulate EmissionsFrom Surface Contamination Sites, New CastleSteel Site

iii

LIST OF TABLES ,Page

1-1 EP Toxicity Test and pH Results for Inactive and ActiveDisposal Areas, New Cascle Steel Site, May 21, 1964 ,..,..., 1-8

1-2 Total Arsenic, Cadmium, Chromium, Lead, and Nickel FromActive Disposal Area, New Castle Steel Site ,,,,,,.,.,,,,,,, 1-9

1-3 Total Arsenic, Cadmium, Chromium, Lead, and Nickel FromInactive Disposal Area, New Castle Steel Site ,,.,,,.,.,.,,, 1-10

2-1 Average Daily Maximum, Dally Minimum, and MonthlyTemperatures for the Period 1931-1960, New Castle County,Delaware ,.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.,.,,,,,.,,,..,..,,,.,,,,.,,,,,,,, 2-13

2-2 Monthly Prevailing Hind Direction and Mean Wind Speed from1963 to 1987, Greater Uilmington Airport:, Delaware ,,,,,,,,. 2-15

3-1 Potentially Exposed Populations for Annual AverageRespii-able Concentrations of Lead Particulars, NewCastle Steel Site ,....,.,.,.,,,,...,,,,,,,....,,.,,..,.,.,. 3-10

3-2 Potentially Exposed Populations for Worse-Case 24-HourRespirable Concentrations of Lead Participates, NewCaucle Steel Sice ..,,..,,.,,.,.;,,,..,,,.,.,,,.,..,,,,.,,,. 3-12

3-3 Towl Motals Analysis and Statistical Summary of Soil andSediment Samples from Offsite, Downgradient Locations, NewCastle Steel Site .,,,,.,.,.,...,.,..,....,.,.,...,,..,.,.., 3-21

3-4 Total Metals Analysis and Statistical Summary of Soil andSediment Samples from Offsite, Background Locations, NewCastle Steel Site ..,.,...,.,.,,,.,,,,,,..,,,.,,,,.,,,,.,,,. 3-22

3-5 Estimated Ingestion Exposures to Contaminated Soils andSediments, New Castle Steel Site ..,,,,,.,,,..,..,,..,,..,.. 3-25

3-6 Data Summary of Surface Hater Samples, New CastleSteel Sice ,,,,,,.,,..,,,.,....,.....,,,.,....,...,......,.. 3-26

4-1 Critical Toxicity Values for Potential Contaminants ofConcern, New Castle Steel Site ,,,,.,.,,.,.,,.,,.,,,,,.,.,., 4-16

A-2 Summary of Lowest Blood Lead Levels Associated with ObservedBiological Effects in Various Population Croups ...,,,.,,.,. 4-18

iv

LIST OF TABLES(Continued)

-3 NOELS in Terms of Blood Lead Levels ,.

Dose-Response Relationships Between Prevalence of SkinCancer and Arsenic Consumption By Age ,,.,,,,,,,,,,,,.,

A- 5 Human Chronic Toxicity Data for Cadmium ,,.,,,,.,,

4-6 Perforation of Nasal Sepcas of Chroroate Workers ,.

5-1 Noncarcinogenic Effects and Hazard Index, New CastleSteel Site .,,,.,,.,..,..,,..,.,..,.,.,,.,,,.,,.,....,,

5-2 Federally Listed Endangered and Threatened Species inNew Jersey ,,...,.,,..,,,.....,..,..,,,,..,,...,,,,....

5-2 ;>'ildlifc- Species Using Supawna Meadows NWR, July 1986Api'il 1987 .,,,..,.,..,,..,..,,,..,.,..,.,.,.,,.,.,...

Paj-e

4-19

4-22

4-23

4-25

5-3

5-8

5-11

1 ^

1-12-1

2-2

2-3

2-*

2-5

2-6

3-1

3-2

3-3

3-4

3-5

3-6

3-7

LIST OF FIGURES

New Cascle Sceel Sice, New Cascle, Delaware ..,,,.,,,.,,,.,. 1-3

The Physiographic Provinces of the Appalachian Regionand che Atlantic Coastal Plain .,........,.,,,,,.,,,,,,.,.,, 2-2

Diagrammatic Cross-Section Showing ScraclgraphlcRelacionships Near New Cascle, Delaware ,.,,,,.,,,,,,,,.,,,, 2-4

Locaclon of Paleochannels in Columbia Formation Near NewCascle, Delaware ....,...,..,.,,,,.........,,....,,,,,.,.

Geologic Cross-Section From Well Borings in the ColllnsPark • Cascle Hills Area ,,..,.,,.,,,,,.,,.,..,,,,,,,,,,,

2-5

2-7

Vicinicy Map, New Cascle, Delaware .....,.,,.,,.,,.,,,.,,,,. 2-8

,,,. 2-14Monthly Precipitation Averages, Greater HilmingtonAirport, Delaware ,,,,.,,,,,,,,,,.,.,..,.,,,,.,,,,,

Inventory of Hater Supply Wells Near che New CascleSCfeel Sice ,,.,,.,,,.,,,.,.,.,....,,,,,.,,.,,.,,,,.. 3-2

Annual Average Concentration Isoplechs of Respirable LeadParciculaces, New Cascle Steel Sice ,,..,.,,..,,,.,,,,.,,,,, 3-7

Morse-Case, 24-Hour Concencraclon Isoplechs of RespirableLead Parciculaces, New Cascle Sceel Sice .,,,.,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 3-8

Tocal Arsenic Concencracions in Soils and Sediments, NewCascle, Delaware ,.,.,,,,,.,,..,,,,.,.,.,,•.,,.,,,,,,,,,.,„. 3-13

Tocal Cadmium Concencracions in Soils and Sediments, NewCascle, Delaware ,.,..,,...,..,,,,,,,...,...,..,.,,,,,..,,, 3-14

Tocal Chromium Concencracions in Soils and Sediments, NewCascle, Delaware ,,,,,,,,.,,,,..,.,,,,.,.......,..,,,,,.... 3-15

Tocal Lead Concencracions in Soils arid Sediments, New Cascle,Delaware ,,',,,,,,,.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.,,,,,.,..,,.,.,,,.,,..,,,, 3-16

vi

^P^T

LIST OP FIGURES(Continued)

3-6 Total Nickel Concentrations in Soils and Sediments, NewCastle, Delaware ,,.,,...,...,...,.....,.,...,..........,... 3-17

3-9 location of Surface Hater Sampling Points, New Castle,Delaware .,.,.,..,,.,.,,,....,...,.......,...,..,.,.,....... 3-27

5-1 Supawna Meadows National Wildlife Refuge, Salem County,New Jersey .,.,,,,,.,,,,.,.......,,...,..,.......,.......... 5-10

vil

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vw

LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS"

ACGIH American Council of Government Industrial HygienistsADI acceptable daily intakeAIC acceptable intake, chronicA1S acceptable intake, subchronicAHQC Ambient Water Quality CriteriaBCF bioconcentration factorCOM FPC Camp, Dresser & McKee Federal Programs CorporationCEC cation exchange capacityCERCLA Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and

Liability ActCNS Central Nervous Systemdl deciliterDNA deoxyribonuclalc acidDNREC Delaware Department of Natural Resources and Environmental

ConservationEA endangerment assessmentFS feasibility studyft foot/feetft;- square foot/feetft3 cubic feetGI gastrointestinalgpd gallons per day •HI hazard indexkg ' kilogramkm kilometer1 literIb poundLC lethal concentrationLOAEL lowest-observed-adverse-effect levelLOEL lowest-observed-effect levelm meterMCI maximum contaminant levelmg milligrammgd million gallons per daymi milemin minutemo monthNAS National Academy of SciencesNC1 National Cancer InstituteNCS New Castle SteelNIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and HealthNIPDHR National Interim Primary Drinking Water RegulationsNOAEL no-observed-adverse-effect levelNOEL no-observed-effect levelNPL National Priorities ListNTP National Toxicicy ProgramOSHA Occupational Safety and Health AdministrationPbB Blood lead level

viii

LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS(Continued)

P))in pare per millionKCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery ActRl remedial InvestigationRI/FS remedial investigation/feasibility studyRM river mileRNA ribonucleic acidTES 111 USEPA Contract No, 68-01-7331TLV threshold limit value/ig mlcrogram (10'" g)USDA U,S, Department of AgricultureUSDHHS U.S. Department of Health and Human ServicesUSUOC U.S. Department of CommerceUSD01 U,S. Department of che InteriorUSEPA .U.S. Environmental Protection AgencyUSCS U.S, Geological Survey

ix

^ W

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The New Cascle Steel site Is a 3-acre open dump located In anIndustrialized section of northern Delaware, The site received foundrywastes from the Deemer Steel Company (no longer in operation) which islocated immediately adjacent to che site, Specifically, che dump issituated at Ninth and Washington Streets, New Cascle, Delaware,

Daemcr Steel Company began its foundry operations in 1907, disposingof ics foundry wastes ac che New Castle Steel site, The waste consistsof black sands (nonreclairoable portion of sand molds used in steelcasting), slag (wasce dross which forms over molten metal), coke from oldfurnace operations, iron oxide scale, fine sand dust from blasting roombughouse, and metal scrap,

Since 1955, the facility has generated electric furnace dust at Cherar* of 9,6 tons per year, This taphouse dust was collected forapproximately 7 years until December btiO, and disposed of over theactive fill portion of the New Castle Sceel sice,

With Che adopcion of che Delaware Regulacions Governing HazardousUsce in November I960, che electric furnace dust and any mixture of thismaterial with other solid wasce were classified as a RCRA listedhazardous wasce (K061). The basis for listing was Ics concentrations ofHad, cadmium, and chromium. Analycical resulcs of eleccric furnace dustreceived in December 1980, were EP Toxic for cadmium, chromium, andlead. In 1980, Deemer Sceel began collecting the baghouse dust intoburlap bags, and lace'r combined ic with che furnace melc for additionalmetals recovery,

On March 17, 1982, wasce and surface wacer samples were collectedand analysed as pare of a sice inspection and coxicologlcal assessment ofprobable impacts, One of six water samples collected from drainage areasbelow che sice exceeded EPA drinking wacer scandards for lead, Alchough

^ T

the lexicological assessment concluded that the site "did noc pose asignificant hazard to public health or the environment", the New CascleSteal siro WAS placed on the CERCLA National Priorities List, requiringfurther investigation and making it a potential candidate for remedialaction under Superfund,

Based on recent site investigations conducted by Deemer Steel'scontractor and laboratory analyses of waste samples collected at thesite, the state of Delaware proposed in January 1985 that the New CastleSteel site be deleted from the National Priorities List contingent uponremedial Investigations that determine that the site no longer poses anysignificant threat to public health, welfare, or the environment,

This endangermenc assessment report evaluates the magnitude andprobability of actual or potential harm to public health or welfare, ordie imvironment by threatened or actual releases of hazardous substancesfrom the New Castle Steel site, The ehdangerment assessment processanalyses che expected environmental fate and transport of indicatorchemicals identified through contaminant screening, to estimate potentialroutes'and extent of exposures,' Each indicacor chemical is furtherfv.iluaciid for its lexicological properties, and based on estimated dosesincurred, relative risk is computed, The following represents a summaryof the major findings of this report:

• Numerous organic and inorganic compounds were identified at theNew Castle Steel site. Contaminant screening identified fiveIndicator chemicals which represent contaminants of primary 'concern'from a public and environmental health standpoint, Thesecontaminants were arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, and nickel,

• • Based on the available data, fate and transport studiesindicate chat each of the contaminants of concern are sorbed toan appreciable extent by soil particles and therefore dominatesits movement In the environment,

• Two exposureroutes were identified; inhalation oflead-contaminated particulates emitted from the active disposalarea of the site, and direct contact of contaminated surfacewater, soil, ,ind sediment in drainage ways from Che site and inche topographically lower marsh areas,

xi

• Annual average Inhalation exposures to respirable leadpnrticulates were computed at 4,0 x 10"' mg/kg/day in locationsclosest to the site. Ingescion exposures (mg/kg/day) weredetermined,for each element: arsenic, 1,96 x 10'5; cadmium,

lead, 1,52 x 10'3'3,27 x 10'6; chromium, 3.45 x 10'5nickel, 6,53 x 10-b,

and

• Potential health risks were identified for ingestion exposureto lead (noncarcinogen) and atacnio-(eafetnogen) using thehighest observed concentration^,

• Lead concentrations averaging 149,5 ppb in surface watersamples collected near the site exceed EPA's Ambienc HaterQuality Criteria (acute) for freshwater, and may be adverselyimpacting a localized wetlands area,

• Additional monitoring of the wetlands area is recommended tofurther evaluate potential adverse impacts of lead and to attemptto identify all contributing sources,

• When background concentrations and waste analyses were comparedwith remaining environmuntal samples, it is evident that othercontaminant sources were contributing to the environmentalconcentrations found,

• Virtually all concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, chromium,U.ad, and nickel were within typical concentration ranges foundin urban, industrialised settings.

Based on an evaluation of all available information and data on theNew Castle Steel site, there exists no threat to human health, This issupported on a comprehensive review of the site's history and operations,an evaluation of the site's environmental setting, recent waste analysesperformed on material known to have been disposed at the site, andfinally, on analytical data collected early in 1907, which was used coassess any exposure.hazards present,

xii

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Current U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) policy statesthat mi endflngerment assessment is required to support all administrativeand Judicial enforcement actions specified under Section 106(a) of theComprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of1930 (CERCU). In 1982, USEPA placed the New Castle Steel (NCS) site inDelaware on the CERCLA National Priorities List (NPL). In 1985, Delawareproposed that the site be deleted from the NPL. This document presentsthe findings of the endangerment assessment process which has evaluatedcollective onaite and offsite characteristics of the NCS sice, Thisreport will be used to determine if a significant risk to public healthand welfare und no the environment exists as a result of threatened or

releases of hazardous substances from the site,

This report has been prepared under USEPA Contract No, 68-01-7331(TES 111). The prime contractor for TES III is Camp, Dresser & McKeefederal Programs Corporation (COM FPC), who subcontracted Versar Inc, toprepare the report as a part of a deliverable requirement under TES WorkAssignment 69. The USEPA Region III primary contact for this work.assignment is Leonard Nash.

This document is a semi -quantitative endangerment assessmentreport, The format and level of detail of this report are specified intin- "Endangerment Assessment Handbook" (Life Systems, 1985) and have beenapproved by USEPA Region III. This report has .incorporated the technical.review comments of COM FPC and USEPA Region III,

1,1 Sice Description and History

The NCS site 'is a 3-acre open dump located at Ninth and WashingtonStreets, New Castle, Delaware, This dump received general foundry wastes,from the Deemer Steel Company, whose production facility is adjacent tothe site on Ninth Street, The dump is composed of two distinct disposal

1-1

an innccive area (1,30 acres), and an active area (1,75 acres),which arc- bisected by a drainage channel (Figure 1-1),

i: Steel Company began to operate its foundry in 1907, disposingof Us foundry wastes in piles in the active and inactive areas of thedump, The waste piles were periodically graded, Wastes disposed of atdie site include black sands (nonreclaimable portion of sand molds usedin steel casting), slag (waste dross that formed over molten metal), cokefrom old furnace operations, iron oxide scale, fine sand dust fromblasting room baghouse, and ste«l scrap (NUS, 1987a),

In 1955, .Deemer Steel installed an electric furnace for alloyproduction. In Hay 1973, a baghouse dust collector was Installed toremove particulace waste emissions from foundry operations. The electricfurnace dust was generated at the rate of 9,6 tons per year (Earth Data,liHte), This baghause dust was collected for approximately a 7-yearperiod i from 1973 to 1960) and was disposed of over the eastern (activefill) part of the NCS site (Ecology and Environment, 1982). The dumpsite was grad«d twice a year to spread the waste uniformly over thesic*, According to state officials, Deemer Steel is no longer inopHMtion, This was confirmed during a site visit in early 1988 by USEPA(Nash, 1988).

Uith the adoption of the Delaware Regulations Governing HazardousUste in November 1980, the electric furnace dust and any mixture of thismaterial with other solid waste was classified as a listed hazardouswubir under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), asamended, The< basis for listing the "emission control dust/sludge from 'die production of steel in electric furnaces" (assigned EPA hazardouswatte nu, KUG1), was its concentrations of lead, cadmium, and chromium(Earth Dnta, 198<i), Later, the USEPA and the state of Delaware changed

1-2

DEEUER STEEL CASTING COMPANY

p! »

thtir definition of K061 waste to include only "emission controldusr/sludge from the primary production of steel in electric furnaces"(emphasis added), As a result of this change, none of Deemer's foundrywastes from niecal alloy production were RCRA-llsted hazardous wastes,The hazardous or nonhazardous nature of these wastes would therefore bedetermined solely on the basis of their hazardous characteristics (suchas EP Toxic icy), In December 1980, the electric furnace dust was foundco be EP Toxic for cadmium, chromium, and lead (Earth Data, 1984), In1060, Deemer Steel began to put the baghouse dust in burlap bags and then*combined it with the furnace melt for metals recovery (NUS, 1967a; EarthDatu, 1984),

On March 17, 1982, waste and surface water samples were collecteduiid analyzed as part of a site inspection and a toxicological assessmentof probable impacts, One of six water samples collected from drainagefir&as below the site exceeded the EPA drinking water standards for lead,Although the toxicological assessment concluded that the site "did notpose (i significant hazard to public'health'or the environment" (Ecology,iiid Environment:, 1982), the- NC& site was placed on the CERCLA NationalPriorities List, which required further investigation and made the site apotential candidate for remedial action under Superfund,

Plans for a hydrogeological investigation were initiated by Deener'scontractor, Earth Data, in June 1983 and were approved by the DelawareDepartment of Natural Resources and Environmental Control (DNREC) intierwnlx-r l')83, According to the hydrogeological report prepared by EarthDi.r.i (lOBd), the thickness of the wastes deposited in the fill sectionr.mged from S to 13 fee.t, with an average thickness of approximately10 feet. Wastes were emplaced over predominantly unconsolidated marshSi-dlmencs, which are underlain by about SO feet of low-permeabilityclays, The uppermost Potomac aquifer, which is an important drinkingwater source, is about 70 feet below the site, under the low-permeabilityclay layer (Earth Daca, 1984),

Based on the presence of the confining clay layer and recentlaboratory analyses of the fill (dump)'wastes, the state of Delawareproposed on January 22, 1982, that the NCS sice be deleted from the NFL,Successful deletion is contingent upon remedial investigations thatdettiu-mine the site no longer poses any significant threat to publichealth, welfare or the environment (NUS, 19B7a).

1.2 Cnncmninnncs Found Onslce

The endangerment assessment focuses on selected site contaminantsthat have been identified through a screening process. The selection ofcontaminants of concern is based on one or more of the followingproperties (Life Systems, 1985); intrinsic toxlcologlcal properties,presence of large quantities, or potentially critical exposure routes,The ai-lection of contaminants of concern for che NCS site was based onini'oa,,i:U-.:i on past waste disposal activities, and recent and historicalanalytical ilut,-.,

The NCS sice has been used solely for.foundry waste disposal sinceIVft? (Earth Data, 1984). The principal contaminants at the site areInorganic (metal) compounds, A limited number of samples were analyzedfor volatile and semivolatile compounds as a precautionary measure,Quality control problems incurred during'the chemical analysis of thesesamples severely diminished the usefulness of the results by disallowingaccurate quantification of detected compounds, Contaminant screening wasthcrttort not performed on any organic compound, Based on the historyand types of wastes disposed at the New Castle Steel site, the presenceof hciivy metals in the foundry wastes probably represents che moresignificant human and environmental health hazard, (See Attachment 1 forsummitry unalytical data on all samples), The presence of any detectableorganic compound is most likely associated with trace oil and greaseresidues typically present in foundry wastes (USEPA, 1975) or represent aspurious, laboratory-induced contaminant (e,g,, mechylene chloride),

1-5

Test pits over both the active and inactive fill areas of the NCSsire revealed black sands, pieces of slag of various sizes, steel scrap,wood, concrete, and brick, Black sand (the nonreclainable portion ofsand molds used in steel casting) comprised about 85 percent or more ofthe total waste (Earth Data, 1984). Benconi.ce clay, which is used as abinding agent in the sand molds, was also present in small quantities,

The original basis for listing electric furnace dust as a hazardouswaste war, the presence of cadmium, chromium, and lead at potentially •harmful levels, A hazard ranking system report prepared in 1282estimated that 67,2 tons of electric furnace dust (EPA hazardous wasteno, K061) had been disposed of at the site (EPA, undated), Assuming all

0wastes have a density of 100 pounds per cubic foot (Ibs/ft ) (as forsand), the following volumes and weights of total wastes are estimated tobe at the NCS site (Earth Data, 1984):

Inactive disposal area .

Active disposal area

Total

Therefore, the estimated total percentage by weight of the electricfurnace dust (strictly K061 waste) disposed of. in the active disposaldroa is less than 0,2 percent (67,2 tons of electric furnace dust in38,100 tons of waste),

Composite waste samples <were collected from the inactive and activeparts of the disposal area in Hay 1964, The samples were analyzed for 17

Volume(ft3)

566,000

763.000

1,328,000

Weight(tons)

28,300

36.100

66,400

1-6

metals via che EP Toxlcity test,1 Table 1-1 is a summary of theseresults and provides pH values of the raw waste material, None of thecomposite samples collected in May 1984 exceed the maximum concentrationlimits for EF Toxic metals,

Deemer Steel produced approximately 166 yd /year of sand baghousewaste, a fine dust (Ecology and Environment, 1962), The duration ofdisposal of this waste is unknown, Analyses of che sand baghouse dusctvia acid digestion) revealed a lead concencration of 104 parts permillion (ppm). The total hydrocarbon concentration was less chan0,001 ppm (Earth Daca, 1984), More recenc analytical data collected froma series of test pits located in the active and inactive disposal areasof the NCS site showed detectable levels of arsenic, cadmium, chromium,lead, and nickel (Tables 1-2 and 1-3), Hasce samples were collected atvarious depths .from three test pics in the active disposal area, and fourcest pits in the inactive disposal area, and analyzed for total metals,Results of these analyses are summarized for arsenic, cadmium, chromium,lead, and nickel (Tables 1-2 and 1-3),

Other sampling data collected in 1987 indicate detectable levels ofarsenic and nickel in offsite soils and surface water (NUS, 1987a,Ilii57b), Because arsenic and nickel are potentially carcinogenic, theywere included as contaminants of concern ac che NCS site,

'•The EP Tosicicy Test is an extraction procedure used to determinewhether A given waste material is hazardous as defined under4(i CFR 261,24, Maximum concencration levels have been established for

eight metals and six pesticides,

1-7

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TABLE 1-1EP TOXICITY TEST AND pH RESULTS FOR INACTIVE

AND ACTIVE DISPOSAL AREAS1NEW CASTLE STEEL SITE

MAY 21, 1984

Parameter

Toxic Meta l sArsenicBariumCadmiumCliromiuinLendMercurySeleniumSilver

OtlicM 1 Mfrcnl .s ' 'AluminumBerylliumColwlcCopperIronManganeseNickelVanadiumZinc

pH

MaximumConcentration

Limit2

5,0100,0

1.05.05.00.21.05.0

' NANA 'NA ,NANANANANANA

NA

InactiveDisposal Area

<0.005<0.1<0,005

' <0.01<0.02

0.0011<0.005<O.Q05

<0.5<0.001

0,030.0052 ,43

10.01.75

<0.0050.189

9 .2

ActiveDisposal Area

<0,005<0,1<0,005<0,01<0,02<0,005<0.005<0.005

<0,5<0,001

0.03<0,005

1,551,950,07

<0,0050,295

8,6

Âll concentrations (except pH) reported in rag/1,'Limits established under 40 CFR 261.24,^Maximum concentration limits have not been established for theseelements,

1-8

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TABLE 1-2TOTAL ARSENIC, CADMIUM, CHROMIUM, LEAD, AMD NICKEL

FROM ACTIVE DISPOSAL AREANEH CASTLE STEEL SITE

SampleDepch

0-3 feec3-5 feec5-8 feec5-8 fei'C

0-4 feec«-8 feec7-14 feec

Compos iceComposite0-5 feec5-10 feecID-13 free

Tesc LaboratoryPic Sample

1111

222

33333

MCH 434MCH 435MCH 436MCH 4401

MCH 431MCH 432MCH 433

MCH 400MCH 4021MCH 428MCH 429 'MCH 430

Mrciri concentrationScundard deviationMaximum concentrationMinimum concentration

Contaminant Concentration(ms/ka drv welehcl

As

116.67.2

4.62.33.3

3.40.9510.956.5

3.232.457.20.95

Cd

7,03,08,16,3

6,15,42,5

427,71312

6,433,48132,5

Cr

47173020

35347,3

37,9193783,386

37.7924,49867.3

Pb

31771144235

20721431

57,333,32314054

136,22100,3231731 '

Hi

42323917

212610

26,6193557,767

32.6916,796710

Samples MCH 402 and MCH 440 are duplicate samples of MCH 400 and MCH436 respectively. Duplicace samples are collecced at the same locacion.

1-9

TABLE 1-3TOTAL ARSENIC, CADMIUM, CHROMIUM, LEAD, AND NICKEL

FROM INACTIVE DISPOSAL AREANEW CASTLE STEEL SITE

^ffw

SumpleContaminant Concencraclon

(rce/kp. dryDepth

Compos Ice0-4 feec4-6 feecB. 11 feec

0-4 feec4.8 feec6-12 fecC

0-4 feec4-8 feec8-10 £eec

0-3 feec3-5 i'K-c'1-8 feec

Pic

444A

555

666

7 .77

- - - - - - -^Sample

MCH 401MCH 448MCH 449MCH 430



MCH 437MCH 438 .MCH 439

Mttan concentrationStandard deviationMaximum concentrationMinimum concentration

As

14.41.052,6

5,21.12,5

1.053,82.4

1.11,11,05

2,161,465,21

Cd

10,48.17.68.7

6,64.43,7

5.35,75.3

7,09.613

7.342,62133,7

Cr

40,8303243

452010

312017

589375

39,6023.929310

Pb

134165372

401320

929.71.09

291418

47.6741.471349.7

Ni

76,5525669

382615

262526

532766

42,9620.0876.515

1-10

Based on the analytical results, che identification of contaminantsthrough previous sampling events, the volumes disposed, and chelexicological properties of the contaminants, five coxic elements wereexamined in this endangerraent assessment. Their noted prevalence offsiceand persistence in the environment further warrant their inclusion, Thefollowing elements were identified as potential contaminants of concerntic the NCS sice: arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, and nickel,

^ V

2,0 ENVIRONMENTAL PATE AND TRANSPORT PROPERTIES OF SITE CONTAMINANTS

2,1 Sice CharacCerisClea

Delaware is divided into two main physiographic provinces, chePiedmont Plateau .province, in che extreme northwest corner of che state,and che Atlancic Coascal Plain province, which comprises % percent ofche total remaining land area of the state (Figure 2-1), The city of NewCastle is located within the Atlantic Coastal Plain province along theDelaware River, Near New Castle, che land is generally flat, withelevacions ranging from sea level to about 100 feet above sea level(USDA, 1970),

The New Castle site is located adjacent to a marsh area chat bordersche Delaware River, This locacion in che river marks che upper region oftidal influence, therefore che marsh area is classified as ariverine-tidal sysiem, A typical riverine wetland system consists ofupland and che channel bank areas along Che river, Wetland vegetation isdominated by trees, shrubs, persistent emergents, emergent mosses, orlichens (USDOI, 1979a). Channel banks near the NCS sice have beenmodified by urban development, Existing vegetation is dominated by reedgrasses and cattails. In a tidal area, che gradient is low and watervelocity fluctuates under tidal influence, Oxygen deficits may sometimesoccur in this type of system. The marsh area is a natural deposicionarea. Drainage in this area is enhanced by a channel located between chetwo disposal areas, These sice characteristics provide suicablecondicions for che depos.ic of contaminated sediments in che marsh areabecause of runoff,

2,1,1 Gfioloj'.V

The NCS sice is in che Coascal Plain geologic province, soucheasc ofche Fall Line which separates the'Piedmont, The Coastal Plain provincein the New Castle area is underlain by unconsolidated sediments of Early

2-1

FIGURE 2-1THE PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROVINCES OF THE APPALACHIAN

REGION AND THE ATLANTIC COASTAL PLAIN

and Late Cretaceous age referred to as the Pocomae Formation, ThePotomac Formation is uneonformably overlain in most places by Pleistocenesediments (Columbia Formation) and Holocene (recent age) sediments.Crystalline bedrock below the site occurs at a depth of between 300 and600 feet below mean sea level (m.s.l.) (Woodruff, 1981),

The Potomnc Formation consists of fluvial deposits of nonmarineclays and silts that are incerbedded with sands, Near New Castle, che'sandn are thin and irregular in extent and thickness, The PotomacFormation thickens Coward the southeast (Woodruff, 1991),

The Columbia Formation is composed mostly of subarkosic sands andgr avals, Sediment colors range from can, brown to reddish brown, andYellowish brown, Thin beds of clay and silt are interspersed throughout:lii' formation, The sands are predominantly (wore than BO percent)ijuui't:, Feldspar content varies but averages about 18 percent, Theremaining fractions are potash-feldspar, plagioclase, and mica, Rockfragments, including chert, comprise about 1 percent,- Gravels within theColumbia Formation are dominated by sandstone (mostly quartzite), veinquarts, and chert (Spoljaric, 1'967),

Figure 2-2 is a diagrammatic cross-section showing the stratigraphicrelationships near New Castle, Delaware, The Columbia Formation isvirtually nonexistent in the immediate vicinity of the NCS site. Uthickens to a maximum of about 20 feet along the northern bank of theUrlawnrc- Rivei' (Woodruff and Thompson, 1975). Thick sections of theColumbia Formation form highly conductive channels called"palfcochunnsls", which provide a major source of ground water, Thesechimnels were formed by the filling of former scream valleys withdcpositii during interglacial stages (Spoljaric, 1967), Aiiorclie,isc-soutliwt'SC trending paleochannel lies just north of Che NCS sicein che Collins Park-Cascle Hill area (Figure 2-3) (Woodruff, 1981).

2-3

t

SEI mil

Holocene sediments

Diagrammatic erosi-sectlon showing slrallgraphlc relationship*(Nollo Scale)

FIGURE 2-2DIAGRAMMATIC CROSS-SECTION SHOWING STRATIGRAP1I1C RELATIONSHIPS

NEAR NEW CASTLE, DELAWARE(Woodruff, 1967)

CO1JUHB1A FORMATIONDEUWARE SCALE 124000

0:n.'

2-4 is a geologic cross-section (D-D1) based on well borings inthe Coll ins Park-Cascle Hills area just north of New Cascle, Delaware.The well locutions are shown in Figure 2-3,

The soil around the NCS sice is classified as che Othello-Fallalngcon-Urban land complex wlchin che Othello and Fallsingcon soilseries, About two- thirds of Che complex were originally classified asthe- Othello series, and one- third as Fallsingcon series soils, Bothseries are characterized by loamy A horizons; weak, medium, granulars true cure, friable, and strongly acidic, approximately, 10 inches inchicknc-ss, Subsoils are generally silt loam or sandy clay loam. TheOvhC'llo-Fullsingcon-Urban land complex consists of poorly drained, nearlyli-Vfl Ochollo nnd Fallsingcon soils chat have been used for residential,

and industrial development, Hose of che soils within the•!•. ilblngcon-Urban land complex have been severely disturbed,>>••'!• !'»•<! by as much as 18 inches of fill material. Most areas are

drained due to seasonally wet conditions and high wateri'li-vutlons, Mater movement through subsoils is rapid, The

moisture capacity of .these soils is generally high. Soils intin- Ochi-Uo mid Fallsingcon series are moderately erodible, with low tomedium infiltration (USDft, 1970),

2,1,2 Hvdrologv

The city of New Castle is located along the Delaware River atapproximately river mile (RM) 65 (Figure 2-5), The Delaware River,Including Us west branch, is approximately 370 miles long, with itsheiidwacers originating in Che Catsklll Mountains of New York, TheDi-liiwdL'e River drainage basin encompasses 12,765 square miles inbcluwur*, Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and New York, The DelawareRiver generally ranges from 8,000 co 10,000 feet in width along che reachbetween RM 65 and RM 68, with navigable channel depths (abouc 40 feec

2-6

'""•" DCollini Pirk'Cnille Hllli Well Fltldt

,H Cd4M3 Cd«-12

D'W4M6

CHOSS-SECTION KEY

0» I ColMmbli Fomuiim nil Holonne Srilmcnu—-—I (maiuicn on cnm>Ktiion onlyl

Pmonm Fotmmon

•cilhtitd trynilllni

iA A A) Top of unwciitiered crYilillInc buemtnii——• (duncd wliert inlcrrcd)

© TnnimiiiKliyi ll'/il«x « IW

unconformtiy

' rendition unccnim

1 |. • .| mum

••:';>'.! iquifcri or Miuty ZOIKIU J—1

ISS2 ,n,(__. mi

! I cu>FIGURE 2-<t

GEOLOGIC CROSS-SECTION FROM WELL BORINGS IN THECOLL1NS PARK • CASTLE HILLS AREA

(Woodruff, 19B5)2-7

*

IOW 0 ; 1000 IPX IMP IQOi iOOO 6000 7008 rt[l

! i i . 0 I «ilO"[I[»

. FIGURE 2-5VICINITV MAP, NEW CASTLE, BELAHARE

(USGS, 1967)2-8

deep) maintained up to Trenton, New Jersey, The US Army Corps ofEngineers is considering a channel deepening project along the DelawareRiver up to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (Duran, 1987). Flow races atTrenton average 5 million gallons per minute (USDOI, 1981).

• Hater quality along the lower sub-basin of the Delaware River (ReedyPoint co Hilmington) is generally poor, This tidally influenced regioncorresponds to the normal limit of saltwater encroachment. Meandissolved oxygen levels are characteristically 4-5 milligrams per liter(mg/1), which is lower than the minimum daily average proposed by theDelaware River Basin Commission, Concentrations of heavy metals haveoccasionally exceeded safe limits established by USEPA for chromium,nickel, copper, mercury, zinc, and cadmium (USDOI, 1981),

A few screams located in souchwest New Castle County drain into the .Chesapeake Bay, but all other streams in the councy flow eastward incothe Delaware River. New Cascle Councy is drained principally by cheChristina River and Its largest tributary, Brandywine Creek, which flowthrough che heart of Uilmingcon, Delaware, Many of che screams in theCoastal Plain flow to che souchwest (Rasmussen et al,, 1957), Surfacedrainage near the NCS site is poor, typical of many soils located onupland flats of che Coastal Plain, Many areas are artificially drainedbecause of che residential, commercial, and industrial development andche high water cable elevations (USDA, 1970),

The NCS site consists of a 3-acre disposal area (Figure 1-1), Thedisposal area is bisected by a drainage channel which separates che inactive disposal area on the west (1,30 acres) from che accive disposal areaon che east (1.75 acres), The Inactive disposal area drains surface waterwest, away from che drainage channel, coward a drainage ditch whicheventually conveys flow Co che marsh area. A 12-inch sewer line runs northco south along che western border of che inactive disposal area. Surface

2-9

W"V

return flows from che active disposal area generally flow northwardrowurd Ninth Street, A 36-inch sewer .main borders che southern perimeteriif both che active and Inactive disposal areas.

Marsh area surrounds che disposal areas on three sides, generallydriitniiifi coward che Delaware River,

2,1,3 Hvtirop.eolop.v

The NCS sice is in che Coastal Plain province, consisting of a chickwedge of unconsolidaced beds of gravel, sand, silt, and clay, This wedgechickens In a southeasterly direction Co a thickness of abouc 6,500 feetin the fur southeast corner of Delaware (Baker et al,, 1966), Within NewCascle County, 10 water-bearing formations have been identified, and 3 ofthem are principal aquifers; These principal aquifers are in chePleistocene series (Columbia Formation) and in the lower and middleaquifers of che nonmarine Cretaceous sediments (Pocomac Formation),

Each of the chree principal aquifers exhibits an interfingering"cliann*!" configuration as opposed Co a more uniform "sheec" typeIconic cry, Channels are filled .with fine co coarse sand and gravel, TheliiCfci'bi'micliLng and co some extent crisscrossing of these channels is welldocumented in the literature (Rasmussen et al,, 1957; Bonini, 1967;Woodruff, 1981), These paleochannels were formed during deposition ofriver sands and gravel and are ofcen separated by floodplain clays andswnip dutritus (Rasmussen ec al,, 1957), fionini (1967) provided welldiit.u iiiid resistivity results for Pleistocene channels in che New Castlearea, These channels nay exhibit high hydraulic conductivities,providing a major source of ground water, w'.ch yields up co severalhundred gallons per minute to individual wells (Woodruff, 1981), Many ofthese channels in che Columbia Formation are important conduits incmnsmiccing water (recharge) into che lower Pocomac Formation (Bonini,1167; Woodruff, 1961), In some instances, conductive zones within Che

2-10

*

wy

Poconuc and Columbia Formaclons may ace as a single hydrologic unit(Koodi-uff, 1981).

I'ennuable sands in che Pocomac Formation are che most importantsource of water for industries around northern New Castle County as wellas che sole source of water for che cicy of New Castle (Earth Data, 1984;BWLC, 1987), Total ground-water withdrawal by the city of New Castleuvernged 0,6 million gallons per day (mgd) in 1963 (Baker et al,, 1966),Currently, the city of New Castle is served by three wells drawing fromthe Pocomac Formation (well depths range from 28 feet to 135 feet) thathave a combined maximum capacity of 2,08 mgd, Earth Data (1984) reportedchut approximately 7,5 mgd was pumped from wells in 1982 within 3 milesof New Castle, This rate Is assumed to include private industrialsources as well, Because of the hydraulic variability of the Potomacamid-units, cransmisslvlcics '.Mnge from 3,400 to 12,250 gpd/fc, Verticalhydraulic conductivities betwuen confining layers separating che sands

.0hiiVr bv«n measured in only a few cases; chey range from 6,2 x 10gpd/fc2 to 2.4 x 10'1 spd/ft2 (Earth Data,'1984),

2.1.« Cl Im.'.tolnp.v

Climatic features of greatest interest for this endangermentassessment include temperature, precipitation, wind speed, and winddirection, These climatic features may play an important role ininfluencing contaminant fate and transport, hence exposure, ac che NCSsice, Where passible, average values for these parameters were obtainedfor generally over a 30-year period to provide an estimate of prevailingsice conditions,

The city of Now Cascle, Delaware, has u temperate climatech.ii'acreiL'lsed by warm, humid summers and cool winters, typical of theMiddle AClancic states, The average annual temperature for New CascleCounty is 54'F (12'C), July has the highest monthly average

2-11

l T

temperature (76"F, or 2A°C) and January has the lowest monthlyaverage temperature (33°F, or 1°C). Table 2-1 presents theaverage monthly temperatures for New Cascle County for the 30-year period1931-1960, New Castle County summers and winters are generally mild;summer heat waves or prolonged periods of freezing seldom occur(Rasmussen, et al,, 1957),

Annual rainfall in New Castle County averaged 44,56 inches for the30-year period 1931-1960 (Talley, 1976), Figure 2-6 summarizes themonthly precipitation for the period 1951-1980 at the National HeatherService station at Greater Wilmington Airport, The maximum monthlyprecipitation during this 30-year period ranged approximately from 6 to12 inches, while minimum monthly precipitation was less than 1 inch.Average monthly precipitation ranged approximately from 3 to A inches,

Information on wind speed and direction was obtained from theNational Weather Service (NWS) station, at the Greater Uilmington Airport(1,5 miles northwest of the site), Table 2-2 presents the monthlyprevailing wind directions and speeds since 1963, Two prevailing winddirections are evident, Hinds originate from between the northwest andwest northwest, and from the south, The average annual wind speed was9,1 mph (4,1 m/seO (NWS, 1987),

2,2 Sice Concnmlnnnts

Environmental fate and transport properties of contaminants ofconcern at the NCS site are presented in Section 2,2.1 (for lead)' andSection 2,2,2 (all other contaminants), Fate and transport properties ofselected contaminants will provide information on the expected exposureroutes possible at the site.

2,2,1 iand

Lead (Pb), ia a heavy metal and can pass through soils, aquaticenvironments, the atmosphere, and the food chain, The species (oxidationstate) of lead Conned and their associated solubilities are important

2-12

^ T

temperature (76'F, or U'C) and January has the lowest monthlyaverage temperature (33'F, or 1'C), Table 2-1 presents theaverage monthly temperatures for New Castle County for the 30-year period1931-1960, New Castle County summers and winters are generally mild;summer heat waves or prolonged periods of freezing seldom occur(Rasroussen, et al,, 1957).

Annual rainfall in New Cascle County averaged 44,56 inches for the30-year period 1931-1960 (Talley, 1978), Figure 2-6 summarizes themonthly precipitation for the period 1931-1980 at the National WeatherService station at Greater Hilmlngton Airport, The maximum monthlyprecipitation during this 30-year period ranged approximately from 6 to12 inches, while minimum monthly precipitation was less than 1 inch.M'ernge monthly precipitation ranged approximately from 3 to 4 inches,

Information on wind speed and direction was obtained from theNational Weather Service (NWS) station at the nearby Greater WllmingconAirport, Table 2-2 presents the monthly prevailing wind directions andspeeds since 1963, Two prevailing wintf directions are evident, Windsoriginate from between the northwest and west northwest, and from thesouth. The nverage annual wind speed was 9,1 mph (4,1 m/sec) (NWS, 1967),

2,2 Sirs Contaminants

Environmental fate and transport properties of contaminants ofconcern at the NCS site are presented in Section 2,2,1 (for lead) andSticr.ion 2,2,2 (all other contaminants), Fate and transport properties ofselected contaminants 'Will provide information on the expected exposureroutes possible .at the site,

3,2.1 lead

Lead (Pb), Is a heavy metal and can pass through soils, aquaticenvironments, the atmosphere, and the food chain, The species (oxidationstate) of lead formed and their associated solubilities are important

2-12

V?W

TABLE 2-1AVERAGE DAILY MAXIMUM, DAILY MINIMUM, AND MONTHLY

TEMPERATURES FOR THE PERIOD 1931-1960NEW CASTLE COUNTY, DELAWARE

Average Temperature (°F)

Daily Minimum

JnnuiU'vFebruaryMarchA p r i lMnyJuneJulyAujjuiilSeptfinbci1

O c t o b e rNovemberDecember

41.34 2 , 450.562 .573.461,866 ,26 4 , 2

. 7 7 . 955.155.143,5

Daily MaximumMonthly

25,52 5 , 232.041.652,061.06 5 , 6

' ' 64.35 7 , 335,735.744,4

33,433,841,352,16 2 , 771,476 ,07 4 , 367 ,6

' 4 5 , 445,454,1

Source: USDA (1970)

2-13

Monthly Precipitation at Greater Wiimingion Airport1951 -60, NOAA Slanon 9595

Jan|FeD|Mar|Apr|May|june|july|Aug|Sep!|Oct|Nov|Dec

. Source National Weainer Service

FIGURE 2-6MONTHLY PRECIPITATION AVERAGES

GREATER HIU1INGTON AIRPORT, DELAWARE

2-14

^^^w

TABU 2-2MONTHLY PREVAILING HIND DIRECTION AND MEAN

WIND SPEED FROM 1963 TO 1987GREATER WILMINCTON AIRPORT, DELAWARE

Prevailing Wind Direccion Mean Wind Speed (nph)

JanuaryFebruaryMarchAprilMuyJuneJulyAugustSepfi iul jerUc tobc rNovemberDecember

HNHNUWNW

.WNWSSNWSSNWNWWNH '

10,010.011,310,6

9,18,47 ,87 , 57 , 98.39 .39 ,4

Source: National Weather Service (1987)

2-15

determinants of che evencual transport process. Inorganic leadcompounds, generally formed from che 2t valence scate, are waterinsoluble, Organolead compounds, such as cecramechyl lead and tetraethyllead formed from che A+ oxidation state, tend Co be more soluble In waterand are more toxic (USEPA, 1979), Lead complexacion wich carbonates,sulfates, and sulfides forms compounds of low solubility(Clement, 1985), Thus formation of inorganic compounds, combinations oflead with carbonate, sulface, or sulfite ions, and che adsorption of leadleached from ores by ferric hydroxide will cause lead ac che NCS sice tobe normally immobile in ground water and surface water (USEPA, 1979),

The primary mechanism controlling the distribution_of lead in theenvironment appears to be sorption, Soils readily absorb lead at a pHabove 5, but soils tend to desorb lead ,is pH becomes more acidic, Due toacidic soil conditions at the site, increased mobility of lead throughsoil Is expected, Consequently, lead will migrate, via groundwacer, andexhibit greater mobility in acidic waters and tend to accumulate inneutral sediments of che Delaware'River. Surface water pH measurementstaken at the New Castle Steel site exhibited a pH of 6 (NUS, 1987b), Theobserved sorpcion method varies with soil conditions (Clement, 1985),Because studies show that only 0,6 -1,6 percent of the total lead insoils should be leachable, runoff of suspended particles, rather than cheleaching of soluble lead, should be the dominant migration pathway forcontaminants in soils at the site (Penwak et al., 1980),

Movement of lead and its compounds as particulates in the atmosphereis an important transport process at the NCS site, since the atmosphereis the major initial 'recipient of most lead emissions (Federal Register,1985), Photolysis of these particulates into many different compounds,such as lead oxide and the halogens, determines the forms of lead thatwill eventually enter aquatic and terrestrial systems (USEPA, 1979),Lead is removed from the atmosphere by wet or dry deposition (Clement,1985),

2-10

In cho aquatic environment, speclatlon of tha lead Influences it*fata. Divalent lead cations fern complexes tn unpolluted waters.Orjnnle complexatlon of Pb * is nest important In polluted waters(Clfrmvnr, '1985). Both forms are expected to be present in surface watersn*ar the NCS.alte. ,•':'•'. ".': ,.-.,.'.'. • '••-'•-.. .•;/',. V-r";', >'''• .' ' ' ' • . • . ' - ,

' ' ' ' . '' ' -•' • ' - -;•''' "f'"-'.:'f ;• :•"• '. ". ''••'"' '-....'Bloac cumulation .of lead'oeeurr in'a >ariety.of organisms, though lead

concentrations tend to decrease wltli increasing trophic level or distancefrom the prinary aouree in the food chain (USEPA, 1979). ;" Because lead insoil 1« not eeaily taken up by plants, its, availsbilUy to terrestrial .organisms Is limited (Clement. 1985). Studies. also show that »o«t leadin wac«r la not accessible to aquatic life (USEPA, 1979). Freshwetertflicroorganl*mi can nethylate lead to form tetraethyl lead. In thisi,i*hlon. lead in bed sedinanta is raaobilized Into the water column and:.,i :.od chain and is expected to occur in tha marsh areas adjacent toth« klrv Microcosm studies indicate that lead is not bioma|nifiedthrough th* food chain (USEPA, 1979),

2.2.2 '" " '

Though a rare element, arsenic (Aa) is ubiquitous in the earth'acrust and occura in hundreds of minerals, often with sulfur. With fourpossible oxidation states )•. 0, H, and 5+ arsenic's speciatlon is bothcorepli-x and important in determining ita fate, Interconversions of the3- And 3+ states and organie complexation hnvi the greatest impact of anytrantt'ormations (Cleaent,, 1985), -.Arsenic is generally very mobile in allenvironments. The chemical form of arsenic and the properties of theguiTuiindlnii m.dluji determine th* decree of mobility of the Mtal,

Ulien atmospheric. deposition, runoff from soils, and Industrialdischarge send nrsenie into aqueous environments (expected at tha NCS•it*j, it tends to cycle through the water column, sediments, and biota.

II

^ Wr

(As ) is generally the dominant species in aquatic systems,but biological activities nay produce arsenice (As ), methylated

(As '), and the highly volatile arsenic hydrides (AsH)1984a), Host salts and compounds of arsenic are soluble in water

(USDHHS, 1985), Ambient pH and Eh (reduction potential) conditionsdetermine the prevailing form of the metal and thus influence its fate(USEPA, 1979), Adsorption and desorption to sediments dominates theaquatic cycling process. Iron concentration affects aqueous arsenicsorption, and coprecipitation with hydrous oxides of Iron is a prevalentprocess expected at the NCS sice (USEPA, 1979), Transport in solution toocean sediments is the major sink for arsenic in water. Volatilizationof arsenic or methylarsenics through biotransformations and highlyinducing conditions is Also an important mobilization process (Clement,1985), ,-ind this process is expected to be of some importance in marshareas below the site, Due to arsenic's toxic icy, bioaccumulation is not.in importune fate in aqueous media and is significant only in lowertrophic levels (USEPA, 1979).

On land and in the atmosphere, arsenic is also quite mobile, In theair, arsenic crioxlde (As20,j) is the dominant species, Arsenicparticles remain in the atmosphere for only a shore period beforecontinuing to cycle through the environment, Wet or dry depositionremoves arsenic from the air, The properties of the soil determine theface of arsenic on land, Soils containing clays (Pocomac Formation) andorganic matter sorb arsenic well and retard its leachubility, Arsenicwill mobilize into the ground water from soils with low sorpcive capacity(USEPA, ".ISA), As with aquatic biota, bioaccumulation of toxic arsenicby terrestrial organisms contributes* little to its transport and fate,

Cadmium

Cadmium (Cd) appears in nature in the zero valence state (in metalsand alloys) and most often in the divalent state (in compounds), Cadmium

2-18

^ ff

may form both organic and inorganic complexes, Though a rare element,cadmium hns many of the properties of zinc and consequencly cadmium isfound in all sine-containing products,

Most of the total cadmium in waters at the NCS site is expected toexist us the divalent cadmium ion, Relative to other heavy metals,cadmium is vary mobile in aquatic environments, although certain formsarc Insoluble in water and therefore less mobile (USEPA, 1979), Hydratedcations and organic or inorganic complexes accounc for che cadmium chatremains in solucion, The principal face of any cadmium migrating offsiceIn aquatic media, however, is sedimentation via sorptlon by clays ororganic matter following organic complexation, especially with humicacids (Clement, 1985), Cadmium concentrations in sediments are generallync lease an order of magnitude greater than chose in the ambient water(USEPA, 1979), The spcciation of the cadmium ion and the degree to whichdie water Is polluted control the face of che metal, The divalent metalen don predominates in acidic and neutral waters (pH 6), common tosurface waters nenr the site, Higher pH favors complexes with'carbonateiuid hydroxide ions (expected to, occur above pH 8). Both the hydrate'diliviiltnc cation (common in unpolluted water) and organically completedcadmium (found in polluted water) are expected to occur in surface watersaround urban ureas such as New Castle, Delaware (USEPA, 1979).

Though investigations have been limited, cadmium transport in soiliippeurs to be a slow process, Cadmium sorption in soil is strong andcon-elates well with the organic content of the soil (USEPA, 1979),After adsorption, however, cadmium may desorb from the soil andremobllisfr, often as a result of a decrease in pH below 7 or an increasein salinity (USEPA, 198Mj). Therefore soils ac che sice and che lowlyingmarsh areas may retain cadmium over long periods of time,

2-19

^ WF

Dust and fumes containing cadmium reside in the atmosphere, Chemicalinteraction usually results in speciation rather than decomposition, Theremoval mechanism of these particles occurs through wet and drydeposition (USEPA, 1984b).

Organisms at all levels of the food chain accumulate cadmium often bythe replncemfnt of zinc in metabolic functions, Bioaccumulation factorsithe ratio of the concentration In the organism to the concentration inthe surrounding water) in aquatic biota generally range from 1,000 to3,001) but may reach several hundred thousand (USEPA, 1979),

Terrestrial plants do not significantly deplete cadmiumconcentrations in soils by absorption-through their roots, However,concentrations of cadmium in plants (home gardens near the site) may beL-k-vdtcd sufficiently to cause potential exposure to humans and animalsthrough ingestion (Clement; 1985),

Clu'oinliini

Chromium (Cv) generally appears in nature in either a trlvalentid- ) or hexavalent (Cr ) oxidation state, Orher valences arerelatively unstable and therefore do not contribute significantly tototal concentrations of chromium in the environment, The speciationdominates the face of the metal, Hexavalent chromium is very watersoluble and remains very mobile, On the other hand, for trivalentchromium, precipitation and adsorption are important processes, BothhwKaviileiit and trivalent forms are expected to occur, the trivalent formIs expected to, be dominant, Ground water data analyzed specifically foriH'Xnvnlent chromium showed no detectable levels (<10 pg/1) (NUS,

Hexavalent chromium, a strong oxidizing agent, forms stable complexo. 2-nnions, such as chromate (CrO^ ) and dichromate (Cr,0y ),

Tlii- high solubility of these anions is responsible for their great

2-20

II

mobility in aquatic environments (Clement, 1985), When reduced to thetrlvultint state, chromium is usually hydrolized and precipitated aschromium hydroxide (Cr(OH),) (USEPA, 1979), the expected principal fate

2*of chromium ut che NCS site, Cr may also adsorb on sediments or beconsumed by aquatic and marine biota, Ambient conditions, such as pH,hardness, and the types of other compounds present, influence theoxidation state formed in aquatic environments (Clement, 1985), Thus,conditions favorable to the trivalent state will lead to precipitation,adsorption, and tic-accumulation, while soluble forms of chromium willaccumulate in aquatic settings favorable to Cr * formation,

Trivalenc chromium accounts for nearly all the chromium present insoils and sediments, Trivalent chromium is strongly adsorbed onto claysand orgflnlcs found in soils, Soil components, with the exception ofacclvncf-d cnrban, do not readily adsorb hexavalent chromium, whichremains soluble and mobile in ground water and surface water (USEPA,Wt). Little hexavalent chromium is leached from soil; instead itquickly reduces to the trivalent state, especially in soils of highorganic content (Clement, 1985),, This is substantiated by surface andground witter samples analyzed for hexavalent chromium which showed nodetectable levels of chromium above 10 mg/1 (USEPA, 1987a, b),

Chromium occurs in the atmosphere as paniculate matter. This dustmny spread miles from its source, depending on particle size and density,Ix-to re- returning to the ground via fallout or precipitation (Clement,1V8S).

Chromium may pass through the food chain especially by accumulationin aquatic and marine biota, whose chromium levels are usually muchliiglier than in the surrounding water, though lower than chromium levelsin sediments. This indicates that the food chain is a^greater source ofchromium for aquatic life than does direct uptake from seawater (USEPA,

2-21

^^^T

On land, plants tend to retain chromium in their roots and rarelytrnnslocnte ic to their leaves, This, in turn, limits the availabilityof chromium to terrestrial animals,

Jilukel

A relatively mobile heavy metal, nickel (Ni) commonly occurs in theelemental and divalent states, Sorption processes and plane uptake maylimit its mobility somewhat, Photolysis, volatilization, andbiocransformation do not play important roles in the environmentaltransport and fate of nickel at the NCS site (Clement, 1985),

The overall passage of atmospheric nickel may be characterized as ashort-lived transport process, Various chemical forms of nickel appearIn the atmosphere as dust and fumes, but any chemical interactions ofnickel usually result in Us conversion to nickel oxide (USEPA, 1985a),Tlir length of stay in the .innosphere of nickel particulars beforeremoval by wac or dry deposition depends on particle size and density,The average half-life in air is much longer for smaller particles,allowing granger transport distances,

Nickel usually occurs in the divalent oxidation state in aqueousmedia and has a great affinity for organics, hydrous iron, and manganeseoxides, Most of the common organic compounds containing nickel aresoluble in water and support the metal's high mobility, However, ,sorprion and coprecipitation involving hydrous iron and manganese oxides'.commonly found in soils) moderately limit nickel mobility, especially athigh ptl (USEPA, 1979), Another factor that regulates the mobility ofnickel in aqueous media is the degree of pollution, Nonpolluted waterfjvorsi sorption and precipitation, while polluted waters provide organicgroups needed for the formation of soluble nickel compounds (Clement,1<;85). Both precipitated and soluble nickel are expected in surfacewncers near the NCS site, Bioaccumulatlon of nickel by aquatic organisms

2-22

is limired, and in general, most nickel introduced to rivers and screamseventually settles in ocean basins (USEPA, 1979),

Analogous to aqueous media, che composition of the soil exerts adominating effect on the fate of nickel in terrestrial settings, Soilhigh in iron and manganese oxides (expected at the NCS site) sorbs nickelsignificantly and impedes its movement. The metal remains mobile inground water with a high organic content (USEPA, 1985a), Plants nay takeup some nickel, but nickel Is, nevertheless, relatively mobile in soil,

2-23

3.0 EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT

This exposure assessmenc is an evaluation of existing exposureroutes as well as rouces that may reasonably be expected in the future.The specific routes through which exposure nay occur are Identifiedthrough an environmencal fate screening process to qualitatively assessconcaminanc migration or transport from the NCS site and the expectedranges of ambient concaminanc concentrations ac affected locations(USEPA, 1986).

The objectives of this exposure assessment are to identify actual orpotential'routes of exposure (Section 3,1), to characterize chepopulations exposed (Section 3,2), and to quantify che extent of exposure(Section 3,3), These objectives have been achieved through an analysisof environmental samples collected from the NCS sice, che face andtransport properties of che contaminants (see Section 2,2), and cheexposed populations, This assessment is based on * "no-action remedialresponse",

3,1 Routes of Exposure

Based on the contaminant screening process and the fate andtransport characteristics described earlier, Versar idencifled chefollowing pocencial exposure rouces:

1. Inhalation of lead-contaminated airborne parciculace emissionsfrom che active disposal area of che NCS sice,

2. Direct contact with waters, sediments, or soils in drainage ormarsh areas below the NCS site chat have been contaminated withlead and other metals through surface runoff or erosionalprocesses, Direct concacc Includes ingestion exposure, and Co'alimited extent, dermal exposure,

No exposure via direct ingestion of contaminated ground water wasIdentified, Earth Daca (1984) conducted an inventory of water supplywells and ground-water usage within a 0,5-mile radius of the NCS site,Figure 3-1 shows an arc of 0,5-mile radius from the center of the NCSsice and che locations of identified water supply wells,

3-1

•.•••**"*..

' ' *>\*K\ ,1/2-mile radius arc around ~S4 ' £-New Castle Steel Site ./V^'^N' V ^^rf^*^De«mer> ''•f'f- ^**^ ,si*t, Beach'<$& • '°'1' '

V

1000 0 • I IQM JIM 1ICT IMP MM MHO IMP FIE!

I t________0________________I «HCM(ltB

FIGURE 3-1OP WATER SUPPW WELLS NEAR

IKE NEW CASTLE STEEL SITE

3-2

The city of New Castle's water supply is derived from three wells(NC-1, 2, and 4). Another well (NC-3) was taken ouc of service onMarch 16, 1981, All four of the wells are located more than 0.5 milefrom the disposal area (BHLC, 1967),

According to John Moore, superintendent of the Board of Uacer andLight Commissioners for the city of New Castle, only two privately ownedwells in the immediate vicinity of New Castle could possibly be inservice, These wells are owned by Delaware Block Co, and Weaver PoleLine Services (Figure 3-1), Delaware Block Co, is very close to thedisposal areas but maintains that it is unaware of wells on itsproperty, Delaware Block representatives also state that cicy water isthe drinking water supply (Earth Data, 1984),

Weaver Pole Line Services is located more than 0,3 mile from the NCSsite. According to Mr, Weaver, water from this well is used only to washtrucks, Potable water is purchased from Great Bear in bottles fordrinking purposes, The depth of this company's well is not known, but a"deep well" pump is installed, and the most probable source is thePocomae Formation, No other currently used water supply wells arelocated within 0.5 mile of the NCS site,

One well was drilled for the city of New Castle in 1936 andcompleted at a depth of 148 feet in the Pocomae Formation, This well islocated near Fourth Street and Wilmington Road, and it Is more than0,5 mile from the NCS site. The well was used to supply small quantitiesof water on an irregular basis and was put out of service permanentlyseveral years ago. The well is shown as Dd 12-3 in Figure 3-1,

In 1965, another well was drilled for the Penn Apartments. The wellis located near Third Street and Delaware Avenue, 0.5 mile from thedisposal area, This well is shown as Dd 12-2 in Figure 3-1, Accordingto Mr, Moore, this well was closed 3 years ago, but it could have been

3-3

out of service for many years before closure because of low yield, HellDd 12-2 was completed in Pleistocene sediments at a depth of 44 feec(Earth Data, 1964),

A survey by Earth Data of nearby Industries revealed no ocherprivate wells within a 0,5-mile of che center of che sice. All of cheindustries reported chac they purchased water from che cicy of New Cascleand knew of no ocher wacer supply wells,

Contaminants migrating through ground wacer inco Che Delaware Riverare noc expected co further impact aquaclc species presenc, The NCS siceis located along che Delaware River at river mile (RH) 66, The sice isin che lower sub'-area of che basin (RM 56 co 73). Commercial fishing andshellfish harvesting occur much farther south in Che Delaware Bay (DNREC,1986), Recreational (spore) fishing nay occur within che lower sub-area,even though this area has been adversely impacted by pollutant loadingsfrom several industrial sources in che Creacer Wilmington area, Thissub-area contains 8 municipal wascewacer treatment planes, 3 powerplants, and 12 ocher industrial point source dischargers, In addition,four dredge disposal areas are located within this reach, one at cheKillcohook National Wildlife Refuge approximately 3-4 miles due south ofche NCS sice (USDA, 1987),

Shellfishlng refers Co collection of any mollusk or crustacean,including oysters, clams, mussels, whelks, lobsters, shrimp, crabs, andsquid, Licensing requirements vary for commercial and publicshellflshlng in che State of Delaware, however, roost licensedshellfishing occurs in che Delaware Bay and Inlets co che bay(DNREC, 1966), located at che southern porcion of che state. Thedistance of che bay from New Cascle, on che order of 60 miles, diminishesthe impact of any releases on shellfish, and any potential exposure •hazards from consuming them, Aquatic face and transport for each of chestudied contaminants J,s presented in Seccion 2,2

No bioassays were available co accurately quantify human exposure tomecaIs through the ingestion of contaminated fish or shellfish, Human

3-4

^ ^

exposure through this route that could be directly attributed to Che NCSsite is expected to be minimal, Heavy metal contamination problems exist(USDOC, 1987) in this area, Concentrations of chromium, nickel, copper,mercury, zinc, and cadmium occasionally exceed che recommended safelimits established under EFA's Ambient Water Quality Criteria forfreshwater, Mean levels for lead Indicate a chronic lead pollutionproblem; these levels are generally attributed to industrial wastedischarges in che middle sub-area above Wilmingcon (USDOC, 1987),

Airborne Pnrcloulates

Inhalation exposures to lead-contaminated, wind-dispersed dust arelikely to occur from exposed surfaces of the active disposal area of cheNCS site, Fate analysis indicates chat wind-transported particulace leadis a primary dispersal mechanism (Uud does not appreciably volatilizefrom soils), Other metals studied (arsenic, cadmium, chromium, andnickel) did not exhibit environmental concentrations in excess ofconcentrations typically found'in suU, Dusts are generated from theactive fill area through wind erosion and vehicular traffic, Trucks andocher heavy equipment historically used by Deeraer Steel Company forfoundry waste disposal or other vehicle traffic over che active site willcontinually generate new erodible surfaces, The inactive disposal areaof the NCS site is characterized by nearly continuous (greater than80 percent) vegetative cover, consisting of trees, shrubs, and grasses,This degree of cover limits erosion potential by increasing che surface'sthreshold.friction velocity (Cowherd et al,, 1985),

Respirable concentrations of lead-contaminated particulates weredetermined by using a predictive model, Model input was derived from asite survey and particulate emission factors generated for both wind andmechanical entrainment processes, The onsite survey conducted by NVSIncluded a chemical and particle sice (through sieving) analysis of chewaste material (NUS, 1987a), No direct high-volume air sampling wasperformed,

Based on che fate properties of arsenic, cadmium, chromium, and

3-5

TJ F

nickel (Section 2.2) and their much lower environmental concentrations,no significant exposure hazard exists although respirable concentrationsof these contaminants were similarly modeled (Attachment 2),

Dtreec CopCact wtch Contaminated Surface Uatetv Soils, and Sediments

Direct contact with surface waters or soils and sediments inselected areas near the NCS site may lead to exposure primarily throughingestion. Ingestion exposure may occur through accidental ingescion ofcontaminated material on unwashed hands or through intentional ingestion(i.e., pica in children), Indirect ingestion exposure may also occurthrough the consumption of contaminated foodstuffs from home gardens and,to a limited extent, through recreational fishing or shellflshing in thenearby marsh areas or in the Delaware River.

:;*rmal exposure through direct contact will be negligible, Dermalexposure i,-i inorganics (metals) generally occurs when these contaminantslire present in dissolved form or when organically (methylated) bound,Fate analyses indicate that these forms will not be present insignificant quantities but rather as complexed inorganics (i.e.,carbonates, hydroxides), Most metals exhibit a high affinity forpurticulate matter, therefore minimizing their availability for transportacross the skin barrier (Clement, 1985).

3,'2 Populations Exposed

Airborne Partioulaces

The populations exposed to lead-contaminated airborne partlculateshave been estimated by using a dispersion model (Cowherd et al,, 1985),Two scenarios were used, an annual average estimate and a worse-case,24-hour estimate method, Results of the scenarios are presented inFigures 3-2 and 3-3, respectively, Model inputs and calculations, andsources of information are presented in Attachment 2,

U,S, Census data for 1980 indicate that the total population of NewCascle is 4,908 (USDOC, 1987b), More detailed block group informationwas obtained through the U,S, Department of Commerce to provide age and

3-6

HUUKfc i-iTOTAL LEAD CONCENTRATIONS IN SOILS AND SEDIMENTS

NEW CASTLE, DELAWARE3-7

FIGURE 3-3TOTAL NICKEL CONCENTRATIONS IN SOILS AND SEDIMENTS

NEW CASTLE, DELAWARE3-8

sex data on pocenclally exposed populacions near the NCS sice. Blockgroups are minor civil divisions or craccs within the city of New Cascle,and therefore represent a smaller segment of New Castle's totalpopulation of 4,908, The city of New Castle is divided into two census'tracts, tract 0162, which generally includes areas south and west ofDelaware Street, and tract 0161, which encompasses areas north and eastof Delaware Street. The NCS site is situated within census tract 0162,

1980 Census data for tract 0162 reveals a total population of2,519, Females (of all ages) comprise 53,2 percent (1,339) of thepopulation, Child-bearing age groups, conservatively figured at14-5A years of age, comprise 30,5 percent (768) of the population (USDOC,1987),

Based on the total population of New Castle (4,908) and housingcounts derived from a U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 7,5-minute seriesquadrangle map, Table 3-1 presents the potentially exposed populationsidentified within the annual average isopleths delineated on Figure 3-2(USGS, 1967), Housing densities in the Wllmlngton Manor Gardens andJefferson Farms areas are based on nearby housing densities ofDobbinsville and Rogers Manor,

A worst-case, 24-hour exposure scenario was also evaluated to obtaina conservative estimate of potential (short-term conditions) leadexposures assuming worst-case estimates of both emission rates andmeteorological conditions (such as dry conditions and high wind speeds).This scenario also differs from the annual average estimates in that itis based on prevailing wind directions, Information from the NationalHeather Service station at the nearby Greater Wilmington Airport for the25-year period 1963-1987 indicates there are two prevailing winddirections in the area, The two prevailing wind directions are out ofthe south and out of the northwest (NWS, 1987), The results of thedispersion model are presented in Figure 3-J, (Supporting data andcalculations are presented in Attachment 2,)

3-9

oi-t

'($961 '"(* 1* pjnilrtoj) «3U»pt«u Jid tuocJwl n'c ji »"rJ»A» 'it- -r

put i

»n(so'i

esc

1 ICC

9 lit

1 Kt

sco'o to o . if: n

wo « . - » «

?JI'0 !"'0 • O I ' O

sot

»vt

K

et ?«'0

IIBOJI JO '0||

pniiuntjI uj/flnj (wf ln)

311S 1331S 311SV3 H3H

simijsju 30VH3AV ivnum aoj SHOHVIWM aatojwi-e awl

^ p

Based on house counts used for the 7. 5 -minute USCS quadrangle napand a currenc street map for the New Castle area, the followingpot.pnciully exposed populations were identified within the worst-case,21 -hour concentration isopleths depicted in Figure 3-3 (USCS, 1967; ADC,undated), Again, housing densities of nearby Dobbinsville and RogersManor were used to estimate housing densities in neighborhoods where thebasemap did not show single-family dwellings, The enumerated potentiallyexposed populations are shown in Table 3-2.

Dtivi't Conrnoc

Sufficient quantitative data are not available to accurately portraythe distribution of any potential contaminant around the NCS site, Iniicklttlon, naturally occurring high background values for all of theoonrainlnancs of l:;:c-resc indicate that other sources are playing an .,-icrive role in cont.iisinant concentrations throughout the New Castlevicinity. Recent studies of lead in urban soils show chat leadconcentrations typically range from 150 to. 300 mg/kg (ppm); surface soilsiimplas from roadside ditches may have lead concentrations greater thanJ.uOO ing/kg (USEPA, 1984), These values are undoubtedly a result of theextensive use of leaded gasolines for decades,

Analytical results for soil and sediment samples collected duringLnte winter and early spring 1987 are presented in Table 3-1, Thespecific locations of sampling points for arsenic, cadmium, chromium,Wad, and nickel aro presented in Figures 3-<t, 3-5, 3-6, 3-7, and 3-8,respectively,

A fence surrounds most of the NCS site with the possible exceptionot tin-as close to the marsh, The fence will limit accessibility andtherefore reduce potential accidental direct contact with the wastematerial. Individuals who may play, swim, or wade in the nearby marsh or

3-11

1

I

I

t I

ELS Kta SEDIMOftS

tidal flat area, however, may be at higher risk for direct contactexposure (primarily through Ingeseion).

Based on daca from the Bureau of Outdoor Recreation and assumingthat 34 percent of the total population (national average) swims outdoorsIn natural surface-water bodies (Includes oceans, lakes, creeks, andrivers), then a conservative estimate indicates that up to 1,669Individuals may come into direct contact with potentially contaminatedsoils and sediments or surface water near the site (USDOI, 1973), Thisnumber is expected to be far less, because the area is not a desirablerecreational area, The proximity of many industrial or commercialbusinesses and the marginal quality of the shoreline area for human use(dense growths of cattails and reed grasses) will limit direct contact to.,:•• potentially contaminated soils and sediments or surface watersKl'SXV. 1987),

3,3 Excenr of Exposure

AU'horne Piu'Cteulncus

Estimates of annual average exposures to lead-contaminatedparticulate emissions have been computed as the expected average dailylifetime exposures (ADLEs), An ADLE is computed an:

IContaminant

CnncencraclonRespiration

RareExposure! [AbsorbedDurnclonl Iprncclon

[Body Weight 11 Life time |

Tlio ADLE is based on averages of an adult male having a respirationrace of 23 m /day, an exposure duration of 70 years, an absorbedfraction of 21,9 percent, an average body weight of 70 kg, and a lifetimeexpectancy of 70 years (Cowherd ec al,, 1985), The.calculated

3-18

oxcenc of exposure (ADLE) for each of che annual average concentrations,presented earlier in Table 3-1, was computed as;

Annual AverageConcentration

(/<S/"i3)

0.550,3750,1750.0750,038

ADLE(mg/kg/day)

4.0 x 10-52.7 x 10'J1.3 x 10'J5,0 x 10'°3,0 x 10'6

*Supporting documentation and explanations of each of che parameters

used co compute che ADLE are presented in Attachment 2. Risk associatedwith these exposure levels is discussed In .Section 5,0,

The worse-case, 24-hour estimates are generally expressed inooncencriicions only because chese estimates represent en extreme dailyovtnt that cannot be extrapolated over a long-term basts (Cowherd ec al,,10B5),

Pjrtn't Cnnrac.t

A cocal of 21 soil and sediment samples from offsice locacions wereanalyzed for cocal metals, The offsice locacions include backgroundlocacions noc materially affected by che NCS sice, and locacions near coche sice or copographically downgradienc from che NCS sice, In areasnear or copographically downgradienc from che sice, direct exposure mayresult from che migracion of concaminancs from che sice because ofsurface erosional processes or from waste-transporting activitiesperformed by Deemer Sceel,

For samples from che downgradienc areas and background locations,analytical data (.total metals) were compiled for arsenic (As), cadmium

3-19

(Cd), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), and nickel (Ni) and summarized inTables 3-3 and 3-4.

Arsenic concentrations in samples from downgradient areas (areaswhere direct contact exposures are most likely to occur owing to theproximity of the marsh and the Delaware River) range from just above thedetection limit to 42 mg/kg (all concentrations are reported on dryweight basis), and the average arsenic concentration is 13,05 mg/kg ofsoil, By comparison, the concentration of arsenic in soil averages 5 ppm(mg/kg) but ranges from 1 to 50 ppm (USEPA, 1979; Bohn ec al,, 1979),

The cadmium concentrations range from below the detection limit to7 mg/kg, and the mean concentration is 2,59 mg/kg, lower than the averagevalue for cadmium at background locations, 4.34 mg/kg (Table 3-4),Concentrations of cadmium in soil range from 0,01 to 7 ppm and generallyaverage about 0,15 ppm (USEPA, 1979; Bohn et al,, 1979).

Chromium concentrations in downgradient areas were generally higherIn concentration compared n> arsenic and cadmium, from 11 to 74 mg/kg,and average 32.45 mg/kg of soil. Typical soil chromium concentrationsmay range from 20 to 100 ppm (USEPA, 1979; Bohn et al,, 1979),

Lead concentrations have the broadest range and are highest, Leadconcentrations range front 21 to 3,260 mg/kg and average 419,64 mg/kg,The computed standard deviation of 955,29 mg/kg is notably high,suggesting that the maximum value of 3,260 mg/kg obtained at the Route 9culvert is an outlier (see Section 5,0), Urban soils commonly have leadconcentrations ranging from 150 to 300 mg/kg, and lead may exceed2,000 mg/kg of soil near roadsides (USEPA, 198/ic), These high levels arelargely a result of the extensive use of leaded gasolines and therelative immobility of lead in sediments,

Nickel concentrations range from 10 to 140 mg/kg, and the averagenickel concentration in soil and sediment is 44,73 mg/kg, Nickelconcentrations in soil generally average 40-80 ppm (USEPA, 1979; Bohn etnl., 1979),

3-20

TABU 3-3TOTAL METALS' ANALYSIS AND STATISTICAL simm or SOIL AND SEDIMENT

SAMPLES FROM OFFSIIE, WHNORAOIENT LOCATIONS' NEW CASTLE STEEL SUE

*

DownirAdlint LocAtion

DCAUIABI ditchKinth Stttti eulvtrt1

DcAiniBi CAM!by ruilroid

Dmiuei CWA!by tAiltmd

StAtl ROUII 9 CUlVItt

CanAl bttwMn bridunHarsh 2MK9II 3Mann -Mirth 5

Darners B*Ach

MKAII concentrationf tAi iOAtd divmionMAKiinMn concvntrAiionMinimum toncinuotion

LAbotAiorySupli


MCH 927!

MCH 931MCH 933MCH 932MCH 929MCH 939MCH 936MCH 939

ContvnlfiAnt Concintcntian(nt/k( dry HiiRnt)

Ai

163.25

*2

29

15193,2

27<!.«!

113,7

19.0912,27«23.2

Cd

1,6• 1,6

3,3

2,29

)2.991,62,992,291.691,05

2.991.9771,6

Ct

192927

n»74212

. • S7

1920

'* .

32.*)20.17?*11

Ft)

2423

16*

397

3,26090021

133' 29

3253

U8.64999,29

3,26091

111

12it61

10

106951022202t

140

^n42,06

14010

Ihn i™plin» location »",', includid » A do«n)Cidunt «ri« due to iti pcomnity to tinaiipostl «r»«

;S,ur,pl« MCH till it A dupl lCAU o[ >mpl« MCH 926. DupllCAti impln An colltctid «t thtiwtiv locat ion.

3-21

TA8LE 3-tTOTAL HEIM.5'ftHMI5I3 AND STATISTICS, SIMMY OF SOIL AND SEDIMENT

SAHPUS FROM OFFS1IE, BACKOROUHD LOCATIONSNEW CASTLE STEEL SITE

fUcKaround Location

UptlllMHarrow Dyke marah artaCall marshUptradunt marshBattery ParkBaUCleld naar Abex

Playground bocdttrinit

V.ICJIll lotOnrdin &o i l1U<I 101 1

Mean concentrat ionStandard deviationMaximum concentrat ionMinimum concentration

lebocatarySimpli

MCH 92*MCH 34*MCH 930H=H '341MCH 942MCH 403

MCH 404

MCH 40}MCH 406MCH 40)

Contaennant Concentration(oi/kg dry Height)

A,

.4.2S113.7

267,30,05

1.1

I4 . 91

6.121.49

SI0,85

Cd

2,14,451.854,31.75,7

7.7

3. 3101.7

4,342. BO

101.7

Cr

»546 , 4

901311

36,1

16.330.115,1

32.4125,10906.4

n

37314319

1901469.5

200

it363

63,6

161.11132.17'373

14

Hi

4636O

331,1

17,5

37. J

16.43111,4

24 ,0314,7446

4 , 5

3-22

In order for contaminants co be absorbed chrough che skin via directcontact, a substance muse pass chrough epidermal cells, che cells of chesweat or sebaceous glands, or hair follicles. Host substances passchrough epidermal cells, Chemicals nusc chen pass chrough a series ofother cellular layers, Absorption chrough che various skin layers Isdependent on chemical polarity, solubility, and molecular weight(Casarect and Doull, 1986),

Host of che contaminants addressed in this report (arsenic, cadmium,chromium (3+) , and lead) are generally sorbed onco sedlnenc paruicles andai'e not expected co be highly available for uptake through che skin,

Ic should be noted chac in several instances, "background"concencraclon values for arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, and nickel•exceeded "downgradient" values, indicating ocher source areassignificantly contribute^ co these environmental concencracions

3. A),

Vai'sar obtained Information on the frequency of exposure forIndividuals who may swim or play in outdoor areas are 7 days (or events)per year for 2,6 hours per event (Versar, 1986), Using the highescconcencracions found at locations immediately around or downgradienc ofthe altfc , dermal exposure can be calculated as

DEX - WF x A x DA

whtoro DEX - Dermal exposure (mg/evenc)UF • Weight fraction of chemical substance in soil or sedlmenc

(unicless)A • Skin surface area exposed per event (cm'/evenc)DA - Dust adherence (ing/cm ).

lThess- locations are depicted as triangles on Figures 3'A through

3-23

*Versar Inc, calculated ingestion exposures for the highest observed

concentrations of each.element for these locations, shown as triangles InFigures 3-4 through 3-8, The ingestion exposures assume thac the average

oskin surface area of an adult is 1,173 cm (representing hands and

oface) and dust adherence is 1,45 rag/ciu (Versar, 1966).

The actual dose incurred through ingestion is computed bymultiplying the frequency of events (7 events per year) and dividing by365 days per year and assuming an average adult weight of 70 kg(Table 3-5),

Del-mill exposures that may occur through direct contact withcontaminati-c! surface water are expected to be minimal. Fate analysisIndicates ri.nc either contaminants will be sorbed onto sedimentparticles, ,md thereby not be available for transport across the skinsurface, or the contaminants will precipitate in an aqueous medium,Although nickel and hexavalent chromium compounds exhibit appreciablesolubility in water, all nickel concentrations in samples from locationsnc.ir ov downgradient of the site are within USEPA Ambient Hater Quality .Criteria (AiJQC) (chronic freshwater) (Table 3-6), and hexavalent chromiumWHS noc doii-cred in surface water samples specifically analyzed for thisspecies. Three of the nine downstream samples exceeded USEPA Al'OC (acutefreshwater) for lead and eight of the samples exceeded chronic levels,Averse le.nl concentrations for these samples was 149.5 ppb. Approximatelocacions of surface wacer sampling points are presented in' Figure 3-9,

Ingestion exposures thac nay occur through direct contact withcontaminated surface water are expected to be minor, Recreationalswimming in these marsh areas is expected to be insignificant because ofthe presence of dense growths of cattails and reed grasses along the

channel and river shorelines,

3-24

TABLE 3-5ESTIMATED INOESTION EXPOSURES TO CONTAMINATED SOILS AND SEDIHENIS

HEW CASTLE STEEL SITE

Elinvitt

AHIIUC

Cmmiiim

Chtonuum

L.,J

M.r l r .1

Hiflhtu ObBirvidConcintraLion Height' Insmion Expaiuri Don Incucrid

(mn/ktt) Fraction (ma/ivira) tm*/l(B/{l*y)

^2 A, 2 X 10"5 7.16 x 10"2 1.66 x It)"3

.7 7.0 x 10"° 1.19 X lO"*1 3.27 x 10*°

7d l.k x 10"5 1.26 X 10*1 3.O X 10"J

J.200 3.26 A Id'3 1.5 , 1,12 X lO*3

un i L v in"* 3 3fl » in"* fi ^5 * ID*'

1 ^

3-25

TABLE 3-6TOTAL HETALS ANALYSIS OF SURFACE WATER

NEK CASTLE STEEL SITE1'2

^^

SimpleSample Number Location

Oonnstrejin1.

HCH 314 3

HCM 919 4

Min *|5 5

HCn 920 : 6

MCM 922 7

Mill 921 b

HCr. *35 9

HCn 53? 10

MCn 940 11

HusnStandard Deviat ion

HinniMinMMIIIM

focKground:

MCh1 913 1

HCM W 2

Hear,

F.PA Ainu lent HaterQu.ilH» Cr i t e r i a :

Acute

CnroniL

A:

S

13

5

5

5

5

5

5

Jo

9.611.0536

5

66

45.5

6503

«S3

leg/I)

Cd Cr

2,5 2,5

2.S S3

2.5 2 5

2.5 2.5

2.5 38

2',5 8.5

2.5 i.5

2.'5 '' 2.5

2,5 102

2.5 23.10.0 35.22.5 2 .52.5 102

2,5 6.2

16 351

9.3 176,6

3,9 I7001*

1.1 ZIO4

Pb

25

660

18

2.5

390

6,3

7 .1

5.0

230

I49.S234.62 .5660

60

740

400,0

02

3.2

Hi

10

51

14

9,6

62

9.5

6.7

2.S

' 48

23,723.02.562.0

16

202

109.0

1400

160

'ice r.g.re H2 for '.«ple location!•'..iipli". nncit concentration: nere reported ai me detection limn nere assigned one- naiftrc utteci ion limit va lue.

''li i<ol«nt cnrainuin.

3-26

Lieht

I

*'

4,0 TOXICITY ASSESSMENT

The object of chis coxicicy assessment Is Co determine the natureand extent of health and environmental hazards chat may be associatedwith the contaminants identified at the NCS site through the exposureroutes described in Section 3,0 of this report, This assessment containscoxicological evaluations of, the identified contaminants of concern(Section 4,1) and dose-response assessments (Section 4,2),

4,1 Toxlcoloeleal Evaluation

To identify potential hazards, Versar provides in this section acoxicicy profile for each pocencial contaminant of concern ac che NCSsice (i.e,, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, and nickel), The profilessummarize current data from epidemiological, .clinical, nnimal, and invlcro studies and evaluate pharroacokinetics, human health effects, andenvironmental, coxicicy,

4,1,1 lend , ,

Phnrmflookinecics

In humans, lead (Fb) is absorbed primarily chrough chegascroincesclnal and respiratory craccs, Several factors Influence chegascrolncescinal absorption of lead, che mosc imporcanc of which are ageand nutrition, Adults absorb 5-15 percenc of ingested lead and usuallyracain less chan 5 percenc of che absorbed lead (Casarect, 1986), Morelead can be absorbed by children than by adults, In one study, anaverage net absorption of 41,5 percenc, wich 31,8 percenc nee retention,was found for infants on regular diets (Cas..retc, 1966), High mineraldiecs inhibit che absorpcion of lead, while diecs chat are low in calciumor iron enhance lead absorpcion (Mahaffey [1980] deed in Casarecc[1986]),

4-1

^^^V

The quantity of lead absorbed by the lungs also depends on severalfactors, These factors include concentration, volune of air respired,the physical form of the lead (i.e., particle or vitpor), and the sizedistribution of the lead-containing particles (Casarett, 1986),

Human red blood cells contain more than 90 percent of the lead inblood. Lead in red blood cells is associated primarily with the cellmembrane and hemoglobin (Barlcrop [1971] cited in Casarett (1986]), Thelevel of blood lead is affected by inhalation and ingestion, and is agood indicator of recent lead.exposure,

The total body-burden at lent! may be divided into at least twokinetic pools which have different rates of turnover, The skeleton isthe largest pool and has the slowest turnover rate (approximately 20-yearhalf-life), The other kinetic puol is soft tissue (e,g,, kidneys, lungs,and central nervous system), Tliv rate of turnover In soft tissue dependson the organ chat is involved (Casarett, 1986).

Lead easily traverses' the placenta. The concentration of lead inthe cord correlates with but is slightly lower than the maternal bloodlevel. During pregnancy, maternal blood lead concentrations decrease,This suggests that maternal lead is transferred to the fetus or isexcreted (Casarect, 1986), In adults, lead is excreted primarily throughthe kidneys, The dominant route of excretion in infants is chegastrointestinal tract (Rabinowltz et al,, 1973),

Human Health Effects

Severe neurocoxic effects are the most serious consequences of ahigh blood lead level (PbB), Thuse effects include irreversible braindamage, as shown by the occurrence of acute or chronic encephalophathicsymptoms, In adults, these symptoms begin at a PbB of 100 micrograms perdeciliter (ng/dl) (Kehoe 11961] cited in Federal Register (19851). APbB of this magnitude produces o variety of other problems, Including

^ ^

severe gascrointesclnal symptoms, peripheral neuropathies, chronicnephropachy, and anemia (Federal Register, November 13, 1965),Lead-induced anemia is caused by shortened erythrocyte life span andimpaired heme synthesis (Casarett, 1966),

At lower concentrations of lead in blood, impairment ofphysiological functioning is less severe but significant, Thisimpairment includes slowed nerve conduction velocities at leadconcencracions of 30 to 40 pg/dl (Seppalaimen [1975] cited in FederalRegister [1985]), altered cesticular function at 40 to 50 pg/dl(Lancranjan [1975] cited in Federal Register [1985]), and reducedhemoglobin production at 50 pg/dl (Zielhuls [1975] cited in FederalRegister [1965]), Heme synthesis is impaired at a PbB less than 30 to 40/ig/dl (Federal Register, November 13, 1985),

The toxic icy of lead is more pronounced in children than in otherparts of the population. Encephalopathy or death occurs ac a lower PbBin children than in adults, starting at approximately 80 to 100 /ig/dl(Federal Register, November 13, 1985), Permanent, severe mentalretardation and other neurological problems are also seen in cases ofnonfatal childhood lead encephalopathy,

Data from recent studies have shown neuropsychological andelectrophysiological effects on children exposed to low levels of lead,PbB levels as low as 30 pg/dl inhibit early cognitive development inyoung children (Bellinger, et al,, 1987), Neuropsychologic effects areexhibited at 10 to 30 pg/dl PbB,

Results from other studies show evidence of changes in brain wavepatterns and CNS evoked-potential responses in children with low PbB(Federal Register, November 13, 1985), These changes are apparent at aPbB in the range 30 to 55 fig/dl (Otto [1961] cited in FederalRegister [1985]), Moreover, these effects may persist even after PbBlevels have declined (Otto [1984] cited in Federal Register [1965]),

4-3

^ ^

Ocher scudles have shown a negaclve correlacion between PbB and chevitamin D hormone, 1,25-dlhydroxyvitarain D, in che blood of children(Rosen (198*1 clced in Federal Register [1985]), This effect: issignificant because this hormone affects 'calcium equilibrium. Calciumplays an important role In mineral metabolism, iwmnoregulacion, andmediation of tumorigenesis (Rosen [1983] ciced in Federal Register11985]),

Alkyl lead compounds such as tecraethyl and tetramethyl lead (comonfuel additives) are much more severe neurotoxins on an equivalent dosebasis than are inorganic lead compounds (Casaretc, 19B6), Lead is acumulative poison, and in experiments, some lead compounds have producedcancer of the lung and kidney (Clement, 1985),

Experimental data indicate that in rats, renal tumors are related tooral ingestion of high doses of lead (Federal Register, November 13,1985). The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has placedlead in Croup B2, which means there, is inadequate evidence forcnrcinogenicity to humans, sufficient evidence of carcinogenicicy toanimals (for some lead salts), and inadequate evidence for activity inshort-term tests, The OSHA permissible exposure limit for inorganic leadfumes and dust is 0,05 mg/m3 (USDHHS, 1985),

Envlronmgncnl Toxlcltv

Elevated levels of lead have been found in birds, mammals, fish, andinvertebrates, Most reports of animal poisoning involve waterfowl, Leadpoisoning of domestic animals has alto been documented, In these cases,the lead probably had anthropogenic sources, Among domestic animals,cattle experience a high incidence of lead toxiclty (Clement, 1985),

High lead concentrations commonly found in roadsides andindustrialised land areas can eliminate or reduce bacteria and fungipopulations on leaf surfaces and in soil, This, in turn, can affectnormal decomposition by bacteria and fungi (Clement, 1985).

P>

Freshwater vertebrates and invertebrates are more sensitive to leadin soft water than in hard water (USEPA, 1980a, 1983b). At a hardness of.about SO rag CnCcyi, the median effect concencracions for nine familiesrange from 140 pg Pb/1-236,600 fig Pb/1, Chronic lead values forDaohnU imiena (a crustacean) and rainbow trout are 12,26 and62,08 MB/11 respectively, ac a hardness of about 50 mg CaCCyi,Bioconcentracion factors, ranging from 42 for young brook trout to1,700 for a snail, were reported, Growth of freshwater algae isinhibited at lead concentracions above 500 /tg/1 (Clement, 1985).

For 12 saltwater species, acute toxicicy values range from476 /jg Pb/1 (for the common mussel) to 27,000 /jg Pb/1 (for thesoftshell clam), Chronic exposure co lead adversely affects mysid shrimpac 37 ME Pb/1, but not ac 17 MS Pb/1, Reported bioconcencrationfactors range from 17,5 for the quahog (clan) to 2,570 for the bluemussel, Saltwater algae are adversely affected at concentrations as lowas approximately 15.6 /jg Pb/1 (Clement, 1965).

4,1,2 'Arsenic

Plviriiinookln»-cics

In mice, approximately 90 percent of orally administered trivalencurscnlc (As ) or pentavalenc arsenic (As ) was absorbed through chegastrointestinal tract (Casarett, 1986), In humans, up to 95 percent ofadministered inorganic arsenic is absorbed (Ray-Bectley [1975] cited inUSEPA |1984d], Following absorption into che blood, arsenic was rapidlyand widely distributed co all body tissues, The highest percentage ofarsenic was found in the liver and kidney (Clayton, 1981),

Arsenic is excreted primarily in urine, The biological half-life ofingested inorganic arsenic is about 10 hours, and the half-life ofmethylated arsenic in humans is about 30 hours, Arsenic is also excretedthrough desquamacion of skin and in sweat (Casarett, 1966),

Results of studies indicate chat placenta! transfer of arsenic ispossible (Casurect, 1986).

4-5

Human Health Effects

Arsenic poisoning'produces a variecy of effects in humans, Acucepoisoning of humans who have ingested as little as 130 mg of arsenic hasbeen reported, Acute poisoning is characterized by nausea, vomiting,diarrhea, abdominal pain, and severe gastrointestinal damage,

Chronic arsenic poisoning is associaced wich digestive and nervoussystem problems, liver damage, and kidney problems, Dermal effects ofchronic coxicicy include hyperkeracosis and arsenical melanosis. Mucousmembrane effects of chronic coxicicy include irrigation of che nose andpharynx, Arsenic is a recognized carcinogen of che skin, lungs, andliver, Ic is a cumulative poison in mammals although a small percentageis considered essential for normal life (Clayton, 1961), The OSHA

2permissible exposure limit for arsenic is 10 rag/ra (USDHHS, 1985),

EnvU'onrocntal Toxicttv

A few cases of arsenic poisoning of domescic animals have beepreported. The poisoning caused hyperemia and edema of chegastrointestinal trace, hemorrhage of cardiac serosal surfaces andperitoneum, and pulmonary congestion and edema,

Inorganic forms of arsenic seem co be much more toxic to aquaticorganisms than organic forms, Arsenic trioxide Is acutely coxic co adultfreshwater animals at a concencracion as low as 812 pg/1. A level aslow us 40 jjg/1 can be coxic Co che early life scages of aquaticorganisms (Clement, 1985), Acuce coxicicy co saltwater fish occurs acIS mg/1, Some saltwater invertebrates are affected ac much lower levels(Clement, 1983),

4,1.3 Cadmium

PhnrmncoklneElos

In humans, both che respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts absorbcadmium (Cd), The absorption race of "cadmium in che respiratory craccranges from 13-30 percent (Casarecc, 1986), Host airborne cadmium isresplrable (Dorn |1976] clced in Casarecc [I960]),

4-6

The race of gastrointestinal absorption is about 5-8 percent. Thisrace is affected by dietary factors, Diets that are low In calcium,vitamin D.'procein, zinc, iron, and copper significantly increase cadmiumabsorption in the gastrointestinal tract (Hashko [1976] and Worker [1961]deed in USEPA |1984b]), A deficiency in ascorbic acid has been shown toincrease cadmium toxic icy (Fox [1970] cited in USEPA [1984b]),

In blood, cadmium binds to red blood cells and high-molecular-weighcproteins in plasma, The blood cadmium level in adults without excessiveexposure is usually less than 1 /ig/dl (Casarett, 1986),

The liver and kidney; contain approximately 5-75 percent of the bodyburden of cadmium, The half-life of cadmium in the body is ac leastseveral years and may be as long as 30 years, With continued recension,cadmium progressively accumulates in sofc tissues (especially che kidney)until about age SO when levels begin to slowly decline (Casarecc, 19B6),

The placenta may be a partial barrier to maternal cadmium, but chefetus may become exposed with increased maternal exposure (Kowal [1979]ciced in Casarect (19861),

Cadmium is excreted in both urine and feces, In individuals ofindustrially exposed populations, much more cadmium is excreted in urinethan in feces (Rahola [1972] cited in Fatty's I,H, and Tox, [1981]),

Humnn Effects

After humans ingest relatively high concentrations of cadmium(16 mg/1), nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain can begin almostImmediately (Nordberg [1972] cited in Casarect (1986)),

The long-term effects of low-level exposure to cadmium includechronic obscruccive pulmonary disease and chronic renal tubular disease,The cardiovascular and skeletal systems may also be affected (Momiyama[1980] and Friberg and Kjelstrom [1981] deed in Casarect [1986]),

4-7

ff!y

Cadmium-induced pulmonary disease is characterized by reduced vitalcapacicy and increased residual volume, Ic results from chronicbronchitis, progressive fibrosis of the lower airways, and alveolardamage leading to emphysema (Casarett, 1966),

Cadmium-induced renal cubular disease is characterized by cadmium inthe urine, proceinuria, aminoaciduria, glucosuria, and decreased cubularrsabsorption of phosphate, Structural changes in che kidney begin withtubular cell degeneration and progress Co incersclclal inflammation andfibrosis (Casaretc, 1986),

Studies have shown that chronic ingestion of low levels of cadmiumcan induce hypertension, anemia, sensory loss (particularly smell),endocrine alterations, and immunosuppresslon, Possible reasons for thehypertension include increased sodium retention, direct vasoconstriction,and increased cardiac ou:puc (Ferry (1974] cited in Casarett (1986|),

Cadmium toxicicy also affects calcium metabolism. Persons wichsevere cadmium nephropathy may develop inorganic masses in the kidney andexcrete excess calcium. Corresponding skeletal changes Include bonepain, osceomalacia, and osteoporosis (Casaretc, 1986),

The 1ARC has placed cadmium and certain cadmium compounds in Group2B. This group consists of substances for which there is limitedevidence of carcinogenicity in humans, sufficient evidence ofcarcinogenicity in animals, and inadequate evidence of activity Inshort-term tests. This classification is based on exposure to cadmium byinhalation, The EPA classification .for inhaled cadmium is Bl. Chemicalsin this category are definite animal carcinogens and probable humancarcinogens based on suggestive epldemiologic evidence, Inhalation ofcadmium dust primarily affects the respiratory tract, Brief exposures cohigh cadmium concentrations may be fatal, No evidence has been foundUnking ingest:ion of cadmium with carcinogenicicy in animals or humans(Fcdcrnl Register, 1985).

*

Cadmium is an animal caratogen and reproductive toxin but this hasnot been adequately supported in a human model, Evidence concerning therautagenicity of cadmium in animals is equivocal (USEPA, 1984b). The OSHA

2permissible exposure Unit for cadmium is 0.2 mg/ra for dusts and0,1 mg/m3 for fumes (USDHHS, 1985).

Envirnnmnntnl Toxtcltv

Research daca indicate that fish reproduction may be affected bycadmium in slightly Co moderately polluted waters (Clemenc, 1985),Freshwater fish and invertebrates have acute 50-percent lethalconuentruLion dose (LC ) values ranging from 100 to 1000 g/1,Salmonld!, .ire much more sensitive than other freshwater fish species(USEPA, i-'iJOb), fiioconcentration factors are generally less than 1,000but can reach 10,000 for some freshwater fish species. Saltwater speciesore genef.illy 10 cities more tolerant Co the acute effects of cadmium(Clemenc, 1985),

' 4,i ,-i Chromium

Ph.inn.-u'oldnecles

Chromium (Cr) exists at several oxidation states within a variety ofcompounds. Pharmacokinecic properties vary with chromium species andwith, the chromium compound and ics solubility. Hexavalent chromium(Cr ) U of most concern for humans from a toxicological standpoint,Humans absorb approximately 2,1 percent of ingested hexavalenc chromium(Donaldson (1966) ciced in USEPA (l9B4c)).

In i> scudy by Baecjer (1959), 200 MB °f sodium chromate andpotassluiii dichromnte (chromace sales) were injecced into the cracheas ofguinea pi(js, After 24 hours, 13 percent of tlie dose had been eliminatedin the urine, 11 percent remained in che lungs, 6 percent remained in thered blouti cells, 1 percent remained in die plasma, and abouc 4 and'j percent remained in the liver and kidneys, respectively, Afcer

4-9

140 days, chromium was scill present in che lungs and spleen butdecreased co very low levels in all ocher tissues, The amount ofchromium in the spleen peaked ac 30 days because of che uptake ofdisintegrating chromium-bearing red blood cells (cited in Clayton, 1961).

In the same study, Baecjer (1959) investigated che metabolism ofclu'oiiiluin chloride, and the results were not the same as chose Corchroinate suits. Chromium in this compound is ac a valence of 3t, AfterW hours, 6 percent had been excreted in urine, 45 percent of che dosewas in che lungs, and only trace amounts remained in ocher tissue. Bloodplasma contained greater amounts of chromium than the blood cells,

In rues fed low levels (0,45 to 11 ppm) of hexavalent chromium, thehighest amounts of chromium were found In the spleen, chin bones, thekidney, and che liver, No differences becween sexes were seen, Rats fed25 ppm crivalenc chromium (Cr ) retained about one-fifth co one-tenchche amount of hexavalenc chromium retained earlier (MacKensie (1958]cited in Claycon (19811),

In the general human population, tissue concentrations of chromium(cocal) are as high as 7 fig/kg in che lungs, and lower levels occurin che liver and kidneys (Schroeder [1962] cited in Casarect [1986)).Blood chromium concencracians are becween 20 and 30 pg/1 in peoplewichouc an excess exposure co chromium, The chromium in blood is evenlydistributed becween erychrocytes and plasma, Occupational exposure tochromium correlates with increases in chromium in red blood cells, Inpersons wichouc excess exposure, chromium is excreted in urine ac a rateusuallyless than 10 mic.'ograms per day (jjg/day) (Underwood [1977]cited in Casarett (1986)),

Biliary excretion also removes chromium from blood, In che liver,chromium is excreted in bile, which subsequently passes to the smallIntestines, The ratio of che concentration of chromium In the bile cochac in plasma is less than one (Cosaretc, 1986),

4-10

Human Health Effaces

The main acute effect of chromium ingestion is acute renal tubularnecrosis (Langard (1979) cited in Casarect (19861). In a fatal case ofchromium poisoning chromic acid crystals, che person's kidneys developedextensive lesions, especially of the convoluted tubules. The blood hadelevated levels of urea, inorganic phosphates, amino acids, andcreatinine (Major (1922) cited in Clayton (1981]).

Chronic exposure to hexavalent chromium can cause inflammation ofche nasal mucosa, ulceracion and perforation of the nasal septum, liverund kidney damage, and internal hemorrhage .(Federal Register, 1985;Clement, 1985); Hexavalent chromium in the form of chromic acid cancause dermatitis and ulceration of the skin (Federal Register, 1985),

Studies on Individuals who work at chrome production and chromepigment facilities have 'ihown an association between chromium exposureand cancer of the respiratory tract (Norseth (1981] cited in Casarett[1986]), It is not clear whether chromium>'compounds cause cancer atsites other than the respiratory tract; however, a slight increase incancer of the gastrointestinal trace has been reported (Casarett, 1986).

The IARC has classified chromium and certain chromium compounds inCroup 1. for Croup 1 substances, there is sufficient evidence ofcarcinogenicity in humans and animals, This classification is based onInhaled hexavalent chromium, The EPA classification for inhaledhexavalent chromium is A, This group is used only when there issufficient evidence from epidemiologlc studies to support a causalassjciacion between exposure to the agent and cancer, The OSHApermissible exposure limit for chronic acid and chromates is 0,1 mgCrCv/m / (ceiling) for chromium metal and insoluble sales 1 mgCr/m3 (8-hour TWA) (USDHHS, 1985),

Environmental Toxloicv

No information could be found concerning the coxic effects ofchromium on wildlife and domestic animals,

.Chromium is an essential nutrient chat accumulates in aquatic andmarine bloca to levels much greater than levels in ambient water,Concentrations of chromium In biota, however, are usually less thanlevels in sediments (USEPA, 1979),

Researchers have Investigated che distribution of chromium amongwater, sediments, and the larvae of chironomids (a chlronomid is abcnchic invertebrate) (Namroinga (1977) cited in USEPA [1979]), Therewei'e 0,0011 ppm of chromium in the water, 2,96 ppm (n rhe chlronomids,and 7,64 ppm In the sediments, Thus, the bioconcentration factor forchironomids to water is about 2,700,

Other experiments have shown that chromium can pass through the foodchain, and that other metals accumulated by benthic species may enhancechromium mobilisation through biota (Patrick [1976| cited in USEPA11979]). According to USEPA (1979), bioconcentracion factors forchromium range from 70 (in fish muscle) to 4,000 (In freshwater plants),

Chromium does not accumulate in plants used for human food or anlmulfeed (Clement, 1985). Chromium in plants is found primarily in theroots, Trivnlent inorganic chromium does not readily accumulate through1'ood chulns, but organic chromium compounds may have much higherbioconcentration races (Clement, ,1985),

4,1.5 Nickel

PJ]ari|i.-ieok Inn ties

Several studies on animals have shown that che gastrointestinaltrace absorbs 1 to 10 percent of ingested nickel (USEPA, 1985)'. Nickel(Nl) Is transported in plasma and binds to serum albumin, amino acids, orpolypeptides (Casnrocc, 1986),

4-12

T WF

vfflr

Absorption and fate of nickel In the body depends In part on thesolubility of the particular nickel compound, Rats eliminated nickelchloride, which Is fairly soluble, quickly following IntracrachealInjection (Clary [1975] as cited in Clayton [1981]). Ninety percent ofthe injected nickel was excreted within 72 hours, primarily in urine,Six hours after the Injection of 1 mg of nickel chloride, the greatestamount of nickel was found in the kidneys, followed in order by thelungs, adrenals, pancreas, spleen, heart, and testes,

In hamsters Chat had inhaled nickel compounds chat are relativelyinsoluble (e.g., nickel oxide), elimination of nickel from lungs tookmonths (Hehner (19751 cited in Clayton [1981]), After savaging thehumscers with 5 ml of nickel oxide, however, the concentration of nickelin the lungs, liver, kidneys, and carcass did not Increase,

Nickel can apparently pass through the human placenta; nickel hasb;-en found in fetal cissue and card serum (Schvoeder [1962] cited inCiisarecc [1986]),

Human Hanlth Effects

The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) and the IARC concluded chatnickel refinery workers experience an increased incidence of lung andnasal cancer In comparison to the general population (Casarett, 1986),All nickel-contaminating dusts are regarded as carcinogenic when inhaled,

Laboratory studies have shown that ingesting nickel can depress bodyweight gain and change hercacologic parameters, cytochrome oxidaseactivity, and the iron concent of organs (Federal Register, 1985), Theoral rouce of nickel exposure has not been shown to lead to carcinogeniceffects,

Nickel and nickel compounds are common causes of allergicdei'inaticiji. In nickel-exposed workers, skin symptoms usually begin witha sensation of burning and Itching In hands, followed by erythema andnodulav eruptions on fingers, wrists, and forearms (Clayton, 1981), The

4-13

OSHA permissible exposure Umic for nickel meCAl and soluble conpounds is1 ing/m3 (USDHHS, 1985),

Environmental To^clcv

The toxicicy of nickel for freshwater organisms depends on thewater's hardness; nickel cends to be more toxic in softer water (Clement,1965), ' Acute values for exposure co a variety of nickel salts, expressedas nickel, range from 30 MB/1 for Daphnla m<ip.na (a freshwaterbruuhlopod) co 46,200 pg/1 for banded killlflsh at comparablehardness levels, Chronic values range from 14,8 pg/1 for Daohnlnn|i)|imi in soft water to 530 ^g/1 for the fathead minnow In hard water\Clcinenc, 1985), Residue dau for the fathead minnow indicate abloconcentracion factor of 61 Freshwater algae experience reducedgrowth at nickel concentration.-; as low as 100 pg/1 (Clement, 1985),

Acute values for saltwater species range from 152 pg/1 for mysldsin1 imp co 350,000 MS/1 f"' clu- mumnichog (a killiflsh), A chronicvalue oT 92,7 pg Nl/1 has bei-n reported for'mysld shrimp,Bloconcuntracloh factors ranting from 299 co 416 have been reported foroysters and mussels (Clement, 1985), The growth of saltwater algae isreduced ac nickel concentrations as low as 1,000 /ig/'l,

4,2 Dnr.p-Response AsseKninene

The intenc of a dose-response assessment is to determine therelative potency of a chemical associated with exposure, This isperformed by quantitatively estimating the risk of route-specific fexposure to a chemical,of concern, The assessment defines therelationship between the dose Incurred and the incidence of any adversehealth effect (Life Systems, 1985), Indices of coxiuicy, such as the "noobserved effects level" (NOELi, che "no observed adverse effect level"(NOAEL), che "lowest observed adverse effect level" (LOAEL), and cheji;-percc-nc lechal concencrnclun dose (lAg) are presented In che

4-14

coxIcIcy evaluation, The indices are used to determine the acceptabledully Intake (AD1) levels for noncarincogens and unit cancer risks forcarcinogens,

Acceptable dally intakes (ADIs) are based on current data, Whendata availability is limited, ADIs may include uncertainty factors togenerate conservative and therefore protective estimators of acceptableexposure levels,

Where possible, an ADI is presented for a noncarcinogen as themaximum dose tolerated for chronic exposures (AIC; acceptable intake,chronic), This is an estimate of an exposure level chat would noc beexpected co cause adverse effeccs when exposures occur over a significantporcion of an Individual's lifespan (USEPA, 196ft), The maximum dosecoleraced for subchronic exposure (AIS) is similar to the AIC, but the^posure period does not constitute a significant pare of an individual'sLitcs-pan, only a limited time,

If sufficient evidence of carcinogenic icy exists for an Identifiedcontaminant, then the risk assessment is based on unit cancer risksrather than ADIs which are based on available oral or Inhalation exposureinformacion, The unit cancer risk Is an estimate of the largest possiblelinear slope at low doses that is consistent with the empirically deriveddose-response curve, It is calculated by using information from animalstudies or human daca, Since cancer is a process ehac is noccharacterised by any threshold value, any exposure contributes anIncrement of risk (USEPA, 1986),

Table 4-1 is a summary of the cricical coxlclcy values foracceptable daily Intakes (AISs and AICs) and carcinogenic potency factorsfor lead, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, and nickel,

4-15

TABLE 4-1CRITICAL TOXICITY VALUES FOR POTENTIAL CONTAMINANTS OF CONCERN

NEW CASTLE STEEL SITE

Inhalaciop ExposureLeadArsenicCadmiumTrlvalent chromiumHexavalenc chromiumNickel

AIS(mg/kg/day)

Rouce..................

AIC(mg/kg/day)

0.00043......

0,0051......

CarcinogenicPotency Factor(ng/kg/day)'1

...50,06,1...411.2

Inpeseion Exposure RouceLeadArsenicCadmiumTrlvalent chromiumHexavalenc chromiumNickel

...

...

...140,0250,02

0,0014...

0,000291.0.0.0050.01

...1.5......

. ...

AIS, AIC, and carcinogenic potency factor values were obtained from theSuperfund Public Heath Evaluation Manual (USEPA, 1986),

4-16

t»

4.2.1

Prenatal lead exposure studies suggest that blood lead (umbilicalcord blood) approximately 10-25 pg/dl may impair early cognitivedevelopment in children (Bellinger, et al,, 1987), Infants in this studyhaving average blood lead levels at birth of 14,6 /Jg/dl, had lowerindex scores for sensory-perceptual development during their first twoyears of life, At blood lead levels of approximately 10-15 pg/dl,Indications of the following problems begin: heme synthesis impairmentin many different organ systems, increasing degrees of pyrinidlnemetabolism interference, altered nervous system activity, andinterference of vitamin D metabolism (Federal Register, November 13,1985).

A summary of the lowest blood lead levels associated with observedbiological effects (LOEL) in various populations is shown in Table 4-2,Table 4-3 summarizes the blood lead levels associated with "no observedbiological effects" in different populations,

The current maximum containment level (MCL) for lead i,s 0,05 mg/1.This MCL is based upon an estimate that this level in drinking waterwould contribute 25-33 percent of the lead normally ingested by a childand 33 percent of that normally ingested in food for an adult,

The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) has stated that the presentdrinking water standard of 0,05 mg/1 may not provide a sufficient marginof safety, especially for fetuses and young growing children, when othersources of environmental exposure to lead are considered (FederalRegister, 1985),

EPA is proposing a recommended maximum contaminant level or maximumcontaminant level goal (MCIG) of 0,02 mg/1 based upo.n the effects of leadon infants as a sensitive part of the population,

4.2.2 Arsenic

Two studies on humans present useful dose-response information(Mizuta et al,, 1956; Tay and Seah, 1975), Tay and Seah (1975)

4-17

TABLE 4-2SUMMARY OF LOWEST BLOOD LEAD LEVELS ASSOCIATED

WITH OBSERVED BIOLOGICAL EFFECTSIN VARIOUS POPULATION CROUPS

LOEL(US, Pb/dl In

Blood)

10-25

10

15-2015-2025-30W

40AO5050-6050-6080-100100-120

Effect

Inhibition of early cognitivedevelopment

Aralnolevullnic acid dehydratase(ALAD) inhibition

Erythrocyte protoporphyrin elevationCNS electrophysiological deficitsErychrocyte protoporphyrin elevationIncreased urinary aminolevulinic acid

(rtLA) excretionAnemiaCoproporphyrin elevationAnemiaCognitive (CNS) deficitsPeripheral neuropathiesEncephalopathic symptomsEncephalopathic symptoms

AffectedPopulation Group

Children

Children and adults

Women and childrenChildren 'Adult malesChildren and adults

ChildrenChildren and adultsAdultsChildrenChildren and adultsChildrenAdults

Source: USEPA (1984d) and Belltnger et al., 1987,

TABLE 4-3NOELS IN TERMS OF BLOOD LEAD LEVELS

NOEL(/<E Pb/dl in

Blood)

101020-2520-3025-303030-4040404040-505050-6060-7060-7080

Effect:

Electrophysicological deficicsErythcocyte ALAD inhibitionFEPPEPFEPCognitive deficits, neuropathyErychocyce ATPase InhibitionALA excretion in urineCP excretion in urineAnemiaPeripheral neuropathyAnemiaMinimal brain dysfunctionMinimal brain dysfunctionEncephalopathyEncephalopathy

AffectedPopulation Group

ChildrenChildren and adultsChildrenAdult femalesAdult malesChildrenGeneralChildren and adultsAdultsChildrenAdultsAdultsChildren

' AdultsChildrenAdults

Source; USEPA (19844)

4-19

B!

investigated 74 individuals who had Ingesced arsenic-containinganciaschmacic herbi.l preparacions for periods ranging from less chan6 months (intermittent ingescion) Co 15 years, Doses were estimated cobe 2,5 mg arsenic/day as arsenic oxide (crivalent arsenic) or 10.3 mgarsenic/day as arsenic sulfides. The following systems of theindividuals were affected: cutaneous (91,9 percent), neurological(51.3 percent), gastrointestinal (Ql) (23 percent), hemacological(23 percent), and renal and other (19 percent); 5.4 percent of chepatients had internal malignancies,

In this study (lay and Seah, 1975), che major effects In more chan10 percent of the subjects were generalized hyperplgmentation (arsenicmelanosis), hyperkeratosls of palms and soles, "raindrop"depigmentacions, palmar and plancar hyperhidrosis, multiple arsenicalkeracoses, sansoriir.ocor polyneuropathy, fine finger tremors, persistentchronic headache, lecharjv, weakness and insomnia, psychosis, gastritisor gastroenteritis, mild iron deficiency anemia as a resulc of coxicmarrow suppression, and cransienc alburainuria without azoceraia, TheIncernal malignancies consisced of cwo squamous-cell carcinomas of chelungs, one squamous-cell carcinoma of che gall bladder, and onehemangiosarcoma of che liver. Mizuca ec al, (1956) observed similarneurological effeccs in people who consumed approximately 3 mgarsenic/day in contaminated soy sauce for 2-3 weeks,

Other investigators have indicated chac airborne arsenic compoundsare associaced wich skin lesions, cardiovascular and respiratory effeccs,and peripheral neuropathy, but no adequate exposure information isavailable for any of the studies (USEPA, 1984a),

Chronic coxlclcy caused by arsenic ingescion was studied by Tseng(1977). Tseng (1977) invescigaced che relationship becween blackfoocdisease, a peripheral circulacory disease characterized by gangrene ofche excremlcies, and che arsenic concentration in drinking wacer ofresidents of che souchwest coast of Taiwan. A cocal of 40,421individuals in 37 villages were included in che scudy, Arsenicconcentrations ranged from 0.001-1,82 mg/1, The overall prevalence

4-20

^ ^

rate for blackfoot disease was 8.9/1,000, with a positive correlationbetween the prevalence rate and arsenic concentration and duration ofIntake. This study established a NOAEL of 0,001-0.017 rag/1 for blackfootdisease.

Chronic inhalation exposure to arsenic compounds results in symptomssimilar to those observed following oral exposure, For example,Landau et al, (1977) reported a direct relationship between the lengthand intensity of exposure of smelter workers to airborne arsenic, „predominantly as arsenic trioxide, and alterations in peripheral nervefunction, No studies were available in which exposure levels arecharacterized sufficiently for the determination of dose-response >relationships (USEPA, 1984a).

Numerous arsenic compounds, particularly trivalent inorganics, havebeen associated with lung and skin carcinomas in humans. In two studies(Tseng fC al., 1968; Tseng, 1977), investigators surveyed 40,421residents of Taiwan who consumed artesian well water containing0.01-1,8 mg arsenic/1 for 45-60 years. A dose-response relationship(Table 4-4) was established between the prevalence of skin cancer andarsenic consumption, which was based on arsenic concentrations indifferent wells and length of exposure (age), The overall Incidence ofskin cancer was 10,6/1,000; the maximum incidence was 209,6/1,000 inmales over 70 years of age (USEPA, 19B4a),

4.J.3 Cadmium

Some of the toxic effects of low doses of cadmium on humans areshown In Table 4-5, According to the Health Effects Assessment document(USEPA, 1984b), the weight of the evidence suggests that there is asignificant risk of lung cancer from exposure to cadmium via inhalation;however, cadmium Is not expected to be a potent lung carcinogen,

[•:i'A has calculated a temporary adjusted acceptable dally intake(AADli for cadmium of 0,018 mg/1, These calculations used the value of200 /j[i/g for the critical (threshold) concentration of cadmium in

4-21

TABLE 4-4DOSE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PREVALENCE RATES

OF SKIN CANCER AND ARSENIC CONSUMPTION BY ACE1

Exposure Rangein ppm

0-0.29(0.15)

0,30-0.59(0,45)

&0,6(1.2)

20-39(30)

0,0013

0,0043

0.0224

Aee Ip vears40-59(50)

0,0065

0,0477

0,0983

2:60(70)

0,0461

0,1634

0,2553

Source: Tseng et al, (1968) and USEPA (1984d)

'•Values in parentheses represent midpoint,

4-22

TABLE 4-9HUMAN cmc Toxicm DATA FOR CADMIUM

Form g( CORouti ofEnpoauri Cd Don Lingth at Cxpoiuri Etficta

Not riportid1'* Otil 226 m/d Hal-Ital duuii, tubularprotunurla

Hot riportid' Oral 2SO-3SO us/d SO yc Rinal dyitunction

Cadmiun duat Inhilation 21 u(/n 21-40 yc

Cadmium fuma Inhalation 126 u ,9 ao-12 yt

Dicrtaiid puliwnaryvintilatory (unction,incriaaid incidinci atkidniy dyatunction,incriaud pcotunucia

Aninia, ilivaud ucinarypmtun livili

Cadmium iron Inhalation Not rtporiid Not riportid Emptiyaima, protiinucia

fnbets it al, US7M citid in U3EPA (2USEPA ( I f lBOb) cited in USEFA (13a»b)3l.auHriyi it al. (1074) cittd in USEFA (19B«b)''Ttuchiya (1967) cutd in USEFA (isatb)5Fnb«tt (1946) citid in USEFA U984b)

A-23

i wasn ui p«(11860 VJ3SH I" P«» 1(961)

(q»sei>(q»86i) vjasn

(ii»86i) vwsnvjagnz

"t> 11 ««((nj

'«uiiDXi|dgq ion lo|| UOTOT»I|UI uon

tTJnumuiilPIIII19UT 'U

JO I9UIPI9UI PIIIII9U1

«/»n t!

uoti9im)iXp

BZZ 1"0 «»

•991333 •iniod»3 30 m»u«i nog pg uiunh] pg 30 ijo iinoy ,

Hniwvu voj viva tnsixoi siuouns uvwmi{•» 31BV1

che renal corcex resulcing in renal dysfunction, and a lowe.sc observedadverse effeccs level (LOAEL) value of 0,352 ing/day, The LOAEL value wasderived by assuming chac 4,5 percenc of che daily oral dose was absorbedand 0,01 percenc per day of che total body burden was excreced, The MDIwas developed using an uncercaincy faccor of 10 and assuming of2 liter/day of wacer were consumed,

The currenc MCL for cadmium is 0,01 mg/1. This level was based onche criclcal concencracion of cadmium in che renal corcex (200 pg/g),5-percent gastrointestinal absorption, rapid excretion of 10 percenc ofche absorbed dose, and 0,05-percent daily excreclon of che cocal bodyburden,

The NAS and che World Healch Organizacion (WHO) have determined aguideline of 0,005 mg/1 cadmium, EPA is.proposing chac 0,005 mg/1 be cherecommended maximum contaminant level (RMCL), or maximum contaminantlevel goal for cadmium,

It,2,4 Chromium . •

Table 4-6 shows che incidence of perforated nasal .sepcas in chromaceworkers who were exposed co various concencracions of chromium,

The currenc provisional AADI for chromium is 0,17 mg/1. The scudyused co develop chis value involved feeding racs up Co 25 mg/1 hexavalencchromium (Cr6+) for 1 year (MacKenzie [1958] ciced in Federal Register[1985]), To determine che provisional AADI, che following daca wereused: a NOAEL of 2,41 rag/kg/day, an uncercaincy faccor of 500, and awacer consumption race of 2 licers/day. <

The present MCL for cocal chromium is 0,05 mg/1. EPA is proposingan RMCL of 0,12 mg/1 for cocal chromium based upon che provisional AADIof 0,17 mg/1 and human exposure daca (0,01 mg/day via che diec and0.0 mg/day via air),

4-24

TABLE 4-6 ,PERFORATION OF NASAL SEPTAS OF CHROMATE WORKERS

^ F

. . Number ofCr , (Lnsp}). Chromium Concentration WorkersCr&+ (sol) (ug/m'

a;ro so. 251 0.26 • 0,

SO, 52

1,1 to 4,9 SO. 251 0.26 • 0,

feO.52

&U> so, a:,1 0.26 • 0.

£0,52

Total workers in plane

0.06

3) Examined

Workers in plant

ft,51 7

8

9.51 32

15

751 2

13

97

Office workers

ft

Workers withSepcal PerforationNumber

23ft

72011

2111

61

0

Percent

50ft350

786373

295085

63

0

Source; Mancuso (1951) cited in USEPA (198Ac)lRacio of insoluble (insol.) Cr3+ to soluble (sol,) Cr6*

w4-25

A.2,5 Nickel

EPA has calculated a provisional adjusted accepcable daily intake(AADI) of 0.350 rag/1 for nickel. After considering the estimated intakeof nickel from food (400 Mg/day) and air (0,6 fig/day), a guidancelevel of 0,150 mg/1 was established,

The ambient water quality criteria for nickel, considering ingestionof water and contaminated aquatic organisms, is 0,0134 mg/1 (FederalRegister, 1985). EPA has proposed Increasing this value to 0,632 mg/1,EPA has decided not to propose drinking water regulations for nickelbecause of inadequate toxicological data,

*

4-26

5.0 RISK AND IMPACT EVALUATION

5.1 Human Health

The objective of this risk characterization is to integrateinformation in the exposure assessment (Section 3,0) and the toxicityassessment (Section 4,0) to evaluate potential or actual human healthrisks associated with the NCS site. Impacts of noncarcinogenic chemicalson human health are evaluated by comparing projected or estimated intakesand reference levels for the chemicals. A reference level represents anacceptable exposure level at which there will be no observable adverseeffect or the lowest observable adverse effect on human health, Theimpact of carcinogenic chemicals is assessed by comparing calculatedrisks and target risks for known or suspected carcinogens, Target risks

•tt -1for carcinogens generally range from 10 to 10 ,

NonenrelnoRantc Effects

Versar has evaluated the noncarcinogenic effects of lead exposure byinhalation, and of cadmium, chromium, lead, and nickel exposure viaingestion (direct contact), Since multiple contaminants are present at 'the site, any adverse effects of exposure to these metals may becumulative, The USEPA guidelines for assessing the risk associated withmultiple exposures recommend the calculation of a hazard index which isexpressed as

Hazard Index - !l_ + !l_ + .., !i_RLl RL2 RLi

where Ej • Exposure level (or intake) for the icri toxicant (mg/kg/day)

RLi - Reference level (or intake) for the i1*1 toxicant (mg/kg/day)

5-1

If an exposure level exceeds the reference level for a singlecontaminant ('toxicant),' or if the hazard index exceeds unity, then theremay be a concern for a potential health risk, Table 5-1 presents thecomputed noncarclnogenic effects and hazard index for the NCS site.

Versar has identified the potential health risks associated withlead exposurti only through ingestion of contaminated soils and sedimentsin drainage or marsh areas just south of the NCS site, Exposures to leadthrough inhalation do not pose a potential health risk, The oralexposure level is based on a single sediment sample collected at cheRoute 9 culvert (see Figure 3-7). A total lead value of 3,260 mg/kf, on adry weigh: basis was obtained for a sample from this location, Averagevalues from all locations, however, were an order of magnitude lower,approximately 185 mg/kg on a dry weight basis, A notably high standarddeviation value (a measure of dispersion about the sample mean) of 478suggests che culvert sample may be an outlier, Dlxon's statistical testt'or outliers (Dixon, 1951) determined that,there is'less than a 1 percentprobability that values would exceed 3,260 mg/kg, implying other sourceareas arc involved, Vehicle emissions from U.S, Route 9, a majorroadway, have probably contributed to the high lead value, Based on theaverage values for all downgradient points (Table 3-3), Versar recomputedthe oral exposure levels;

and

Ingescton Exposure (Pb) - (1,65 x 10"A)(1,175 cm2)(1.45 rag/cm2)

- 0.28 mg/event

Dose Incurred (Pb) - fO,2B mr. <Pbl/evencU7(365 days/year)(70 kg)

7,71 x 10'5 mg/kg/day

w5-2

TABLE 5-1NONCARCINOGENIC EFFECTS AND HAZARD INDEX1

NEH CASTLE STEEL SITE

ExposureROIII-IJ Toxicant

Initiation Lead

Ingescion Cadmium

Chromium

Lund

Nickel

ElExposure Level(mg/ks/day)

1,96 x 10'5

3,27 X 10'6

3,45 x 10'5

1.52 x 10'3

6,53 x 10'5

2 Reference Level3 _|j_(mg/kg/day) RL|

4,3 x.

2,9 x

5,1 x

1,4 x

1,0 x

Hazard

10'"

10-"lO'3

lO'3

ID'2

Index •

4,56

• 1.13

6,76

1,09

6 ..5 3

1,16

x 10-2

x 10'2

x l O ' 3

x IP'3

is not Included here because ic is a carcinogen,'Exposure levels were derived from ADLE (see Section 3,3).•'Reference levels were derived from AICs In Table 4-3,

5-3

^ T

The hazard index compuced by using chls more realisclc average is 0,12,well below unity, suggesting an acceptable health risk,

Lead values near chls sice are similar Co values commonly associacedwich urban land, Recenc scudies show chat urban soil lead valuestypically range from 150 co 300 mg/kg, wlch levels up co 2,000 mg/kg inroadside ditches (as wich che culvert sample) (USEFA, 1984), Humans mayalso be exposed co lead from several ocher sources, Food and beveragesare che major sources of lead Ingesced by adulcs and children, The.werage adulc diec contains ac lease ISO fig/day of lead, and cheAverage small child's diec includes 0,75-120 fig/day of lead, Air isanother source of lead, Air in rural areas contains approximately1,0 Mg/m of lead, and in certain urban environments, atmosphericlead concentrations may be as high as 10 pg/ra (Casarecc, 1986),which is much grater than che highest lead concentrations predicted fromthe NCS site (see Section 3,0), For these reasons, a significant risk toluad exposure from Che sice cannot be further supported by the dataavailable,

Exposure via inhalation of lead-contaminated paniculate emissionslies well within che reference levels for lead based on che model used,

3Exposure levels within che mosc concentrated IsopleCh (0,5 /tg/m )irrsulc in a hazard index value less than 0,005, Concentrations of ochermeuls do not exceed the average concentrations generally found innatural soil,

Carcinogenic Effects• •

For potential carcinogens, risks arc estimated by the probability ofIncreased cancer incidence, A carcinogenic potency factor represents cheupper 95 percent confidence limit on the probability of response per unitintake of the contaminant over a lifetime, and converts estimated intakesdirectly to Incremental risk (USEPA, 1986), Because all Inputs into che

5-4

exposure assessment are conservative, che resultant risks identified forche NCS sice represent upper-bound esciraaces and nay overestimate cheactual risk at the sice, A conservacive approach is taken to ensure thacthe outcome would be proceccive of public healch and che environment,

The carcinogenic risk equation is:

Risk • CDI x CPF

where CDI • Chronic daily intake (mg/kg/day)CPF - Carcinogenic patency factor (mg/kg/day)' ,

*

No distinction is made between subchronic daily intake values,derived from short-term concentrations, and chronic daily intakes, which

. are computed from long-term concentrations expected for the contaminantsof concern. This endangermenc assessment is based on a "no-actionremedial response", and since che NCS sice will remain barren, it willcontinue to be a source area. It is additionally expected chat the sitewill remain barren (unvegetaced) over a long-term period,

A potential health risk has been associated with exposure to arsenicviii ingescion of arsenic-concaining soils or sediments, Fate data(Section 2,2) indicate chac arsenic concencrates in nonedible pares offish tissue, and was therefore not considered as an additional factor incomputing che CDI (USEPA, 1979), This healch risk was also based on asingle sediment sample (highest observed concencracion in samples fromdowngradlent locations), This sample was collected from the drainagechannel adjacent Co the railroad tracks and Rouce 9 just south of che NCSsite (refer to Figure 3-<t), The total arsenic concentration at thislocation is 42 mg/kg (dry weight), From Table 3-5, the estimated dosepotentially incurred based on this value is 1,96 x 10* mg/kg/day,Because the site is still a potential source area and may not undergoranedinclon, chronic daily intake (long-term intake) is equal tosubchronic (shore-term) daily intake. The carcinogenic potency factor

*

(via ingescion) for arsenic, (recently revised), is 1,5 rag/kg/day(USEPA, 1988). Risk is, therefore, computed as:

Risk - (1,96 x 10"5 rag As/day) (!• 5 rag/kg/day)'1

- 2.94 x 10'5

This incremental risk level lies within the current target riskrange of 10"* to 10"7, This arsenic value is not a significantoutlier by Dixon's test, It only represents, however, a single value(hlfihrsc observed) that may receive arsenic and other metals fromadditional sources, These sources may Include surface runoff from therail,'nod track area, The average arsenic concentration for samples fromall ik>wngradient locations is 15,05 mg/kg (see Table 3-3), Exposurecompiled from this more representative area (refer to Section 3,3) is:

Ingescion Exposure - (1,51 x 10"s)(l,175 cm2)(l,« mg/cm2)

- 2,57 x 10"2 mg/event

and

Dose Incurred - (2,57 x 10 ing/event)(7 events/year)(365 days/year)(70 kg)

• 7,05 x 10'6 ing/kg/day

The risk computed from this exposure level (assuming that thesubchronlc daily intake level is equal to the chronic dally Intake) is:

Risk - (7,05 x 10'6 mgAs/day)(1.5 mgAs/day)'1

- 1,06 x 10'5

5-6

There are a number of uncertainties associaced wich che carcinogenicrisk estimates discussed above, These uncercaincies are introducedbecause of: (1) che need co extrapolate below che dose range offx'periiiumcal cescs using animal models; (2) che variability of chereceptor population; (3) assumed equivalency of dose-responseivl.iclonihlp becwetin animals and humans; and (A) differences In exposureroure in test animals versus rouces expucced onsice. In addition cocontaminant concencracion, route, and duracion of exposure, there arein.-iny ocher factors chuc may Influence che likelihood of developingiMiii'i-r. Tliiisu Include differences between individuals, nucrirional andIKM 1 tli st.itus, age and ses, and inherited characteristics chac may affeccmistfrplMblUcy (USDKHS, 1983),

5,2 Em'ti'oniimntal

Potential adverse impacts on aquatic species Inhabiting marsh areasiniiiicUKiu-ly below che NCS sits may occur, Although chronic heavy metalt'niic.iinliuitioM Already present in che Delaware River from upstream sourcesh.ia adversely impacted this area, concentrations of lead in this marsh<iiva has further diminished habitat quality, Eight ouc of nine aqueoussimples collected from surface water in Impoundments, drainage ways, ormarsh areas eweeded the EPA's Ambient Hater Quality Criteria (3,2 ppb,chronic freshwater) for lead (Table 3-6), Three of these samplesu'.U'ei-ded the freshwater acute criteria (82 ppb), According co che U.S.Di'pnrciiK-nc of interior's (USD01) Fish and Wildlife Service, chere are anumber of federally lisced endangered and chreacened species in NewJersey (Table 5-2), No information Is available concerning che abundanceut ihnse species, but due co the diminished habitat quality 'near thisindustrial <iruu, significant impacts from che NCS sice are expected co beminimal In comparison Co che Impacts from numerous ocher point sourcedischargers located farther upstream in che lower and middle sub-areasuluiig che Delaware River (USDOC, NOAA, 1987), However, efforcs areounvnrly underway co improve shad runs up che Delaware (Pries, 1988),

5-7

TABLE 5-2FEDERALLY LISTED ENDANGERED AND THREATENED SPECIES

IN NEW JERSEY

Common Name SclenEific Name Status Distribution

FISHESiSturgeon, ahortnose*

REPTILES!Turtle, green*

Turtle, hawksblll*

Turtle, leatherback*

Turtle, loggerhead*

Acinenser brevlroatrum

Chelonla mydas

Erecnoehelvs iiabricata

Dermoehelvs corlacea

Caretta caretta

E

T

E

E

T

Hudson and DelawareRivers plus otherAtlantic coastalrivers

Oceanic sunnier visitor• coastal waters

Oceanic summer visitorcoastal waters

Oceanic summer visitorcoastal waters

Oceanic summer resident

Turtle, Atlanticrldley*

BIRDSiEagle, baldFalcon, Americanperegrine

Falcon, ArcticPiping Plover

MAMMALS!Cougar, eastern

Whale, blue*Whale, finback*Whale, humpback*Whale, right*Whale, sel*Whale, sperm*

HQLLUSKSiNone

Lepidoehelvs kempll

Hallaeetus leucocephalusFalco peregrlnus anacum

Falco peregrlnus tundrlus

Charadrlus melodus

Fells coneolor cougar

Balaenoptera nuiaeuluaBalaenoptera phvaaluaMeRaptera novaeanRllaeEubalaena spp. (all species)Balaenoptera borealisPhyaeter catodon

coastal watersrarely nestsiCape May and AtlanticCounties

Oceanic summer residentcoastal waters

.E Entire stateE Entire state -

re-establishment toformer breedingrange in progress

E Entire state migratory -no nesting

T Entire State

E Entire state - probablyextinct

E OceanicE OceanicE OceanicE OceanicE OceanicE Oceanic

PLANTS!

Small whorled pogonla Isotria medeoloidea E Bergen (Franklin Lakes,Closter), Mercer

. (Trenton), i Sussex(Montague, Sparta,Halnesville) Counties

*Except for sea turtle nesting habitat, principal responsibility for cheoe species isvested with the National Marine Fisheries Service.Sources USQOI, April 17, 1987, 5-8

and lead concentrations in this area nay continue to adversely impactthis localized marsh area, Bioaccunulation of lead has been demonstratedIn freshwater species, though biomagnlflcatlon up the food chain is notsignificant (Clement, 1965), Bioconcentration of lead (100-1,000) inselected aquatic species may inhibit growth and reproduction (Clement,1985),

Mean dissolved oxygen levels near the NCS site are characteris-tically A-5 mg/1, This range is lower than the minimum daily averageproposed by the State of Delaware and may serve as an Importantcontrolling factor of existing environmental impacts (USDA, NOAA, 1987),

Two federally owned and operated wildlife refuges exist just southof the NCS site; the Killcohook National wildlife Refuge (KUR) and theSupawna NUR (Figure 5-1), The Killcohook NUR is used primarily by theU.S. Army Corps of Engineers as a disposal sice for dredged spoil fromthe Delaware River, and lies on the opposite bank of the Delaware River.approximately 1 mile downstream of the'site, It is therefore notexpected to be adversely impacted by the NCS site (USDOI, April 20, 1987),

For the Supawna Meadows NUR, which lies immediately south ofKillcohook NUR, only limited information on refuge biota are available,This refuge was only recently staffed In July 1986 (USDOI, April 20,1987), Table 5-3 is a summary of the wildlife species of Supawna MeadowsNUR, peak number of observations, and time of sightings. Since thisinformation only reflects observations from July 1986 to April 1987, itis not possible at this time to discern any trends in migration patternsor in the t.umber of observations for these species, This wildlife refugeis approximately 10 miles downstream of the NCS site and is, therefore,not expected to be impacted directly.

5,3 Public Welfare

Significant socioeconomic Impacts are not expected to be due Co thepotential effects of contaminant releases from the NCS site, Therecreational impacts to the shoreline (marsh areas and tidal flats) alongthe Delaware River are expected co be minimal because this area is of

5-9

Sl'PAH'NA MEADOWS NATIONAL W I L D L I F E REFVCEMill I III Ml, H» HBft l

^^f

!r Source! USDOI, April 20, 1987.FIGURE 5-1

SUPAWNA MEADOWS NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGESALEM COUNTY, HEW JERSEY

5-10

TABLE 5-3WILDLIFE SPECIES USING SUPAWNA MEADOWS NHR

JULY 1966 - APRXu 1937.

Species

WaterfowlCanada gooseMallardBlffik duckG-w CealPintailBuffleheadLesser scaup •

. Camion merganserHooded merganser

Wading BirdsGreat blue heronGreat egretSnowy egretCattle egretGlossy ibisTricolored heron

RaptorsOspreyRed-tailed havkKestrelNorthern harrierSharp- shinned hawk

Peek Nimber Obs.

20004503501801202520105

302020

20015010

Time of Year

Late springLate fallLate fallFallFallLate fallEarly springFall and springFall

SunnerSinnerSunnerSunnerSpringS turner

SunnerYear roundYear roundYear roundYear round

Approximately 63 species of other birds have been observed on the refuge to datebut nunbers nshave not been recorded,and ring-necked pheasant.

Manuals using the refuge include the following:Species Estimated number

'Cane species present include bobwhite quail

MuskratQppossijn)RaccoonRabbitStriped skunkRed foxGray fox, mink,

longtail weasel, river otter

6000-800040-5030-40

400-60035-4515-25Less than 10of each species

Reptiles observed were northt-rn water snake, eastern garter snake, black rat snake,spotted turtle, eastern mud turtle, snapping turtle, eastern box turtle and easternpainted turtle.Amphibians observed or heurd '....'re wood frog, New Jersey chorus frog, spring peeperand bullfrog,

No nunbers are available for ruddles or anphibians,Source: USDOI, April 20, 1987,

marginal quality, The area is currently overgrown by cattails and reedgrasses, Chronic heavy metal contamination along this reach of theDelaware River makes swimming, wading, and fishing unattractive,

According to the city manager's office far New Castle, there arecurrently no plans for developing land areas near the NCS site, and theNCS areii will continue to be zoned industrial (Deloney, 1987}, Propertyvalues should not be impacted significantly because contaminant levelsare comparable to many urban areas in the United States, (USEPA, 1984),

5-12

^mr

6.0 CONCLUSIONS

Contaminant screening identified five indicator chemicals at che NCSsite, The five indicator chemicals were arsenic, cadmium, chromium,lead, and nickel, These indicator chemicals represent contaminants ofconcern bused on their previous listing as a RCRA hazardous waste, orbecause of their toxicologtcal properties and che potentially harmfulexposure routes present.

Environmental fate and transport properties were evaluated for eachof the five indicator chemicals, Each of the contaminants evaluated issorbed to an appreciable extent by sediment particles, which tend toimmobilise each of che elements, Some of che elements exhibit greatersolubility in water (hexavalent chromium and nickel), buc is controlledby the ambient pH and oxidation/reduction potential,

U-ail, which was present in higher average concentrations chan allother contaminants evaluated, may be subject to airborne dispersalthrough wind erosion and mechanical entralnmenc, Inhalation exposures tochase wind-dispersed dusts were calculated using a dispersion model(Cowherd et al,, 1985), Other exposure routes identified includeingesclon and, to a limited extent, dermal exposure via direct contactwl:h contaminated surface water, soils, and sediments.

Exposed populations generally Include residents of che city of NewCastle, Delaware (identified in Section 3,2), In addition, individualswho may play, swim, or wade in marsh areas near or topographicallydowngradient from the NCS site, would be ac a higher health risk becauseof the potential exposure by direct contact with contaminated surfacewater, soils or sediment,

Inhalation exposures to respirable lead-contaminated dusts werecomputed using che Cowherd model (1985). The highest annual averageexposure itsvul was A.O x 10* mg/kg/day, The exposures were based on a70 kg adult male, respiring at an average rate of 23 m /day, These

6-1

exposures are biased high because they assume Indoor air quality isequivalent Co outdoor air quality, Recent studies of indoor:outdoor leadconcentrations found outdoor concentrations to be 2 tiroes greater thanindoor concentrations (U,S, EFA, 1985a). Residence drees also show chatthe average American spends greater chan 90 percent of their time indoors(U,5, EPA, 19S5a), Therefore, inhalation exposure estimates are veryconservative,

Ingesclon exposures were determined for each of che indicacorchemicals, Exposures were computed based on che highest observedconcentrations for each element in sediment or soil samples collected Inoffslte locations downgradienc from Che NCS sice, The extent of exposureIn mg/kg/day was determined as follows: arsenic, 1,96 x 10 ; cadmium,3.27 x 10'6| chromium, 3.45 x 10'5; lead, 1,52 x 10"3; and nickel,ft,53 x 10' , Oral Ingescion assumed an average adult skin surface area

2 2of 1,275 cm (hands and face), dust adherence of 1,45 mg/cm ,and7 events per year over a 70-year lifespan,,'

Toxlcity profiles were developed for each of the indicatorclitunicals, The profiles for each contaminant comprised a lexicologicalevaluation that included pharmacoklnetics, human and environmental healtheffects, and a dose-response assessment.

Risk characcerizacion included an assessment of risk, associatedwith exposures to noncarcinogens and carcinogens, Noncarcinogenic riskswere assessed using a hazard index computed from exposure (or intake)levels and che reference level (acceptable incake) for each coxicanc, •Using the highest observed concencracions at the sice (Co be protective),.1 hazard Index of 1,16 was obtained, indicating a potential health risk.Over 90 percent of this risk was associated with direct (ingescion)uxposure to lead-contaminated soils and sediments in locationsdowngradlenc from the NCS sice (i.e., in che drainage channel and marsh(U'iias), The hazard Index was additionally computed based on mean valuesfur the Indicator chemicals to obtain a more representative evaluation of

6-2

potential risk, The hazard index based on mean concentrations indovmgradient areas was less than 0,2, indicating an acceptable healthrisk.

Potential carcinogenic risks were computed using acute intakevalues, Chronic intake levels were assumed to be equal to acute intakevalues because the NCS site is an inactive RCRA facility for which ano-action remedial response is being employed, The NCS site is expectedco remain barren (waste disposal operations have ceased), Risks due Coingestion exposures to arsenic were 2.94 x 10 for the highestobserved arsenic concentration in soil, and 1,06 x 10* for the averageursenic concentration in soil, both within the current acceptable risk

•4 -7range of 10 to 10 , Risk values represent upper bound estimatesand reflect exposures that may be attributed to the general industrialenvironment that characterizes the city of New Castle, Averageconcentrations of arsenic found onsite were within ranges of arsenicfound in natural soil (USEPA, 1979; Bonn et, al,, 1979). In.addlclon, theEPA Risk Assessment Council has recently recommended that risk associatedwith ingestion exposure of inorganic arsenic be scaled down by a factorof 10 based on the Council's judgment that exposures by this route areless likely to induce lethal cancers (Moore, 1987), Hence, thecarcinogenic potency factor was revised from 15 to 1,5 (USEPA, 1988),

Upon evaluation of all the available information and data on the NCSsite, no threat to human health exists, This conclusion is based on areview of the site's history and operacions, an evaluation of the site'senvironmental setting, recent waste a.ialyses performed on materialdisposed at the site, and finally, on a limited set of environmental datacollected early in 1987, which was used co assess any exposure hazardspresent,

A potential threat to wetlands habicac quality in a localized areanear the NCS site has, however, .been identified, Surface water samplescontaining 7,1 to 660 mg/lieer total lead exceed the EPA Ambient UaterQuality Criteria (chronic, 3,2 mg/liter) for fresh water, Diminished

6-3

water qualicy along che narsh areas due co Increased lead levels hasimpaired che water qualicy, and may concinue co adversely impact aquaticwildlife in chis localized area, The Scace of Delaware's program forimproved fish runs may chus be impaired, Although habitat qualicy alongchis river reach in general is noc good, furcher scream qualicyimprovements will be hampered by these lead concentrations, Therefore,further monitoring of chis area is recommended,

Versar prepared chis endangermenc assessment bnsed on a no accioni'e nit dial response, and assumes che fill areas will remain uncoverediburi'fln) for a long period of time (up Co 70 years), Assessment ofexposure and risk were compuced conservacively so chac any potential riskco human health and che environment would be identified, Based on alldata and information available, Che NCS sice nay be considered as apotential deletion candidate from che National Prloricies List, Furcherrvaluation may be necessary co determine whether all deletion criteria

bcrll lllcC.

6-4

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ADC of

Baker, W,H,, R,D, Varrin, J,J, Groot, and R.R, Jordan, 1966, Evaluationof the Hater Resources of Delaware, State of Delaware, Delaware GeologicalSurvey, Report of Investigations No, 8, Newark, Delaware,

Barchop, D. and A, Smith,Experientia 27i92-93.

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Bellinger, D,, et al, 1987, Longitudinal Analyses of Prenatal andPostnatal Lead Exposure and Early Cognitive Development, The New EnglandJournal of Medicine, Vol, 316, No, 17, 1037-1043, April 23, 1987.

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Bonini, William E. 1967. An Evaluation of the Resistivity and SeismicRefraction Techniques in the Search for Pleistocene Channels in Delaware,State of Delaware, Delaware Geological Survey, Report of Investigations No,11, Newark, Delaware,

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Cowherd, C, Jr., G,E, Huleski, P.J. Englehart, and D.A, Gillette,February 1985. Rapid Assessment of Exposure to Paniculate Emissions fromSurface Contamination Sites, U.S, EPA, Office of Health and EnvironmentalAssessment, Hashington, D.C, EPA/600/8-85-002.

Delaney, M. 1987. City Manager Office for che city of New Castle regardingfuture zoning near Deemer Steel Company, Personal communication with DonaldPeterson, Versar Inc. July U, 1987,

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C).u-y, J.J. 1975, Toxicol, Appl, Pharmacol., 31, 55.

Chiyton, G.D, and Clayton, F.E., eds, 1981. Patty's Industrial Hygiene,,nd Toxicology, Vol. 2A, 34d ed, New York: John Ulley and Sons,

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pon.ildsan, R,M, and R.F. Barreras. 1966, Intestinal absorption of trace>|uancitles of chromium, J, Lab, Clin, Med, 68:484-493,

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Hn'

ATTACHMENT 1

ANALYTICAL RESULTS AND SAMPLE DATA SUMMARY SHEETS


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ATTACHMENT 2

SUPPORTING COMPUTATIONS AND REFERENCES TO THE RAPIDASSESSMENT TO EXPOSURE TO PARTICULATE EMISSIONS

FROM SURFACE CONTAMINATION SITES


This attachment provides the survey worksheets and supportingcalculations for computing inhalation exposures to lead-contaminatedpartluuluce emissions from che active disposal area of the New CastleSteel sice. For further information regarding model assumptions andInputs, the reader should refer to the specific model used, RapidAssessment of Exposure to Paniculate Emissions from SurfaceContamination Sites (Cowherd et al,, 1985).

SITE SURVEY WORKSHEET

By Donald A. Pacprson Dace July 987

Reviewed by Michael Galvtn _. on August 12. 1987

I, GENERAL

Site:

location:

Latitude:Longitude:

New Castle Steel

New Castle, Delaware

93 39'M)11 N75 3V 35" W

Incident Dace: Ongoing, Landfill Is scill being used for generalfoundry waste,

Compound ofInterest: Lead (Pb)

ContaminantLBV*I: 38,3 mg/kg (Based on che mean for all bottom sieve

samples collected from the active disposal area of thesite [test pics 1, 2, and 3; NUS, 19B7a])

II. MECHANICAL RE5USPENS.ION

ACTIVE DISPOSAL AREA

Parameter Value

S1U BX

Average vehicle speed 5 mph • 8 kph

Average vehicle weight 15 Mg

Average number of wheels 6

Data Source/Comments

Cowherd, Table 4-2

NUS, 1987a

Cowherd, Table 4 -2

NUS, 1987aper vehicle

du l ly t r a f f i c

C o i i t i i i n l i i i i t f c d t rave l 'length

0,5 veh/dny • NUS, 19B7a (3-4 weeks)or 15,25 disturb, /mo,

0,t< km N U S , 1987a

A2-2

INACTIVE DISPOSAL AREA

Ho daca since this portion Is inactive; no vehicular traffic,therefore no mechanical resuspension,

III. UIND EROSION

(See Seeps 1-4, below, for calculations used co obtain cheinformation presented in this table [Cowherd, Figures 3-2 through 3-6]),

Parameter

Frequency of disturbance:Active disposal area

Inactive disposal area

Fraction of vegetative cover:Active disposal areaInactive disposal area

Value

15,25/mo

None

15X95X

NUS,(3-4NUS,

NUS,NUS,

Data Source/Comments

19B7a• vehicles/week)1987a

1987a19B7a

Seep 1, Characterization of Mind Erosion Potential (Cowherd, Figure 3-4)

Determination of Threshold Friction Velocity (uc)

Crusted surface <0,6 cm, easily crumpled,Limited reservoir of erodlble particles,See calculations for correction for nonerodible elements,

Active Disposal Area

Aggregate Size Distribution - 0,771 m (see calculations following)Threshold Friction Velocity • 59 cm/sec (uncorrected)Correction Value » 2

Test Pit

123

L0

6,8 x 10'21,3 x 10'2No correction

Multiplier "*« co"eetsd

U*t uncorrected

NA1,6JL_6,4 + 3 - 2,13

therefore corrected TFV - 2 s 59 - 118 cm/sec

A2-3

Inactive Disposal Area

Aggregate Size DistributionThreshold Friccion VelocityCorrection Value

1,063 on (see calculations following)66 cm/sec (uncorrected)

Test Pic

45

6A6B7

**

1,3 x UT2(100% vegetated)(100% vegetated)

8.0 x ID'2(100% vegetated)

Multinlier »*« C°«e««dU^t uncorrected

1,6NANA4,4NA

Step 2, Correction for Nonerodible Elements

Calculations Cor Lc, assuming spherical objects.

Active Disposal Area(NUS, 1987a; Quinn', 1987)

Imbeddedness Siloutte Fraction NonerodibleTest Fit (percent) (percent) (percent)

123

6775••

3425"•

2050

6,8 x 10'21,3 x 10'2

(No correction)

Inactive Disposal Area(NUS, 19B7a)

Test Pit

i,56A6B7

Imbeddedness(percent)

75No sampleNo sample

20No sample

Siloutte Fraction Nonerodible(percent)

25No sampleNo sample

80No sample

(percent)

510010010100

J-c

1,3 x....

8.0 x..

1C-2

1C'2

Seep 3, Aggregate Size Discribucion (NUS, l»87a) (Cowherd, Figure 3-4)

'Active Disposal Area

Test Pic

Tesc FU

5

6A

6B

Sieve Size (nun)

Biraodal 0.250,125

Biraodal 2,000,25

Mode 1,00

Xj • 0,188 mm

X2 • 1,125 mm

X3 - 1,00 mm

Average local Accive • 0,771 mm

Inactive Disposal Area

Sieve Size (nun)

Mode 1,00 X4 • 1,00 mm

(nonerodible)

(nonerodlble)

Bimodal 2,000.25 X6B - 1,125 mm

(nonerodible)

Average Total Inactive • 1,063 mm

A2-5

Seep 4. Roughness Height, ZQ (Cowherd, Figure 3-6)

NUS, 1987a: Suburban area, medium buildings, residential homes,some trees and grasses,

Deemer Steel: 2-story building

Inactive Fill: Mostly wooded

Quinn (7/21) conversation: ZQ <0.

No pictures available.

ZQ - 20 Low end of suburban, wooded area with buildings, upper endof suburban residential and grassland,

Therefore, from Figure 3-2:

Corrected TFV >75 cm/sec, Select "limited" model,

A2-6

Hind Erosion from Surfaces with Limited Erosion Potential(Cowherd, Section A)

Step 1. Emission Factor for Active Disposal Area, Annual Average(Cowherd, Section 4,1,1)

- 0.83 llHHm (4-1)(PE/50)2

where E^Q • PMj_o emission factor (mg/m2-hr)f - frequency of distribution per monthu+ - observed (or probable) fastest mile of wind for the

period between disturbances (is/sec)P(u+) - erosion potential (quantity of credible particles

present on surface prior to onset of wind erosion)(g/mz)

V - fraction of contaminated surface area covered bycontinuous vegetative cover (0 for bare soil)

PE - Thornthwaite's Precipitation 'Index used as a measure ofaverage soil moisture content

Case

u+ - 22,1 m/sec (Philadelphia; Cowherd, Table 4-1)

uc - 9 (Cowherd, Figure 4-1, ratio of wind speed ac, 7 m tofraction velocity)

f - 15,25 disc./mo (NUS, 1987a, 3-4/wk)

where

P(u*) - 6.7 • uc), u+ a ut (4-2)

erosion threshold wind speed (in m/s), measured at atypical weather station sensor height of 7 n

Case

P(u+) - 6,7 (22,1 • 9)

• 6,7 (13,1) - 87.8 g/ro2

V - 15X, fraction of vegetative cover in active fill(NUS, 1987a)

PE • 113 (Figure 4-2, PE Index, Northern Delaware)

A2-7

Therefore, Elfl - 0.83 (»-»)W-»)(l • <>•»)(113/50)2

• 0,83 (222,a)

E10 - 184.9 mg/m2-hr

Horse Case

For £ • 30,

E10WO - O.B3 (30)(B7.8)<0.8»)(113/50)2

363.8

Cowherd Equations 4-3 through 4-6 noc applicable for NCS sice,

Seep 2, Vehicle Traffic (Cowherd, Section 4,1,3)

For PMô emissions from vehicle traffic over unpaved surfaces:

where

0.8 0.3 1.2E10 • 0,85 JL JL JL JL

1 0 2 4 7 6

365-p365

(4-7)

P«10 emission factor for unpaved roads (kg/VKT)silt content of road surface material (X)mean vehicle speed (km/hr)mean vehicle weight (Hg)mean number of wheelsnumber of days with ar least 0,254 mm (0,01 In) ofprecipitation per year

Case

PHjô emission factor for unpaved roads (kg/VKT)ex (Cowherd, Table 4-2, default)8 km/hr (NUS, 1987a)15 Hg (Cowherd, Table 4-2, default)6 (NUS, 1987a)130 (Cowherd, Figure 4-4)

A2-

Therefore, ElO - 0.83 as,25)(87.8)(l • 0.15)(113/50)2

• 0.83 (222.8)

E10 " 184.9 mg/ni2-hr

Horse Case

For f - 30,

(113/50)2

. 363.8 ing/m2-hr

Cowherd Equations 4-3 througtj 4-6 not applicable for NCS sice,

Step 2. Vehicle Traffic (Cowfierd, Section 4,1.3)

ernis~s'ibns,| f rom vehicle traffic over unpaved surfaces:For

where '

»lo - 0,85 _!_10 I 1Q 24

0.8 0.3 1,2 365-p'365

(4-7)

1 PMô emission factor for unpaved roads (kg/VKT)silt content of road surface material (X)mean vehicle speed (km/hr)mean vehicle weight (Kg)mean number of wheelsnumber of days with at least 0,254 nun (0,01 in) ofprecipitation per year

Case •

E10SSVIwP

emission factor for unpaved roads (kg/VKT)8X (Cowherd, Table 4-2, default)8 km/hr (NUS, 1987a)15 Mg (Cowherd, Table 4-2, default)6 (NUS, 1987a)130 (Cowherd, Figure 4-4)

A2-9

Cast

Wnrsr

A > contaminated travel length x dally traffic count

- (0,4 ko)(0.5 veh/day)(365 day/yr)

• 73 VK/yr

RJ0 - (3B,3 mg/kg)(228,500 mg/VKT)(73 VK/yr)

- 638,860,000 rag/yr

- 72,900 mg/hr

" 20,3 nig/sec

E10 - 0,355 kg/VKT

Ru, - (38,3 mg/kg)(254,900 mg/VKT)(73 VK/yr)

• W2. 265, QUO ing/yr

» 113,270 ing/hr

• Jl ,5 mg/sec

Jjunit Ion nf EKpnsur*

No cui'rection required to account lor depletion of contaminant since:

JB.IOO con!> waste disposed in active disposal area and average annualemission race - 0,03 g/hr

« i* 3.3 x 10-B tons/hr

- 3 x 10''' tons/yr

Therefore, would require 131 million years co deplete wastes,

Seep 4. Dispersion Modeling (Cowherd, Section 4.2)

DISPERSION MODELING WORKSHEET(Cowherd, Figure 4-7)

CHiimcielesion; 7 (Cowherd, Figure 4-5)

Source Size; 100m x 100m (1,3 no, see page 43, iuera 3)

ANNUAL ESTIMATES

I, Annual Utnct Erosion Scnl lng Fnocor. Qj

A. Annual Hind Erosion Race, Rj.0 . f l . 2 3 x in' p/s

B, S e i r o s appropriate value of Pg from below

i l l l n u i r l c R i -g lon 1 2 3 ; i, j 6 7

[>R 0,152 0.262 0,396 0,288 0,182 0,134 0,296

C. Amiuiil Scaling Factor, Qj - Rl° • 2 ,78 s 105 g/sD

II, î i i i i inl Mc-ohnnU'al Rc-susoenslon Sonlliif . Factor . QJJ

QH • Annual Mechanical Emission Race, RJQ • O.OSQ3 e/sec

AMI

Seep 5, Scaling of Dispersion Model Oucpuc

Sealing Process

X - Qjfj

where

(4-11)

x • resplrable concencracion (mass/volume)QT - wind erosion scaling factor (mass/time) (Cowherd,

Figure 4-7)Qjl - mechanical resuspension scaling factor (mass/clme)

(Cowherd, Figure 4-7)FI - unsealed concencracion (dine/volume) due a unic erosion

race (Cowherd, Appendix D)Fj[ - unsealed concencracion (cime/volurae) due co a unic

mechanical emission race from Appendix D

• course and fine grid for Region 7source size 100 x 100 m2 in Cowherd,

• values sneered as Tables 1 and 2

• No rocncion deemed necessary• low marsh aren

Appendix D

TABLE 1RESPIRABLE CONCENTRATIONS

UU'eCCioll

NNEESEbsi;wNU

200

,546,638,613,512,559.536.412.330

Fine CridRange (m)300

.292,320.315.242-.293,269.210,138

400

,201.217,212,162,200,181,141,092

500

,1*7,156,152,116,145.130.101.066

A2-12

TABLE 2RESPIRABLE CONCENTRATIONS

Direction

NNNIiNEEMCEliSESBSSE5SSHSW1,'SWKK!!WNVNM;

750

,080.073,083,084,080,070,060,060,078.068,068,064,053,037,034,048

1000

.052,044,052,052,050.043,038.037,050,042,043,040.033,023,021,029

Coarse GridRange (m)1250 1500

.037 .028

.030 ,022,037 ,027.036 ,027,035 .026.030 .022.026 ,019,025 ,018.035 ,026.029 .021,030 ,022,028 ,021,023 ,017,016 ,012.015 .Oil.020 ,014

2000 3000 4000

,018 .009.013.017 ,009.017 ,009.016 .008,014,012.011,017 ,009.013.014.013,013.

' •• .

SU'P 6, Worst-Case Concentration Estimates (Cowherd, Section 4.2,2)

Worst-case meteorological condition will be based on mechanical^suspension as source of emissions (wind speed 2,5 in/see, atmosphericstability class F) since this emission rate is far greater thanworst-case emission rate for wind erosion,

iHIQ • 31,5 mg/sec Worst-case mechanical resuspension

Vel'SUS

IQ • 0,016 ing/sec Worse-case wind erosion

fni1 Unrsc -Cnse Conconrr. i t lnn EstlniArcs

n 5o.nl Inf. Fncrof

scaling fac tor - UorsC-case mechanical I'esuspensionemission rate

" 31,5 ing/sec or ,0315 g/sec

A 2 - 1 3

100 m x 100 n Scenario/Worse Case (Mechanical Resuspension)(Cowherd, Appendix C-4)

Scaling Factor Distance Multiplier Isoplach

0.03150,03150.03150.03150.03150,03150,0315D.OJ15

50301053210,75 '

1.5750,9450,3150.1580,0950,0630,0320,024

Di-sU'ud IsoplathConcenci'flclon

W'S/m )

2,01,51,0 ,0,5 /0,250.01

ScalingFactor(8/s)

0,03150,03150,03150.03150.03150,0315

Unsealed24-hr Concentration

0<g/m3)

63,547,631,715.97.9.3

DownwindDistance

(km)

0,30.50,60.01,4

>7

Pivv.il'. Inn U t n d Dh'oprlon

Discussions w i t h the Nat ional Ueacher Service at the Greaterk ' l lml i igcon Airpor t Indicated that there are two prevailing winddlivctions (at the a i rpor t ) ( r e fe r to memo dated June 4, 1987), ThesedU'ec t lunt i are general ly out of che south, and between west -nor thwest anduui1 U i w e s t , This is based on a 25-year record for the period 1963-1967,

AM4

Step 7, Estimation of Exposure (Cowherd, Section 4.3)

f Contaminant ] (Respiration1 (Exposure! [Absorption]AverageDallyLifetime -Exposure(ADLE)

HR(.Concentration) [ Race J [Duration] L Fraction J (4-15)

[Body Height] [Lifetime)

Annual Concentration Estimates

AnnualConcentrationW"

0.550.3750.1750,0750,038

ADLE 3

0,0400,0270,0130.0050.003

I . Hi in I I'.irlnn R.-it>

J] in'/day Based on average adult male spending d lies/day restingac a respiration race of 7.5 1/mln, and spendingremainder of day In llghc acclvicy ac a respirationrace of 20 1/inin, (Cowherd, ft al,, 1985).

•<• llm'.'.rlnn

70 Based on a conservative exposure race of 24 hrs/day.Indoor concencracions are assumed co equal oucdoorconcencracions (Cowherd, ec al,, 1965).

' A l iao i 'n r lon Fraction

Fi'jtftlon(inspired 1 (Fractionr 'Fraction

I swallowed1 fraction

C . I , t rac t 1absorption j

1.00 [ ( 0 . 1 2 5 ) + ( 0 , 6 2 5 ) x ( O . J 5 ) ]

0.219

AM5

100*

12, 5X

62. bX

*. Body U'eiehc

70 kg

5. L i f e t ime

70 years

Inspired fraction

Fraction In lungs (Cowherd, et al., 1965}• ,'f ' • 1VJ '''':' •' '•' . '.::•

fraction swallowed; 50X is deposited In upper •'"respiratory system and subsequently swallowed, 25% Isdeposited In lungs of which half is swallowed (Cowherdet al., 1965),

G.I. tract absorption fraction: adult 5-15X,child 41,5X, Bused on conservative average ofadult only,

Average U.S. adult nale (Cowherd, et al., 1985)

Average U.S. adult male (Cowherd, et al., 1965)

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final report final endangerment assessment new castle steel ...

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