CHAPTER – 1 Introduction Nuclear power is an energy source that has proved itself over decades to be safe, clean and economic yet it is perceived as being dangerous, dirty and expensive. Nuclear power technology is well understood and information is so easy to obtain yet it is the subject of wild ignorance. As the Indian economy continues to surge ahead, its power sector has been expanding concurrently to support the growth rate. The demand for power is growing exponentially and the scope for the growth of this sector is immense. Every age has its business paradigm, its own growth and its own fortune hunters. Every age also has one idea, which clicks and gives maximum returns to investors. And if you happen to speak in the same breathe, you can say that India has entered into an age of maximizing its infrastructure and giving highest benefits to those linked with it. Power sector is one such area which, by its sheer magnitude, holds a significant potential. The power sector has registered significant progress since the process of planned development of the economy began in 1950. Hydro -power and coal based thermal power have been the main sources of generating electricity. Nuclear power development is at slower pace, which was introduced, in late sixties. The concept of operating power systems on a regional basis crossing the political boundaries of states was introduced in the early sixties. In spite of the overall development that has taken place, the power supply industry has been under constant pressure to bridge the gap between supply and demand. India’s energy requirement during the year 2008–09 was 774,324 million units (MU), while its energy availability was 689,021 MU. An energy shortage of 11 per cent was recorded in 2008–09, as compared to 9.9 per cent in 2007–08. The peak demand for energy in 2008–09 was 109,809 MW, while the peak 1
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CHAPTER – 1
Introduction
Nuclear power is an energy source that has proved itself over decades to be safe, clean and
economic yet it is perceived as being dangerous, dirty and expensive. Nuclear power technology is
well understood and information is so easy to obtain yet it is the subject of wild ignorance.
As the Indian economy continues to surge ahead, its power sector has been expanding concurrently
to support the growth rate. The demand for power is growing exponentially and the scope for the
growth of this sector is immense.
Every age has its business paradigm, its own growth and its own fortune hunters. Every age also
has one idea, which clicks and gives maximum returns to investors. And if you happen to speak in
the same breathe, you can say that India has entered into an age of maximizing its infrastructure
and giving highest benefits to those linked with it. Power sector is one such area which, by its
sheer magnitude, holds a significant potential.
The power sector has registered significant progress since the process of planned development of
the economy began in 1950. Hydro -power and coal based thermal power have been the main
sources of generating electricity. Nuclear power development is at slower pace, which was
introduced, in late sixties. The concept of operating power systems on a regional basis crossing the
political boundaries of states was introduced in the early sixties. In spite of the overall
development that has taken place, the power supply industry has been under constant pressure to
bridge the gap between supply and demand. India’s energy requirement during the year 2008–09
was 774,324 million units (MU), while its energy availability was 689,021 MU. An energy
shortage of 11 per cent was recorded in 2008–09, as compared to 9.9 per cent in 2007–08. The
peak demand for energy in 2008–09 was 109,809 MW, while the peak demand met was 96,685
MW. The consequent peak shortage in 2008–09 was 12 per cent, as compared to 16.6 per cent in
2007–08.
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From 2007 to 2035, world renewable energy use for electricity generation grows by an average of
3.0 percent per year and the renewable share of world electricity generation increases from 18
percent in 2007 to 23 percent in 2035. Coal-fired generation increases by an annual average of 2.3
percent, making coal the second fastest-growing source for electricity generation in the projection.
The outlook for coal could be altered substantially, however, by any future legislation that would
reduce or limit the growth of greenhouse gas emissions. Generation from natural gas and nuclear
power—which produce relatively low levels of greenhouse gas emissions (natural gas) or none
(nuclear)—increase by 2.1 and 2.0 percent per year, respectively.
1.1 Introduction To Indian Power Sector
India's total installed capacity as on March 31, 2010 is 1,59,648.49 mega watt (MW).
Thermal Power 102703.98 MW 64.2%
Hydro Power 36863.4 MW 23.1%
Renewable energy 15521.11 MW 9.7%
Nuclear energy 4560 MW 2.8%
Total 159648.49 MW
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Within the thermal power plants
Coal-Based Power Plant 84448.38 MW
Gas-Based Power Plant 17055.85 MW
Diesel-Based Power Plant 1199.75 MW
Thermal Power Total 102703.98 MW
Renewable energy sources include
Small Hydro Project 2604.92 MW
Biomass Gasifier 2167.73 MW
Urban And Industrial Water Power And Solar 101.01 MW
Wind Energy 10647.45 MW
Renewable Energy Total 15521.11 MW
A total of 34 projects were commissioned during 2009-10 with a total capacity of 9,585 MW.
These include 31 thermal power plants with a total capacity of 9,106 MW, one hydro power plant
with a capacity 39 MW, and two nuclear power plants with a combined capacity of 440 MW. 18
power plants were commissioned in 2008-09 with a total capacity of 3,453.7 MW which included
10 thermal power plants with a capacity of 2,484.7 MW and eight hydro power plants with a
capacity of 969 MW.At present, over a hundred commercial nuclear power reactors operate in 33
states. Still, no new nuclear power reactors have been ordered in over two decades.
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Total Installed Capacity:
Sector MW %
State Sector 79,391.85 49.73%
Central Sector 50,992.63 31.94%
Private Sector 29,264.01 18.33%
Total 159,648.49 100.00%
1.2 Operating Units and Units under Construction
The operating nuclear power units are Tarapur Atomic Power Station Units-1&2 (2x160 MWe
BWRs), Tarapur Atomic Power Station Units-3&4 (2x540 MWe PHWRs), Rajasthan Atomic
Power Station Units 1- 6 (100 MWe, 200 MWe and 4x220 MWe PHWRs), Madras Atomic Power
Station Units-1&2 (2x220 MWe PHWRs), Narora Atomic Power Station Units-1&2 (2x220 MWe
PHWRs), Kakrapar Atomic Station Units-1&2 (2x220 MWe PHWRs) and Kaiga Generating
Station Unit-1 to 3 (3x220 MWe PHWRs). The Units under construction are Unit-4 (220 MWe
PHWR) of Kaiga Atomic Power Project, Unit-1&2 (2x1000 MWe PWRs) of Kudankulam Nuclear
Power Project, Units-7&8 (2x700 MWe PHWRs) of Rajasthan Atomic Power Project and Unit-
3&4 (2x700 MWe PHWRs) of Kakrapar Atomic Power Project. In addition , NPCIL has also 10
MWe Wind Farm operating at Kudankulam site.
Plants Under Construction
Nuclear Power
PlantLocation
No. of
UnitsType
Capacity
(Mwe)
Year of
commercial
operation
RAPSRawatbhata,
Rajasthan
7 PHWR 700 2016
8 PHWR 700 2016
KGS Kaiga, Karnataka 4 PHWR 220 2010
KKNPPKudankulam,
Tamilnadu
1 LWR 1000 2010
2 LWR 1000 2011
KAPS Kakrapar, Gujarat3 PHWR 700 2015
4 PHWR 700 2015
Total Nuclear Power Plant Capacity 5020
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Plants In Operation
Nuclear
Power PlantLocation No. of Units Type
Capacity
(Mwe)
Year of commercial
operation
TAPSTarapur,
Maharashtra
1 BWR 160 1969
2 BWR 160 1969
3 PHWR 540 2006
4 PHWR 540 2005
RAPSRawatbhata,
Rajasthan
1 PHWR 100 1973
2 PHWR 200 1981
3 PHWR 220 2000
4 PHWR 220 2000
5 PHWR 220 2010
6 PHWR 220 2010
MAPSKalpakkam,
Tamil Nadu
1 PHWR 220 1984
2 PHWR 220 1986
KGS Kaiga, Karnataka
1 PHWR 220 2000
2 PHWR 220 2000
3 PHWR 220 2007
NAPSNarora,Uttar
Pradesh
1 PHWR 220 1991
2 PHWR 220 1992
KAPS Kakrapar, Gujarat1 PHWR 220 1993
2 PHWR 220 1995
Total Nuclear Power Plant Capacity 4560
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Nuclear Infrastructure
6
1.3 How is Nuclear power produced?
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1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Nuclear Power
Advantages of Nuclear Power
Nuclear power is economic. During the last few years the IEA has found nuclear power to be
cheaper than coal. Only hydro power is cheaper to produce.
Nuclear reactions release a million times more energy, as compared to hydro or wind energy.
Nuclear reactors make use of uranium as fuel. Fission reaction of a small amount of uranium
generates large amount of energy..
Nuclear power is sustainable. Uranium is massively abundant in the earth's crust and in the sea.
Furthermore there is at least three times a much thorium as uranium, and thorium can be used as a
nuclear fuel. Currently, the high reserves of uranium found on Earth, are expected to last for
another 100 years. Hence, a large amount of electricity can be generated. Uranium is found
everywhere in the crust of the Earth – it is more abundant than tin, for example. Major deposits are
found in Canada and Australia. It is estimated that increasing the market price by a factor ten
would result in 100 times more uranium coming to market. Eventually we will be able to recover
uranium from sea water where 4 billion tons are dissolved.
Our industrial civilization runs on energy and 85% of the world’s energy is provided by the fossil
fuels, coal, oil and gas. More than half the world’s oil production today is located in the fragile and
politically unstable area of the Persian Gulf, as is an even greater fraction of our future reserves. At
the present rate of consumption, reserves are estimated to last a few decades, but consumption is
growing rapidly. By 2100, oil and natural gas reserves will likely be exhausted .The burning of
fossil fuels result in emission of the poisonous carbon dioxide. 23 billion tons of carbon dioxide
every year into the atmosphere – 730 tons per second. Half of it is absorbed in the seas and
vegetation, but half remains in the atmosphere. It is a menace to the environment as well as human
life. There is no release of carbon d-oxide at the time of nuclear reaction.
Renewable sources have important niche roles to play – in remote locations and under special
circumstances. But they can make only a marginal contribution to the energy needs of a growing
industrial civilization. To replace just one nuclear reactor, such as the new EPR reactor which
France is now building in Normandy, with the most modern wind turbines (twice as high as Notre-
Dame, the Cathedral of Paris), they would have to be lined up all the way from Genoa in Italy to
Barcelona in Spain (about 700 kilometers/400miles). And, even so, they generate electricity only
when the wind blows (their average yield is about 25% of their rated capacity).There is much talk
about biofuels, ethanol from sugar cane, for example. The entire arable surface of the Earth could
not produce enough biofuel to replace present oil consumption.
Nuclear power is clean and has the least waste problem. One pound of uranium contains as much
energy as three million pounds of coal. It is the famous “factor of a million”. One pound of coal
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produces three pounds or CO2, therefore fissioning one pound of uranium in place of burning coal
saves nine million pounds of CO2 from entering the environment. Today over 400 nuclear reactors
provide base-load electric power in 30 countries. Fifty years old, it is a relatively mature
technology with the assurance of great improvement in the next generation.(Hundreds of nuclear
reactors furnish reliable and flexible shipboard power: military ships of course. But the technology
is adaptable to civilian maritime transport.) Nuclear energy produces almost no carbon dioxide,
and no sulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxides whatsoever. These gases are produced in vast quantities
when fossil fuels are burned. The biggest advantage of nuclear energy is that there is no release of
greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, and chlorofluorocarbon) during nuclear
reaction. The greenhouse gases are a major threat in the current scenario, as they cause global
warming and climate change. Nuclear power reduces greenhouse emissions. Over the full energy
cycle, including fuel processing, operation and decommissioning, nuclear has among the least,
emissions per unit of electricity produced of any energy source
Nuclear waste is correspondingly about a million times smaller than fossil fuel waste, and it is
totally confined. In the USA and Sweden, spent fuel is simply stored away. Elsewhere, spent fuel
is reprocessed to separate out the 3% of radioactive fission products and heavy elements to be
vitrified (cast in glass) for safe and permanent storage. The remaining 97% – plutonium and
uranium – is recovered and recycled into new fuel elements to produce more energy. The volume
of nuclear waste produced is very small. A typical French family’s use of nuclear energy over a
whole lifetime produces vitrified waste the size of a golf ball. Nuclear waste is to be deposited in
deep geological storage sites; it does not enter the biosphere. Its impact on the ecosystems is
minimal. Nuclear waste spontaneously decays over time while stable chemical waste, such as
arsenic or mercury, lasts forever. Most fossil fuel waste is in the form of gas that goes up the
smokestack. We don’t see it, but it is not without effect, causing global warming, acid rain, smog
and other atmospheric pollution.
Nuclear power is safe, as proven by the record of half a century of commercial operation, with the
accumulated experience of more than 12,000 reactor-years.
Nuclear reactors provide base-load power and are available over 90% of the time; intervals
between refuelings have been extended and down time for refueling have been reduced. In the
USA, these improvements over the years have been the equivalent of adding one reactor a year to
the existing fleet. Most reactors are designed for a life of 40 years; many are reaching that age in
good condition and extensions of 20 years have usually been granted.
The cost of nuclear power is competitive and stable. The cost of nuclear fuel is a small part of the
price of a nuclear kiloWatt-hour, whereas fossil fueled power, especially oil and gas, is at the
mercy of the market.
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A nuclear power station is very compact, occupying typically the area of a football stadium and its
surrounding parking lots. Solar cells, wind turbine farms and growing biomass, all require large
areas of land.
Fear of the unknown is the merchandise of anti-nuclear “greens”. They preach fear of radiation in
general, fear of radioactive waste in particular. fear of another major accident such as Three Mile
Island or Chernobyl, and fear of nuclear weapons proliferation. Their campaign has been
successful only because radiation is a mystery to most people, and very few are aware of the fact
that radiation is present everywhere in the environment. The anti-nuclear organizations also exploit
the widespread but mistaken interpretation of the studies of the health of the survivors of the
Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombing: that even a small amount of radiation is deleterious to health
(the LNT hypothesis), and the related concept of collective dose. In fact a moderate amount of
radiation is natural and beneficial, if not essential, to life. Radiation has been bathing our
environment since the earliest history of our planet, and it is present everywhere in nature. In fact,
our sun and its planets including the Earth are the remnants of the giant explosion of a supernova.
Everything is radioactive around us in nature and already was even before radioactivity was
discovered. This radiation spontaneously decreases with time. When life first appeared on Earth,
the natural radiation levels were about twice as high as today. Most people are totally unaware of
the fact that the human body itself is naturally radioactive. Our bodies contain about 8000
becquerels (8000 atoms disintegrating every second), about half of which is potassium-40, a
chemical element essential for health, as well as carbon-14.
Nuclear power is clean, safe, reliable, compact, competitive and practically inexhaustible.
Disadvantages of Nuclear Power
Though large amount of energy can be produced from a nuclear power plant, it requires large
capital cost. Around 15-20 years are required to develop a single plant. Hence, it is not very
feasible to build a nuclear power plant. The nuclear reactors will work only as long as uranium is
available. Its extinction can again result in a grave problem.
The waste produced after fission reactions contains unstable elements and is highly radioactive. It
is very dangerous to the environment as well as human health, and remains so, for thousands of
years. It needs professional handling and should be kept isolated from the living environments.
The radioactivity of these elements reduces over a period of time, after decaying. Hence, they have
to be carefully stored. It is very difficult to store radioactive elements for a long period.
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CHAPTER – 2Issues
2.1 Accidents
There have been 2 serious accidents in commercial exploitation nuclear power.
Three Mile Island in 1979 (in Pennsylvania, USA)
Chernobyl in 1986 (in the Soviet Union, now in Ukraine)
In TMI the core of the reactor melted down and much of it fell to the bottom of the reactor vessel.
The radioactivity released was almost entirely confined within the reinforced concrete containment
structure, the air-tight silo-like building which houses the reactor – it was designed for that
purpose. The small amount of radioactivity which escaped was quite innocuous. As a result, no
one at TMI was seriously irradiated nor did anyone die. In fact, Three Mile Island was a real
success story for nuclear safety. The worst possible accident occurred, a core meltdown, and yet no
one died or was even injured.
Chernobyl was different nuclear accident of catastrophic proportions that occurred on 26 April
1986, in Ukraine (then in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, part of the Soviet Union). It is
considered the worst nuclear power plant accident in history and is the only level 7 event on
the International Nuclear Event Scale.
The disaster occurred on 26 April 1986, 01:23, at reactor number four at the Chernobyl plant, near
the town of Pripyat, during an unauthorized systems test. A sudden power output surge took place,
and when an attempt was made at an emergency shutdown, a more extreme spike in power output
occurred which led to the rupture of a reactor vessel as well as a series of explosions. This event
exposed the graphite moderator components of the reactor to air and they ignited; the resulting fire
sent a plume of radioactive fallout into the atmosphere and over an extensive area, including
Pripyat. The plume drifted over large parts of the western Soviet Union, and also much of Europe.
As of December 2000, 350,400 people had been evacuated and resettled from the most severely
contaminated areas of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine. According to official post-Soviet data, up to
70% of the fallout landed in Belarus.
Following the accident, Ukraine continued to operate the remaining reactors at Chernobyl for
many years. The last reactor at the site was closed down in 2000.
The accident raised concerns about the safety of the Soviet nuclear power industry as well as
nuclear power in general, slowing its expansion for a number of years while forcing the Soviet
government to become less secretive about its procedures. Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus have been