FINAL GIS

A

Seminar Report

On

Geographic Information Systems

In partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of

Bachelor of Engineering

In

Information Technology

SUBMITTED BY:

Dixeet parekh (08-IT-20)

Under the Guidance of

Ms. Meenakshi

SUBMITTED TO:

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY,

KALOL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & RESEARCH CENTER.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Seminar Report entitled ―Geographic Information

Systems‖ i s t he b o na f i e d wo rk o f

Mr . Dixeet Parekh (08-IT-20)

Studying in Kalol Institute of Technology & Research Center, Kalol. He is assigned the

above Seminar Work by this institute during the period of July 2010 to Nov 2010, as a

part of his bachelor of engineering (IT-Semester V); curriculum set by Gujarat

Technological University & has successfully completed the Seminar work.

It indeed gives me a pleasure to highlight that he worked very hard & with deep sincerity

throughout the semester. I am sure that the experience gained during the seminar work

will enable him to take similar challenging works in future.

Date of Submission Internal Guide Head,I.T Department (Ms. Meenakshi) (Mr. Hitesh C. Patel)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I, Parekh Dixeet, of 5th

semester I.T., extend my heartily gratitude towards the college

management of KITRC, Kalol, for their great help in completing my seminar report. I also thank

our honorable principal, Dr. Akshey Bhargava, for being our light throughout this road.

I also want to thank our head of department, Mr. Hitesh C. Patel, along with our course guide,

Ms. Meenakshi, for their guidance throughout the preparation of seminar report.

Last but not the least; I would heartily like to thank my family and friend for being my support

throughout the time of tension, while doing this work and making it all a huge success.

Regards,

Parekh Dixeet

ABSTRACT

―Geographic Information Systems‖ (GIS) module introduces you to how GIS can be used to

help make better coastal management decisions. The module outlines the theory behind how GIS work,

and the practical benefits and problems of their use. In particular, the module seeks to provide practical

support for those considering using GIS. Topics covered in the module include decision-making, data

sourcing, data quality management, and GIS project management.

Throughout the module, there are real examples, taken from across Europe, to illustrate the

benefits and potential problems associated with the use of GIS. Web links are also embedded into the

module to other specialist GIS sites, including data providers, GIS suppliers and other members of the

GIS user community so that you can seek further information.

By the end of the module, you will be able to determine how GIS could be of use to you, what

problems you are likely to encounter using GIS, and how to proceed with the development of a GIS.

Parekh Dixeet

V IT

ID: 08-IT-20

INDEX

Sr. No. TITLE Page

No.

1 Introduction 1

2 History of Geographic Information Systems 2

3 Who uses GIS? 4

4 What can you do with a GIS? 5

5 GIS components 6

6 Working of Geographic Information Systems 7

7 Making Maps and Posters 13

8 Making Pin Maps 14

9 Using Regions 15

10 GIS Task 17

11 Advanced Software for Geospatial Analysis 20

12 Application 21

13 Advantages of GIS 22

14 Disadvantages of GIS 24

15 The Future of GIS 25

16 Conclusion 26

17 Bibliography 27


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1. INTRODUCTION

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is an evolving, catchall phrase that initially

referred to management of information with a geographic component primarily stored in vector

form with associated attributes. This definition quickly became too restrictive with advances in

software and ideas about information management. An advanced GIS system should be able to

handle any spatial data, not just data tied to the ground by geographic reference points. The

capacity to handle non-geographic spatial data was formerly the domain of systems referred to as

AM/FM (Automated Mapping and Facilities Management). Other non-geographic applications,

such as interactive medical encyclopedias that retrieve information based on the human form,

should also be manageable by a robust system.

Integration of imagery with vector data is now a necessity for a full-featured GIS system.

Imagery was once thought to be the exclusive domain of image processing systems, but is now

often required as a backdrop for vector, or other data, types.

No up-to-date GIS system is complete without surface modeling and 3D (technically 2

1/2 D) visualization with ―fly-by‖ capability. In addition to drawing a path for the simulation,

you should be able to orbit with the view directed at a specified point or have the view pan

around a stationary viewer. Vector overlay on this 3D surface should also be an integral part of

the package.

A GIS system should be production oriented, which may or may not mean product

oriented. Production work in GIS involves making maps (a product), but it also involves

interactive analysis (a result which may have no tangible product). This booklet starts by

looking at these two aspects of GIS systems and then describes the facets of GIS systems needed

to reach the integrated goals.


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2. History of Geographic Information Systems

In 1854, John Snow depicted a cholera outbreak in London using points to represent the

locations of some individual cases, possibly the earliest use of the geographic method. His study

of the distribution of cholera led to the source of the disease, a contaminated water pump (the

Broad Street Pump, whose handle he had disconnected, thus terminating the outbreak) within the

heart of the cholera outbreak.

E. W. Gilbert's version (1958) of John Snow's 1855 map of the Soho cholera outbreak

showing the clusters of cholera cases in the London epidemic of 1854

While the basic elements of topography and theme existed previously in cartography, the

John Snow map was unique, using cartographic methods not only to depict but also to analyze

clusters of geographically dependent phenomena for the first time.

The early 20th century saw the development of photolithography, by which maps were

separated into layers. Computer hardware development spurred by nuclear weapon research led

to general-purpose computer "mapping" applications by the early 1960s.

The year 1962 saw the development of the world's first true operational GIS in Ottawa,

Ontario, Canada by the federal Department of Forestry and Rural Development. Developed by

Dr. Roger Tomlinson, it was called the "Canada Geographic Information System" (CGIS) and


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was used to store, analyze, and manipulate data collected for the Canada Land Inventory (CLI) –

an effort to determine the land capability for rural Canada by mapping information about soils,

agriculture, recreation, wildlife, waterfowl, forestry, and land use at a scale of 1:50,000. A rating

classification factor was also added to permit analysis.

CGIS was the world's first such system and an improvement over "mapping" applications

as it provided capabilities for overlay, measurement, and digitizing/scanning. It supported a

national coordinate system that spanned the continent, coded lines as "arcs" having a true

embedded topology, and it stored the attribute and locational information in separate files. As a

result of this, Tomlinson has become known as the "father of GIS," particularly for his use of

overlays in promoting the spatial analysis of convergent geographic data. CGIS lasted into the

1990s and built a large digital land resource database in Canada. It was developed as a

mainframe based system in support of federal and provincial resource planning and management.

Its strength was continent-wide analysis of complex datasets. The CGIS was never available in a

commercial form.

In 1964, Howard T Fisher formed the Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial

Analysis at the Harvard Graduate School of Design (LCGSA 1965-1991), where a number of

important theoretical concepts in spatial data handling were developed, and which by the 1970s

had distributed seminal software code and systems, such as 'SYMAP', 'GRID', and 'ODYSSEY' -

- which served as literal and inspirational sources for subsequent commercial development—to

universities, research centers, and corporations worldwide.

By the early 1980s, M&S Computing (later Intergraph), Environmental Systems

Research Institute (ESRI), CARIS (Computer Aided Resource Information System) and ERDAS

emerged as commercial vendors of GIS software, successfully incorporating many of the CGIS

features, combining the first generation approach to separation of spatial and attribute

information with a second generation approach to organizing attribute data into database

structures. In parallel, the development of two public domain systems began in the late 1970s

and early 1980s. MOSS, the Map Overlay and Statistical System project started in 1977 in Fort

Collins, Colorado under the auspices of the Western Energy and Land Use Team (WELUT) and

the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. GRASS GIS was begun in 1982 by the U.S. Army Corps of

Engineering Research Laboratory (USA-CERL) in Champaign, Illinois, a branch of the U.S.

Army Corps of Engineers to meet the need of the U.S. military for software for land management

and environmental planning. The later 1980s and 1990s industry growth were spurred on by the

growing use of GIS on Unix workstations and the personal computer. By the end of the 20th

century, the rapid growth in various systems had been consolidated and standardized on

relatively few platforms, and users were beginning to export the concept of viewing GIS data

over the Internet, requiring data format and transfer standards. More recently, a growing number

of free, open source GIS packages run on a range of operating systems and can be customized to

perform specific tasks.


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3.Who uses GIS?

International organizations

• UN HABITAT, The World Bank, UNEP, FAO, WHO, etc.

Private industry

• Transport, Real Estate, Insurance, etc.

Government s

• Ministries of Environment, Housing, Agriculture, etc.

• Local Authorities, Cities, Municipalities, etc.

• Provincial Agencies for Planning, Parks, Transportation, etc.

Non-profit organizations/NGO’s

• World Resources Institute, ICMA, etc.

Academic and Research Institutions

• Smithsonian Institution, CIESIN, etc.


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3. What can you do with a GIS?

• The possibilities are unlimited…

Environmental impact assessment

Resource management

Land use planning

Tax Mapping

Water and Sanitation Mapping

Transportation routing

and more ...


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4. GIS components

The key to establishing this type of technology within an information framework for the

purposes of decision making is INTEGRATION: the linking together of technology, data and a

decision making strategy.

What GIS is all about today is the bringing together of spatial analysis techniques and

digital spatial data combined with computer technology.

But for many, GIS is much more than a computer database and a set of tools: it is also a

philosophy for information management. Often GIS can form the core of the information

management within an organisation.

There are of course other definitions too. GIS is sometimes referred to as the tool whilst

the user may be the Spatial Information Scientist! In recent times the whole subject area has also

been referred to as Geographic Information Management (GIM) or even Geomatics

Each of these components will now be examined in further details.

1. Data

2. Software & hardware tools

3. GIS data manipulation & analysis


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5. Working of Geographic Information Systems

A GIS stores information about the world as a collection of thematic layers that can be

linked together by geography. This simple but extremely powerful and versatile concept has

proven invaluable for solving many real-world problems from tracking delivery vehicles,

recording details of planning applications, to modelling global atmospheric circulation. The

working of a GIS can be summarised as:

Relating information from different sources

Geographic references / locations

Data capture

Data integration

Projection and registration

Data structures

Data modelling

Relating information from different sources

The ability of GIS to relate information from disparate sources helps in planning and

management of natural resources. A GIS can be used for converting existing digital information,

which may not be in map format, into forms, which it can recognise and use. For example,

digital satellite images can be analysed to produce a thematic layer of digital information about

vegetation. Additionally, existing tabular data such as census can be converted to map-like

format. For the data to be usable, it needs to be geo referenced to the map in some way.

Geographic References

Geographic information contains either an explicit geographic reference, such as a latitude and

longitude or national grid co-ordinate, or an implicit reference such as an address, postal code,

census tract name, forest stand identifier, or road name. An automated process called geocoding

is used to create explicit geographic references (multiple locations) from implicit references

(descriptions such as addresses). These geographic references allow you to locate features, such

as a business or forest stand, and events, such as an earthquake, on the earth's surface for

analysis.


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Data capture

The process of getting data into a digital format recognised by the GIS is known as data capture.

Data on existing paper maps can be digitised or hand traced using a mouse in order to collect the

co-ordinates of the features. Electronic scanning devices are the other options for the data

capture. This step is the most time consuming part in creating a GIS.

Data Integration

A GIS stores information as a collection of thematic layers, which are linked together by

geography. Underlying these layers are associated tables of spatial and descriptive attributes that

describe the geographic features.

Projection and Registration

All the information that is obtained from various disparate sources has to be converted to

consistent spatial references before using in GIS. This process aligns all the data layers by

establishing a consistent co-ordinate system for all the data layers. Before data is analysed, in

most of the GIS projects, projection of the map is done. Projection, one of the fundamentals of

mapmaking, is the mathematical method of transferring information from the earth's three-

dimensional surface to two-dimensional medium. Map projections, however, will result in the

distortion of one or more of these properties: shape, area, distance and direction. Some of the

projections that are used are Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM), Lambert Conformal Conic,

etc.

Data structures

Geographic information systems work with two fundamentally different types of geographic

models, the "vector" model and the "raster" model.

This system is capable of integrating, storing, editing, analyzing, and displaying

geographically-referenced information. In a more generic sense, GIS is a "smart map" tool that

allows users to create interactive queries (user created searches), analyze the spatial information,

and edit data. For those who might be unfamiliar with GIS, the following graphic demonstrates

how different elements within a GIS can be separated or ‗layered‘ in order to combine features,

and enable analysis of data.


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Raster organises spatial features in a regularly spaced grid of cells or pixels, while the

vector data structure organises spatial features by a set of vectors, which are specified by starting

point co-ordinates (i.e. the information about points, lines, and polygons is encoded and stored

as a collection of x, y co-ordinates). The location of a point feature, such as a location of

borehole, can be described by a single x, y co-ordinates. Point features are represented as vectors

without length or direction. Linear features, such as roads and rivers, can be stored as a

collection of point co-ordinates.


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Polygonal features, such as land parcels and river catchments, can be stored as a closed

loop of co-ordinates. Compared to a line designated in a raster format, a vector line is one-

dimensional and has no width associated with it. The vector model is extremely useful for

describing discrete features, but less useful for describing continuously varying features such as

soil type.


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Vector data model

ADVANTAGE of the vector data format: allows precise representation of points, boundaries,

and linear features.

– useful for analysis tasks that require accurate positioning,

– for defining spatial relationship (ie the connectivity and adjacency) between

coverage features (topology), important for such purposes as network analysis

(for example to find an optimal path between two nodes in a complex transport

network)

Main DISADVANTAGE of vector data is that the boundaries of the resulting map polygons are

discrete (enclosed by well-defined boundary lines), whereas in reality the map polygons may

represent continuous gradation or gradual change, as in soil maps.


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Raster data model

Good for representing indistinct boundaries

– thematic information on soil types, soil moisture, vegetation, ground

temperatures

As reconnaissance satellites and aerial surveys use raster-based scanners, the information (ie

scanned images) can be directly incorporated into GIS .


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6. Making Maps and Posters

GIS map making should transcend

traditional car-tography—roads, streams,

and political boundaries along with map

grids, scale bars, and legends may be

sufficient for some maps but are not an

adequate reflection of a fully featured GIS

system. You should be able to incorporate

a satellite or airphoto image as the

background for line and polygon data with

transparent polygon filling to reveal the

background through vector or CAD

overlays. You should be able to

incorporate enlarged insets and elements

that tie the components at both map scales

together.

To make map making easy, a GIS

system should include a variety of

standard map components that can be

readily added to a layout. These include

map grids, scale bars, legends, annotation

text, and a means of mixing georeferenced

and ungeoreferenced groups (north arrows,

company logos) to complete the map.

Each of these map com-ponents should be

easily customizable; for example, with

map grids you should be able to control

the size and color of the text and lines, the

grid spacing, the components of the grid,

and so on.

A map Is built from many pieces.


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7. Making Pin Maps

A pin map directly visualizes database

information if each record has coordinates for the

location of the observation or report. You could plot

telemetry data for a variety of animals, the location

of cities, or the position of trucks on the road. Direct

display from database offers some advantages over

vector format for point data. New points are added

simply by adding records to the database and the

location of points can be updated by changing

coordinates.

In TNTmips databases used for pin map

display can be in internal format, linked to a

supported format (such as dBASE IV, INFO, or FoxPro), or com-medicated with using ODBC

(Open Database Connectivity to Oracle, for example). With direct linking or ODBC, the

database can be maintained by external software and viewed with all updates available the next

time you redraw the pin map.

We can display all locations in the same style or use other attributes to determine how a

―pin‖ is dis-played. For example, you can use production to determine the size of

symbols for oil wells or, in the case of telemetry data; you can represent observations for

different animals with different symbols. We can even incorporate multiple attributes into

a pie chart or bar graph.

Pin mapping should provide a means to distinguish

multiple pins with the same coordinates, such as the

pins shown below for the same sites in three

different years. Symbol scale can also vary with

field values.

We should also be able to include values for

multiple fields from the same record. The TNT

products let we choose between bar graphs or pie

charts with the option of including multiple line

labels


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8. Using Regions

Regions are areas of interest used primarily for selection— selection for viewing at-

tributes, for extracting, or for other processing. In some cases, such as flood zone or watershed

regions, the region itself is the desired product.

Regions can be interactively and iteratively created. You choose the cells or elements of

interest, then the desired region creation process, adjust region parameters, generate a region,

alter parameters as necessary and generate another region until you are satisfied with the results

and choose to keep that region. Regions can be temporary, available only for the cur-rent display

session, or you can choose to save a region to be used at a later time or in other processes.

Region generation methods available in TNTmips and not mentioned elsewhere on this

page include selected polygons, buffer zones, viewshed, Voronoi regions, raster texture growth,

and cell values.

Use the line drawing tool or a selected line to evaluate a potential dam site

The region can delimit either the potential lake area be-hind a dam of specified height

(above) or the area that would flood if the dam broke (right).


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Hold the left

or right mouse

button to get

DataTips.

Internal.ElemNum <= 54 or Internal.ElemNum >= 144

K Means cluster regions with all (left) or query selected points (middle) and the region

Formed by Polygon Fitting (Tessellation, right) with the same query selected elements.


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9. GIS Task

General-purpose geographic information systems essentially perform six processes or tasks:

Input

Manipulation

Management

Query and Analysis

Visualisation

Input

Before geographic data can be used in a GIS, the data must be converted into a suitable digital

format. The process of converting data from paper maps into computer files is called digitising.

Modern GIS technology can automate this process fully for large projects using scanning

technology; smaller jobs may require some manual digitising (using a digitising table). Today

many types of geographic data already exist in GIS-compatible formats. These data can be

obtained from data suppliers and loaded directly into a GIS.

Manipulation

It is likely that data types required for a particular GIS project will need to be transformed or

manipulated in some way to make them compatible with user's system. For example, geographic

information is available at different scales (detailed street centreline files; less detailed census

boundaries; and postal codes at a regional level). Before this information can be integrated, it

must be transformed to the same scale (degree of detail or accuracy). This could be a temporary

transformation for display purposes or a permanent one required for analysis. GIS technology

offers many tools for manipulating spatial data and for weeding out unnecessary data.

Management

For small GIS projects, it may be sufficient to store geographic information as simple files.

However, when data volumes become large and the number of data users becomes more than a

few, it is often best to use a database management system (DBMS) to help store, organise, and

manage data. DBMS is nothing more than computer software for managing a database.


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There are many different designs of DBMS‘s, but in GIS the relational design has been the most

useful. In the relational design, data are stored conceptually as a collection of tables. Common

fields in different tables are linked together. This surprisingly simple design has been so widely

used primarily because of its flexibility, with very wide deployment in applications both within

and without GIS.

Query and Analysis

Once the geographic information/data is entered in to GIS, simple queries such as ownership of

the land parcel, distance between two places, zoning for industrial use, and analytical questions

such as, location of sites suitable for building new houses, dominant vegetation and soil types in

western ghats, traffic control by ring roads, flyover and sub urban transit system, can be done

and results obtained quickly.

GIS provides both simple point-and-click query capabilities and sophisticated analysis tools to

provide timely information to managers and analysts alike. GIS technology really comes into its

own when used to analyse geographic data to look for patterns and trends and to undertake "what

if" scenarios.

Proximity Analysis

This can be done to find out various elements within a desired distance from any object. The

queries may be:

Number of plants / trees within 100 m of water source. Total number of users within 10 km of a water source.

Overlay Analysis

The integration of different data layers involves a process called overlay. At its simplest, this

could be a visual operation, but analytical operations require one or more data layers to be joined

physically. This overlay, or spatial join, can integrate data on soils, slope, and vegetation.

Visualisation

For many types of geographic operation the end result is best visualised as a map or graph. Maps

are very efficient at storing and communicating geographic information. While cartographers

have created maps for millennia, GIS provides new and exciting tools to extend the art and

science of cartography. Map displays can be integrated with reports, three-dimensional views,

photographic images, and other output such as multimedia.


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Data for GIS

The data to be acquired depends on how one wants to use map data and get output. Many project

needs are met with the following common map data types.

Base maps: Include streets and highways; boundaries for census, postal, and political areas;

rivers and lakes; parks and landmarks; place names; and USGS raster maps.

Business maps and data: Include data related to census/demography, consumer products,

financial services, health care, real estate, telecommunications, emergency preparedness, crime,

advertising, business establishments and transportation.

Environmental maps and data: Include data related to the environment, weather, environmental

risk, satellite imagery, topography and natural resources.

General reference maps: World and country maps and data that can be a foundation for a

database.


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10. Advanced Software for Geospatial Analysis

MicroImages, Inc. publishes a complete line of professional software for advanced geospatial

data visualization, analysis, and publishing. Contact us or visit our web site for detailed product

information.

TNTmips TNTmips is a professional system for fully integrated GIS, image analysis, CAD,

TIN, desktop cartography, and geospatial database management.

TNTedit TNTedit provides interactive tools to create, georeference, and edit vector, image,

CAD, TIN, and relational database project materials in a wide variety of formats.

TNTview TNTview has the same powerful display features as TNTmips and is perfect for those

who do not need the technical processing and preparation features of TNTmips.

TNTatlas TNTatlas lets you publish and distribute your spatial project materials on CD-ROM at

low cost. TNTatlas CDs can be used on any popular computing platform.

TNTserver TNTserver lets you publish TNTatlases on the Internet or on your intranet. Navigate

through geodata atlases with your web browser and the TNTclient Java applet.

TNTlite TNTlite is a free version of TNTmips for students and professionals with small projects.

You can download TNTlite from MicroImages‘ web site, or you can order TNTlite on CD-ROM

with the current set of Getting Started booklets.


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11. Application

GIS technology can be used for: earth surface based scientific investigations; resource

management, reference, and projections of a geospatial nature—both manmade and natural; asset

management and location planning; archaeology; environmental impact study; infrastructure

assessment and development; urban planning; cartography, for a thematic and/or time based

purpose; criminology; GIS data development geographic history; marketing; logistics;

population and demographic studies; prospectively mapping; location attributes applied

statistical analysis; warfare assessments; and other purposes.

Examples of use are: GIS may allow emergency planners to easily calculate emergency

response times and the movement of response resources (for logistics) in the case of a natural

disaster; GIS might be used to find wetlands that need protection strategies regarding pollution;

or GIS can be used by a company to site a new business location to take advantage of GIS data

identified trends to respond to a previously under-served market. Most city and transportation

systems planning offices have GIS sections.


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12. Advantages of GIS

The advantages of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are:

Perform Geographic Queries and Analysis

The ability of GIS is to search databases and perform geographic queries through better analysis.

Improve Organizational Integration

GIS has the ability to link data sets together by geography, facilitating interdepartmental

information sharing and communication. By creating a shared database, one department can

benefit from the work of another - data can be collected once and used many times. GIS

implemented organizations have achieved improved management of resources and improvement

in organizational set-up. With this, communication increases among individuals and

departments. This has led to reduction in redundancy, enhanced productivity, and overall

improvement in organizational efficiency.

Decision making

GIS technology has been used to assist in tasks such as presenting information at planning

inquiries, helping resolve territorial disputes, and sitting pylons in such a way as to minimize

visual intrusion. A GIS, however, is not an automated decision making system but a tool to

query, analyse, and map data in support of the decision making process. For example, GIS can be

used to help reach a decision about the location of a new housing development that has minimal

environmental impact, is located in a low-risk area, and is close to a population centre. The

information can be presented succinctly and clearly in the form of a map and accompanying

report, allowing decision makers to focus on the real issues rather than trying to understand the

data. Because GIS products can be produced quickly, multiple scenarios can be evaluated

efficiently and effectively.

Map making

The process of making maps with GIS is much more flexible than traditional manual or

automated cartography approaches. It begins with database creation. Existing paper maps can be

digitized and computer-compatible information can be translated into the GIS. The GIS-based

cartographic database can be both continuous and scale free. Map products can then be created


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centered on any location, at any scale, showing selected information symbolized effectively to

highlight specific characteristics.

The characteristics of atlas and map series can be encoded in computer programs and compared

with the database at final production time. Digital products for use in other GISs can also be

derived by simply copying data from the database. In a large organization, topographic databases

can be used as reference frameworks by other departments. In India, maps are prepared by the

Survey of India (SOI). The conventions followed in map preparation by various agencies are

explained below.


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13. Disadvantages of GIS

• The biggest disadvantage of a GIS is that is requires an enormous amount of data inputs to be

practical for some tasks and the more data that is put in, the more likely that there will be errors

either in the meta data or in the location of the data points. Since it takes many maps to gather

different types of data there is often discrepancies from one map to another.

• Another limitation to GIS is that the earth is round and geographic error is increased as you get

into a larger scale.

• The system is quiet expensive, especially the GIS software. But, nowadays there's development

of open source GIS like GRASS GIS and Mapserver that able to overcome this problem.


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14. The Future of GIS

Much of the future of GIS rests with the development of culture, heritage and resource

management databases, as this is where the majority of the funding lies. Monument records and

heritage management present the largest future potential for GIS within the archaeological

community as the analytical aspect is not as pressing here. The much needed improvements with

regard to data handling and representation are not as substantial in the management sector. the

data standards issue however, is just as important here (if not more) as it is in any other

archaeological situation.

The development of a specific Archaeological Information System (AIS) may solve some

of the discipline specific problems encountered. There have been attempts to produce such and

AIS, such as the ArchaeDATA project, where the emphasis is on "structuring a European

archaeological information system"(Arroyo-Bishop and Lantada Zarzosa 1995).

Moving away from the purely scientific approach, there has been a call to advance the

use of GIS in theoretical models at a more humanistic level (Lock and Stancic 1995). Such an

approach has faced the accusation that this is particularly European attempt to incorporate GIS

technology and social theory, similar advances, have also emerged in north America recently.

(Lock and Stancic 1995).

There are numerous more arguments concerning the advantages, disadvantages and

future of GIS technology within archaeology, unfortunately this tends to go beyond the scope of

this study. What does emerge as a pressing issue that has not been resolved since most of the

influential papers were written in the mid 1990‘s, is that of data standards and the lack of ability

to cope with the mapping of temporal aspects within archaeology. Without the resolutions to

such pressing issues in the use of GIS, there will remain to be the standstill that has occurred

since the initial development and adoption of such a technology.


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15. Conclusion

The Internet and GIS

The integration of GIS with the Internet is an inevitable, rapidly growing trend into the

future. It is important for the GIS community to monitor and define the course of this

development. In addition, the Internet‘s ability to reach a wider audience will have important

impacts on GIS users, developers, and institutions. For users, Internet GIS also provides an

efficient pool to conduct GIS analysis (i.e. buffering) over the web. For developers, Internet GIS

provides a new challenge and opportunity to broaden their market share (i.e. ESRI‘s ArcIMS

software over its competitors). For institutions (i.e. SFU), Internet GIS will facilitate integration

and coordination of different departments and functions within an organization as well as among

organizations (BMCC) because spatial data in different departments are now easily accessible

and sharable.

Interactive mapping is only the first step in the development of Internet GIS. Future

developments will inevitably focus on interactive GIS analysis. Internet GIS also provides an

opportunity to extend GIS technology and geospatial-information to a much broader user group -

the general public


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16. Bibliography

1. http://www.biodiversity.ru

2. http://www.oocities.com

3. http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy/monograph1

4. http://www.gisdevelopment.net

http://www.biodiversity.ru/

http://www.oocities.com/

http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy/monograph1

http://www.gisdevelopment.net/

FINAL GIS

Documents

gis work

use of gis

gis suppliers

gis components

facets of gis systems

aspects of gis systems

gis project management

advanced gis system