Final Careeer

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1. OCCUPATIONAL CHOICE: PREPARATION FOR WORK

1.1 OCCUPATIONAL CHOICE THEORIES:Theories of Occupational Choice: An Occupation is a group of similar jobs found in several establishments. This definition distinguishes a specific job in a particular organization from the broader notion of an occupation. Therefore, we can think of such diverse occupation as accounting, pharmacy, computer engineering and the ministry, each of which has a somewhat unique set of requirements and rewards. There are six significant themes that can help us understand the manner in which people make occupational choice:

a. Occupational Choice as matching process:Most theories of occupational choice contend that a person, consciously or unconsciously, chooses an occupation that “matches” his or her unique set of needs, motives, values, and talents. One of the earliest approaches to occupational choice, the so-called trait and factor theory, is perhaps most explicit in this regard. “According to this viewpoint, confronted with the necessity of choosing an occupation, an individual consciously proceeds to make an analysis of his vocational assets and liabilities, accumulates information about, occupations, and arrives at a decision.” Consistent with this view, a person would be expected to identify his or her abilities, needs and values, select appropriate career goals, and then choose an occupation thought to be most compatible with these goals.

b. Occupational choice as a developmental process:Although evidence indicates that people match or implement their self-concept in choosing an occupation, one’s selection of an occupation does not take place at a single point in time. Donald Super and others have indicated, one’s self–concept is formed, clarified, and modified over an extended period of time. Potential occupations are pursed or discarded as new information becomes available to the child, adolescent, young adult mature employee.

Super suggested that people move through five stages relevant to career development: growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance and decline. The gathering of information and the gaining of personal insights relevant to one’s occupational choice can occur through the various career stages. People learn about themselves and the work world through exploratory behavior.

c. Occupational choice as a decision-making task:

Given a set of alternative occupations, how does one choose occupation to pursue? According to the career management model, a person should engage in career exploration, acquire a greater awareness of self and alternative occupations and develop a career goal. In the context of occupational choice, the career goal is enter a particular occupation. But this does not explain how individual select a particular occupational field. A number of models of vocational decision making have been develop to address this very issue.

David Osborn has noted, research on occupational decision making has generally assumed that individuals use compensatory or “trade-off” approaches in which unfavorable aspects of a given job are offset by the favorable elements of the job. He stated that the most widely used compensatory choice model is expectancy theory. Expectancy theory is essentially a rational, calculative, goal-directed model of human decision making in which people choose course of

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action that are expected to produce desirable consequences. First, expectance theory assumes that people approach an occupational choice situation with a fairly well-established set of desired outcomes or rewards. We rate the value of each outcome on same scale.

d. Social And Cultural Influence On Occupational Choice:

Behavior is a function of the person and the environment. The choices we make are reflection of our personal characteristics and the environment in which we live. The environment both past and present- plays a major role in occupational decision making. A person’s past environment includes family of origin, social class, income and place of residence. The present environment includes the economic, political and cultural climate in which a person lives. A child’s social background can influence his or her orientation to the work world. Distinctive life-styles associated with membership in different socioeconomic classes. Differences in values and attitudes, specially occupational and educational aspiration, can be attributing to one’s social class. A parent’s occupation can determine the kind of people met and admired during childhood. Selective exposure to different adult can stimulate widely different occupational aspirations. Social class can affects the values we hope to attain at work. Parent’ occupations can influence the development of their children’s interests and skills in certain areas. A place of residence is influential because it determines whom we met and interact with in our daily lives. Cultural norms of a particular social class or neighborhood, the geographic location of one’s residence can affect occupational decisions. Urban and rural people may have varied choices and aspirations. In addition to the influences of family, social class, and geography, career decision are always made in the context of the larger society. Economic conditions and consumer preferences certain industries and occupations over others. Technological change creates poisons that were unheard of just a few years before. Political events can also affect career plans.

e. Occupational Choices Of Women:

Many occupations are sex stereotyped. Some are thought to be more appropriate for men and others are thought to be more appropriate for women. Stereotypically female jobs are frequently characterized by low pay modest training requirements. Moreover, they are thought to require traits that are stereotypically feminine and require less career continuity than male-dominated occupations. Women tend to select an occupation from a much narrower range-of alternative than men. Reasons for women’s occupational choice considering few alternatives in traditional fields and female dominated occupation. The followings are three possible reasons for choosing traditional occupation:

1.2 GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE OCCUPATIONAL DECISION MAKING

Occupational choice is a matching process; observation and common experience that many people do not necessarily choose occupations that are compatible with their talents, values, and interests. We apply the career management model by examining several factors that can contribute to the choice of an appropriate occupation:

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Development of Self-awareness:

Self awareness is the cornerstone of effective career management. In absence of a deep understanding of one’s talents, interests, values, and preferred life-style, one would require considerable luck to fall into a compatible occupation. The major obstacales to the development of self-awareness will be discussed in next chapter but now it is appropriate to consider your degree of self awareness.

Development of Accurate Occupational information

Occupational information is another important factor. Lack of relevant work experience, stereotypes of occupations and unfamiliarity with certain occupational fields all detract from development of a solid base of occupational information. Actually there are two related steps in occupational exploration. The first is to identify a number of occupations that may be potentially compatible and satisfying. Then, collect more in-depth information on each occupation.

Effective Goal Setting

One of the most significant components of the career management process is the development of a realistic, appropriate career goal. The goal is to enter a specific occupational field. Assuming that a person has conducted sufficient self and occupational exploration, how should he or she decides from among alternative occupations?

Development of Career Strategies

Once a career goal is selected, we need to identify strategic behavior, activities and experiences that facilitate goal accomplishment. One important function of a strategy is to enable a person to test the viability of his or her career goals. Strategies can help to confirm or disconfirm the wisdom of an occupational choice. Career strategies particularly relevant to occupational choice including competence in current activities, self-nomination, networking and seeking guidance.

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Performance

Capabilities Potential

OrganizationIndividual

Required Capabilities or

Potential

Needs

Fire

Need Reinforcement

from Organzation

Job Satisfaction

Tenure in Organization

Retain

Promote

Transfer

New organization

Quit

Remain

2. ORGANIZATIONAL ENTRY

2.1 MATCHING INDIVIDUAL AND ORGANIZATIONWhen the capabilities-job requirement match can affect the level of job performance an employee attains, whereas the need-reinforcement match can influence the level of job satisfaction and employee experiences. Both matches affect the contribution a new employee makes to his or her organization. Consequences of a mismatch can be severe. From the employee’s perspective, a mismatch can produce dissatisfaction and disappointment, can be a threat to self-esteem, and might result in a decision to pursue another job in a different organization.

2.2 ROLE OF EXPECTATIONS IN ORGANIZATIONAL ENTRYIf we assume for the moment that unrealistic expectations can have a negative effect on employees, we need to pose certain questions; Why do people develop unrealistic expectations? Where do these expectations come from? Why do they end up being unrealistic? We attempt to answer these questions by identifying a number of factors that can lead to unrealistic expectations.

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Career TransitionA career transition is a period in which a person either changes career roles or changes orientation to a current role. For example, when a person leaves school and enters a work organization, there are many differences between the old and the new settings. Perhaps the most fundamental explanation for unrealistic expectations is that the path from the job seeker role to the employee role represents a career transition.

Recruitment ProcessThe recruitment process has often been viewed as the most significant source of unrealistic expectations. In essence, it is claimed that organizations often portray jobs in overly optimistic terms, thus inducing unrealistic expectations on the part of the job candidate.

Organizational StereotypesMany candidates hold images and stereotypes of certain companies or industries even before they have had extensive contact with an organization. For example, research has found that job candidates hold specific stenotypes of small companies that differ substantially from those of big firms. In a sense stereotypes of images breed expectations. Because stereotypes are partially incomplete or inaccurate, the resulting expectations nay not be particularly realistic.

Educational ProcessSome of the major distinctions between the student role and the role of the new employee have been considered. Also to be considered is the extent to which specific course at the college or graduate level prepares students for the reality of the work world. For example, technically oriented courses in engineering or business rarely dwell on the problems inherent in working within an organizational structure as a new employee.

Lack of Prior work ExperienceJob candidates without extensive prior work experiences may be particularly susceptible to the development of unrealistic expectations. Indeed, job candidates with a variety of prior work experiences seem to engage in a more thorough information search during recruiting than candidates without such experience.

Self-DelusionSeveral studies have demonstrated a strong positive relationship between a person’s values and his or her expectations. In other words, people come to expect job characteristics they want to experience.

2.3 ORGANIZATIONAL ACTIONS DURING THE ENTRY PROCESSOrganizations have three major tasks to accomplish during the organizational entry process. First, they need to attract talented and qualified candidates into the applicant pool and keep them interested in the organization. Second, they need to attract candidates in such a way as to minimize the development of unrealistic job expectations on the part of the candidates. Third, they must assess candidates accurately and extend offers to those who are likely to succeed in the organization.

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Attraction of Job CandidatesOrganization will not be able to staff themselves properly unless they extensive research on candidates reaction to recruitment has only recently begun. Several issues have been identified that have significant implications for organization.

Impact of the Recruiter: For many candidates for managerial, professional and technical positions, the first formal contact with the organization is with the recruiter, and the first activity is the screening interview. Researchers are beginning to accumulate information on the desirable qualities of this initial interaction between the candidate and the organization. To acquire knowledge and preparation, recruiter’s behavior during the interview affects candidate’s attitudes.

Follow-up Activities: Organization decides whether to carry the process to the next step or the terminator the relationship with the candidate. A study that examined the time lag between the initial contact and the go/no-go decision found that candidates believed that a time lag of 1 to 3 weeks was acceptable.

Realistic RecruitmentRealistic recruitment means presenting candidates with relevant and undistorted information about the job and the organization. It is often constructed with traditional job previews, in which organizations paint overly optimistic pictures of their jobs and practices.Shown below are the circumstances in which realistic job preview are likely to be most effective-

When job candidates can be selective about accepting a job offerWhen job candidates would have held unrealistic expectations in the absence of a realistic job preview.When job candidates would have had difficulty coping with job demands in the absence of a realistic preview.When information presented during a realistic job preview is understandable, credible, and consistent.When information presented during a realistic job preview touches on topics that are significant or relevant to the candidates.When an optimal amount of realism is presented to the candidates.

Assessment and SelectionThis section discusses briefly the process by which organizations assess and select their employees. In the selection of individuals for employment, organizations first attempt to achieve a match or fit between the knowledge, skills, and abilities of the individual and the specific requirements of the job.

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3. CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN CAREER MANAGEMENT:3.1 JOB STRESS

Stress is produced by an interaction between a person and the environment that is perceived to be so trying or burdensome that it exceeds one’s coping resources. In a more basic sense, stress is aroused when a person is confronted with an opportunity, c constraint, or a demand. An opportunity is a situation in which a person stands to gain additional gratification of his or her significant values or desires, as in a new work assignment or promotion. A constraint, however, threatens to block additional gratification, a limitation as, for example when a job promotion in denied. A demand threatens to remove a person from a currently gratifying situation, as when one is fired from a job.

3.1.1 What is Job Stress?According to Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, stress, in general, is “a physical, chemical, or emotional factor that causes bodily or mental tension and may be a factor in disease causation. One type of stress is job stress. With job stress, the stressors involved are work-related.

3.1.2 Causes of Job StressIf you can figure out the cause of your job stress, then you can find a cure. Here are some possible causes:

Overwork: working late, taking work home, not taking vacation Impending layoffs Being in the wrong career Conflict with boss or co-workers Burnout

3.1.3 Warning signsWe know that stress is really the body’s normal response to what are called stressors. Under stress the body “gears up” and reacts to a situation to protect itself. Once the stressor is removed, the body returns to its normal state. Here are some early stress symptoms you need to watch out for:Physical

HeadachesStomach problems Over/Underrating Sleep disturbances Muscle aches and painsSkin rashes Teeth grinding

PsychologicalForgetfulnessAngerFrustrationAnxietyDepression IrritabilityFeeling powerless

Stress becomes a problem when the body is constantly under the influence of stressors, and doesn’t get a chance to return to normal. Our brain and its coordinating assistants are overwhelmed and worn out. We’re constantly in what scientists call a state of arousal or alertness. This can lead to long-term health problems such as:

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Organizational CharacteristicsJob DemandsRole CharacteristicsInterpersonal RelationshipsWorking ConditionsCareer Concerns/TransitionsNetwork Pressures

Personal Characteristics

Perceived Stress

Appraisal of Situation Coping & Support

Physical

Emotional

Behavioral

Work Effectiveness

Turnover

Absenteeism

Reduced Job Involvement

Job Description

PhysicalHigh blood pressure Heart diseaseImmune system dysfunctionAsthmaSpastic Colon Diabetes

PsychologicalSerious depressionBurnoutSuicidal behaviorAlcoholismSubstance abuseDomestic violence

3.1.4 Consequences of Stress:Exhibit below presents an overview of the job stress process. Based on research from many sources, this approach distinguishes environmental stressors from the perception of stress, from strain symptoms, and from the outcomes of stress. Table 1.1 identifies a number of potential environmental stressors. Many of them are familiar and require little elaboration. Stress can be produced be work situations that are ambiguous, that overload one’s capacities, that require extraordinary time commitments, or that put one in the middle of two conflicting people or groups. Identifies a number of potential environmental stressors. Many of them are familiar and require little elaboration. Stress can be produced be work situations that are ambiguous, that overload one’s capacities, that require extraordinary time commitments, or that put one in the middle of two conflicting people or groups.

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Organizational CharacteristicsCentralization, low participation in decision makingPoor communicationPay inequities

Interpersonal RelationshipConflict within and between groupsCompetitionInconsiderate or inequitable supervision

Role CharacteristicsRole Conflict: caught between conflicting expectations.Role Ambiguity: lack of clarity about expectations or performanceRole overload/underlaod: too much or too little wok

Network Pressure Centralization, low participation in decision makingPoor communicationPay inequities

Job DemandsTime pressure and deadlinesResponsibility for peopleRepetitive work

Career Concerns/TransitionsChange of job, employer, and locationObsolescenceCareer PlateauBias in the workplaceLoss of employmentRetirement

Working ConditionsCrowdingNoiseExcessive heat or cold

3.1.5 How to Deal With Stress at WorkAccording to research, the percentage of Americans who are stressed at work is high, and it’s only getting higher. According to the CDC’s National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, studies have found the number of Americans who are “extremely stressed at work” range between 29% to 40%. And, in a poll on this site, over half of respondents are so stressed at work that they feel close to or consumed by burnout much of the time. Because stress at work is so common, finding a low-stress job may be difficult or impossible for many people. A more realistic choice would be to simple adopting more effective strategies to reduce stress at work. Here are some stress management techniques to try.

Start Your Day Off Right:After scrambling to get the kids fed and off to school, dodging traffic and combating road rage, and gulping down coffee in lieu of something healthy, many people come in already stressed, and more reactive to stress at work. In fact, you may be surprised by how much more reactive to stress you are when you have a stressful morning. If you start off the day with good nutrition, proper planning, and a positive attitude, you may find the stress of the workplace rolling off your back more easily.

Be Clear on RequirementsOne of the factors that contribute to job burnout is unclear requirements. If you don’t know exactly what’s expected of you, or if the requirements keep changing with little notice, you may find yourself much more stressed than necessary. If you find yourself falling into the trap of never knowing if what you’re doing is enough, it may help to have a talk with your supervisor and go over expectations, and strategies for meeting them. This can relieve stress for both of you!

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Stay Away From ConflictBecause interpersonal conflict takes a toll on your physical and emotional health, and because conflict among co-workers is so difficult to escape, it’s a good idea to avoid conflict at work as much as possible. That means don’t gossip, don’t share too many of your personal opinions about religion and politics, and try to steer clear of colorful office humor. Try to avoid those people at work who don’t work well with others. If conflict finds you anyway, try these conflict resolution strategies.

Stay OrganizedEven if you’re a naturally disorganized person, planning ahead to stay organized can greatly decrease stress at work. Being organized with your time means less rushing in the morning to avoid being late and rushing to get out at the end of the day. Keeping yourself organized means avoiding the negative effects of clutter, and being more efficient with your work.

Be ComfortableAnother surprising stressor at work is physical discomfort. You may not notice the stress you experience when you’re in an uncomfortable chair for a few minutes. But if you practically live in that chair when you’re at work, you can have a sore back and be more reactive to stress because of it. Even small things like office noise can be distracting and cause low-grade frustration. Do what you can to ensure that you’re working from a quiet, comfortable and soothing workspace.

Forget MultitaskingMultitasking was once heralded as a fantastic way to maximize one’s time and get more done in a day. Then people started realizing that when they had a phone in their ear and were making calculations at the same time, their speed and accuracy (not to mention sanity) suffered. There is a certain kind of frazzled feeling that comes from splitting one’s focus that doesn’t work well for most people. Rather than multitasking, try a new strategy known as chunking.

Walk at LunchMany people are feeling ill effects from leading a sedentary lifestyle. One way you can combat that, and manage stress at work at the same time, is to get some exercise during your lunch break and perhaps take short exercise breaks throughout the day. This can help you blow off steam, lift your mood, and get into better shape.

Keep Perfectionism In CheckBeing a high achiever can help you feel good about yourself and excel at work. Being a perfectionist, on the other hand, can drive you and the people around you a little nuts. Especially in busy, fast-paced jobs, you may not be able to do everything perfectly. But striving to just do your best and then congratulating yourself on the effort is a good strategy. Your results will actually be better (perfectionists tend to stress about little mistakes and sometimes drop the ball because they can’t do things well enough), and you’ll be much less stressed at work.

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Listen to Music on the Drive HomeListening to music brings many benefits, and can offer an effective way to relieve stress after work. Combating the stress of a long day at work with your favorite music on the drive home can make you less stressed when you get home, and more prepared to interact with the people in your life.

CuresYou'll need to be proactive if you want to cure your job stress. Here are some fixes that address the causes listed above:If overwork is your problem, take a vacation, leave work on time as often as possible, and avoid taking work home.If you're worried about layoffs, all you can do is make sure you're prepared should that happen.If you find that you made the wrong career choice, or your career is no longer fulfilling, it may be time for a change. Make your choices carefully.If you are having conflicts with your boss or co-workers, try to work them out. Although it may be difficult to resolve personality differences, you can try to figure out a way to along better.If your stress is having a profound effect on your life, don't be afraid to get professional help.

3.1.6 Organizational Actions:Organizations have begun to develop programs to reduce the level of employee stress. Using the distinction among the three types of coping responses, organizations can either alter the stressful environment, work with employees to change their interpretation of the environment, or help them manage their strain symptoms.Illustrations of these approaches are shown in below-Reducing Stressors:

Eliminate racial/gender stereotypes, biases, and discriminationRedesign jobs to be more in line with employeesClarify employee expectations through goal-setting programProvide constructive performance feedbackBuild supportive work groupsTrain supervisors in interpersonal skillsEliminate noxious elements of phusical working condtionsHelp employees with problem-solving/coopin shillsDevelop flexible work schedulesDevelop programs for transitioned employees

Changing the Meaning of Stressful Situations:Offer counseling services to employeesRun programs to ameliorate Type A behavior, burnoutRun programs on time managementRun social support group for employees

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Managing Strain Symptoms:Provide relaxation programsProvide facilities for physical exerciseProvide counseling and medical treatmentProvide comprehensive “wellness” programs

3.1.7 Social Support:Support to help deal with stress can come from many sources, both informal (family, friends, co-workers) and formal (self-help groups, mental health or other professionals, and child care or other service provides). James House identified four classes of supportive behaviors: emotional, instrumental, informational, and appraisal. Definition and illustration of these four types of support are provided in Table below-

Types of Support Meaning IllustrationsEmotional Empathy, caring, trust, love Boss praises your effective performanceInstrumental Behavior that directly helps

person in needSubordinate’s improving performance relieves you of pressure

Informational Information to be used by person to cope with problem

Co-worker gives you advice on how to discipline a subordinate

Appraisal Information that provides feedback to person

Boss gives you constructive feedback on your most recent assignmentClose friend gives you her opinion of your interpersonal style

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3. CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN CAREER MANAGEMENT3.2 INTERSECTION OF WORK AND FAMILY ROLES:

IMPLICATIONS FOR CAREER MANAGEMENT

3.2.1 WORK–FAMILY CONFLICT: WHEN WORK AND FAMILY ARE “ENEMIES”There are many times when our work and family lives are in conflict with one another. Work–family conflict exists when pressures from work and family roles are mutually incompatible, that is, when participation in one role interferes with participation in the other role. Sometimes our work responsibilities interfere with our family lives (known as work-to-family conflict), whereas at other times our family lives interfere with our work (family-to-work conflict). We will use the term work–family conflict when referring to the general notion of conflict between work and family lives and use the more specific terms work-to-family conflict or family-to-work conflict when referring to the specific direction of the conflict or interference. Research has revealed three significant forms of work–family conflict: time-based conflict, strain-based conflict, and behavior-based conflict.

Time-based conflict occurs because the activities we pursue in life compete for a precious commodity—time. The time spent in one role generally cannot be devoted to the other role. Out-of-town business meetings or late evenings at the office can interfere with family dinners and children’s parent–teacher conferences. It is simply impossible to be in two places at once. Time-based work-to-family conflict is likely to be most prevalent for employees, who work long hours, travel extensively, frequently work overtime, and have inflexible work schedules. All of these work characteristics increase or fix the time at work that cannot be spent on family role activities.

Strain-based conflict exists when psychological strain produced within one role affects our functioning in another role. Work stressors can produce such strain symptoms as tension, irritability, fatigue, depression, and apathy, and it is difficult to be an attentive partner, a loving parent, or an understanding friend when one is depressed or irritable. Strain-based work-to-family conflict is likely to be most intense for employees who experience conflict or ambiguity within the work role; who are exposed to extensive physical, emotional, or mental work demands; whose work environment is constantly changing; and who work on repetitive, boring tasks. All these stressful conditions can produce a “negative emotional spillover” from work to network.Of course, many sources of strain can arise from the family role as well. Individuals who experience difficulties with partners or children or receive little support and aid from their families may find that their family stress intrudes into their work life. It is difficult to devote one fully to work when preoccupied with a stressful family situation. Sometimes behavior that is effective in one role is simply inappropriate in another role. It has been suggested, for example, that managers when at work are expected to be self reliant, aggressive, detached, and objective. Family members, on the other hand, may expect that same person when at home to be warm, nurturing, and attentive. If people cannot shift gears when they enter different roles, they are likely to experience behavior-based conflict between the roles. Behavioral styles that employees exhibit at work (logic, objectivity, power, and authority) may be incompatible with the behaviors

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desired by their partners and children on the home front. Partners and children do not appreciate being treated like subordinates!Therefore, a variety of role pressures can produce work–family conflict. Some of these pressures demand excessive time commitments, others produce extensive stress, and many produce both. Where do these pressures come from? Some come from role senders, persons with whom we interact in our work and family lives. Bosses, colleagues, partners, and children are all role senders who place demands on us to finish projects, attend weekend meetings, wash the dishes, and paint the house. People tend to experience more conflict when there are strong penalties for failing to comply with these demands from work and family roles. If a boss insists that you attend a Saturday work meeting, and a partner refuses to change vacation plans by one day, you are caught between the proverbial rock and hard place. If either the boss or the partner permits latitude to deviate from expectations, there is room to maneuver.

3.2.2 Work–Family Enrichment: When Work and Family Are “Allies”Work–family enrichment takes place when resources acquired in one role are used to improve our performance and satisfaction in the other role. A resource is an asset that can be used to solve a problem or master a challenging situation. Participating in a role—family or work—provides opportunities to acquire resources from that role. These resources include the

Development of new skillsDevelopment of new perspectives, by forming novel ways of looking at situations and solving problemsEnhancement of our self-confidence as a result of performing well in our duties Accumulation of social capital, the network of relationships we develop with other people who provide us with information or advice and who can use their influence to help us reach our goalsAcquisition of material resources such as money and gifts

Imagine the resources we might acquire in our lives from our role as a family member, for example, a spouse or partner, parent, child, sibling, or in-law. We might improve our problem-solving skills as we learn to work effectively with our spouse or partner to solve daily problems, our listening skills in helping our toddler communicate his or her needs to us, or our multitasking skills in juggling our many responsibilities to our children, neighbors, and spouses with our own personal needs.

3.2.3 The Two-Career FamilyTwo Career Families are those in which both parties of a married couple are working. For most of the 20th century, men were the traditional breadwinners in a family. But by the time the world entered the 21st century, women had become full partners in earning the upkeep for their families, becoming fulltime participants in the workforce.This is in direct contrast to the mothers and grandmothers of women today, who tended to receive a truncated education and were in and out of the labor force according to their social station and the individual circumstances of the family. The rise in the number of two-career couples and the skyrocketing of fulltime employment for women represents a dramatic change in the course of the history of women's employment. The two-earning couple has become the norm.At the beginning of the 21st century, 61 percent of all married couples consisted of two earners. In both the working-class and middle-class sectors, employment has become the standard for

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both genders, even when a couple's children are still quite young. Women want to work for the same reasons as men: they need a regular salary, they receive personal satisfaction from their work and they have a desire to do something meaningful.

Sources of Stress in Two career Couple: Although two-career couples seem to be at least as happy with their marriages as single-earner couples, there are a number of significant issues that need to be faced in such relationships. This section examines these issues, recognizing that they are not equally relevant to all two-career couples. Some causes of stresses are-

Managing more numerous and complex work and family rolesSociety’s expectations and socialization of gender and changing sex rolesFinding support systems congruent with two career family lifestylesOccupational mobilityRole strainRole spillover

Restricted Career Achievements: The two-career life-style may restrict or slow down an individual’s career accomplishments. This is especially likely to occur for women. Many mothers reduce their career involvement in an attempt to alleviate the conflict they experience between work and family. Two-career mothers often cut back on the number of hours thy work, turn down career development opportunities that would conflict with their family responsibilities, refuse promotions that require relocation, or put their career “on hold” by leaving the work force for a period of time.

The Impact of Two-Career Status on Children: According to a Fortune survey of working parents conducted more than 20 years ago, a majority of men (55 percent) and women (58 percent) believed that “children of working parents suffer by not being given enough time and attention.” However, most of these same parents also believed that children benefit by having working parents as role-models. Perhaps these findings reflected the ambivalence experienced by many two-career parents. A more recent national survey, however, reveals less ambivalence: 64 percent of men and 78 percent of women believe that an employed mother can have just as good a relationship with her child as a mother who does not work outside the home. Although individual studies have sometimes revealed beneficial or harmful effects of both parents’ working on their children, the research literature as a whole suggests that a mother’s employment (which for married couples usually translates into both parents’ employment) has no consistent positive or negative effect on children’s development. Ellen Galinsky of the Families and Work Institute persuasively argues that we should not view a mother’s employment in “either/or” terms, that it is either bad or good for children. She concludes that “it depends on the people and the circumstances of their lives. And what’s right for one person may not be right for another.” Ultimately, the impact of a two-career lifestyle on children’s adjustment probably depends on such factors as the quality of the parent–child relationship, the quality of child care, and the personal satisfaction of the parents.

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3.2.4 Quality Of Life in Two-Career FamiliesSome of the potential advantages and risks associated with a two-career relationship have already been presented. How can families maximize the advantages and minimize the risks? Three closely related factors are particularly significant: social support, effective coping, and flexibility.

Social Support: Individuals who receive extensive support from organizations and individuals tend to experience less work–family conflict and greater wellbeing than those who receive modest support. In the context of a two-career relationship, support can enable husbands and wives to solve work and family problems effectively, and is strongly associated with partners’ well-being. Communication and mutual support are essential ingredients in a successful two-career relationship. Two-career couples can benefit from a wide variety of supportive relationships. Emotional support, especially from family members, is particularly important since the partners are involved in a lifestyle that requires compromises and can produce identity problems, jealousies, and guilt. However, men also need the support of an understanding partner. Indeed, support must be mutual, in that each partner must provide as well as receive support.Since most two-career couples frequently experience novel situations, partners will benefit from information and advice on work- and family-related problems so that marital difficulties do not become too intense. Men need to contribute substantially in terms of action—home maintenance and child care being the primary areas—if there is to be balance and sharing in the relationship. Although hired help, another form of instrumental support, can substantially reduce conflict and overload, it cannot fully replace a mutually agreed upon and balanced sharing of responsibilities. Perhaps it is most important that two career partners view their involvement and their spouse’s involvement in home-related activities as fair and equitable.

3.2.5 Organizational Responses to Work–Family IssuesMany, if not most, employers realize that it is in their best interest to help their employees balance their work and family lives. What used to be considered a “woman’s issue” is increasingly recognized as an employee issue and a business necessity. What accounts for this shift in attitudes among the nation’s largest employers? First, more employees are struggling to balance their work and family responsibilities than in prior years. As discussed earlier, the emergence of the two-career lifestyle requires parents to coordinate their work demands with their family responsibilities. In addition, a divorce rate that hovers around 50 percent has resulted in an increasing number of single-parent households, many of which are confronted by a steady stream of work and family pressures, with no partner to share the responsibilities. Table 2 summarizes a variety of family-supportive policies and practices that have been adopted by organizations. We classify these organizational actions into three broad categories: dependent care, flexible work arrangements, and changing the organization’s work–family culture.

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3.2.6 Questions Two-Career Couples FaceWhose career takes priority? When?Should someone’s career take priority? Why?Are our current jobs/careers fulfilling?How long do we want to stay in this geographic area?Do we like where we live?How long of a commute should each partner make?Who leaves work or stays out of work to care for the sick child, pet, or parent?Who does what in maintaining the household?Who runs the grocery/dry cleaning/household errands?

3.2.7 Predictive Model of Work-Family ConflictThe growing interest in understanding fully the interface of work and family roles and their antecedents has stimulated the development of a predictive model of work-family conflict. In this paper, it is predicted that the expectations surrounding each of the different roles a person performs can generate inter-role conflict. The inter-role conflict occurs because it is not possible for the focal person to satisfy all expectations of his or her work and family roles since each role

Dependent Care

Child care resource and referral Elder care consultation and referral Child care centers Discounts or vouchers for child care Sick child care Community involvement

Flexible Work Arrangements

Part-time schedules Personal days Flexible work schedules Personal leaves of absence Job sharing Telecommuting (flex place) Family, child care leaves Family illness days Flexible career paths and assignments

Changing Work–Family Culture

Include commitment to work and family life in mission statement Emphasize job performance rather than hours spent at work Redesign work processes to be more compatible with employees’ family and personal needs Provide work–family seminars and support groups Provide training to supervisors on dealing with work–family issues

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Job-Related FactorsJob TypeWork time commitmentJob involvementRole overloadJob flexibility

Family-Related FactorsNumber of childrenLife-cycle stageFamily involvementChild care arrangement

Individual-Related FactorsLife role valuesGender role orientationLocus of controlPerfectionism

Work-Family Conflict

requires time, energy and commitment. This conflict perspective stems from the scarcity hypothesis which assumes that individuals have limited time and energy. The author acknowledges that work and family are the two central spheres in most adults’ lives and the interdependence of these two spheres or systems for the two-career family as proposed by Pleck in his concept of the work-family role system. Recognizing the bidirectional nature of the inter-role conflict construct two distinct types of conflict, namely, work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict are included in the framework. The model is developed based on the stress-strain model and the social identity theory, as well as the work of researchers. According to the stress-strain model, the predictors are referred to as stressors, and the conflict as strain. Social identity theory posits that people classify themselves in various social categories which define their identities and the roles they hold in a social environment. For example, a person could view himself/herself as a valued employee, a loving spouse, or a good parent, among other things. Each of these roles provides a different aspect of identity to the individual. Some will view being a valued employee as the most important aspect of their identity, while others may gain more pleasure from the role of spouse and therefore value it more. Conflict can arise when an individual who values a particular role is forced by situational constraints to spend less time than he/she would like in that role. The model in this paper suggests that these constraints or predictors could be job-related, family-related and individual-related factors predicting the extent of work-family conflict experienced by an individual.

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3.2.8 Career Management and the Quality Of LifeWe often work long hours because we want to, select occupations or career paths that are stressful, and choose to ignore or deny the pressures we experience, all the while not realizing the effects of such decisions on other parts of our lives. Career management, a proactive, problem-solving approach to work and life, can help individuals make decisions that are compatible with the type of lifestyle they want to live. Career exploration, goal setting, strategy development, and appraisal should focus not only on our work requirements but rather on our total life. Below we list some suggestions for achieving greater balance in life that are linked to our model of career management

Career ExplorationAssess the importance of work, family, community, and leisure roles in your life.Share your life priorities with your family.Understand the effect of your work experiences on your physical and psychological health.Be aware of the implications of different jobs, career fields, and career paths on your family and personal life.

Career Goal SettingSet a conceptual goal that incorporates your desired balance between work and other important parts of your life.Recognize that your conceptual career goal can be achieved in a number of different jobs.Pursue goals that have real meaning to you, not those that require you to live up to other people’s expectations.Understand your family’s view of your career goal.Understand how the achievement of your career goal would affect your family and personal life, and how your family situation might affect the likelihood of achieving your career goal.

Career StrategiesRecognize the implications of specific career strategies (e.g., extended work involvement, rapid mobility, relocation) on your family and personal life.Discuss career strategies with significant people in your life before and during their implementation.Always consider the personal acceptability of a strategy as well as its instrumental value; avoid strategies that violate ethical or moral beliefs.

Career AppraisalSeek feedback from different people regarding various parts of your life.Discuss changes in personal and career values with family members.Examine the effects of career strategies on your work and nonwork lives on an ongoing basis.Be willing to admit mistakes and make changes to your career or family life if necessary.

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Sometimes we experience intense work–family conflict and stress despite our best efforts. Perhaps we made decisions that, in retrospect, were not in our best interest. Or we did nothing to alleviate increasing pressures, mistakenly believing that they would subside by themselves and failing to seek support from other people who could have helped us. Eliminating work–family conflict is impossible foremost of us, but keeping it within reasonable bounds is often possible if we understand why we experience intense conflict and stress and are committed to improving the situation. We suggest the following four-step guide to action for individuals who are concerned about excessive work–family conflict in their lives. Step 1. Understand your priorities regarding career, family, and other life roles.

If married or in a relationship, discuss, understand, and accept each other’s priorities.Realize that because priorities can change over the life course, communication must be ongoing.

Step 2. Understand the nature of the conflict.Is work interfering with family, family interfering with work, or both?What factors are responsible for the conflict: Time pressures from work and family roles? Extensive stress at work or at home?Are we contributing to the conflict by virtue of the decisions we have made?

Step 3. Develop a plan and experiment with different approaches.If work chronically interferes with family life, attempt to reduce the time pressures and/or stress at work in one or more of the following ways that make sense in your situation:

Be open about your work, family, and personal needs at work and at home.Negotiate for a more flexible work scheduleRedesign your job (e.g., reduce travel and/or weekend or evening work).Seek additional resources from work (e.g., extra staff).Seek emotional (understanding) and informational (advice) support from colleagues, friends, and family and be willing to provide support to others.Learn to cope more effectively with job stress.Seek a more compatible career path within the organization.Consider part-time or remote-location work.Change employer or career field.

If family life chronically interferes with work, attempt to reduce the time pressures and/or stress within the family:

Be open about your work, family, and personal needs with family and friends.Seek a fair division of labor at home and consider the possibility of outside help (tangible support).Seek emotional (understanding) and informational (advice) support from family, friends, and colleagues, and be willing to provide support to others.Encourage family participation in career planning activities.Learn to cope more effectively with family stress.

Step 4. Monitor whether the plans are working and make changes as necessary; continue to experiment. Active career management that incorporates work and non-work issues is vital to enhancing one’s quality of life. Open communication is a common element that cuts across all components of career management as well as our suggested four-step guide to action. People need to enlarge their scope of thinking—about work, family, and personal values— and discuss these issues with supportive people on a regular basis, not just when a crisis appears.

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3. CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN CAREER MANAGEMENT:3.3 MANAGING DIVERSITY

3.3.1 FAIRNESS IN ORGANIZATIONSAn organization is acting fairly when its employment decisions are based on job related criteria rather than an individual’s membership in a population subgroup. Conversely, discrimination occurs when organizational practices have a negative effect on the employment of subgroup members that is not based on job-related factors.

Two types of discrimination have been distinguished: access discrimination and treatment discrimination. In case of Access discrimination, subgroup members are less likely to be hired for a particular job than members of the dominant group despite the fact that they could have performed the job as effectively as members of the dominant group.

Treatment discrimination occurs when the treatment of the employees already in an organization is based on their status as a member of a subgroup rather than on their merits or achievements; that is, when such employees receive fewer opportunities that they legitimately deserve on the basis of job-related criteria. There are some issues that women and minorities are not getting fairness in organizations. Some are as follows-

Career Advancement

Job Performance Assessment:

Lost Opportunities:

Lack of authority

Exclusion from informal network

Establishment of mentor relationships

Tokenism

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Cultural Dissimilarity

Beliefs and FeelingsStereotypes

Psychological DistanceCultural Misunderstanding

“Lost Opportunities” through Differential TreatmentUnsatisfactory Supportive RelationshipsRestricted Developmental Opportunities

Restricted Job PowerPeripheral Career Path AssignmentExclusion from Informal Networks

Career Advancement Opportunities

Job Performance Assessment and Attributions

3.3.2 Model of Organizational Fairness In Career Advancement Opportunities:

3.3.3 Organizational Actions: Now the question is what actions can take an organization to reduce the unfairness in organization. There are some actions that an multicultural organization can take-

i. Elimination of Access Discriminationii. Mutual Accommodationiii. Elimination of Treatment Discriminationiv. Structural Integrationv. Minimal Intergroup Conflictvi. Responsiveness to Work-Family Issues.

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3. CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN CAREER MANAGEMENT3.4 ENTREPRENEURIAL CAREERS

3.4.1 ENTREPRENEURSHIP:To identify entrepreneurship researchers have identified five relevant schools of though- The “Great Person” school vies entrepreneurs as having inborn, intuitive abilities to successfully run an enterprise. The “Psychological Characteristics” school views entrepreneurs as having unique values, abilities, and needs that derive them to be in charge of a firm. The “Classical” school views entrepreneurs simply as innovators. The “management” school vies entrepreneurs as organizers and managers of an economic venture. The “Leadership” school vies entrepreneurs as leaders of people. Several additional views of entrepreneurship are given below-

It involves the identification and exploration of an opportunity.In involves uncertainty and risk, complementary managerial competence, and creative opportunism.It requires a wide range of skills capable of enhancement, to add value to a targeted niche of human activity. It covers a wide range of activities such as creating, founding, adapting, and managing venture.It is the process of creating something different with value by devoting the necessary time and effort, assuming the accompanying financial, psychic, and social risks, and receiving the resulting rewards of monetary and personal satisfactions.It necessities risk taking and innovation from the individuals who establish and manage a business for purposes of profit and growth.

3.4.2 CHOOSING AN ENTREPRENEURIAL CAREER:Several factors make an entrepreneurial career distinct from the more traditional career in which one is employed by an organization.

First, entrepreneurial careers are marked by a substantially higher degree of personal commitment to the success of the firm because the career and the business are intertwined.Another factor that makes the entrepreneurial career unique is the lower degree of structure, predictability, and support as compared with what the standard organization would provide.A third distinguishing factor is that those in entrepreneurial careers must possess a greater tendency toward action and innovation.A fourth distinctive element of the entrepreneurial career is that the entrepreneur simultaneously performs a number of functional roles.

There are several factors that can influence the choice of an entrepreneurial career. These factors are-

i. Seeking autonomy and independenceii. Impact of personal characteristics

a. Need for achievementb. Internal locus of controlc. Tolerance for ambiguityd. Risk-taking propensitye. Entrepreneurial self-conceptf. Demographic and background factors

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iii. Environmental conditionsa. Occurrence of job lossb. Having work dissatisfactionc. Getting favorable business conditions

iv. Passion for a product or servicev. Presence of role models

3.4.3 SUPPORT FOR THE ENTREPRENEURIAL CAREER:Concurrent with the national flow in entrepreneurial activity is the emergence of a variety of support mechanisms. These mechanisms include social networks and alliances, training and education programs, publications, and web sites. Let us briefly consider each type of support-

Social Networks and Alliances:Entrepreneurs can be helped by a number of different social groups and mutual benefit organizations. Social networks operate at two different levels. Informal alliances include business support from friends and relatives. Formal assistances can come from such larger organizations as community groups, governmental agencies, ethnic institutions, religious associations, fraternal organizations, and other small business associations.

Training and Education Programs:During 1980s college and universities began to recognize the importance of, and student demand for, educational programs in entrepreneurship. Courses and programs in entrepreneurship at the university level are designed to meet career and training needs of essentially two groups: traditional under-graduate and graduate students interested in and entrepreneurial career and nontraditional students such as practicing and potential entrepreneurs no involved in an academic program. Entrepreneurial interest in now so high that education programs are being offered at the high school level.

Publications:Recognizing the heightened interest in entrepreneurial careers and the trend in new business formations, the publishing industry has moved forcefully to supply related literature. Indeed, there exists a variety of periodicals, journals, magazines, and books that covers such topics as owning your own form and being successful once you become an entrepreneur.