FEM3102 Developmental psychology: Adult and ageing Week 1 - Introduction.

FEM3102Developmental psychology:

Adult and ageingWeek 1 - IntroductionWeek 1 - Introduction

What is Developmental Psychology?

• It has 2 aimsIt has 2 aims

1.1. To understand the origins and development of To understand the origins and development of behavior within the individual; this focus behavior within the individual; this focus concerns the study concerns the study ontogenyontogeny or or intraindividualintraindividual change. change.

-Most of the research compares groups of -Most of the research compares groups of individual of different age. individual of different age.

-Studies describing the differences -Studies describing the differences between different age group have between different age group have implications for average individual implications for average individual development development

2.2. DP – study age relate DP – study age relate interindividual interindividual differencesdifferences..

• How individuals develop & change as they How individuals develop & change as they grow oldergrow older

• How different people show different How different people show different patterns of development and changes patterns of development and changes

What is Developmental Psychology?-cont…

Developmental Psychology

• DP can define as age-related interinvidual DP can define as age-related interinvidual differences and age related intravidual changedifferences and age related intravidual change

• Main goals to - describe, explain, predict and Main goals to - describe, explain, predict and improve or optimize age-related behavior changeimprove or optimize age-related behavior change

*behavior is the focus of the study*behavior is the focus of the study

*the term development applies to changes in *the term development applies to changes in behavior that vary in predictable and orderly way behavior that vary in predictable and orderly way with increasing agewith increasing age

TerminologyTerminology__________________________________________________________

Life Span Total number of years for a species to live – approx. 110 years for the human species

Longevity Average expected length of life

Life Expectancy Average number of years an individual has remaining to live

Life-span ApproachLife-span Approach________________________________________________________________

• Relatively new approach to understanding Relatively new approach to understanding development development

• Suggests positive developmental change Suggests positive developmental change occurs throughout the life-spanoccurs throughout the life-span

Development vs. ChangeDevelopment vs. Change________________________________________________________________________

Change Change • Measurable alterations in particular skill, ability, or Measurable alterations in particular skill, ability, or

function function o Give an example of change in your life/world Give an example of change in your life/world

Development Development • Form of change that is organized and adaptive Form of change that is organized and adaptive

(positive) – children ideal learning machines, adaptive (positive) – children ideal learning machines, adaptive • Cannot be solely equated with steady incremental Cannot be solely equated with steady incremental

change change • Development is a life long process Development is a life long process

• Give an example of development in your life/worldGive an example of development in your life/world

• How many of you define yourself as an adult?

• How many of you define yourself as an adolescent?

• How do you know which one you are?

• What defines one as an adult?

• Brainstorm characteristics of adulthood

What makes us an adult?

What makes us an adult?

Age is used to define “adult”

• Age is simply the difference between the Age is simply the difference between the our birth date and the current date.our birth date and the current date.

• Age is just a number – a human invention, Age is just a number – a human invention, like ‘time’like ‘time’

• There are many contradictory definitions of There are many contradictory definitions of age and thus, there exist difficulties in age and thus, there exist difficulties in defining adulthood.defining adulthood.

• Biological dimensionsBiological dimensionsBiological or physical maturationBiological or physical maturatione.g. pregnancy for womene.g. pregnancy for women

• Social dimensionsSocial dimensions Responsible, mature & rational personResponsible, mature & rational person

• Emotional dimensionsEmotional dimensionsHigh emotional stability including good impulse control, High emotional stability including good impulse control, a high frustration tolerance and freedom from violent a high frustration tolerance and freedom from violent mood swingsmood swings

• Legal dimensionsLegal dimensionsGive rights and responsibilities for certain peopleGive rights and responsibilities for certain peoplee.g. In US when you’re 18, you can votee.g. In US when you’re 18, you can voteOther e.g. “age of consent” – a person can marry without Other e.g. “age of consent” – a person can marry without parental consent, legal age to drink alcohol or drive a car.parental consent, legal age to drink alcohol or drive a car.

Defining adulthood (what’s the x factor here?)

• Havighurst (1972) divided the life span into Havighurst (1972) divided the life span into 6 age periods, each with its own 6 age periods, each with its own developmental tasksdevelopmental tasks• Birth to 6 yrs of age : Infancy and early Birth to 6 yrs of age : Infancy and early

childhoodchildhood• 6 to 12 yrs of age: Middle childhood6 to 12 yrs of age: Middle childhood• 12 to 18 yrs of age : Adolescent12 to 18 yrs of age : Adolescent• 18 to 30 yrs of age: Early adulthood18 to 30 yrs of age: Early adulthood• 30 to 60 yrs of age: Middle age30 to 60 yrs of age: Middle age• Over 60 yrs of age : Late adulthoodOver 60 yrs of age : Late adulthood

The concept of age is multidimensionalThe concept of age is multidimensional

• Chronological Age Chronological Age • Biological Age Biological Age • Psychological Age Psychological Age • Functional Age Functional Age • Social AgeSocial Age

The meaning of age

Chronological age

• Refers to the number of years that have Refers to the number of years that have elapsed since a person’s birth. elapsed since a person’s birth.

• Chronological age per se is often not an Chronological age per se is often not an accurate index of psychological accurate index of psychological development. development.

• Age is merely a rough marker for the Age is merely a rough marker for the processes that influence behavior over processes that influence behavior over time time

Chronological age

Biological age• Has been defined as an estimate of the Has been defined as an estimate of the

individual’s position with respect to his or individual’s position with respect to his or her potential life span (Birren & Schroots, her potential life span (Birren & Schroots, 2001)2001)

• This concept of age involves measuring the This concept of age involves measuring the capacities of individual’s vital organ capacities of individual’s vital organ system.system.

• Age is an index of biological healthAge is an index of biological health

• An individual’s biological functioning and An individual’s biological functioning and physical appearance may differ from other physical appearance may differ from other persons of the same chronological age persons of the same chronological age

Biological age

Psychological age

• Refers to an individual’s adaptive capacities Refers to an individual’s adaptive capacities – his/her ability to adapt to changing – his/her ability to adapt to changing environmental demands.environmental demands.

• Individuals adapt to their environments by Individuals adapt to their environments by drawing on various psychological drawing on various psychological characteristics: learning, memory, characteristics: learning, memory, intelligence, emotional control, motivational intelligence, emotional control, motivational strengths, coping styles etc.strengths, coping styles etc.

Psychological age

Functional age

• Is an index of one’s level of competence in Is an index of one’s level of competence in carrying out specific tasks.carrying out specific tasks.

• Competencies can range from performance Competencies can range from performance on a particular job to the condition of various on a particular job to the condition of various organ systems in the bodyorgan systems in the body• Examples: Examples:

• cardiovascular system – age 40s similar to 30s cardiovascular system – age 40s similar to 30s • Worker who is 60yrs of age to perform Worker who is 60yrs of age to perform

adequately on the job as person who is 20 yrs adequately on the job as person who is 20 yrs of ageof age

Functional age

Social age• Refers to the social roles and expectations people Refers to the social roles and expectations people

hold for themselves as well as those others impose hold for themselves as well as those others impose on them.on them.

• Each society has its own expectations about roles Each society has its own expectations about roles to play and goals to attain in young, middle, and to play and goals to attain in young, middle, and older adulthood. older adulthood.

• We normally based our own and other people’s We normally based our own and other people’s progress on a social clock to decide whether it is progress on a social clock to decide whether it is ‘on time’ or ‘off-time’ (Neugarten, 1977). ‘on time’ or ‘off-time’ (Neugarten, 1977). However it is later argued that age is no longer However it is later argued that age is no longer relevant in predicting needs, lifestyle and relevant in predicting needs, lifestyle and accomplishments.accomplishments.

Social age

4 Principles of adult development and aging

1. Continuity of changes over the life span1. Continuity of changes over the life span• Life span is continuous – changes that Life span is continuous – changes that

occur in later adulthood are based on occur in later adulthood are based on what happened earlier in your life. what happened earlier in your life.

(what would be the implications of this (what would be the implications of this principle?)principle?)

4 Principles of adult development and aging2. Old age is for survivors (obviously!)2. Old age is for survivors (obviously!)

• In order for people to become old, they have to In order for people to become old, they have to not die (survived many threats to life like car not die (survived many threats to life like car accidents, natural disasters, genetic accidents, natural disasters, genetic vulnerabilities to diseases, and risky vulnerabilities to diseases, and risky behaviors).behaviors).

• Survivors have some special characteristics Survivors have some special characteristics (relate to assignment) such as having good (relate to assignment) such as having good genes, made wise lifestyle choices, managed to genes, made wise lifestyle choices, managed to avoid misfortunes.avoid misfortunes.

• As people get older they become a more As people get older they become a more selective group in terms of physical selective group in terms of physical functioning, health, intelligence, and even functioning, health, intelligence, and even personality style.personality style.


3. Individual differences must be recognized3. Individual differences must be recognized• Myth: as people age their individuality Myth: as people age their individuality

fades because of the workings of aging fades because of the workings of aging on the body and the mind.on the body and the mind.

• As people grow older they become more As people grow older they become more different, not more alike.different, not more alike.

• Middle age – a diverse group in terms of Middle age – a diverse group in terms of physical functioning, psychological physical functioning, psychological performance and conditions of living.performance and conditions of living.

• People become different because of their People become different because of their experience (individuals have different experience (individuals have different choices and make different choices).choices and make different choices).

• The principle that people become more The principle that people become more different from each other with age relates to different from each other with age relates to the notion of the notion of inter-individual differencesinter-individual differences..

• Intra-individual differences,Intra-individual differences, on the other on the other hand, refers to differences within the hand, refers to differences within the individual.individual.

• Intra-individual differences principle Intra-individual differences principle explains that development is explains that development is multidirectional – not all systems develop at multidirectional – not all systems develop at the same rate within a person (+/- changes the same rate within a person (+/- changes over time), gains and losses in the same over time), gains and losses in the same function e.g. intelligencefunction e.g. intelligence

• Therefore, it is possible to find older people Therefore, it is possible to find older people who can perform better than younger who can perform better than younger people. (Compare healthy and active middle people. (Compare healthy and active middle age/older adult with inactive younger age/older adult with inactive younger person). No such thing as all systems ‘going person). No such thing as all systems ‘going downhill’ once you get older.downhill’ once you get older.


4. “Normal” aging is different from disease4. “Normal” aging is different from disease• There is a need to differentiate among There is a need to differentiate among

normal, impaired and optimal aging normal, impaired and optimal aging (Rowe & Kahn, 1987).(Rowe & Kahn, 1987).

• Normal agingNormal aging changes are inbuilt in changes are inbuilt in organisms and happen (at different rates) organisms and happen (at different rates) to all individuals. Also known as to all individuals. Also known as primary primary aging.aging.

• Impaired agingImpaired aging implies that some changes implies that some changes are the result of diseases and these changes are the result of diseases and these changes do not happen to all individuals. Also do not happen to all individuals. Also known as secondary aging.known as secondary aging.

• Optimal agingOptimal aging is also called “successful is also called “successful aging”. Implies that the individual has aging”. Implies that the individual has avoided changes that would otherwise avoided changes that would otherwise occur with age through preventive and occur with age through preventive and compensatory strategies.compensatory strategies.

The Forces of Development

• Why do some people develop gray hair in young Why do some people develop gray hair in young adulthood?adulthood?

• Why do some older adults continue to perform Why do some older adults continue to perform well on intelligence test?well on intelligence test?

• Why are some older adults very active whereas Why are some older adults very active whereas others withdrawn?others withdrawn?

• Why might reactions to an unplanned pregnancy Why might reactions to an unplanned pregnancy be different for a 26 yr old woman compared to a be different for a 26 yr old woman compared to a 46- year-old woman? 46- year-old woman?

• Developmental psychologists typically Developmental psychologists typically consider 4 interactive forces:consider 4 interactive forces:• Biological forcesBiological forces• Psychological forces Psychological forces • Sociocultural forcesSociocultural forces• Life-cycle forcesLife-cycle forces

Biological forces

• Include all genetic and health factors Include all genetic and health factors that affect development.that affect development.• MenopauseMenopause• Facial wrinklingFacial wrinkling• Changes in the major organ systems Changes in the major organ systems

Psychological forces

• Include all internal perceptual, Include all internal perceptual, cognitive, emotional and personality cognitive, emotional and personality factors that effect developmentfactors that effect development• Provide the characteristics we notice Provide the characteristics we notice

about people that make them about people that make them individualsindividuals

Sociocultural forces

• Include interpersonal, societal, cultural Include interpersonal, societal, cultural and ethnic factors that affect and ethnic factors that affect developmentdevelopment• Provide diversity and the network of Provide diversity and the network of

people with whom we interact people with whom we interact

Biological forces

Psychological forces

Sociocultural forces

Life-Cycle

Forces Person

Determinants of Adult Development and Aging

3 general categories of determinants of 3 general categories of determinants of developmental changedevelopmental change

1.1. Normative age-graded factorsNormative age-graded factors

2.2. Normative history-graded factorsNormative history-graded factors

3.3. Nonnormative life events Nonnormative life events

Normative Age-graded Factors

• Predictable & universally experienced events Predictable & universally experienced events closely tied to individual’s age.closely tied to individual’s age.• Example: reach puberty – ages 12-14 Example: reach puberty – ages 12-14

menopause –late 40s & early 50smenopause –late 40s & early 50s

• Term normative implies development is highly Term normative implies development is highly similar across individuals and cultures. The similar across individuals and cultures. The developmental events are often to be biological.developmental events are often to be biological.

• Age graded influences may also take the form of Age graded influences may also take the form of social customs.social customs.• Example: first marriage, retiring etc. Example: first marriage, retiring etc.

Normative History- Grade

• Some developmental influences are closely related Some developmental influences are closely related to specific historical eras or eventsto specific historical eras or events

• Produce dramatic effects on the individual who Produce dramatic effects on the individual who experience them — may persist for a lifetime experience them — may persist for a lifetime

• Example: war, economic crisis, technological Example: war, economic crisis, technological advancesadvances

• Personality differences that exist between adults Personality differences that exist between adults of different age. of different age.

• The term cohort effect — the effect of year of The term cohort effect — the effect of year of birth birth

Nonnormative• Some changes are unique to the individualSome changes are unique to the individual• Nonnormative life events do not happen at Nonnormative life events do not happen at

any predictable time in a person’s life.any predictable time in a person’s life.• Positive events (winning first prize in a Positive events (winning first prize in a

multimillion dollar program, getting land)multimillion dollar program, getting land)• Negative events (accidents, illnesses, Negative events (accidents, illnesses,

business failures, a job transfer).business failures, a job transfer).• These events contribute to the increasing These events contribute to the increasing

diversity seen among adults as they age.diversity seen among adults as they age.

Theoretical issues in the study of adult development and aging• Gains vs. LossesGains vs. Losses

• The types of changes that occur between The types of changes that occur between birth and 20yrs of age differ from those birth and 20yrs of age differ from those occur one’s 20occur one’s 20thth birthday, gains and birthday, gains and losses occur throughout life.losses occur throughout life.

• No age period is any more important than No age period is any more important than any period of developmentany period of development

• Throughout individual life span there is Throughout individual life span there is increases or decreases in attitudes, increases or decreases in attitudes, motivation and capabilitiesmotivation and capabilities

• Qualitative vs. quantitative changeQualitative vs. quantitative change• Qualitative changes are differences in kinds Qualitative changes are differences in kinds

of behavior or aspectof behavior or aspect• Quantitative changes are differences in Quantitative changes are differences in

amount or degreeamount or degree• Examples: Examples:

• an individual experience dramatic changes an individual experience dramatic changes in his thinking about interpersonal in his thinking about interpersonal relationship — Qualitativerelationship — Qualitative

• When a person’s information retrieval from When a person’s information retrieval from memory gradually slows — Quantitativememory gradually slows — Quantitative

• Stagelike vs. Continuous changeStagelike vs. Continuous change• Some researchers point to identifiable stages Some researchers point to identifiable stages

of adult development and aging.of adult development and aging.• Others maintain that no universal markers Others maintain that no universal markers

distinguish one stage of development from distinguish one stage of development from any other.any other.

• However, researchers who study adult However, researchers who study adult development and aging are concerned with development and aging are concerned with understanding stability as well as gains and understanding stability as well as gains and losses during life span. losses during life span.

• Plasticity vs. Nonplasticity of changePlasticity vs. Nonplasticity of change• Another issue in the study of adult Another issue in the study of adult

development and aging is the extent to development and aging is the extent to which behavior exhibits plasticity.which behavior exhibits plasticity.

• Evidence suggests that any kind of age Evidence suggests that any kind of age related deficits can be remediated through related deficits can be remediated through appropriate intervention or health care.appropriate intervention or health care.

• The same individual performs differently The same individual performs differently at different times or situations.at different times or situations.

• Multidirectional vs. unidirectional changeMultidirectional vs. unidirectional change• Multidirectional refers to the observation Multidirectional refers to the observation

that intraindividual differences occur in the that intraindividual differences occur in the pattern of aging.pattern of aging.

• Individuals show stability for some types of Individuals show stability for some types of behavior, declines in others, and behavior, declines in others, and improvements in yet othersimprovements in yet others

• i.e.: increase in creativity, decrement in i.e.: increase in creativity, decrement in some memory functions some memory functions

• Child focused view of development, such Child focused view of development, such those by Piaget & Freud, generally assume a those by Piaget & Freud, generally assume a unidirectional view of development. unidirectional view of development.

Models of development

• Based on the nature-nurture debate.Based on the nature-nurture debate.• Both nature and nurture interact to Both nature and nurture interact to

influence the course of early development.influence the course of early development.• Niche-picking (Scarr & McCartney, 1983) Niche-picking (Scarr & McCartney, 1983)

holds that:holds that:• Genetic and environmental factors work Genetic and environmental factors work

together to influence the course of a together to influence the course of a child’s life. E.g. musical ability, “dance child’s life. E.g. musical ability, “dance genes”, artistic talentsgenes”, artistic talents

The organismic model• Nature is the main force in development.Nature is the main force in development.

• Growth is based on the genetic (inner biological) Growth is based on the genetic (inner biological) predisposition expressed through physical and mental predisposition expressed through physical and mental development.development.

• Changes happen qualitatively through structural Changes happen qualitatively through structural alterations in the individual’s psychological qualities alterations in the individual’s psychological qualities (eg. Intelligence, personality).(eg. Intelligence, personality).

• This model became the basis for stage theories of This model became the basis for stage theories of development – change happens in stages, rather than development – change happens in stages, rather than continuously.continuously.

The mechanistic model

• Nurture (external stimulus) is the main force Nurture (external stimulus) is the main force of development.of development.

• Growth is based on individual’s exposure to Growth is based on individual’s exposure to experiences that present learning experiences that present learning opportunities (gradual process). Organism is opportunities (gradual process). Organism is passive.passive.

• Development is seen as a smooth, continuous Development is seen as a smooth, continuous set of gradations as the individual acquires set of gradations as the individual acquires experience (quantitative change).experience (quantitative change).

The interactionist model• Genetics and environments interact in complex ways Genetics and environments interact in complex ways

but a person is an active participant of his/her but a person is an active participant of his/her development. development.

• Reciprocal relations with the environment.Reciprocal relations with the environment.

• Assumes that there are multiple processes in Assumes that there are multiple processes in development (multidimensionality).development (multidimensionality).

• Assumes that the path of development may be changed Assumes that the path of development may be changed depending on the nature of the individual’s specific depending on the nature of the individual’s specific interaction with the environment.interaction with the environment.

Two more models to be discussed next week• The Selective Optimization with The Selective Optimization with

Compensation Model of AgingCompensation Model of Aging• The Ecological Model of AgingThe Ecological Model of Aging

The Selective Optimization with Compensation (SOC) Model

• Assumes that individuals Assumes that individuals adapt to changes adapt to changes throughout their lives.throughout their lives.

• People are capable of People are capable of learning and changing and learning and changing and using extra or unused using extra or unused resources when faced with resources when faced with extraordinary extraordinary circumstances.circumstances.


• There are gains and losses There are gains and losses associated with development. associated with development. However, as we approach older However, as we approach older adulthood, the losses may be adulthood, the losses may be more than the gains.more than the gains.

• If loss occur at specific domain, If loss occur at specific domain, it would be more difficult to it would be more difficult to function at a high level.function at a high level.

• Our resources (extra or reserved) Our resources (extra or reserved) in specific areas of functioning in specific areas of functioning decrease with age.decrease with age.


• Some strategies can be used to maximize the chances Some strategies can be used to maximize the chances for successful aging e.g. adapting to loss and for successful aging e.g. adapting to loss and concentrating on other areas of effective functioning concentrating on other areas of effective functioning that can remain high and can be maintained (selection).that can remain high and can be maintained (selection).

• Other strategy is to focus on behaviors that maximize Other strategy is to focus on behaviors that maximize the quantity and quality of life (optimization).the quantity and quality of life (optimization).

• Compensation refers to substituting new strategies Compensation refers to substituting new strategies when losses occur (to maximize function).when losses occur (to maximize function).

The ongoing dynamics of Selective Optimization with Compensation(Baltes & Baltes, 1990)

Life development as specializedand age-graded adaptation

Reduction in general reserve capacity

Losses in specific functions

Selection

Optimization

Compensation

Reduced andtransformedbut effective life

The ecological model (Lawton & Nehemow, 1973)

• Based on the premise that the interaction between Based on the premise that the interaction between a person and his/her environment results in some a person and his/her environment results in some level of adaptation.level of adaptation.

• Adaptation levels can be measured in terms of a Adaptation levels can be measured in terms of a person’s emotional (affective) well-being and person’s emotional (affective) well-being and behavior.behavior.

• This model can be used to consider successful This model can be used to consider successful aging in many domains – physical, sensory, aging in many domains – physical, sensory, perceptual, cognitive, personal and social.perceptual, cognitive, personal and social.

A person can be characterized in terms of competence. Competence can be measured by a person’s physical, sensory, cognitive, and social capabilities

Dotted line represents ideal level of adaptation while the shaded grey area represents an acceptable range of positive adaptations

White areas represent zones of negative adaptations (negative effect, maladaptive behavior) which can result when environmental press is either too low or too high.

An environment can be defined in terms of level of challenge, or press, which can be measured in terms of its physical demands, as well in the level of sensory, intellectual or social stimulation that is available. Must match a person’s level of competence.

• As a person’s level of competence increases, a higher As a person’s level of competence increases, a higher level of environmental press is needed for positive level of environmental press is needed for positive adaptation.adaptation.

• Gray shade area Gray shade area person’s competence person’s competence – – someone high in competence should adapt positively someone high in competence should adapt positively to a wider range of environmental press compared to to a wider range of environmental press compared to someone low in competence.someone low in competence.

• At the same time, people with a high competence At the same time, people with a high competence would adapt poorly in a broad range of environments would adapt poorly in a broad range of environments that offer too little press.that offer too little press.

• Originally this model focus more on the Originally this model focus more on the environmental forces. Older adult was viewed environmental forces. Older adult was viewed as a recipient of the press exerted by the as a recipient of the press exerted by the environment. environment.

• Later this model emphasized on person-Later this model emphasized on person-environment interaction. Adults are capable of environment interaction. Adults are capable of initiating interactions with the environment initiating interactions with the environment e.g. identifying and shaping available e.g. identifying and shaping available resources in the environment (positive resources in the environment (positive adaptations; assuming that the press from the adaptations; assuming that the press from the environment is not too great).environment is not too great).

Older people in Malaysia

• The demographic and social trends of population The demographic and social trends of population aging in Malaysia is moving at a quicker pace than aging in Malaysia is moving at a quicker pace than observed 10 years ago. observed 10 years ago.

• Overall trends show an increasingly aging Overall trends show an increasingly aging population (both in numbers and proportion).population (both in numbers and proportion).

• Because of this we need to plan, prepare for the Because of this we need to plan, prepare for the well-being, as well as optimizing the potential of well-being, as well as optimizing the potential of future senior citizens in the country.future senior citizens in the country.


• Older people in Malaysia is growing at a Older people in Malaysia is growing at a faster rate than the rest of the population.faster rate than the rest of the population.

• Their size will increase from 1.4 million Their size will increase from 1.4 million persons in 2000 to 3.4 million in 2020.persons in 2000 to 3.4 million in 2020.

• Females are the majority among the elderly, Females are the majority among the elderly, as in most countries of the world.as in most countries of the world.


• Education levels of the Malaysian population are Education levels of the Malaysian population are increasing. This will implicate the possible increasing. This will implicate the possible economic involvement of future elderly.economic involvement of future elderly.

• Previously a majority of older people are involved Previously a majority of older people are involved in agriculture (traditional pattern of occupational in agriculture (traditional pattern of occupational trend).trend).

• However, the occupation trends are changing with However, the occupation trends are changing with older people participating in more varied older people participating in more varied occupations.occupations.

Percentage distribution of employed senior citizens by occupation, Malaysia, 1991-2000

OccupationOccupation 19911991 20002000 Total populationTotal population

(15-59 years)(15-59 years)

20002000

Legislators, Senior Officials & Legislators, Senior Officials & ManagersManagers

4.94.9 8.98.9 6.86.8

ProfessionalsProfessionals 1.01.0 1.61.6 5.85.8

Technicians & Associate Technicians & Associate ProfessionalsProfessionals

10.610.6 3.13.1 12.212.2

Clerical WorkersClerical Workers 1.01.0 1.31.3 9.99.9

Service Workers and Shop & Service Workers and Shop & Market Sales WorkersMarket Sales Workers

5.65.6 11.611.6 13.113.1

Skilled Agricultural & Fishery Skilled Agricultural & Fishery WorkersWorkers

60.060.0 51.051.0 13.513.5

Craft & Related Trades WorkerCraft & Related Trades Worker 4.54.5 5.55.5 9.39.3

Plant & Machine-operators & Plant & Machine-operators & AssemblersAssemblers

3.83.8 5.55.5 16.316.3

Elementary OccupationsElementary Occupations 8.48.4 11.411.4 13.013.0

TotalTotal 100.0100.0 100.0100.0 100.0100.0


• Nuclearization of Nuclearization of households, greater households, greater participation of participation of women in the labor women in the labor force (lesser role as a force (lesser role as a caregiver) are caregiver) are changing social changing social characteristics that characteristics that contribute to the contribute to the future scene of aging future scene of aging in Malaysia.in Malaysia.

Population aging: More Developed vs. Less Developed Countries

• Demographic transition – reshaping the age structure of Demographic transition – reshaping the age structure of the world’s population.the world’s population.

• mortality and then fertility decline from higher to lower mortality and then fertility decline from higher to lower levels. Fertility decline has been the primary factor of levels. Fertility decline has been the primary factor of population aging.population aging.

• increasing life expectancy (people are living longer)increasing life expectancy (people are living longer)

• international migration is less important as a factor in international migration is less important as a factor in the changing age distributions.the changing age distributions.

Population aging: Developed countries

• Fertility is well below the replacement level in more developed Fertility is well below the replacement level in more developed regions, which include almost all industrialized countries. regions, which include almost all industrialized countries.

• By 2025, life expectancy will increase, on average, to 80 years.By 2025, life expectancy will increase, on average, to 80 years.

• Average life expectancy at age 80 is projected to increase by Average life expectancy at age 80 is projected to increase by 27% over the next 50 years as compared with 19% at age 60 27% over the next 50 years as compared with 19% at age 60 and 9% at birthand 9% at birth more people survive to old age and tend to more people survive to old age and tend to live longer.live longer.

• Women outlive men by 7.4 years.Women outlive men by 7.4 years.

• The proportion of older people above 80 years old now live in The proportion of older people above 80 years old now live in more developed regions (but this will soon change to less more developed regions (but this will soon change to less developed regions).developed regions).

• The great majority of centenarians (78% in 2000) live in the The great majority of centenarians (78% in 2000) live in the more developed regions.more developed regions.

• Sex ratios at older ages are significantly lower.Sex ratios at older ages are significantly lower.

More developed countries

Population aging: Developing countries• Fertility rate is higher than developed countries (average Fertility rate is higher than developed countries (average

total fertility rate=5.2/woman). Fertility reduction only total fertility rate=5.2/woman). Fertility reduction only happened later than developed countries.happened later than developed countries.

• By 2025, life expectancy will increase, on average, to 71 By 2025, life expectancy will increase, on average, to 71 years.years.

• Average life expectancy at age 80 is projected to increase Average life expectancy at age 80 is projected to increase by 28% over the next 50 years as compared with 22% at by 28% over the next 50 years as compared with 22% at age 60 and 17% at birthage 60 and 17% at birth more people have a good rate at more people have a good rate at survival at birth due to improvements in mortality levels.survival at birth due to improvements in mortality levels.

• Women outlive men by 3.2 years (trend is rising).Women outlive men by 3.2 years (trend is rising).

Less developed countries

FEM3102 Developmental psychology: Adult and ageing Week 1 - Introduction.

Documents

yrs of age

legal age

age periods

different age group

contdp study age

behavior change

development of behavior

example of change